Margins of Psychology of Margins Central European University European Central

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fulfillment Supervisor: Professor Hanoch Ben Hanoch Professor Supervisor: Margins of Psychology of Margins Central European University European Central

Philosophy Department Philosophy of therequirements of by George Tudorie by George Philosophy Budapest 2013

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CEU eTD Collection Chapter 3.Psychosis Chapter 2.Development Chapter 1.Fragments a of conceptual landscape Introduction Table Contentsof 1.7 Progress: Watson 1.6 Progress: James 1.5 Progress: Mill 1.4 A story progress of 1.3 Theargument from the margins argument as against ‗more 1.2 Pluralism psychology in antidote as for grand theories 1.1 Preamble: anote onthe cognitive revolution 3.7 Frith: aftermath and conclusion 3.6 Frith: the model 3.5 Frith: context and a riddle about psychological explanation 3.4 Counterpoint: Richard Bentall 3.3 Rokeach and LeonGabor 3.2 Freud andSchreber 3.1 Introduction 2.6 Concluding remarks 2.5 Tomasello‘s proposal 2.4 Influences: Bratman 2.3 Influences: Searle 2.2 Tomasello onshared intentionality: overview 2.1 Introduction 1.17 Concluding remarks 1.16 Resistance: a note on McDowell 1.15 Resistance: Wittgenstein, psychological difference 1.14 Parenthesis: anthropological vs. psychological difference; Snell, Onians and Jaynes 1.13 Resistance: Wittgenstein, anthropological difference 1.12 Resistance: Wittgenstein, introductory remarks 1.11 Resistance: Collingwood 1.10 Resistance: Dilthey 1.9 Interlude 1.8 Progress, further examples: Köhler, Marr, Morton, and Carey

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CEU eTD Collection References Conclusion Table Contentsof

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largely descriptive in nature, which progresses not by discovery, but by but discovery, by not progresses which nature, in descriptive largely spy n i te oil cecs Fo te ueos threads numerous the From sciences. social the in and osophy allard‘s autobiographical report is the evidence mentioned by mentioned evidence the is report autobiographical allard‘s

cture of partial overlaps which should help characterize help should which overlaps partial of cture 12

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had better ideas than what gets periodically paraded as a a as paraded periodically gets what than ideas better had signify, or about their origsignify, about or ( 2000, p. 84 p. 2000, s e ae ae eoe ta sm tmttos are temptations some that before, made have we es 14

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17 ir

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po facto ipso 6

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( play.‖ a of search in characters of Dozens functioning‘. ‗mental called other they because together … volte Geertz, 2001,p.19 Geertz, h image the looks like an assortment of disparate and disconnected enquiries classed classed enquiries disconnected and disparate of assortment an like looks - 4 … )

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at the same historical moment, or in the same person, Bruner Bruner person, same the in or moment, historical same the at ragment s of s a rome Bruner, Clifford Geertz has us contemplate contemplate us has Geertz Clifford Bruner, rome 20

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Geertz suggests that, with Bruner turning psychology cultural, one arrives in the the in arrives one cultural, psychology turning Bruner with that, suggests Geertz motbe ih uh self a such with omfortable ( 1949, p. 328 p. 1949,

. In a preface written to the latter (‗Walden Two Revisited‘) three Revisited‘) Two written(‗Walden the latter to preface Ina . ehaviorism, we tend to recognize this as a mistake. We also recognize also We mistake. a as this recognize to tend we ehaviorism,

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action and have done so by predicting consequences, predicting by so done have and action

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21 once iqiis n techniques‖ and inquiries connected

humanities; parties have repeatedly argued repeatedly have parties humanities;

( 90 p. ix pp. 1990, –

they have not been too helpful. too been not have they –

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n a been has and but it could be changed because be could but it ( 2005b, p. viii p. 2005b, e worth discussing, but one of the clearest signs of conceptual oftheworth signs clearest hubris is discussing,of butone e we ( Chomsky,1971 unifies might call ‗c call might

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, remain marginal. Philosophical criticism seems even less influent. This is This influent. less even seems criticism Philosophical marginal. remain , or with Freud, a Copernican revolution has not taken place in psychology, psychology, in place taken not has revolution Copernican a Freud, with or

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( e.g. 2001, especially chapter 5 chapter especially 2001, e.g.

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CEU eTD Collection uue f vn rae ad unstopp and greater even of future a of sketch, his of chapter last the in speaks, Condorcet knowledge, and civilization liberty, ladder a painted Having Esquisse ― from resulted have he where VI,chapter bydone, III, chapter will the of su skepticism. latter sciences whichsets this He waters thata ofman. oftheisaware vision tothemurkier sciences natural the of limpidity relative the from methodology of conception his extending for case of blessing the under it places Mill his of part last the begins he When 1.5 first halfof the 19 starti our given must, we as starting, examples, few a through go us Let resisted. In the early chapters of this part of the book, the of part this of chapters early the In rrounds the issue, notably issue, the the rrounds

Progress: Progress: region of knowledge on the same foundation as any other scientific enterprise will face will enterprise scientific other any as foundation same the on knowledge of region as De ta cntny f asto, hc i te onain f every of among foundation obtain the 2006, p.835 really is phenomena, successive which of causation, theory of scientific constancy that invariable Does to subject events,laws? natural other all like beings, human of actions the sci of subject a as conduct human treat to attempt the to fatal be would At thethreshold ofthisinquiry objection, are which, metby we an ifnotremoved,

is thus onlyis thus fitting. . But Mill, with and without reason, has little time for this this for time little has reason, without and with Mill, But .

the resistance is diagnosed as ― asdiagnosed is resistance the Mill th

century,from philosophy, within moving and then topsychology proper. )

prejudice‖ prejudice‖

- like image of the progress humanity made from its dawn toward toward dawn its from made humanity progress the of image like

moves to discussing social science, the controversy t controversy the science, social discussing to moves ( ―celebrated‖ 2006, p. 875 p. 2006,

an overly optimistic Condorcet. Mill is about to present a present to about is Mill Condorcet. optimistic overly an System of Logic of System able evolution. He thinks he is entitled to his sunny sunny his to entitled is he thinks He evolution. able confusion of confusion ) (

. The quote from the last chapter of Con of chapter last the from quote The . 36 2006, p. 836 p. 2006, Mill refers, politely, to the ―controversy‖ the to politely, refers, Mill

, which he which , i deas‖ -

chapter IIchapter ( devotes 2006, p. 844 p. 2006, ) kind of skepticism. By skepticism. of kind

one to the moral sciences, moral the to

about the freedomthe about ) them? ,

and, when he is is he when and, ence. Are Are ence.

ng point in point ng urns out to out urns ( Mill, dorcet‘s

which which

CEU eTD Collection intellect thethe of developement to whenapplied true less ofnature, be operations the other to applicable principle, an constant; regular and are universe, ofthe phenomena the regulate which unknown, or 19 tell objects its and separates mind that science of edifice society architectur logical a constructing by designation) common the use to science, of unity (or uniformity of principle the for argues actually Mill Revolution, French the of ideals the by enlightened world a describing text his of reminder h uniformity of principle this that granted for takes Condorcet While lumières calculating generate reliable pr of a speciesis world historicaland social their of beingsand human of knowledge sinceforecast,

Translation: ― Translation: s cetfc nweg, .. one i.e. knowledge, scientific

us, has already ual and moral faculties of man?‖ man?‖ ofmoral faculties ualand p. 193 la de opérations autres les pour que l'homme, de serait et ; constantes et nécessaires sontl'univers, phénomènesde les règlentignorées, qui générales,ou connues lois croyanc de fondement seul Le been already described, if I have succeeded in enumerating and characterizing characterizing and enumerating those of science in in succeeded have I if described, already been of methods the preceding five since appendix, the or supplement of kind in a only be can accomplished present the which beento Books; have to ought or been has Sciences, Moral the of Logic the for this like work a in done be can whatever substance, In – –

would think therewould think are from other subject matters. Everything needed to study it, in terms of method, Mill Mill method, of terms in it, study to needed Everything matters. subject other from a vehicle of assimilation which integrates them in the overarching methodological methodological overarching the in them integrates which assimilation of vehicle a . The question The . - The only foundation of faith in the natural sciences is the principle, that the general laws, known generallaws, the that principle, is the sciences natural the offaithfoundation in only The il moins vrai pour le développeme le pour vrai moins il ) 19

- without edictions. Condorcet not, edictions. is been been

netgto apial t mrl n sca sine ut have must science social and moral to applicable investigation laid out in discussinglaid outin theways enterprise ofthe naturalscientific

general. - he asks he products qualifications. It is difficulty generated by complexity, not kind, kind, not complexity, by generated difficulty is It qualifications.

reason

(

Condorcet, 1796, 250 p. 1796, Condorcet, ( based on laws which can be discovered and which can can which and discovered be can which laws on based below is merely rhetorical, as only a mind opaque to the to opaque mind a only as rhetorical, merely is below 2006, p.835 – s toresist optimism

e dans les sciences naturelles est cette idée, que les les que idée, cette est naturelles sciences les dans e notably society, which crowns the hierarchy of complex complex of hierarchy the crowns whichnotablysociety, a qel raison quelle par 37

accordingly

) nt des facultés intellectuelles et morales et intellectuelles facultés des nt

e for the sciences of human nature and of of and nature human of sciences the for e )

natu :

[ , expressing his heartfeltexpressing hopes, but , his emphasis re ?

( Condorcet, 1970/2005, 1970/2005, Condorcet,

added olds, and spends the the spends and olds, d why should this should why d c principe ce ] .

CEU eTD Collection connotations, will be placed a willplaced be connotations, Geisteswissenschaften sciences‘ ‗moral Mill‘s between not onlyparallel a of science a suggests, theetymology 20 practice,not in causal laws. ofuniversal meteorology say, ( then, position worse a in not is case, any in Psychology, true. speaking well of number small a where cases in even Often, phenomena. complex studying of characteristic a sciences;is simply the it pathognomonicmoral countsof oflabor as that noteven division this Mill‘s analogies, science‖ deductive ―the Ethology, eventually life‖ mankind‖ of knowledge ―practical ― of study the In structure. twofold a with presented are we goal, ―me residual other, the on and, scienc proper a by recoverable be to shown are concepts psychological existing hand, one ho detail of bit a is do to left is What 2006, p. 844 p. 2006, the

I am leaving aside what is perhaps the most interesting element of Mill‘s conception of Ethology ofEthology conception Mill‘s of element most interesting the what perhaps is am I aside leaving experimental science‖ experimental ( 2006, p. 864 p. 2006, - h sine f ua Ntr my e ad o xs i pooto a the as proportion rest; in which on nature exist human of laws universal to be the from can corollaries as mankind, said exhibited of knowledge be practical a may compose which Nature truths, approximate Human of connected science be the should laws, empirical is resolved which on causes be the of properties the into should of result; it they which kind from study, nature of lowest laws the the with deductively the to to character only scientific amount genuinely a give th indispensable to order in But k nown causes determine phenomena, as in astronomy, empirical laws are not strictly strictly not are laws empirical astronomy, in as phenomena, determine causes nown vindicated vindicated

( Mill, 2006,p.848 Mill, ) . What anchors it firmly in the realm of science is the availability, in principle if if principle in availability, the is science of realm the in firmly it anchors What . Ethology

) –

– but also

as legitimate only since its ― its since only legitimate as y te eea lw o te causes‖ the of laws general ―the by at these approximate generalizations, which in themselves would themselves in which generalizations, approximate these at t the 20

one of Psychology of

core is

character

) taphysical‖ between his Ethology and the idea of the and idea Ethology his between to his Psychology what Newton is to Kepler. Which is to say to is Which Kepler. to is Newton what Psychology his to

ofthe ( 2006, ( usekeeping at the level of the ―appendix‖ the of level the at usekeeping 06 p 872 p. 2006, Geisteswissenschaften , or, to be precise, of character be ofcharacter precise, to or, ,

pp. 848, 861 848, pp. –

frictions are eliminated. In what concerns the first the concerns what In eliminated. are frictions

( the translation of which is the origin of the German term ofthe whichGerman origin is the of the translation 2006, p. 872 p. 2006, 38

the phenomena depend. In other words, words, other In depend. phenomena the ) . Roughly, and to use one of his own own his of one use to and Roughly, . e mpirical laws‖ mpirical )

or the ―common wisdom of common of wisdom ―common the or byGadamer. )

–

which more or less follows the the follows less or more which

Bildung ( sees Mill mind, individual the formation 06 p 867 p. 2006,

( , which, with which, shifted , 2006, p. 861 p. 2006, . One could Onecould . , so that, on the on that, so , )

belonging to to belonging – thus draw thusdraw )

that it is, as it is, that

are to be to are they they e, e,

CEU eTD Collection that consumed introspective psychology, but it remains an obligatory presence in the history history the in presence obligatory an remains it but psychology, introspective consumed that Psychology of Principles the by down lay to laboratory attempt didactic Wundt‘s his published of James when 1879 recognition in Leipzig official of University the since decade a over just was It 1.6 P seewill theritual evolving samples. inthe next We again. and again brusquely, or politely with, dealt and perceived be will dissolve to tries Mill suspicion the guises, different In cultivation. scientific for apt and legitimate concepts psych ordinary the by circumscribed roughly parcel the make to order in undergrowth philosophical stubborn uproot to is suggested, already as role, The performs. it role the and pr this of substance determinist a of compatibility the about worries philosophical traditional the neutralize to is move first Th anxieties. philosophical from issuing skepticism block to but sciences, envisioned the of rudiments the even construct actually to Bacon‘s as just role, his context given the in that think to seems Mill argument. philosophy from delimitation the then is There as legitimate waves. or weather, principle‖ ―in physiolo of favor in elimination or settled be to needs concepts mundane psychology‘s of Distrust rogress: - causal world with the freedom of human action and thought. It is not the the not is It thought. and action human of freedom the with world causal –

(

that it is considered obvious isconsidered obvious that it 2006, p. 851 p. 2006, James

eemptive attack which is of interest here, but the very fact that it is there is it that fact very the but here, interest of is which attack eemptive That this pressure to do to pressure this That

. The influence of the book burned quickly burned book the influenceofThe . ) ),

then by assimilation to the familiar logic of studying pl studying of logic familiar the to assimilation by then gical terms (which Mill explicitly rejects as a mistake a as rejects explicitly Mill (which terms gical us, before presenting the structure sketched above, his his above, sketched structure the presenting before us, – something

is a crucialis a 39

–

performed, as it hap it as performed,

about the regular concepts is accepted is concepts regular the about step

Mill‘s project. Mill‘s somehow

in the larger conflagration largerconflagration the in pens, via a philosophical philosophical a via pens, ; if not by reduction reduction by not if ;

in his in ological ological , is not is , anets, anets, even The ,

CEU eTD Collection 21 methods which identity confirm as ofpsychology anordinaryenterprise. the scientific its and (scope) study of object the is it niceties, opening the Beyond psychology. of butter a bread the declaratively, least at is, physiology brain with activity conscious of correlation states‖ ―brain with mental the link which laws‖ ―ultimate those sciences the throughout positivistic‖ science natural of that] [is view psychology of status the and presenting busy is he considerable theory debating already amount of an and writes he when time some for place in been has all, after begins James above, fromwere, things,it seesaswho Mill, Unlike all residual exports and psychology, within problems scientific of tissue clean a leaves which psycho of status or matter subject the about doubts ‗metaphysical‘ any on extirpation awkwardnes resulting the excuses which the footnote us: occupy will Mill in saw we undiscr that thought of directions two same the context, this In debates. current of number a of reminiscent strangely is discusses James topics the which mistakes hesitations hopes, transparency remarkable a with documents which collection a also is It reflection. of source endless an constituted has collection vast a Such nature. kaleidoscopic way peculiar a in work monumental the of

James, eve James, field iminating anchoring of psychology in the realm of natural science science natural of realm the in psychology of anchoring iminating ‖ messiness to where it naturallymessiness towhere it belongs .

Moreover, n without direct disciples, has been considered considered been has disciples, without direct n . , though the latter is latter the though , 21

That is not, however, the reason for its occurring here. The The here. occurring its for reason the however, not, is That

we seem condemned to repeat in the study of mind. Going through some of of some through Going mind. of study the in repeat to condemned seem we

the aim is to establish to is aim the

however

open to future revision, as in ― in as revision, future to open , things are quite clear. The The clear. quite are things , –

not pr not

lawf imarily due to its colossal size, but because of its its of because but size, colossal its to due imarily 40

–

ul correlations between p between correlations ul

veryinfluential with philosophers. with philosophers.

and experimental results. W experimental results. and b rfrig o t yug age; young its to referring by s book‖ –

Preface

(

vn n wih s ― is which one even Greenwood, 2009 Greenwood, ( physics and the other natural natural other the and physics James, 1890/1983, p. 6 p. 1890/1983, James, in medias res medias in

notes that ― that notes henomena –

; hen it comes to to hen comes it Principles with the usual usual the with Miller, 1983 Miller, . Psychol. the point of of point the –

and the the and notably strictly strictly ) . The . logy ,

ogy, ogy, ) s a is and . the

nd nd ,

CEU eTD Collection 23 ( 22 criterion his presents T confusing. deteriorate however, vagueness, as begins What unity disciplines fi this that Note or appro threatening a for naturalistic psychologyproper, for are pressingthatsuch questions think not does James clearthat quite is It always? accompany them mind should beyond; perhaps and world, living the in everywhere purposeful as about example, for say, one should phenomenon.‖ the thus are attainment, their for means i behavior drive which done is This ( defin by begins chapter first the Thus, 1890/1983, pp. 185 pp. 1890/1983, 1890/1983, p. 15 p. 1890/1983,

el He refers to ―machine to refers He i Or, d, though though d, , an accidental defect excusable , an defect accidental nnowa seem instructive fo instructive seem nerve pure into or zoology into sallies any make to free feel therefore shall I […] fertility. with consists best what is vagueness of degree narrow a conception by than broad a by more much gain [W]e […] hand. in business main phenomena such include and subject, its as vague as be science the let to but pedantic, be to not better is It physiologists. . The point remains that v that remains point The anachronistic sense, ―psychosis‖. ―psychosis‖. sense, anachronistic bok h oelp ewe ―ee uwr teleology‖ outward ―mere between overlap the block o

via

tik f eitoim n plants) in heliotropism of (think ae cms close comes James being psychology of direction the in gesture a not is ( 1890/1983, p. 21 p. 1890/1983,

- 186 ) a test for inclusion in the psychological realm realm psychological the in inclusion for test a

, of our subject. At a certain stage in the development of every science a development every sciencecertain of stage Ata inthe oursubject. of 22 - ) like‖

. a

(

1890/1983, p.19 nd then progresses toward a principled circumscription of that territory. that of circumscription principled a toward progresses then nd n a flexible flexible a n o mentality for

behavior (e.g. reflexes) which is nonetheless adaptive, funct adaptive, nonetheless is which reflexes) (e.g. behavior r our purposes, but otherwise shall leave those sciences to the to sciences those leave shall otherwise but purposes, our r

as these as -

emphasis in the original the in emphasis manner: ― manner:

‗ ach: by psychology‘s youngby psychology‘s to that when he announces ―sallies‖ in neighboring neighboring in ―sallies‖ announces he when that to agueness is agueness mechanical t ok n sre o eprmns ih increasingly with experiments of series a in work at )

James considers adopting this terminology this adopting considers James

23 mark and mark

n pyhlg a te td of study the as psychology ing if by so doing we can throw any light on the on light any throw can we doing so by if The p The 41

s soon enough into something unambiguously unambiguously something into enough soon s

Atr l, on all, After ? ‘

a performances which nonetheless strike one one strike nonetheless which performances

ursuance of future ends and the choice of of choice the and ends future of ursuance criterion of the presence of mentality of presence the of criterion temporary )

. age

This is admittedly vague admittedly is This

obstacle on the road to mature mature to road the on obstacle se fnto ad teleology and function sees e . -

physiology which may which physiology –

the presence of purposes purposes of presence the a

explanatorily n and mentality, James James mentality, and ional etc. ional

later in the book in thelater book ―M na Life‖ ental

–

plural plural

what what

in a a in

CEU eTD Collection 24 ―microscopic‖ its in Co., & Wundt with P words. Prophetic a the conclude, will method this development the in watershed a systematic The psychology. marks which school, experimental German the to experimentation works then, Introspection, a colorhe and himselfperceives how inadvers it compares psychologist a Suppose view. of point objective an presupposes introspection since object, as mind the of status the affect not does introspection is first discusses he which mind objects psychologist the ―To the of chapter seventh the in method, of discussion a to moves James when clearer even are Things applying psychologicalconcepts asa fully empirical matter. to attempt 22 pp. the versus can spine the if Surely, life? mental fruitful his that shows What frogs. mutilated

He returns to it, for example, at the beginning of chapter VIII VIII ofchapter theat beginning example, for returnsit, He to - Principles , in a world of other other of world a in , 23 In making this critical judgment, the psychologist stands as stands psychologist the judgment, critical this making In ( perception empirical 1890/1983, p.184 )

. What one sho one What . right leg (depending on which of the legs is amputated) to wipe of acidof wipe amputated)to is legs the of which on (depending rightleg provide a unificatory crit unificatory a provide ,

, the first s first the ,

and comparison. It is especially is It comparison. and questions as: is the spine of a headless frog a proper target for attribution of of attribution for target proper a frog headless a of spine the is as: questions sychology as a natural science natural a as sychology hc h ciiie a h de o te oo. oh r hs objects. his are Both color. the of does he as criticises he which

–

ae tls s n rcret phrase recurrent a in us tells James uld note here note uld )

objects.‖ wh of ection

― siege

el lnsd te w ohr ehd Jms discusses, James methods other two the alongside well to epcs wt ―e overthrow‖ ―her with expects, uthor ‖ erion for erion

(emphasis in the original) the in (emphasis ( criterion does well is well does criterion 1890/1983, p. 183 p. 1890/1983, choose , is not primarily the chaos which results from James‘s James‘s from results which chaos the primarily not is ,

ich reassures that ―Psychology is a Natural Science‖. Science‖. Natural a is ―Psychology that reassures ich age. Whatever Whatever age.

the mental, but the fact that he sees the limits of limits the sees he that fact the but mental, the

42 between commanding a movement of the left left the of movement a commanding between

e conditions: e , the thought cont thought the , experimentation ( James, 1890/1983, 197 p. James,1890/1983, conceptual )

That the method of method the That

the availability of availability the

24 of the mind which issues from from issues which mind the of

– , understood with reference with understood ,

inues, instability results from the the from results instability h mns e tde are studies he minds the

much outside of the of outside much (

8018, . 192 p. 1890/1983, has already ste already has ) .

such presumably presumably such investigating the investigating

( 1890/1983, 1890/1983, pped, pped,

of of ) .

CEU eTD Collection two complementary ideas discussed above: the study of the mind needs to be conceived on on conceived be to needs mind the of study the above: discussed ideas complementary two with accord in is James psychology, for foundation safe a securing to comes it when temperament, and aims style, of differences obvious despite that, doubt little is There projects for it, assumptions geo the than more no introspection of method the discussing do enquiry of object legitimate a not certainly is metaphysics of side the on falls what vague, somewhat is psychologyby studied life mental he what know to gets psychologist the how wonder knowl express thoughts why ask to metaphysical is It thoughts. ( ― that mentio I direction second the ―metaphysics‖ to move now us Let Völkerpsychologie of use 1890/1983, p. 6 p. 1890/1983, es not belong to mental life.) ― life.) mental to belong not es metaphysics […] spoil […] metaphysics the original natives whose country a in arisen have hardly could and utmost, the to patience taxes method This means. by scale large on a on carried operating by uncertainty Germany, their eliminating in arisen but data, introspective has for moment every course of asking psychology methods, experimental microscopic a call may le a into passing is [P]sychology o o ate, ht s a a ntrl cec. f h goes she If science. natural a, metaphysical. as is, that farther, no go farther no go can brain, the of conditions definite with feeling or thought of p sychology when she has ascertained the empirical correlation of the various sorts various the correlationof empirical ascertainedthe has she sychology when nrseto wl be will introspection as he.‖ as . James is emphatic on this issue, too. In the In too. issue, this on emphatic is James .

)

It : )

would count as metaphysical to require an explanation for the genesis of genesis the for explanation an require to metaphysical as count would (

1890/1983, p. 184 p. 1890/1983, ( meter, the chemist, or the botanist do, who make precisely the same same the precisely make who do, botanist the or chemist, the meter, 1890/1983, p.6 1890/1983, s two good things when she injects herself into a natural a into herself injects she when things good two s

could be could restored empirically. James even indulges in a bit of of bit a in indulges even James empirically. restored About such About )

– -

s ipe hs. ihn fw er wa one what years few a Within phase. simple ss

[the psychologist] in the main need trouble himself himself trouble need main the in psychologist] [the bored emphasis in the original the in emphasis for psychology. (Consequently, one might add, it it add, might one (Consequently, psychology. for 43 ultimate

( 1890/1983, pp. 191 pp. 1890/1983, knows

puzzles puzzles . Even if, as we saw, the realm of of realm the saw, we as if, Even . e, ht f eiiain from delimitation of that ned, Preface –

we are told in the context of context the in told are we de I i mtpyia to metaphysical is It edge. )

, and taking statistical statistical taking and To farther she becomes becomes she farther

for example, we are told told are we example, for -

192 fit the ped the fit -

emphasis in emphasis

Mill about the about Mill igree James James igree – science.‖

can can

CEU eTD Collection 25 comparatively on w conceptual young A story. mixed a are processes goings mental correlating on insistence James‘s rejecting for reasons Ladd‘s only fails tosave psychology ent whole the pushes other, the on processes brain o science, natural the finds Ladd accounts, both On precisely and perspectives, and mores that claim the w for come evidence problems of conceptual piece exemplary an and here, explore we psychology in current discussions. some of reminiscent uncannily and time, its of thing a much very both document, fascinating ( next the in onl is science natural James‘s suggestedthat the of publication the after years Two ‗metaphysics‘.within non concepts; psychological vulgar undisciplined somewhat the with off starts one if even lines, naturalistic

Ladd calls the latter ―a ―mess of pottage‖, or little better‖ littlebetter‖ or ofpottage‖, ―mess ―a callsthe latter Ladd os e ocie o e h rlto bten m between relation the be to conceive he does in twofold this to answer The science? a of character the opinions psychological own his to give to propose he does how and be; to psychology understand James Professor does then, What, ― natural

the two points discussed above: the twopoints second) number of the of number second) orries. This time, the young science is not psychology itself psychology not is science young the time, This orries. - miia tobe tee ocps ih po might concepts these troubles empirical science‖ ne of the correlations between ―thoughts and feelings‖ and ―thoughts between correlations the of ne firmer As such, it is perhaps one of the best illustrations ofth best isperhaps ofthe illustrations it As such, one

soil soil ( 1892, p.27 that they that from from

– t te ertr o pyhlg, that psychology, of territory the ith

u brain but ur wl itoue nte coey once: What connected: closely another introduce will quiry ―metaphysics‖ Principles Philosophical Review Philosophical )

cannot be solved by dec by solved be cannot

- science narrative overlaps with more interesting interesting more with overlaps narrative science physiology Principles y

44 lacking. Re lacking. ―

- , he isoftenbusy doing thelatter., precisely ( called‖ 1892, 51 p. 1892, erprise into obscurity. Moreover, obscurity. into erprise . a eiwr Gog Tubl Ladd, Trumbull George reviewer, a , 25

etaphysics and psychology as a a as psychology and etaphysics f n em o ruhy locating, roughly of terms in If quiring psychology to be, if at all a all at if be, to psychology quiring

( ( Ladd,1892 James, 1892a James, quarantined be to are and can, se ) .

ree . Ladd questions James on James questions Ladd .

they survive changes of of changes survive they ) .

To this, James James this, To

) on the one hand, and and hand, one the on . This exchange is a a is exchange This . e – persistent currents persistent currents

which Ladd sees sees Ladd which - on with neural with on

James not not James replied

la à

CEU eTD Collection 26 striking elsewherereview.For intheare example,we that: told feelings‖ and ―thoughts par first the in visible already is It verdict. this in present essent th that psychology‖ ―cerebral a day one could physiology brain that open it leaves Ladd thought, thedark: oneisin of trains to correspond might which brain the in processes to comes it when success, some Broca, And a later: bit

See e field of psychology. Indeed, ―cerebral psychology‖ ―cerebral Indeed, psychology. of field e optimist scenario, optimist also also ially

various ―faculties‖ various thoughts and feelings. But of their conditions, as existing in the shape of of then th shape the in psychology, onlythe scientific existing Ifpsychologyis cerebral […] science. beingcalled as brain conditions, concomitant their or of antecedent But feelings. a and antecedent other thoughts in existing as conditions and elements their to reference by them, explain can we Moreover, fashion. interesting and brilliant such in does frequently James Professor as them, describe can We way. scientific feelings‖ and ―thoughts The only, conditions obscureof all. and unattainable of class one to science, such of science‖ are,therefor wegreatly How disappointed ( such with do to what know we should Nor dark. the in totally almost are we feelings, to [A]s 1892, p.35 ( Ladd, 1892, pp. 50 pp. 1892, Ladd, flawed

ete, f e c we if centres, ere psychology. science isno of

the localization of any of the ―higher‖ the of any of localization the

of psychology restricts all legitimate all restricts psychology of

n ae‘ cneto. n ssiin f cneta kn i clearly is kind conceptual a of suspicion And conception. James‘s in -

emphasis in theoriginalemphasis in

correlative explanations referring to brain processes brain to referring explanations correlative becomes possible becomes

r se a epanbe n hi on terms own their in explainable as seen are - 51

– )

. ud uce i gtig n cer rc o ter existence. their of trace clear any getting in succeed ould such as speech o speech as such

e o oh kn both do we ( Ladd, 1892,p.28

- ( processes, we have no knowledge worthy of of worthy knowledge no have we processes, 1892, p. 33 p. 1892, ) 45

( r vision vision r

1892, pp. 33 1892, pp.

e, when an advocate of the new ―naturalnew the advocateanof when e,

explanation, by his very conception conception very his byexplanation, )

. w n ko aot i a truly a in about, know and ow –

forms or factors of thoughts and thoughts of factors or forms is the diagnosis Ladd has for what is what for has Ladd diagnosis the is

But ) brain the of areas in

– -

this dvance to the point at which a a which at point the to dvance t of the previous quote, where where quote, previous the of t and these by far the most most the far by these and

)

a rhetorical gesture; even in in even gesture; rhetorical a . 26

n i i e is it And nd concomitant concomitant nd

would

there

not exhaust exhaust not e more ven has been been has

CEU eTD Collection effort: only inJame a not reversal Ladd, perverse There according to is, ( th fact the is it specifically, ― is and deeper‖ t even brain, the of metaphysics a with replaced is mind the of r own ―metaphysics‖ his against going again is he however, proper, generally is he place, the over all is he p doing is he when commitments; declarative own his to true be to tries rarely James grants, Ladd Fortunately, character to scientific confers which one the as correspondence of idea the on insists he still And thoughts. corresponds to something that in what sense and putativelocations, at the go on is supposedto o indication best, at are, schematics James‘s 82 p 52 p. 1892, 37 science. of advance the upon dependent wise no in is congruity tha feeling the with reader uninitiated the impress to serve also they congruity; unknown of sort some they sort; the of nothing show They him. mecha ― feelings, and brain the of descriptions schematic or oral his that maintains James Professor then, When, processes in order to explain other (conscious) processes which are not not are which processes (conscious) other explain to conjectural, are knowntoexist. indubitably but order in processes ―deeper pos He metaphysical. becomes he do; to compelled does [H]e - 38 psychology: )

- nical processes of of processes nical

hc cmrmss i atmt o rud scooy s ntrl science. natural a as psychology ground to attempt his compromises which – - emph yn entities‖ lying no more ―cantankerously‖ or dangerously or ―cantankerously‖ more no - indeed, he is ― is he indeed, processes, whi processes, rcsl wa al h aot h sm cneto fn themselves find conception same the adopt who all what precisely sychology proper (i.e. not the ―cerebral‖ the not (i.e. proper sychology asis inthe original show what a deep congruity there is between mental processes and and processes mental between is there congruity deep a what show

t he is being shown something. […] [T]he assumption of the of assumption [T]he […] something. shown being is he t at in James one sees ― sees one James in at ad hn e us hm hog a co a through them puts he then and ; too ch correspond ― correspond ch some metaphysical‖

kind‖ ) admir

; I must beg his pardon and flatly contradict flatly and pardon his beg must I ; f able 46 where

in a blank unmediated wa unmediated blank a in . show ( no end of doubtful metaphysics of metaphysics doubtful of end no

1892, p. 29 p. 1892, Even w Even , of location, they say nothing about what about nothing say they location, of ,

( nothing of any sort. They assume They sort. any of nothing 1892, p.33 ecommendations and engaging in in engaging and ecommendations hen James is not doing psychology psychology doing not is James hen tulates some of those abhorred those of some tulates metaphysical‖

kind which he preaches), even if if even preaches), he which kind )

to be scientific. A metap A scientific.be to s‘s attempt, but in this this attempt, butin s‘s hough the former former the hough )

re f conjectural of urse

( Ladd, 1892, pp. 1892, Ladd, ( y‖ to thoughts thoughts to y‖ 1892, p. 30 p. 1892, physics‖ physics‖ lies ―no ―no lies ) kind . More . hysics hysics

of of

CEU eTD Collection repeated notwithstanding, denies similarassertions thathe James ever young a of embarrassments predictable James‘s – infancy its in clear a is persists what durability; of kind different a sees one hand, other the on reply, James‘s In relevance. least, at review this in that, fact the or makes, he points the compromises agenda his that reader this to seem not does it but agenda, an with write spiritual a admittedly, and also, is Ladd himself, academic accomplished An this fundame to return will we lens, of choice this from inherited aberration chromatic the of more nutshell. explanatory one into psychology of plurality the of collapse som tempts which It familiar. already those alongside would It field. the exhaust not would psychology us) point The science. brain Ladd (―metaphysical‖ s scientific its to threat a thereby not but genuine, youthfulIts is be erraticism;it us. to physics mistaken asfrom chemistry or isnot dissimilarity please you philosophical mind; some in surfaced already has which note, last The

theyare

is half is

t mut to amounts it ntal observation. Plea

to be – -

prepared to prepared , contemplating a h a contemplating , ―

fiat a begins on a conciliatory tone, with the usual first move of excusing the the excusing of move first usual the with tone, conciliatory a on begins dealt with dealt lens. ) natural - , psychology. This field, ― field, psychology.This , cut version of the twin framework explored here: psychology is psychology here: explored framework twin the of version cut e of our own contemporaries contemporaries own our of e clearly science‖‖ And even this needs further qualification. As we have seen above, above, seen have we As qualification. further needs this even And

open

remai

in the appendix tothe actualin the appendix science eetn te da f hr big n ct ne t gon, by ground, to need acute an being there of idea the rejecting a ns that even such a future (to Ladd, perhaps con perhaps Ladd, (to future a such even that ns orizon of great discoveries great of orizon door for a psychology which capitalizes on future progress in progress future on capitalizes which psychology a for door ( 1892, p. 50 p. 1892, is

a philo a science. The title of a section of the of section a of title The science. amply entitled to be called a science; and even even and science; a called be to entitled amply sophy of psychology which pushes which psychology of sophy 47 ) , is at least at is ,

of the previ the of – tatus, unless tatus,

to expect a big explanatory crunch, a a crunch, explanatory big a expect to

t et e n kn o psychology of kind one be best at in part in ; conceptual worries are detachable are worries conceptual ; he achieves something of durable durable of something achieves he . ous excerpts, should be kept in in kept be should excerpts, ous

seen through a philosophical philosophical a through seen already familiar familiar already

As we sample some some sample we As Principles man

temporary to to temporary James James – like like

in front of front in .

He may may He physics physics –

and and and –

CEU eTD Collection about them. Thus ph them.about Thus will ask to mind continue whichhuman the questions for responsible be to decline and assumptions convenient is 27 ― kindly be ― To the with. of done interpretation is contentious science the the concepts concern fundamental worries further these if matter not does 147 ― discuss to on moves James when ignored also is Criticism giving for talent a James, in reveali admiring, stop cannot one elsewhere, as Here, alteration. its with world the of understanding an substituting performatives, of kind this with works metaphysic the than else ( the in optimism his ― that justifies suggesting James remark, telling very taken a never is In plane seriously. single a in distributed be not might which points between distance t idea the theorists, contemporary of number a with As oxygen. to phlogiston from latter, the within and, chemistry, to alchemy from moving in doing in succeeded already The 1892a, p. 146 p. 1892a, renounce ultimate ultimate renounce special

The analogy is James‘s, so ‗special so analogy is James‘s, The not physics‘: ― not physics‘: )

. question, then, is how to cover the distance between myth and natural science, as one one as science, natural and myth between distance the cover to how is then, question, 27 ng and memorable expression toconsequential expression blunders. ng and memorable

may be so organized even now as to become worthy of the name of natural natural of name the of worthy become to science day.at novery distant as now even organized so be may good and judgment with that hope o justify to description, enough material phenomenal real however, of including, myth, mass and gossip, a is It Lavoisier. before was chemistry what an Galileo, before in was physics or what than more science, hardly today is natural indeed, Psychology, a is today, stands it as psychology that claim, I think to seems Ladd Professor as instance, for claimed, This rescued cec‖ ht avs ―ee rget f truth‖ of fragment ―mere a carves that science‖

fragment is legitima is fragment Every special science, in order to getits particula at own to order in science, special Every -

‖ emphasis in the original the in emphasis ysics assumes a material world…‖ world…‖ material a assumes ysics treating Psychology treating

from solutions

al commitment Ladd was criticizing. It is ideology, not science, that that science, not ideology, is It criticizing. was Ladd commitment al h hns f scooit ad ― and psychologists of hands the ‖

( science 1892a, p. 147 p. 1892a, te naturalistic territory once ―further‖ once territory naturalistic te

‘ does not have its current sense ofroughly sense current its nothave ‘does ( like 1892a, p.146 )

a natural science […] hel […] science natural a - He does not seem to recognize that this is nothing is this that recognize to seem not does He will on the part of those interested, its study study its interested, those of part the on will 48 ) ( 1892a, p. p. 147 1892a, t not if questions, The .

)

js a pyis does physics as just , sine pyhlg nes to needs psychology science, a exact way a science at all. all. at science a way exact abandoned rs at all, must make a number of number a mustmake all, at rs

the status of psychology as a a as psychology of status the p[s] her p[s]

he solutions, are to be be to are solutions, he ‖ worries are cast out. It out. cast are worries

‗natural science which ‗naturalscience o h philosophers the to to Principles ne in the the in ne become one‖ one‖ become hat this is a a is this hat

( 1892a, p. p. 1892a,

by by

CEU eTD Collection coexistences and successions of the states of mind to whichtheyre to are mind of ofthe states successions and coexistences The ascertained. alrea defines and ofinvestigation, programme entire sketches an 29 28 more the T attack. Ladd‘s answer of part serious to refusal the but manifestoes), to susceptible inherently is that psychology platitude the documents simply (which words of choice the not is here matters What p once gets one ―abbreviated‖ what aside, results Current future. a all, after writes, James element. discriminating l and physiology brain known example, for in, it against evidence of wealth a sees already He absurd. is former the James, contextual a on dependent ― is ―cerebralism‖ of rejection one‘s if clear be ambi the correctlyobserves James that, it calling Without phenomena. mental to corresponding processes brain scienceof (yet)nonexistent a invokes he that accusationLadd‘s against himself defends James when symptomatic again is rhetoric The things f scientifically take Both psychologist. the for is states mental of status epistemic and extern an of existence the ‗problem‘of conce this that one stronger the in but psychology, as count not should concepts psychological about concern philosophical ( 82, p 149 pp. 1892a,

See also: ― also: See H e

mentions tts bt ht h acranet f h lw o sc creain om the forms correlation original such of laws the of program ascertainment the that but states; we today that Not or granted.or Now the provisional value of such knowledge as this, however inexact it be, is still immense. It It is still immense. be, it inexact however this, as knowledge such value of provisional the Now

in this respect this in

order in time in order so as to so ) 29

- of a science well limited and defined. and limited well science a of 150

) Lbr ut be must Labor . aim for

t of the nerve currents, namely, is what determines the the whatis determines namely, nervecurrents, ofthe he ―modern doctrine of aphasia‖ aphasia‖ of ―modern doctrine he have –

n hs correctable thus and mind

he difficulty which Ladd had tried to voice about the very idea idea very the about voice to tried had Ladd which difficulty he a ‗science‘ a so studies. esion n is rn - brain correlations, is, James tells us, ais, brain tellsus, James correlations, al

distributed world is for the physicist, the ‗problem‘ of the nature the of ‗problem‘ the physicist, the for is world inconsequential

of the correlation of men of correlation the of 49

in principle in Plea

Not that the experiments are the only only the are experiments the that Not – n and ,

( dy one great dyone James,1892a lack of knowledge about the b the about knowledge of lack , something ,

( 1892a, p. 151 p. 1892a, guity in Ladd‘s criticism. One has to has One criticism. Ladd‘s in guity

lated.‖ lated.‖ yhlg, n ads od, is words, Ladd‘s in sychology, for doing psychology. What the the What psychology. doing for ot only in the benign sense that that sense benign the in only ot and kind ( ) Ja entirely‖ .

dir mes, 1892a, p. p. 152 mes,1892a,

of law which will be which oflaw tal states with brain with states tal ected order in time in order -

emphasis in the in emphasis

program ( by definition at the the at definition by 1892a, p. 153 p. 1892a, , the , ) :

harmless an For rain. - ) , o , r

CEU eTD Collection 30 Thealong quarrel hadbeen all man‘s withthe practical today is one no was one no aside, That descriptions. different categorically under were, it as symptoms, delusion‖ l have would it that fact the does the in it practices himself he as psychology psycholog of sort this That value: practical and temperament of terms in matter the presents he pragmatist, good a as where, lines, concluding James‘s in echoing clearly is criticism this of misunderstanding The both. The me injecting of guilty was himself obscure. James that was reproach more the by less the ‗explain‘ to psychologist the forced programmatically ―cerebralism‖ that was Wittgensteinian, as ( co needed was that all forward, that saying to close very been is perhaps psychology had is Ladd processes Where brain James. with by thoughts, misconstrued things, deliberately familiar of kind one correlating of James, 1892a, p. 153 p. 1892a, James,

Of which James claimed he was able to cure himself, presumably due to hispsychology to due presumably himself, cure to was able he claimed whichOfJames

ae ite r ohn fr liae ainlt, h biologi the rationality, ultimate for nothing or little care who men the which psychology of sort the is that And soul. the of nature the into insight seraphic most the to preferred be to certainly ought away, delusion insane of case a cure could which psychology of kind The decision. his in hesitate could man any how see not do I mind, the of science ‗facts‘ and alter hard the if Nevertheless, bring about. to not, or them help whetherwe tending, surely are psychicalresearchers,namely,

(not to mention everyday thought and feeling), tho feeling), and thought everyday mention to (not o i nee in not –

trying to trying

in psychology, between a merely rational and a merely practical practical merely a and rational merely a between psychology, in (

1892a, p.153 ) . But what Ladd had said, on lines we might re might we lines on said, had Ladd what But . d

f porm the program, a of steal psychology from James‘s ― James‘s from psychology steal y

– nceptually was the clearing of ― of clearing the was nceptually

separated separated ) ittle means to even even to means ittle

native wer native rm rationality from Principles

50 was itself such an entanglement, one which which one entanglement, an such itself was

Plea

e to arise of a choice between ‗theories‘ between choice a of arise to e

die ta f that advised

does not seem to bother James. Neither Neither James. bother to seem not does philosophy talk melancholy, or charm a chronic a charm or melancholy, taphysics into psychology spoiling spoiling psychology into taphysics

bu ― about – practical

ugh it might indeed cure their their cure indeed might it ugh would metaphysical t, nerve sts, . r ―cerebralism‖ or

melancholy trospectively recogniz trospectively po facto ipso man

( ‖ Greenwood, 2009 Greenwood, - otr, and doctors, ( 1892a, p. 149 p. 1892a, entanglements ‖ 30

ease to be be to ease r ―insane or

o move to – )

. as as

) e ‖ . CEU eTD Collection accepting with a degree of reticence that there is truth in Freud. in is truth that there ofreticence withdegree a accepting 31 newspeak naïf: by the which one including pictures, 590 pp. disc Freud Whatever James. William to si of truth the Freud, to admiration with refers Watson B. ― with psychology of vocabulary col would psychiatry benefits the about 1916 in Writing 1.7 Progress: continue would works The perpetual. nonetheless century thenext in psychology. of is understanding, particular this under science, finis be can which one not is however, monument, The certainBrain, says them thatin Professor James a of treatises the about specifically, and, investigation of method a as introspection of status about Talking embody. they temptations philosophical irresistible the of and efforts his the in provides, who himself James predictably, Itis,

mply by dropping the ― the dropping by mply S ee also also ee was used. microscope the before Anatomy or Lavoisier, of Chemistry the like intelligible, – as follows: thehabit terminology somewhat Iusually introduce psychologyTo my in students - we have probably the last word of what this method taken mainly by itself can do do can itself by mainly taken method this what of word last the probably have we 592

( the last monument of monument last the Watson, 1917 Watson, )

talk. Watson

(

1890/1983, p. 191 1890/1983, p. As for James, his James, for As

)

, where hedenouncwhere

crude vitalistic and psychological and vitalistic crude

Wat , the youth of our science, still untechnical and generally and untechnical still science, our of youth the biological and behavioristic behavioristic and biological

) presence is explained by his ability to provide suggestive suggestive provide to ability his by explained is presence

es the American psychologists‘ ―Freudian cult‖ cult‖ ―Freudian psychologists‘ American the es o claims, son overed was to b to was overed 51

facilitates

Principles hed, just as the youth of this particular this of youth the as just hed, e translated in ―habit systems‖ ―habit in translated e hs wr h cness o teach to confesses he work whose lect terminology

concepts

the grasping of behavioristic behavioristic of grasping the , a possible fitting summary of of summaryfitting possible a , f t elcd h ―outgrown‖ the replaced it if ‖ ‖ ( ( 1916, p. 597 p. 1916, 1916, p. 590 p. 1916, ( 1917, p. 85 1917, ) ) , ( , John , ) 31 1916, 1916,

while

and the the CEU eTD Collection in philosophy, logical behaviorism. logical inphilosophy, 33 53 All other salvation. his stake to which on out one pick and 32 here. discussed samples the throughout following are we commitments of schools behaviorist way psychologist the to that available readily are idea puzzles from problems the see, will we as and, concepts psychological about puzzles sur psychology scientific natural James‘s of puzzle mentioned just distinction the by indicates, it but little, proves anecdote This characteristic habit deformed puzzle; a been always had character Deformed treatment. to key the be could dog (a illness ‗mental‘root of the is thatformationclaim habit to aboutwas violence.Watson of bit a selves wrote whereJames manqués irony further his in denounced had Watson psychology the Course the of version abridged the of self the on chapter the from example pedagogical his extracts Watson that is irony The

In the following I refer to behaviorism inpsychology behaviorism to refer I Inthe following t text James‘s continues )

vs. (empirical) problem (empirical) vs. rest m al be life of outset the at conceivably may characteristics different Such […] rest. the relinquishing ―.. b I what to key the gave James William day of light the saw doctrine Freud's before Long (

James, 1892/2001 James, ). In the original, ―one of my selves‖ was rather ―one of my empirical selves‖ empirical my of ―one rather was selves‖ my of ―one original, the In ). Watson writes ― writes Watson . I am often confronted by the necessity of standing by one of my selves and and selves my of one by standing of necessity the by confronted often am I . – ust moresuppressed.‖ orless be –

what Fre what was aproblem. was elieve to be the true explanation of the wi the of explanation true the be to elieve taught , in the last quoted sentence,characters‖ ―differentquoted the last in ,

hus: ― hus:

neurasthenia), therefore habit modifica habit therefore neurasthenia), Principles ud might have considered a succession of succession a considered have might ud characterist psychology ike So the seeker of his truest, strongest, deepest self must review the list carefully, list the must self review deepest strongest, truest, of his the seeker So -

the quote is from chapter 3, p.53 3, chapter from is quote the

possible

–

that something of the spirit of Mill‘s logic of discovery and and discovery of logic Mill‘s of spirit the of something that , published in 1892 under the title title the under 1892 in published , ics‖ 33

to a man. But to make any one of them actual, the the actual, them of one any make to But man. a to

. Not even James could be turned on his head without head his on turned be could James even Not . rvd sm o te et xmls f h two the of examples best the of some provide ie i ti bae e cnet T context. new brave this in vives 52 , as practiced by psychologists, and not to its counterpart its counterpart to not and by psychologists, practiced as , ( famous 1916,

selves thereupon become unreal…‖ unreal…‖ become thereupon selves p. 590 p. 590

manifesto sh. Thirty years ago he wrote: he ago years Thirty sh. -

emphasis theoriginal in ) tion tion .

A text very much imbibed by by imbibed much very text A

( are still at work at still are 1913/1994 Fehlleistungen via , in the sense of differe theofsense in , Psychology: The Briefer The Psychology:

conditioning should be be should conditioning The unapologetic unapologetic The

) – . There is then is There .

( (philosophical) 1892/2001, p. 1892/2001, he allergy to to allergy he . Indeed, the the Indeed, .

s to isolate isolate to s ( slips, slips, )

. And And . actes –

or or nt nt

a CEU eTD Collection methodologically ― methodologically ― the respons and 253 w science m of terms ment province the up give to better b then, it, views behaviorist the As enterprises. dependenc ― it made its has introspection And physiology. from separate itself keep to as so consciousness, for evas chasing by field its define to attempt its was astray psychology led has What Thedealing diagnosis notbeclearer.with divergent could Psychology results. pr no has it name; the of worthy methods no has it study; of object an isolate to failed has It bankrupt. is states mental conscious of science putative a as Psychology it‘ Views Behaviorist philosophical as program methodologicalprogram. its of nature the about lucidity unmatched an g undeserved, is which caricature, to vulnerable it made has frankness Its psychology. in ideology of talk is there when choice of illustration the being of situation the in thought of current this placed has commitments these of assertion ut w dcds fe te eae ewe Jms n Ld, asns ‗ Watson‘s Ladd, and James between debate the after decades two Just )

al states, mind, content, introspectively verifiable, imagery, and the the and imagery, verifiable, introspectively content, mind, states, al Experiments, equally feasible in men a men in feasible equally Experiments, savages cec. scooy a i i gnrly huh o, a smtig strc n its in esoteric methods. something has of, thought generally is it natu as undisputed Psychology, an science. as world the in place its make to discipline experimental fifty the during believe, I signally, failed has

hich needs introspection as little as do the sciences of chemistry and and chemistry of sciences the do as little as introspection needs hich ethod, psychology is to become ― become to is psychology ethod, e, in terms of habit formation, habit integrations and the and integrations habit formation, habit of terms in e, ‖

f utai, id o aobs s ifrn ol i trs o terms in only different is amoebas or birds Australia, of

( 1913/1994, p.249 I s I hould have followed the same general line of of line general same the followed have hould

( 1913/1994 otherwise altogether ) )

‖

suggests ( 1913/1994, p. 249 p. 1913/1994, ‖

( a purely objective, experimental branch of natural natural of branch experimental objective, purely a s in rats, are to be described ― described be to are rats, in s p. 249 p. 53

oth object and method must go: ― go: must method and object oth ht that that

iven that, at its best, behaviorism manifested behaviorism best, its at that, iven )

and ― and - odd years of its existence as an an as existence its of years odd

) id f eae s ihu object. without is debate of kind never use the terms consciousness, consciousness, terms the use never

relative to all respectable scientific respectable all to relative attack like .‖ in terms of stimulus of terms in incipled manner of of manner incipled Psychology as the the as Psychology

‖ like ( p. 250 p.

( p. 251 p. .‖ f complexity; complexity; f [i]t would be would [i]t physics ( ive criteria ive . 250 p. )

) Studying Studying . And if if And . ral .‖ .‖ y on on y )

( In p. p.

CEU eTD Collection infectious pathogens: be must They be. might rust of layer thin a as off cleaned be cannot which load philosophical a carry they because essentially but imprecise, because simply unusable regiment any is there believe not does Watson because frogs dismembered separatingthe of matter a by as but unsolvable accident, of matter are a as which not means problemsscientific into degenerating as seen are concerns Speculative of psychology consciousness. a of rejection radical the to intrinsic is former The science. young a being pa in least at explained, be to is psychology of situation the that idea the and puzzles philosophical from delimitation the conserves puritanism, its all for revolution, Watson‘s between and it theother this ie f tak s olwd i ― it followed, is attack of line psychology any longer no in current is now terms the use There we when thing same them. the mean all we from that guarantee develop which problems of types the and I that in enmeshed example, so (for become conscious content of have nature the mind, We of elements observation. the concerning questions of speculative object the states mental to reference all discard thinkin into must itself delude longer no need it when consciousness; psychology when come have to seems time The than by saying that I tobringinthe samethan by up like ignorance that students my of should saying better no here myposition state can I problem. that of solution the of formulation mind the of consideration The physics. of student the trouble they as little as behavior of time Those –

or make more precise more make or , as an experimental student, feel that something is something that feel student, experimental an as ,

psychological from the physiological the from psychological

- oy rbe afcs ete te ye f pro of type the neither affects problem body .

- ( – honored relics of philosophical speculation need trouble the student the trouble need speculation philosophical of relics honored 1913/1994, p. 249 1913/1994,

is bluntly disqualified. The recommended cure is so uncompromising uncompromising so is cure recommended The disqualified. bluntly is science

mgls togt attds and attitudes, thought, imageless s .‖ .‖ ( – p. 253

will remove the barrier from psychology which exists exists which psychology from barrier the remove will regular )

)

scooia concepts psychological 54

chance –

James‘s search for usable distinctions in distinctions searchusable for James‘s

f ucs i a efr t graduall to effort an in success of

wrong with our premises premises our with wrong

Bewusstseinslage, etc.) etc.) Bewusstseinslage, principle lm eetd o the nor selected blem . These concepts are not not are concepts These . g that it is making is it that g . The very idea of of idea very The .

quarantined, as as quarantined, rt, by its its by rt, y CEU eTD Collection 35 p. 251 1913/1994, to will lead which generalizations broad in of search are scientificand vigorou all are psychopathology and tests, of psychology 34 cannot handle Notably expect. may one what youth. of feebleness temporary the confess to had behaviorism where solid and research, psychopatholog others fortunately ― our select must we that feel we of tone the in notes he pl version, Watson‘s in puberty, of narrative The behaviorist psychologymatures. ― a much not that paper, his of lines last very the in us, assures Watson becoming with satisfied be must conclusion, logical their now The science. a become to efforts its well, be, to insist will psychology however, If, it. be so discussion, of subject the changing to amounts barrier the removing If iia t ta wih xse i booy in biology in existed which that to similar

Except in the ‗scient inthe Except ― Experimental pedagogy, the psychology of drugs, the psychology of advertising, legal psychology, the the psychology, legal advertising, of the psychology drugs, of psychology the pedagogy, Experimental eiu of residue ‖

ujcs I tee areas these In subjects. . ( 34 1913/1994, p. 250 p. 1913/1994,

( o branches other of students the among finds one as hypotheses such It makes full sense that Watson nominates among the latter, for example, for latter, amongthe nominates Watson that sense full Itmakes 1913/1994, p.250 iil, n tee r aray ra o pyhlg ta hv dn bte than better done have that psychology of areas already are there and visible, was was thought ) problems t or y later engaged in work with small children small with work in engaged later ific‘ sense of sense ific‘

he ―psychology of tests‖ of ―psychology he : 35 a scholarly Saint scholarly a

‖ ) ; the spiral will go on. Natural psychology, if one if psychology, Natural on. go will spiral the ; ( ) . 253 p.

oe was one , delicate movements of the larynx. movementsofthe delicate , what an otherwise confident Watson admits is that his method his that is admits Watson confident otherwise an what ,

material psychological ) , surely, but even that will be gradually recovered as as recovered gradually be will that even but surely, , same questions will be debated ― debated be will questions same -

Just Just t h lret osbe itne rm hs region those from distance possible largest the at .‖ .‖ The situation the beh the situation The - 55 . Moreover, Watson Moreover, .

we are still in that stage of development where development of stage that in still are we

s growths. […] At present these fields are truly are fields At these present growths.[…] s

, its traditional heri traditional its ,

Darwin's ays its role at this junction. ― junction. this at role its ays

non the control of human behavior.‖ behavior.‖ human of thecontrol

time – - psychological psychology. But psychology. psychological

.‖ would also nominate these as these nominate also would

aviorist aims to improve is is improve to aims aviorist

( – tage will continue to derail derail to continue will tage . 249 p.

will be lost. There will be will There lost. be will who had who two hundred years from from years hundred two The weaker regions are regions weaker The )

pushes things to things pushes a past in animal animal in past a In psychology In e a ot is out way he f science accountsof ( Watson, Watson, .

– s

CEU eTD Collection Tha of idea an challenging comes what at look to used best is Skinner But illustration. of clear the of reader the remind to operandi such it adjudicate to proposes and science of philosophy the to belonging one fundamentally is which dispute a in enters psychologist The above. ‗lucidity‘ called I element the is This carries it with explicitly cover not does he directions in Watson push to means this What rejected. or dissolved gets what for term pejorative a simply with deal to philosophy to difficulties its of some no shou scientist the ‗problem‘ name the of worthyis Whatever labor. 153 p. ― James‘s of reminded is One t Verbal Behavior Verbal

big ad i i Sinr smaiig h lsos f behaviorism of lessons the summarizing Skinner, is it said, being t is best ignored. It is not that psychology as natural science moves forward by forward moves science natural as psychology that not is It ignored. best is . I used W used I . ) , ( of forms settings. concrete more in complex and angle new a from arise they as viewed more be can they and more of Problems behavior. investigations undertake to possible be will it developed becomebetter methods our As […] time. present the at use in are which methods behavior the by lines these of all along investigations forward carr to able not are we that say and squarely and situation the meet should reasoning, We […] judgment, imagination, in are them of have as we statements only the present At such conception. behavior, of come forms we when complex different somewhat is situation The

1913/1994, p.252

but with a significant alteration. Watson has no time for gentlemanly division of of division gentlemanly for time no has Watson alteration. significant a with but can already be detected in this in detected be already can – its

atson‘s landmark text to suggest that rudiments that suggest to text landmark atson‘s solve or dissolve dissolve or solve

own

( Skin

philosophy which ofpsychology, itmakes of open use. what counts as counts what ner, 1957, pp. 1 pp. 1957, ner, )

which are now laid aside will again become imperative, but imperative, become again will aside laid now are which men who c who men - cut formulations given years later by Skinner. The Skinner. by later years given formulations cut –

what , allowing the latter to complement it complement to latter the allowing ,

science, Skinner would become the defender of one. one. of defender the become would Skinner science,

early are little or nothing for ultimate ultimate for nothing or little are -

12 rbes a cm ter a. Mtpyis is ‗Metaphysics‘ way. their come may problems ) , 56

manifesto. Certainly, it would have been easier been have would it Certainly, manifesto. for example, retains the qualities of a textbook textbook a of qualities the retains example, for

–

is that behaviorism as psychology as behaviorism that is after

o suy f h more the of study a to fti characteristic this of l

d be able to solve. What is What solve. to able be d behaviorism. Watson was Watson behaviorism. rationality

. Psychologists are Psychologists . content terms. content

fe aohr of another after –

though this is is this though exporting ‖

first part part first

( 1892a, 1892a, modus modus y

CEU eTD Collection ―Correlation‖ usual the in psychology of sort some with psychology, wo meanings that remember to had he then biologist, another just be to not was behaviorist the if But directions. contradictory in pulled indeed was psychology how observed Wundt, Respon psychology peculiar the to leads which instability which can tec showing by stagnation of accusations with work payattention ofancestral tothe wisdom pay attention practices; natural tosuccessful sciences; instability, with. live must psychology one is choice of expl an philosophical from rather follows it default; by or naturally were, it as follows, psychology doing of way his that claim not does behaviorist the that is here difference a makes What t expression ―fifty psychology‘s ae f n suf r w bt ahr h dimension the rather but psychology relevantand themethods to two is or it stuff whether or one made is of world made the which of stuff the of nature the not is issue basic The available. are methods successful highly and tested which for science oth or human organisms, of behavior the of science a hand, other the on is, it If successfully. done yet not has it which and experience conscious matter subject the with concerned If psychology. of methods science of philosophy a but behavior ding in 1914 to Watson‘s attack, Edward Titchener, an introspectionist educated under educated introspectionist an Titchener, Edward attack, Watson‘s to 1914 in ding Behaviorism, with an accent on the last syllable, is not the scientific study of of study scientific the not is syllable, last the on accent an with Behaviorism, , and that thoughts thoughts that and ,

be bypassed. the inherited concepts which have defined the discipline and its problems; its and discipline the defined have which concepts inherited the since one is presented with presented is one since . o theidea thatthepsychologistphilosophy by resistsdoing philosophy:

choice suggests that Titchner thought a synthesis was possible. He tells us t us tells He possible. was synthesis athoughtTitchner that suggests - odd years‖ odd . Now, Now, .

It matters to insist on this aspect, onthis It matters toinsist since, Skinner’s expressed –

circles then it must develop and defend a special methodology, methodology, special a defend and develop must it then psychology is a science of mental life mental of science a is psychology

may be a defensible or a defeasible option, but this this but option, defeasible a or defensible a be may

( facts. If he did, then ― then did, he If facts. Titchener, 1914, p. 5 p. 1914, Titchener, symultenously symultenously cnr b wih n recognizes one which by scenery ncl jroie poes Tee r nt issues not are These prowess. jargonized hnical, erwise, then it is part of biology, a natural a biology, of part is it then erwise, 57

them

en fcd ih i with faced Being .

( Skinner, 1963,p.951 Skinner, legitimate but legitimate sense ) behaviorism is correlated with a a with correlated is behaviorism , s of the things studied by by studied things the of s

who gives perhaps the clearest clearest the perhaps gives who

i n our story, it isprecisely it this n our story, ‖

( icee, 94 p 16 p. 1914, Titchener, t is a source of serious serious of source a is t

incompatible attractors: incompatible –

of the mind, of mind, the of )

the margins of of margins the hat one wasone hat

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CEU eTD Collection 1957, p. p. 6 1957, to and allay curiosity to fiction an explanatory of function today. isthe It in better matter put the day wouldsome which imagined be could ideas of whenscience a and scientific, than rather were philosophical processes verbal when into inquiries defensible 37 nowadays And 36 Vienna. interwar from primarily emanating science of philosophy general the to indebtedness confiden such its to assisted What growth vacuum. a in arise not did psychology of philosophy a as Behaviorism 1.8 Progress, logical i ―logical called Titchener what venerability their effortsor of tenacious ― when especially ― been sight. ‗cerebrali explanatory of ( ‗ fundamentally, ―unhistorical‖ was two approach on guilty was anew start and psychology traditional abandon to attempt could ―psychobiology‖ of talking already Titchener, 1914, p. 4 p. 1914, Titchener,

Here is a sample of what he sa whathe sampleofisa Here work:‗circles‘ i at The Long before the behaviorist came to the scene, the to came behaviorist the before Long painfully careful to set their house in logical logical in house their set to careful painfully both order )

zation‘, Titchenerzation‘, warnsthat,

be psychologists in their own own their in psychologists be . cog

life

further examples: Köhler, Marr Köhler, examples: further tools nitive ‖ ‖ logical[ly] irrelevan[t] to psychology as psychology is ordinary is psychology as psychology to irrelevan[t] logical[ly]

( ais f peh r ivtrt, n cmo sne s extraordinarily is sense common and inveterate, are speech of habits 94 p 2 p. 1914,

n the

sci made by behaviorists; where Ladd warned James James warned Ladd where behaviorists; by made ) . The latter accusation amounts to a rejection a to amounts accusation latter The . ence is an even larger melting pot. melting larger is an even ence Plea ad self and t . ys about

What Skinner What

, James invites both the biologist and the phi and biologist the Jamesboth , invites

– ) Te eairs, oee, a nt goat f either of ignorant not was however, behaviorist, The .

rrelevance‖ l nw, goig .. ht t a imit was it that e.g. ignoring news, old the the ( - 1914, pp. 15 pp. 1914, aware expressions as those found in Skinner was its its was Skinner in found those as expressions aware psychology of ideas and and ofideas psychology as the behaviorist views it as thebehaviorist 37

was precisely the means to finally set the house in in house the set finally to means the precisely was

ways manages to express far better than Watson than better far express managesto 58

- . 36 17

order , Morton, ) f ht Wto see olvos His oblivious. seemed Watson that, Of ; the behaviorist and the intr the and behaviorist the ;

he .‖ .‖

meaning claimed,

order; but it stands in a different light indifferent a stands but it order; For that, fifty years were nothing, were years fifty that, For bring inquiry to an end.‖ an bringto inquiry

and Carey and , psychology might go out of , psychologygo outof might : ― losopher to be psychologists. psychologists. be to losopher The practice may have been practice The psychologists had already had psychologists

in princi in about the dangers of dangers the about ating Comte Comte ating

ple

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those and, ‖

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―[T]

make, will be will make, humanistic studies narrowly conceived, but also in psychology. In the same year Skinner Skinner year same the In psychology. in also but conceived, narrowly studies humanistic

imitator. he basis of Behaviorism is just as just is heofbasisBehaviorism .‖ .‖

( phases intermediate that seeing without also of manners imposing pre the when youth, historical Rather, form. contemporary developed highly imitate to wish we If attacked ( Köhler, 1947/1992, p.42 Köhler, 1947/1992, 32 p. 1947/1992, Köhler, .

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- ) - philosophical as mycriticism: as philosophical methodologically grown men without understanding their understanding without men grown

54 William James Lectures James William ) .

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1947/1992, p. 31 p. 1947/1992, overzealous since overzealous

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reports of experience are experience of reports o

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ect ob ect the following two chapters two following the

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on i ta ne epann, n a wa level what at beexplanations sought? and explaining, need that it doing? doing actually cortex cerebral the of areas visual subjec of or cells of behavior [N] e itnuse tre ees f xlnto wih we pt oehr poie to promised together, put when which, explanation of levels three distinguished He

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( p. 25 p. ( 61 92 p 19ff. p. 1982,

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does not begin to be to begin not does .‘, ‗It is .‘, ‗It 92 p 6 p. 1982,

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a model for psychological explanation psychological for model a an information an o ie n exa an give To . ul, opttoa oeain o functions or operations computational guely, 41 62 explanation

–

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is certainly a fascinating topic of research. The The research. of topic fascinating iscertainly a

o principled reason to resist the adoption the resist to reason principled o Computers Computers - processing task, then why not regard regard not why then task, processing

as such as ‗ computational

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– Morton too distinguishes between explanatory levels explanatory between distinguishes too Morton 44

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things like perception, memory, or language. language. or memory, perception, like things terms. When Morton rightly observes that that observes rightly Morton When terms. a problem with problem a ( pp. 47 pp. - 22 brain C wie bid hl my cur those acquire may child blind a while ,

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that can be manipulated by a program. manipulateda by canbe that hnmn rltd to related phenomena explananda lg as have also ology ‖

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4 p. 2009, gain, Morton claims echoing Marr, is that one arrives at a novel way of of way novel a at arrives one that is Marr, echoing claims Morton gain, the volume the e rules for postulating cognitive entities are neither are entities cognitive postulating for rules e

about the foundational choices of her project her of choices foundational the about . But

describes Fodor on the other) the on Fodor onceptual role onceptual - old philosophical dilemmas into relatively straightforward straightforward relatively into dilemmas philosophical old , as in Marr, in as ,

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t 64 his is precisely the problem. the precisely is his ‘

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y Interlude , even if one does not go further than Putnam and Kripke, and Putnam than further go not does one if even ,

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i te uaiis r h hmnsi sca sciences social humanistic the or humanities the in h are of course even more sanguine more evenare of course , and sometime vehement, attempts vehement, sometime and , . Psychologists are not, by far, alone. far,by not, are Psychologists . h contrary the and

- enlarging the scope of ‗science‘ so as to situate psychological study closer to closer study psychological situate to as so ‗science‘ of scope the enlarging in ce and style from Quine‘s psychologization of epistemology to recent experimental experimental recent to ofepistemology frompsychologization Quine‘s style and ce - the

- head. Perhaps head. hv togt ht uh eedd n eetn ti restrictive this rejecting on depended much that thought have , f the term ‗science‘ inherent in the ‗naturalization‘ of psychology; psychology; of ‗naturalization‘ the in inherent ‗science‘ term the f

proposals in proposals it should be should it

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to exorcise it. The philosophies of science which which science of philosophies The it. exorcise to ry of progress reaches its climax. progressry climax. of its reaches 65 philosophy

o bvious bvious

which recommend equivalent maneuvers. maneuvers. equivalent which recommend that

there is, but it remains the case the remains it but is, there

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transition from from transition means is

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the At

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f psychology f

( 1953/2009, p. 243 p. 1953/2009,

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another begins to work. work. to begins another II, § 371 § II,

s gone further and one one and further gone s –

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CEU eTD Collection problem crucial is it then margins, the light. brighter in stage the set to help will terminology of shift a Perhaps teachlessons to psychology, clear not is it When decide. or motivated, are feel, think, research of subjects the sense, what in or whether, dif arguably are Things benign. relatively but unsolved, remain them express the about dispute The difference. more learn a probably of much make not will incompatibility this cases many skeptic. half the if as not is it But not. will Some treatment. scientific natural old good to responsive be really inheri and recent more the or behaviorist, the of optimism older the justifying some, psychological; as Köhler questions some as of localization start, we fields, other many in As ideology. skepti the which sciences natural the after psychology application, thatforces those concepts use. into an such i it if matter will it here constitute since example, unstable become concepts psychological regular the where areas The consequence. plausible of is ideology of criticism where areas those on focuses only one if that Declarations cases. many al not should seriously taken are commitments philosophical in happens still this that assume to safe is It psychology. The direction we follow from this point on, then, is roughly this: the commitment to fashion fashion to commitment the this: roughly is then, on, point this from follow we direction The - s of s The fragments The truth of the hardnosed natural psychologist is the missing half for the half the for half missing the is psychologist natural hardnosed the of truth

the possibility of an of possibility the either –

.. h wa pit wee h icmaiiiy ras h ice the breaks incompatibility the where points weak the i.e.

that they do not. This marginal territory matters not because it has general has it because not mattersterritory marginal This not. theydo that

and more and probably do not belong together belong not do probably status but precisely

of the findings, their repercussions, or the best vocabulary to to vocabulary best the or repercussions, their findings, the of

about

not un translatable language, translatable o edr the render to thoughts s solely ideology, as opposed to legitimate standards of standards legitimate to opposed as solelyideology, s because it it because ted one of cognitivists like Marr and Carey, will will Carey, and Marr like cognitivists of one ted 68

and feel and

is not is not geography ings –

rsss will resists c but they are of value nonetheless. In In nonetheless. value of are they but of at all , about motivations and dec and motivations about , ways be taken seriously. It is best is It seriously. taken beways

suggested there being mind and rationality and mind being there obvious thatobvious it ferent when it is not so clear clear so not is it when ferent as resulting in the familiar familiar the in resulting wt a pre a with , not If we are to look at at look to are we If P

sychologists will will sychologists always count as as count always has. –

- is likely to to likely is truth of the the of truth

- theoretic isions. isions. CEU eTD Collection studie renderingfor that ofthe opinion xiii (1989: thought commonly than nuanced between distinction Dilthey‘s humansciences‖ and the natural both inherent to withit are circularityassociated translating 47 enterprise,recognizing uneasy the different rather a for term the recruits Dilthey that context this in is It sciences‘. ‗moral Mill‘s Mill‘s when 1849, early the in hist the by introduced been Ithad history. ironic somewhat a has of concept The sciences. argum in 3 p. 1989a, finished Geisteswissenschaften die Mill. project, ampler an of volume first the be to to intended was what Diltheypublished way, one than more in traced, be can tradition skeptical One 1.10 therebywithout within life. human we

Makkreel and Rodi, writing the introductory study for the revised translation ofthe translation revised the for study writing introductory the Rodi, Makkreel and could

s‖ remains the best translation‖ best the remains s‖ Resistance: Dilthey Resistance: .

nee äfe des hälfte andere schlie Ich In the following we look at ways to resist their explanatory assimilation explanatory their resist to ways at look we following the In – ents for resisting the assimilation of the study of mind to the methods of the natural natural the of methods the to mind of study the of assimilation the resisting for ents Geiste

not comprehend as such, such, as comprehend not ) Di

Here we talk about talk we Here 1840s – te ws nw, fe al a ― as all, after known, was lthey

swissenschaften but its first part, followed by a series of essays, became an influential reference influential an became essays, of series a by followed part, first its but Geisteswissenschaften conceivingas purely ofthem alien. β

mc a dn paheruh ejngn ekr n wlh diese welche an, Denker derjenigen Sprachgebrauch den an mich e ( Logic Makkreel, 1975/1992, p. 36 p. 1975/1992, Makkreel,

Natur

, was translated into German. It was then used as an equivalent for for equivalent an as used then was It German. into translated was Geisteswissenschaften lbs intellectualis globus or

as ‗Human Sciences‘ by the need to stress both that ―interpretation and the and ―interpretation that stress both to need the by Sciences‘ as ‗Human -

the the

and and (

1975/1992, 35 p. 1975/1992, regions which border our language and our form o form our and language our border which regions

Introduction to Introduction Geisteswissenschaften character of the choice: thecharacter of - of xiv). In his earlier monograph d earlier In his xiv). , which Dilthey brought to the forefront of this debate, this of forefront the to brought Dilthey which ,

stepping

69 ) in English, ― inEnglish, h man the .

)

, outside als Geisteswissenschaften bezeichnen. bezeichnen. Geisteswissenschaften als the Human Sciences Human the but it beca it but

–

and explanation and understanding understanding explanation and f first of

the widely accepted expression ―human expression accepted widely the the galaxy of recognizable forms of of forms recognizable of galaxy the

me common reference only after after only reference common me edicated to Dilthey, Makkreel was Dilthey, to Makkreel edicated volumes orian Johann Gustav Droysen Gustav Johann orian ( 1989b, pp. xiii pp. 1989b, . 47 Einleitung ‖

The book was never never was book The

( Makkreel & Rodi, Rodi, & Makkreel In 1883, Wilhelm Wilhelm 1883, In

justify - Einleitung in in Einleitung xiv

or leveling or f life life f ) – , and that that and ,

is moreis from from

CEU eTD Collection mental satisfact mental meanssciencea ofby recall to nostalgically whichseeks mood sentimental and subjective a to foundation in themelegitimate seemedsacrifice to […] to approach against their reaction The sciences. natural ofthe methods me to to seemed empiricists 50 49 Logic Mill‘s Stuart of John German translation the of circulation extensive the especiallyto due understood, Geisteswissenschaften 48 relativism: and mind of study the in object and method both misconstrued which Mill, and Comte of zeal ‗civilizing‘ the avoid to way a for aiming was a as essentially but on, assault an as only not saw avant philosophical their of and sciences natural the of prestige escalating the of face the in won be to autonomy was This method. and scope of Geisteswissenschaften wa goal overall Dilthey‘s were as well as psychologysciences, social the also but humanities The science. of uniformity envisioned Mill‘s against struggle a in embedded is and Mill‘s than extension larger a has concept Dilthey‘s

dependence of the particular sciences, the fruitful power of their empirical methods, and the and methods, their empirical of fruitful power sciences, the particular ofthe dependence Translation: ― Translation: See ― Translation: .‖ .‖ ( not Makkreel, 1975/1992 1975/1992 Makkreel, ( Dilthey, 1989, p. p. 57 Dilthey,1989, Die Antworten Comte‘s und der Positivisten, St. Mill‘s und der Empiristen auf Empiristen der und Mill‘s St. Positivisten, der und Comte‘s Antworten Die ( gewohn eine Mill‘s, St. J. Logik Verbreitung der weite die durch wenigsten am nicht Bezeichnung, diese ist Einmal sehnsüchtig begehrt. zurückzurufen der für Selbständigkeit die berechtigte die welche opfern, und zu die Stimmung sentimentalischen einer Grundlegung Erfahrungsmethoden der Sicherheit ihrer mir Kraft fruchtbare schien die Einzelwissenschaften, […] Naturwissens der hiergegen Methoden Reaktion und Begriffen den umsie verstümmeln, zu Wirklichkeit geschichtliche die mir schienen Fragen diese Dilthey, 1883,p.6

sciences of nature, and, unlike in Mill‘s outline, they were not even even not were they outline, Mill‘s in unlike and, nature, of sciences

ion that has been los been has ionthat The answers given to these questions by Comte and the positivists a the and positivists Comte by questions these given to answers The halfthe of second this to refer who thinkers those follow shall I me vroee ereiug e Gmts uc de Wissenschaft die durch Gemüths des Befriedigung verlorene immer . In the first place, this designation is one that has become customary and generally generally and customary has become thatone is designation this firstInthe place, .

would enjoy a ― a enjoy would truncate and mutilate historical reality in order to assimilate it to the concepts and and the concepts to assimilate to it order realityin mutilatehistorical truncateand ) -

chapter 1 chapter ) 48 s to arrive at a principled framework within which the the which within framework principled a at arrive to s

t forever.‖ t forever.‖ )

for

extensivebackground. ( relative Dilthey, 1989, pp. 49 pp. 1989, Dilthey,

( 1883, p.xvi 70 e n aleen verständliche allgemein und te

independence‖

‗human sciences‘, for Dilthey, were the the were Dilthey, for sciences‘, ‗human culture, without swerving into unanchored unanchored into swerving without culture, disfiguration - garde. Dilthey was Dilthey garde.

) 50 - 50

)

esthetics ( hfe azpse. Die anzupassen. chaften Dilthey, 1989, p. 69 p. 1989, Dilthey,

of a viable field of study. He He study. of field viable a of globus intellectualis globus nd by J. S. Mill and the Mill and S. J. bynd . 49

Fundamentally, they reacting to what he he what to reacting

certainty of their oftheir certainty like geworden

the former. former. the

byterm the ) System of of System

in terms in .

CEU eTD Collection position. 52 analyses between important differences 51 pressing the with away do to manage it does neither but such, as sciences natural threaten not p or teleology notably experience, from elements certain abstracting sciences natural the of success The eye. seeing the fo Erfahrungswissenschaft― point starting the in given is what of reality and primacy the is Dilthey in constant relative the of project the from fluctuates perspective his if Even move. one in answered be cannot and misleading somewhat is question The biology? and chemistry with than esthetics and history gowith rather psychology should that anyonethink would why paraphrase toBut,status. its difference for no made sciences moralplacedunder psychology wasfactthat psychology of advantage taking if for matter studies human which, the about debate a issue should Why derisory. seem anmight retrospection, with starting by elements these explore us Let view ofthe margins of of intersection problematic the to related points constructive the of few A discussion. our of context the in more matter view his direction the in him led they eventually but latter, the with hesitant more was He elements. constructive and critical both of consisted point, each at ( mutilation ( assimilation the resist to attempt Dilthey‘s

Translation: ―All science is experiential‖ is experiential‖ science ―All Translation: i This s not intended as a piece ofschol Dilthey piece as a snot intended

( Makkreel ? This was n was This ? James verstümmeln , 1975/1992 , ‘s sensible man sensible ‘s

psychology recommended hererecommendedapsychology sense, as, Diltheyan. in ot a problem for Mill, since he argued for the unity of science, so the the so science, of unity the for argued he since Mill, for problem a ot =to mutilate, to maim) of the human studies developed in stages and, and, stages in developed studies human the of maim) to mutilate, =to ( Erfahrung , Dilthey, 1883, p. xvi p. 1883, Dilthey, r 2012

all ; Makkreel & Rodi, 1989a Makkreel &Rodi,

, if it came to a choice, as it seemingly does with Dilth with does seemingly it as choice, a to came it if ,

Natur and and ( cetfc enterprises scientific Dilthey, 1989, p. 50 1989, Dilthey, Erleben

arship so I am simplifying. See am simplifying. I so arship and . What follows is significan . followsis What Geist 71

) anpassen

– will also help, in that they will reveal the the reveal will they that in help, also will

and there is no going behind, as it were, it as behind, going no is there and ) ) .

. Note the displaced echo in echo Note the. displaced

of hermeneutics. The critical aspects of of aspects critical The hermeneutics. of has

t lvl t acco to level, to =

Einl not –

eitung been Makkreel‘s studies for the for studies Makkreel‘s ― tl Alle Wissenschaft ist ist Wissenschaft Alle yi

urposiveness. This does does This urposiveness.

ae on based n to his later writings, a a writings, later his to debted to Makkreel‘s to debted experience Köhler ofthis Köhler mmodate) and and mmodate)

that . 51 , but on on but ,

This is This ey, ey, CEU eTD Collection ( attempt hypothetical, being by which science, an explanative from mustdistinguished and be […] science descriptive it isa humansciences, the system of isthe [It] […] assumptions. meanscertain worldof by cultural human, whole the derive to strives which psychology, fromexplanative itself must distinguish It clearly facts. among uniformities and facts establishes that discipline ― Translation: setin blackletter. 54 53 as pictured is psychology and Makkreel available. investigation of means only the is approach hypothetical the where areas grey patching of n does Dilthey is. there psychology only the is psychology descriptive saythat however to not is This giv it but studies, human the of part a psychology is only not So psychology. Geisteswissenschaften de but synthesis, typical (in life conscious of fact causality of somet not is connectedness or totality This of reality Dilthey, 1989, 84 p. 1989, Dilthey,

Whenever possible, I quote from this edition of the ofthe edition from this quote I Wheneverpossible, qualifie Dilthey ing aning empirical

first and most fundamental of the particular human sciences. […] Because of psychology‘s place in the in place ofpsychology‘s Because […] sciences. human ofthe particular most fundamental first and ot reject completely explanative completely reject ot au nc hpteic, ifce Ann Lebens unterwerfen zu unternimmt. einfachen hypothetisch, nach Natur unt sich […] da Geisteswissenschaften, der Zusammenhang im Stellung ihrer aus sich ergibt aber selber Psychologie die Für […] Geistes; des u elementarste und erste die demnach ist [S]ie […] unterscheidet. reinlich sich von will, machen ableitbar Annahmen gewisse durch Lebens geistigen des Zusammenhang ganzen den welche Psychologie, erklärende Gleic und hält, Wissenschaft Tatsachen deskriptiven welche einer Grenzen den in sich sie indem lösen, nur Psychologie die kann Wissenschaft grundlegenden solchen einer Aufgaben Die purposiveness Psychology can be a foundational human science only if it stays within the withinthe only it stays if science human foundational a be can Psychology ,

or speculative/hypothetical generalization. It is already given as such as a basic basic a as such as given already is It generalization. speculative/hypothetical or

s the idea ofp sthe idea )

cito ad nlss f xeine I i a ti lvl ht the that level this at is It experience. of analysis and scription –

rcedn mu erscheiden not empiricist not empiricist

receive their foundation, and this task is to be handled by a descriptive descriptive a by handled be to is task this and foundation, their receive 53

as given in the nexus nexus the in given as urposiveness as ―indestructible‖. as urposiveness dependent Rodi

, (

99, . 15 p. 1989a, aue ua big) ad ht ed t b dn i not is done be to needs what and beings), human mature β –

hförmigkeiten an Tatsachen feststellt, dagegen die die dagegen feststellt, Tatsachen an hförmigkeiten

on the foundational descriptive enterprise. Later, notably Later,notably enterprise. descriptive foundational the on s to derive the facts of huma facts of the derive sto and account descriptive experience. of o dr rlrne Wseshf, welch Wissenschaft, erklärenden der von

psychology, but, at but, psychology, hing

( Dilthey, pp.32 1883/1990, Einleitung 72

arrived at arrived

– )

Zusammenhang ru ta i the in that argue e mn i Ttahn e geistigen des Tatsachen die hmen

(which is google (whichis β

i as descr als sie

by amassing of evidence, discovery discovery evidence, of amassing by nter den Einzelwissenschaften den nter least at times, relegates it to a role role a to it relegates times, at least n life from simple assumptions.‖ assumptions.‖ fromsimple n life

– -

book or totality of psychic life. psychic of totality or pie Wissenschaft iptive Einleitung - 33 ed), since the original is original since the ed), limits of a descriptive descriptive ofa limits ) 54 grounds

e, ihrer ihrer e, explanative

them by them

CEU eTD Collection conception of nature was a failure.‖ failure.‖ was a ofnature conception no tenable a formulate attempt to everyBut gaineddominance. whenthey philosophy corpuscular and ofnature conception 55 their sharpness: of project The jargons. of numbera to adapteditself has andshapes many takenby has now recurrenttendencywhich is which being as it diagnoses Dilthey misplaced. is effort of This inside. the from psychology erodes that conjunction particular this only not is it But post science natural a as itself assimilate to attempts all underlies metaphysics bad that thinks Dilthey sciences, natural the of realm the to psychology science. tha role secondary this in is It localized. more much and secondary is application its but eliminated, be to not is branch explanatory a plays Psychology alreadyreasonablyclear. in

Translation: ―The metaphysics of the spirit (rational psychology) was then connected to the mechanistic the to connected was then psychology) (rational spirit ofthe metaphysics ―The Translation: the - Cartesian intellectualworld: Ideen au en hlbr Vrtlug e Vrätiss o Git n Körper und die Geist von Verhältnisses und des Vorstellung auszubilden. haltbare eine Naturzusammenhangs Natur Substan auf Grundedieser dem des scheiterte, Versuch jeder Aber gesetzt. Beziehung in derselben zu Metaphysikern hervorragenden anderen von gelangten, Auffassung Herrschaft zur Korpuskularphilosophie mechanische Diese ae e Wseshfe bdnt a, i wr itr n glse hbn und haben, gelassen uns hinter wir die war, bedingt Wissenschaften der Lage da versucht, wird Beweis Der tion of the mind the tionof a correct a f ot ad il huh ta bd eahsc bok te siiain of assimilation the blocks metaphysics bad that thought Mill and Comte If

(see below) (see

eahsk e Gits rtoae scooi) wur Psychologie) (rationale Geistes des Metaphysik

but overoptimistic but

double (

Dilthey, p.7 1883/1990, - body relation on the basis of this theory of substances and by means of this new meansofbythis and theoryof substances ofbasisthis the on relation body

the the

their divorce would divorce their

– psychology. The single The psychology.

Einleitung role, of which the descriptive one is fundamental. Its hypothetical Its fundamental. is one descriptive the which of role, and nothing else else nothing and

( Dilthey, 1989, pp. 59 pp. 1989, Dilthey,

verdict is not by accident presented in words that have not lost lost not have that words in presented accident by not is

zenlehre mit den Mitteln derMitteln Auffassung neuen der zenlehre den mit eine allgemein anerkannte Metaphysik durch eine eine durch Metaphysik anerkannte allgemein eine t psychology seems to seems psychology t

become sharper. This may be so, but things seem things but so, be may This sharper. become – in that it misses the fact that one is faced with a with faced is one that fact the misses it that in ) 73

55 in the 19 the in

- 60 - minded struggle of psychology to establish to psychology of struggle minded )

symptomatic th

century was century touch on the realm of natural natural of realm the on touch of

a certain cultural context, cultural certain a

very much a trait of the of trait a much very e an as die als dann, de kind -

CEU eTD Collection is primary here, the distinction among its members only comes afterwards.‖ afterwards.‖ only comes members amongits the distinction here, isprimary who experienced The given. wholealso are a life into psychic membersof individual [ experience datum. fundamental and primitive a originally 57 past.‖ ofthe thing a is sciences human th sciences ofthe bystate a 56 two continents, the on describes three,not Droysen studies, methodinhistorical about already Writing Droysen. met, 2007 Wright, to back trace some which tradition a within writing crucial remain) between that with 143 p. 1894/1990, parallel in works Geisteswissenschaften which understanding, and explanation between distinction role by played the centralaccent the of A prominentis change whole, andLet those ofthe naturalsciences. ona nuances. few usfocus the between analogy the me rejects he and constructs, by hypothetical primarily testing works and that introducing psychology a resists he aura, metaphysical its and psychology s time same the at introducing mentioned already have we themes central the on built 1894, in published Psychologie zergliedernde ps of view his place the after decade a About unfinished. remained project a such that perhaps, accident, by not also is It

Here is the larger context: ―In the human studies, to the contrary, the nexus of psychic life constitutes life ofpsychic nexus the the contrary, to studies, the human ―In iscontext: the larger Here wasconditioned metaphysics recognized universally a for search theshow that will attemptto ―I Translation: thods of psychology, seen as fundamentally descriptive and starting from an experienced an from starting and descriptive fundamentally as seen psychology, of thods vorüber ist. Z die sonach Einleitung innere Erfahrung innere m iprat une. s n the in As nuances. important ome ) . A more relevant character of this tradition is however a historian we have have we historian a however is tradition this of character relevant more A . for the methodology of human studies. Already in the in Already studies. human of methodology the for )

57 ( hwvr Dlhy ol pbih nte iprat ok hc would which work important another publish would Dilthey however, , Dilthey, 1883/1990, p.xix Dilthey, 1883/1990, eit der metaphysischen Begründung der Geisteswissenschaften ganz ganz Geisteswissenschaften der Begründung metaphysischen der eit

cooy n cerr framework. clearer a in ychology The distinction is not new, but here it becomes (and from here on will on here from (and becomes it here but new, not is distinction The : globus intellectualglobus at we have left behind us, and consequently that any metaphysical grounding ofthe grounding metaphysical any that consequently and us, have behind weleft at ― ] the processes of one thing acting on another, and the connections of functions or functionsor of the and connections another, on acting thing ofone] the processes i Ntr rlrn i, a Seelbn esee wir. verstehen Seelenleben das wir, erklären Natur Die

(‗Ideas Concerning a Descriptive and Analytic Psychology‘), Psychology‘), Analytic and Descriptive a Concerning (‗Ideas

( Dilthey, 1989, pp. 51 pp. 1989, Dilthey,

We explain nature, we understand psychic life. For in inner For life. psychic we understand nature, explain We is :

74 )

Einleitung

- 52 Vico‘s )

Ideen über eine beschreibende und und beschreibende eine über Ideen

, Dilthey is critical of explanatory explanatory of critical is Dilthey , verum factum verum ( Dilthey, 1977, pp. 27 pp. 1977, Dilthey, le [ le Einleitung

erlebte Zusammenhang erlebte ( Hacker, 2001b Hacker, Natur

- Dilthey was was Dilthey 28 ‖ )

( Dilthey, Dilthey, -

; von von and and ] CEU eTD Collection underscores the vast historic vast the underscores ― Translation: g be schärfer noch Psychologie konstruktiven der Namen 59 reflections. color it from its reconstructs light,eternal ofthe brightness the withstand to unable humaneye, thewhich prismby ofa sides but the three end, one to pathsleading not three are These ethics. and physics, logic, sciences: ofthe catalog traditional in the is reflected This understand. to explain,and Their the historical. and the physical, theological), or (philosophical thespeculative 58 case is, might what to as view clear no is there that is air, thin in gears, displaced as rotating, hypotheses of proliferation the of consequence dramatic immed the be to takes he what with contact make to fail constructs hypothetical how pinpointing to comes it when especially Di of relief the in is nuance important Another the human studies. the to foundational its play it immune can hypothetical, merely the in inherent insecurities territory, familiar this in remains psychology when Only understanding. subjective 35 p. 1977, sy our illuminate to seen be used to not are concepts existence psychological the that situated so are We psychology. between division the which in i alreadyideas of use makingDilthey was rossen historischen Zusammenhang historischen rossen

Which he also calls ―constructive‖ ―constructive‖ calls Whichhe also Myt tm f connections of stem ranslation:

vermöchte, im Farbenwiederscheinwi ahnen ertragen zu nicht es Glanz dessen Licht, ewige das Auge menschliche das wenn Ethik; zu erkennen, zu versteh ist: zu erklären, Wesen Ihr historische. die physikalische, theologisch) die spekulative, oder (philosophisch die Methoden: wissenschaftlichen möglichen drei die sind Denkens menschlichen des Natur der nach und Objekten den Nach revealingly, metaphysics: ,

It would thus be more exact to designate it by the term ‗constructive psychology‘. This term This psychology‘. ‗constructive term the it by designate to moreexact would thus be It ) but acquired by humans as social and cultural beings, which underlies underlies which beings, cultural and social as humans by acquired but .

—

t s hs oaiain ti fmlaiy hc i nihr ipy empat simply neither is which familiarity this localization, this is It ― According to the objects and nature of human thought, there can be three scientific methods: methods: scientific three be can there nature and ofthought, human the objects to According

nicht drei Wege zu einem Ziel, sondern die drei Seiten eines Prisma, Prisma, eines Seiten drei die sondern Ziel, einem zu Wege drei nicht

al context to which it belongs.‖ whichit belongs.‖ context to al –

hc i ― is which en. Daher der alte Kanon der Wissenschaften: Logik, Physik, Logik, Wissenschaften: der Kanon alte der Daher en. as theoretical posits but as inherently geared onto a nexus nexus a onto geared inherently as but posits theoretical as

, in welchem sie steht, herausgeben siesteht, welchem in , to emphasize that it is a it is that emphasize to iate psychological reality of a coherent and lived whole. The whole. lived and coherent a of reality psychological iate

erklären oceey ie‖ ( lived‖ concretely n place, surely, but this needs to be seen in a context context a in seenbe to needs this surely,but place, n

and 75 zeichnet werden. Zugleich würde dieser Name den dieser würde werden.Zugleich zeichnet

lthey‘s criticism of explanative of criticism lthey‘s

verstehen ( Dilthey, 1977, 24 p. 1977, Dilthey, tradition decide ll.

( Droysen, 1882,p.11 erlebt

among them. among thatisc

.‖ .‖ becomes especially relevant for for relevant especially becomes ( Dilthey, 1894/1990, pp. 139 pp. 1894/1990, Dilthey, )

( riticized: ― riticized: ite, 8419, . 152 p. 1894/1990, Dilthey, )

essence is: to discern, to to discern, is: to essence ‖

The only comparable comparable only The Sie würde mitwürde dem Sie role for the rest of of rest the for role ) 58

psychology - hetic or or hetic 140 also also )

– ,

59 a ;

CEU eTD Collection 61 ofaffairs.‖ states psychical whic with mazehypotheses of a into by ofspell kind a transported ourselves find we therefore knowledge, causal complete establish weto seek willWhen occur. it when whe say canthus one No indomain. this ofcauses knowledge sure and exact preventsan reaching world corporeal with the spiritual ofthe relations the concerning problem metaphysical the irresolvabilityof [T]he […] better not seemany ofphysic whensituation the time ofthe thinking by itself consoles psychology explanatory sure, be To struggle. ofthe theissue which candecide faras that isconcerned, so nothing, absolutely Onesees 60 observe to free thus is One scientist. natural the of perspective the taking by intersection between border touches it enterprise, descriptive a as role founding its of limit the at because situation peculiar a in is Psychology sees he if even system, nervous the of activity the fac obvious denyingafter not is Dilthey and natureby the in anticipated alsoone is context, this in most which matters one aspect,and the A finalprobably fog hyp of i horizon; a is missing is What English c the in tamed somewhat and here, cur the not is missing is What translation. striking is vocabulary of choice very The ould

Imperium in imperio in Imperium Translation count as count Einleitung s Hypothe Aussicht in nicht gar von Tatsachen psychischen den an Erprobung ihrer Nebel Möglichkeit einen Kausalerkenntnis in volle eine wollen, wir wenn herstellen wir, sind So mag. geschehen das wann und wird endigen Psychologie erklärenden der in Hypothesen der Kampf vom dieser Problems metaphysischen Kausalerk sicheren des einer Durchführung reinliche die Unlösbarkeit körperlichen zur Welt geistigen die der Verhältnis hindert Zudem […] Lage schien; nichtbesser auch Zeit, Physik der der Chemie mit die und inwelcher tröstet Zwar möchte. haben Kraft die entscheiden zu Kampf diesen was sichtbar, etwas Horizonte fernsten am nirgends ist Noch Metaphysik. der Felde dem auf als heftig minder nicht Gebiete ihrem auf tobt alle gegen aller Kampf Ein t eht. otheses. : ―The general struggles which go on there are no no are thereongo which struggles general : ―The

( Dilthey, p.142 1894/1990,

the issue being settled. The metaphors are visual ( visual are metaphors The settled. being issue the . The study of human life takes place in the context of its being conditioned conditioned being its of context the in place takes life human of study The . ther this struggle of hypotheses will ever come to an end in explanatory psychology, not psychology, in explanatory come an end to will ever ofhypotheses struggle this ther Geist

( Dilthey, 1989, p. 58 1989, Dilthey,

o (

Dilthey, 1977, 26 p. 1977, Dilthey, n and the territory of the natural sciences. Things are not settled at the the at settled not are Things sciences. natural the of territory the enntnis auf diesem Gebiete. So kann niemand sagen, ob jemals ob sagen, niemand kann So Gebiete. diesem auf enntnis Natur

t has been lost lost been has t , but the two obviously intersect. One can study the the study can One intersect. obviously two the but , )

)

) rent solvability of an i an of solvability rent 60

– 76

Wittgenstein

human beings as a realm within a realm a within realm a as beings human less violent than those in the metaphysical field. field. metaphysical the in those less than violent ts, like the dependency of mental life on life mental dependencyof the like ts, h one can in no sense hope to confront to hope sense no hcanin one e gbnt fr ece die welche für gebannt, sen avant la lettre la avant ssue, but a conception of what what of conception a but ssue, Horizont

s and chemistry did did chemistry s and , – Nebel

in a hypnotizing a in sie sich sie , Aussicht . 61 ). ).

CEU eTD Collection from the original, which refers merely‗borderland‘. a to whichrefers original, from the furtherexpansion for push ‗fron usethatof the Note inofthis the as usef be to ofhypotheses, formation thefor shown, been 65 64 minds other influencing pass the byforms influenced or it iseither where mind and the of development influencesthe 63 mental ones.‖ to changes inner, fromto physical inscientifi a results This the on body. spirit human ofthe thedependence of picture comprehensive a into standpoint this extend can growthpathology and ofhuman system.Observation externalinterference to subject withinspiritual life then I changes see time; within and space ordered facts psychic perceive me, and conte The 62 almost exactfo the in clearer are Things does includethat perspective have not does Naturzusammenhang ―intermingle‖ disciplines so ( two mentions Dilthey later, pages few clearly stands otherwise which perspective a invite conditi is mental the how clarifying Zustände krankhaften der und Lebensentwicklung context this in is It psychological. influence 8319, . 18 p. 1883/1990,

Translation: ― Translation: ― Translation: world human that ofthe and nature ofstudy the between transition of ―Atpoint both Translation: quantitative Bestimmung sich der Hypothesenbildung in ähnlicher Weise Weise ähnlicher ist. Fall in der Naturerkennen im Hypothesenbildung dieses als der erwiesen, dienstbar sich und Experiment Bestimmung haben Seelenlebens quantitative des und Natur der Grenzgebiet dem Auf 145 bemerken. zu hiervon nichts ist Psychologie der Gebieten xt is the following: ― following: xt isthe s or conduct experiments that establish the impact of, say, physical conditions on the the on conditions physical say, of, impact the establish that experiments conduct or s

central regions of psychology.‖ psychology.‖ of regions central ) 65 ―[o]bservation of human growth and pathology‖ and growth human of ―[o]bservation At the frontiers of nature and of mental life, experimentation and quantitative determination have have determination quantitative and life,mental experimentation of and ofnature frontiers theAt mind‖ the of the development influences nature

rmulation of thedriving present ofthe idea study: developme a in read be to –

; natural or or natural – 99 p 70 p. 1989, tiers‘ in the translation may misleadingly suggest that this is an area where can one area isthis an that suggest misleadingly may in the translation tiers‘

both sorts of knowledge always intermingle.‖ intermingle.‖ always knowledge of sorts both auf die Entwicklung des Geistigen einwirkt Geistigen des Entwicklung die auf –

a doctrine of scientific ‗manifest destiny‘. This suggestion of progress is absent is absent progress of suggestion destiny‘.This ‗manifest ofscientific doctrine a On the other hand, I can start from the world of physical nature, as I see it before it before see as I nature, of physical world can fromstart the I hand, other Onthe Ideen

experimental ( . vermischen

, though this is this though , )

ewe hmn tde an studies human between that Dilthey remarks that the that remarks Dilthey that nd y h physical. the by oned ( Dilthey, 1977, p. 28 p. 1977, Dilthey, -

). ( consisting of physical changes impinging on the nervous theon nervous impinging changes of physical consisting Dilthey, 1989, p. 67 1989, Dilthey, 63 ntal key (acculturation takes a wider sense), but it it but sense), wider a takes (acculturation key ntal

One 77

not in any sense a key topic. There we find we There topic. key a sense any in not

called called

ul as in the study of nature. One can establish nothing nothing canestablish One nature. ofstudy as inthe ul

‖ f hm s h pit t which at point the is them of

(

( 8319, . 15 p. 1883/1990, outside Dilthey, 1989, p. 70 p. Dilthey,1989, ) ―transition

)

(

The c approach which proceeds from outer proceeds which approach c Dilthey, 1989, p. 70 1989, Dilthey, h el fpyhlg.Js a Just psychology. of realm the d natural sciences, where the the where sciences, natural d

- immature and the abnormal abnormal the and immature ‖ ( ― ons ( points‖ Dilthey, 1894/1990, p. 1894/1990, Dilthey,

erweitert Beobachtung der der Beobachtung erweitert ( 1883/ ) )

62 – In den zentralen zentralen den In

i.e. where nature i.e. 1990, p. 18 p. 1990, ol cnrbt to contribute could Übergangsstellen ageway for ageway )

) . 64

Thi ―

der an an s )

CEU eTD Collection 67 life ofa inner ofthe nexus this describes 66 on mark a leave century the of Husserl influenced psychology of view earlier his if history; on focus a and approach hermeneutical experience. lived on based account an of adequacy the about suspicion a play to able psychology descriptive studies human the for role foundational a of project the abandoned eventually Dilthey 1.11 is amatter of how meaning, some ofthe psychological of key concepts work. following the in clearer i It specialization. of case a or dispute institutional of kind a higher, or lower been have could which price a as seen be to not is This of sovereignty at the margins. psycholo non margins the declaring thereby without studies human the for foundation descriptive a as acts psychology where areas the intact leaves This does. it where falters it and nexus, the with – is life mental mature of nexus the when only is It

The danger that Dilthey saw in his earlier work waswork subject earlier his in saw thatdanger Dilthey The ― Translation: the examination which starts from pieces which fail to cohere cohere to fail which pieces from starts which examination the

Resistance: Collingw Resistance: i [i bshebne Pyhlge ht die 1894/1990, p.152 hat Lebens inneren Psychologie] des Zusammenhang beschreibender des Zusammenhange [die Sie

( gical. The independence of the ―centthe independenceof Thegical. Biemel, 1968, pp. xvi pp. 1968, Biemel, This psychology has for its object what one itsfor object has psychology This Logical Investigations Logical

aae‘ writings. Gadamer‘s –

that the reference to the usual mental life of typical of life mental usual the to reference the that -

emphasis added entwickelten ood

- xvii

typical ) , at this point he was himself influenced by Husserl‘s turn Husserl‘s by influenced himself was he point this at , , and his theory of unde of theory his and , s already clear enough in Dilthey in enough clear already s

man.‖ –

Seelenlebens zum Gegenstand. Sie stellt diesen stellt Sie Gegenstand. zum Seelenlebens social sciences here included here sciences social )

66 in einem in Dilthey‘s defense of the autonomy of the the of autonomy the of defense Dilthey‘s ral regions‖ ral ( 78

Dilthey, 1977, p. 35 p. 35 1977, Dilthey,

regularly not ivism.

in place that ―constructive‖ that place in typischen

of psychology comes with a dilution dilution a with comes psychology of finds in the nexus of nexus finds the in rstanding history would further further would history rstanding -

Menschen dar. Menschen emphasis added emphasis – Regelmä

gain 67 s grip. s –

– He

because of growing growing of because β and it will become will it and adult igkeiten

was led toward a toward led was

, )

Verstehen mature person mature

psychic life. It It psychic life. ( Dilthey,

psychology psychology

goes s -

CEU eTD Collection eiiae ubn o is cets pretensions. scientist its of curbing legitimate a as or enterprise, autonomous an as conceived studies human the of architecture the in place belon not its of sign a as either taken be can this latter, the sees one how on Depending psychology. of position the fragile more the history, on emphasis the marked more relevance its of erosion an meant always has historicity and history to turn the studies, human the of forum the in sat uncomfortably and ambiguously already psychology, For myth. and language on historical part, in least at as, nature human of representation history,a human a with animals only the of as beings notion the with fascination a been have to seems here work at force deeper the others of interpretation which in one was developed tradition this which in context cultural the that only not is It anchor. initial this to returned often has it that and knowledge, historical of status and nature the on reflection from emerged consolidate helped Dilthey tradition the that accident no perhaps is It 106 ( proper‖ of object which in Jaspers, reach, would extensions gho positivistic by haunted been had too sociology all, After study. of kind this for characteristic considered he which aspects methodological the developing by this to scientif social in traditions important the of one in Geisteswissenschaften - 107 ) echte Wahnidee echte .

psychiat –

continuously rebuilt on th on rebuilt continuously and territorial claims. There is an inherent tension here. As in Dilthey‘s case, the the case, Dilthey‘s in As here. tension inherent an is There claims. territorial and te iis of limits the , ry ‖ (

acted as one important part of a larger confluence which would solidify solidify would which confluencelarger a of part important one as acted Woods, 2011 Woods, )

via in Jasper in sts, starting with the classical works of works classical the with starting sts,

Weberian methodology, the monumental monumental the methodology, Weberian –

and especially of especially and eseed Psychologie verstehende s ian terminology ian ) , sch , e treasured remains of its past, on culture and traditions, traditions, and culture on past, its of remains treasured e izophrenic psychosis izophrenic 79

ete is Neither

past ic research. Max Weber notably contributed contributed notably Weber Max research. ic of the notion of understanding ( understanding of notion the of

( Jaspers, 1913/1973, pp. 89 pp. 1913/1973, Jaspers,

or differ or

strictly ol crusrb ― circumscribe would ent others ent –

or more precisely ― precisely more or speaking true, and, as was was as and, true, speaking Comte or Comte – Psychopathology

became important; important; became

ging in the first first the in ging Durkheim - 90 the sublime sublime the Verstehen ; 1997, pp. pp. 1997, delusion . T .

he he of of ) ,

CEU eTD Collection aesthetics, by a science covering the same ground same the covering science a by aesthetics, economics and kindred their and ethics, and logic wasreplace then, to proposal, The nature.[…] ofhuman 69 whichcompleted. never was and begunthe 1930s in project as time our (1999) 68 ― a of part as po occurred of impact damaging The mind. the with associated paradigmatically concepts T are. action could which promise a not was this principle, of matter a As sciences. natural the after modeled been have aesthetics or disciplines traditional in The formulated terms. is unambiguous diagnosis Collingwood‘s generally. studies human the to and history of study the to applied as naturalism positivistic of rejection vehement a with, begin to is, There apparentlysteps which tothis ledCollingwood s was which feelings sensations, ―ori its to returned be to Psycho history. was mind of science true the that claimed Collinwood posthumously, published were and death, untimely an of because unfinished left been have part, most the for jus power of balance the about decision radical ( W psychology‘s one tobecome drive unitary thing should onefork a not is alreadythis suggested, olnwo, 92 p 171 p. 1992, Collingwood,

― as werepublished Selections iig fw eae atr h wr o te ― the of work the after decades few a riting The new science of human nature was therefore envisa was therefore nature human of newscience The –

or can or the e issue he

subject matter of historical research. Let us explore a few of the fundamental the of few a explore us Let research. historical of matter subject – The Principles of History Principles of The

be kept, because it because kept, be and the like the and

usurped

however ih fo fight The Idea History of Idea The ginal‖ )

69 ,

Robin George Collingwood offers a striking example of a a of example striking a offers Collingwood George Robin

( r y ht rmsd o e sinii suy f ua nature human of study scientific a be to promised what by

Collingwood, 1999, p. 82. 84 82. p. 1999, Collingwood, was not simply the misunderstanding and misuse of the the of misuse and misunderstanding the simply not was (pre intellectual . Fragments from both volumes were intended as part of a unitarya of as part wereintended fromvolumes both Fragments .

resulted from confusion about what about confusion from resulted - eighteen century) position of dealing with instincts, instincts, with dealing of position century) eighteen but using naturalistic methods.‖ methods.‖ naturalistic using but

in the mid in the 80 dominance‖

break, since it makes little sense to succumb to succumb to sense little makes it break,since , t mentioned. In a number of number a In mentioned. t

ged as a science of human thought, or the rational part part the rational or thought, human scienceof as a ged urprising conclusion. urprising to choose roads once and for chooseand all. roadsto once

- 1940s (Collingw 1940s

sciences of man like logic, ethics, and and ethics, logic, like man of sciences oey n ngetd genius neglected and lonely ( olnwo, 99 p 80 p. 1999, Collingwood, ) ; not with thought with not ; ood died in 1943), and closer to to closer and in 1943), died ood ( Collingwood, 1999, p. 82 1999, Collingwood,

mind, thought, and and thought, mind, writings

, in any case, case, any in ,

68 logy was was logy Dilthey‖ sitivism sitivism

which, ) Th . )

CEU eTD Collection anot 72 71 century. 18th the ofpsychologyafter nothi 70 is there sense, a in where, context a in science natural of against pr been has there th fact the by shown is has it That all. at place no has it that mean not does itself misplaces aspect second the is this ―wholly wrong lines‖ onthe formulati these in threads overlapping two are there that Note And inthe ratherIn for thisstate explanation ofaffairs. different an essay da by used defense a shortly, see science‘ will we as advance, will He discipline. their of ‗young state the justify to psychologists usual the rejects also Collingwood positivism, With explicitly thereaderwill but context, follow inthis the in folly of and science, misguided metamorphosis

This is reminiscent of is reminiscent This Kant. or Locke,Hume, likes of The Rathertha her by her

o i a pee hc i cno efciey cuy te bltl te ok t has it work the belittle they occupy, effectively cannot it which sphere a it for its those which in still for is psychology that saying results by themselves excuse they practicalhoped, students early the now and here produce to men same these ask we if But infancy. its in still was psychology scientific: sufficiently not was t thesescience ofthe sayrepresentativespsychology,that would of [T]he altogether is time present the it. at making from away further and further is leading is and conception, such any of independent psychology which t I progress is, thing One lines. wrong the on wholly not is it nature, the infancy; its in yet human of conception is traditional the science support to attempting the in whether, that is question plea the on time, for ask to vain is It done anddoing field. is proper inits its self its ‖

( ( n, say, emergence or rise of rise or emergence n,say, infancy. Here I think they wrong themselves and their own science. Claiming science. own their and themselves wrong they think I Here infancy. Wittgenstein, 1953/2009 II 1953/2009 Wittgenstein, Collingwood, 1935/1999,p.196 Idea ofHistory - 70 conception.

ogress ogress of

Wittgenstein‘s more famous dictum that in psychology ― in psychology that dictum famous more Wittgenstein‘s

scooy no pttv suy f huh ws oh smtm of symptom a both was thought of study putative a into psychology –

–

that: 72 n hs aes t a ― can it areas those in

, progress is not denied. The fact that psychology systematically systematically psychology that fact The denied. not is progress

that it aims for something it is not equipped to achieve; aims forequippedthat it isnot to somethingit but The reason psychology fails is that it tries to apply the methods the apply to tries it that is fails psychology reason The

psychology. psychology. -

§371 ) politics .

)

( Collingwood took note of what he saw as the whatas the hesaw ofnote took Collingwood Collingwood, 1992,p.208 Collingwood, 81

of science of

effectively should

. The latter latter The . keep in min it occupy‖ ons. One is that psychology is psychology that is One ons. ted 1935, we that: areted 1935, told g o pl te t. Mind to. them apply to ng problem and method pass onemethod pass and problem hink, clear: that the the that clear: hink, emphasis

– ) d.

vn f hs s done is this if even

is not one we we one not is hinkers changed 71 –

role

and and

at at CEU eTD Collection of, as it were, flat events. The task of history, on the other hand, is the understanding of of understanding the is human actions, done andis by this recoveringthoughtshave the they express orexpressed hand, other the on history, of task The events. flat were, contrast it as The of, here. discussed be not wa Collingwood will however which difficulties, verbal largely a to switches he sometimes but thoughts, is action an of inside The ―inside‖ an have also actions (human) their and bodies of terms in described have only they because bifurcate mind be can which phenomena are events natural of study the and nature of study the Collingwood, to According nature ormind‘s prox fail not does psychology which the of regions peripheral are there for that is completely reason The history. of subject a but investigation, speaking strictly already to understand it. After the historian has ascertained the facts, there is no is there facts, the ascertained has historian is the After thought it. that understand discoverto already To it. in expressed thought the but event, mere the not histor For to […] through,them. within but thought at, the discern not looks, historian the which things but contemplation, for spectacles mere never phenomena, mere never are history of sp events the whereas a being of sense the in but reality, in defective being of sense the in not 'phenomenon', a merely and always […] agent. its of thought the discern to action, this into always w must event the he that remember there; by end never begin can mayit but work event, an His of conflict. outside the constitutional discovering a to relation its in only blood Rubicon the the of crossing the is in interested action is He event. an an of inside and and outside actions, the of unity but inside) no and outside an only has which one mean Ievent mere a by (where events mere investigatingnot is […] historian The

nts to draw is otherwise clear enough. clear otherwise is draw to nts n ―outside‖ an ny n t rlto t Rpbia lw ad n h siln o Caesar's of spilling the in and law, Republican to relation its in only –

u rtoa natural rational our imal environment) togt Collingwo thought. a i te aao i al is paradox the if , as an action, and that his main task is to think himself think to is task main his that and action, an as

which must be grasped if one is to make sense of them. them. of sense make to is one if grasped be must which cal peetd o i itliet observation; intelligent his to presented ectacle movements‖ which are tobestudied withscientificwhich are means. causal vocabulary. The latter introduces a series of of series a introduces latter The vocabulary. causal – explained by placing them in lawful regularities lawful in them placing by explained

82 s o a proper a not is

d oty ees o cin a ―expressing‖ as actions to refers mostly od oe, osiue b waee ― whatever by constituted lowed,

mind ( Collingwood, 1992, p. 213 p. 1992, Collingwood,

y, the object to be discovered is is discovered be to object the y, Science works from mere perception perception mere from works Science

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of natural scientific scientific natural of )

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– s

CEU eTD Collection governing their relations. These sciences have always been regarded with distaste by historians, because the withbecause historians, by distaste regarded been always have sciences These relations. their governing their to according system inclassificatory a them reassembling intelligible, historically, that is truly, whichare they alone in context from factsthe historical suchas intopseudo in twisted and thought historicalon reacted its prestige unquestioned, leftwas ofnature filed allotted own thoughtits in scientific validityof long as the anthropology, 76 fromits fre completely never it have denied who but those denied, been has principle the[positivistic] 75 k all sense, Inthis whatdone. had I mewhenrealized I whichsurprised did, then I that action reflectingan on what thought wrote, I or then what I by yearsago, reading what ten thought I discover thinking historical by isonly It another. his of inquiry the and subject person one be should historian strangera or uswrites letter, whoa friend a of thought were that 74 73 science like a or views Dilthey‘s haunts still positivism of specter the that claiming research, scientific in similar proposals of misunderstanding Collingwo to substance a be to seems what from and understanding, historical or method, historical history, of concepts the about choice a from both emerging abo also but psychology, about historical of study the with associated of notion His science. psyc descriptive Dilthey‘s to respect this in close obviously actions concomitant contemporaries or ancestors his of actions the understanding a informing thought of form the in familiar, the but extraordinary, alive dead a reconstruct which sciences paleontology, or geology like not proceeds history this, doing In nowledge of mind is historical.‖ historical.‖ mind is of nowledge

―Naturalistic‖ ―Naturalistic‖ See ― example: For notwas particula Which -

( and

Collingwood, 1935/1999, pp. 179 pp. 1935/1999, Collingwood, n it in anthropology, influence.‖ influence.‖ alreadywhy happened. it knows he When causes. their into inquiring of process further - think and so rediscover the thought of Hammurabi or Solon, it is in the same way that we discover the wewaydiscover that it isin Solon, the same or Hammurabi the of thought rediscover so and think - buried past. History faces a past which continue to impact the present the impact to continue which past a faces History past. buried

to be precise. See also See precise. be to anthropology ( olnwo, 92 p 225 p. 1992, Collingwood, ( But historical But Collingwood, 1992, p. 155 p. 155 1992, Collingwood, ( Collingwood, 1992, p. 175 1992, Collingwood,

Völkerpsychologie

– rly stable rly

history od‘s. For example, he tends to be critical of both of critical be to tends he example, For od‘s. is

. knowledge is not concerned only with a remote past. If it is by historical thinking historical byIf it is past. withremote onlya not concerned is knowledge 76 re

(

Collingwood, 1992, p. 219 1992, Collingwood, - , see ,

73 enacting

( Collingwood, 1992, p. 224 1992, Collingwood, is t h sca sine sol b se. t s skepticism a is It seen. be should sciences social the ut ( - , comparative philology, etc., whose general principle lies in extracting liesin extracting principle general whose etc., comparative , philology, , to say the least, generous, covering areas not traditionally not areas covering generous, least, the say to , Dray & van der Dussen,1999 &Drayder van 180

likeness and unlikeness, and attempting to lay down general laws generallaws down lay attempting to and unlikeness, and likeness - )

remarkFrazer on ― suchclaims: consider ; or events

) or rethinking the relevant thoughts. Collingwood is is Collingwood thoughts. relevant the rethinking or (

Collingwood, 1992, pp.213 Collingwood, 1992, ) . The historian, if successful, uncovers not the the not uncovers successful, if historian, The . . who crosses the street. Nor is it necessary that the the that is itnecessary Nor street. thecrosses who 83 - 74 scientific forms. Thus arose a number of hybrid sciences ofsciences hybrid number a arose Thus forms. scientific

It is in this light that his skepticism not only not skepticism his that light this in is It )

)

) or ― or , and and , ph similar claims in the the similarin claims ysical‖ ) .

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- 2 r vn i on non own his even or ctions. His method for for method His ctions. 14 five minutesby ago, five ) Dilthey

Idea Verstehen ed their mindstheir ed , e.g.: , 75 –

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deeds

Collingwood‘s favor Collingwood‘s

179 - image as a as image

- ( enactment. olnwo, 99 p 40 pp. 1999, Collingwood, ollingwood suggests, is one of discernment. History‘s domain is is domain History‘s discernment. of one is suggests, ollingwood in interest an have should it be might psychology whatever and d, - alone 180 ) hought expressed in an action. ― action. an in expressed hought

‖ ( Colli itions and temperaments and itions n ordinary n task

god 19, . 217 p. 1992, ngwood,

ite slogan. ―At bottom bottom ―At slogan. ite is not thereby one of arranging circumstances. circumstances. arranging of one thereby not is left 84

o psychology to natural science. The latter aspect is of more more of is aspect latter The science. natural - 41 imits of the concept of history need need history of concept the of imits ) . fanoth

hs hv crusacs they circumstances: have These . All .

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might help might

. I . t

CEU eTD Collection limits speak, mostly,limits about these understanding; his of limits the push can he far how historian the of limits and qualities Accordingly, but triumph human of only his). satisfactory no has Collingwood of distinguished? history a be there Could place? to failures they are or there, these Are murderers? re to one is How of history a writing of possibility the to as arises immediately question image, this Given on. perform to scene a having actors the of matter a circumstantial, and incidental is else all action; in reason of narrative the reconstructs summarize, to History, ( actua their in them seeing happen, actually they of as flux events the understand to is function whose understanding, ―historical a of talks he when such. as recovered be to is it and assemblages Collingwood, 1935/1999,p.189

He does not want to deny the obvious: that history must be, if anything, the history not history the anything, if be, must history that obvious: the deny to want not does He judgement, and there reveals his own mind in its strength and weakness, its its weakness, and strength its in mind virtues andvices. its own his reveals there and of judgement, bar the at stands who himself historian the is It life.[…] their to fundamental re to unable are they that persons namely them, the use about who deal great a nothing us us tell they tell though phrases themselves, ages such those but about ages; dark them call and intelligible, nothing historians, of generations whole sometimes historians, Certain think. to able yet, not or longer, no or not, is he which in ways certain are there that discovered has he mind; own his of limitation a discovered cert finds historian] [the [W]henever one attempt to answer this problem is a version of charity: it is a measure of the of measure a is it charity:of version a is problem this answer to attempt one

- nc te huhs f rpes n trns o witch of tyrants, and prophets of thoughts the enact expressive himself

( think Collingwood, 1992,pp.218 –

n pras especially perhaps and

answer to this this to answer failures, i.e. failures to failures i.e. failures, - , i.e. the results of the inability to form thoughts in the first first the in thoughts form to inability the of results the i.e. , :

emphasis added

un reason? Can the two possibilities be always always be possibilities two the Can reason? i hsoia mtes nnelgbe h has he unintelligible, matters historical ain 85

difficulty (which is of course not particularly not course of is (which difficulty Collingwood is again close to Wittgenstein Wittgenstein to close again is Collingwood )

id n eti pros f history of periods certain in find – - - act 219

think the th the think of human madness and stupidity. stupidity. and madness human of

accord l )

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illogical

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make thought a matter of matter a thoughtmake nuance is especially i especially is nuance of the same development. This seems a gesture in the direction of the of direction the in gesture a seems This development. same the of 46 reason. a still is reason bad a and ones; bad of presence meant an by done is what determinedunreason;for by[…] his ends of pursuit in agentunreasonable acts […] include These reason. their by determined ends of pursuit famili equally word, same the of sense another in actions are they human; called species the of animals by Gestae Res , an aspect which is clearly visible when Collingwood describes Collingwood when visible clearly is which aspect an , - 47

oe rqet n mr esnil o h lf of life the to essential more and frequent more . Historical knowledge can go as far as thoughts go, as far as reason does not not does reason as far as go, thoughts as far as go can knowledge Historical .

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– ( Collingwood, 1948, pp. 117 pp. 1948, Collingwood,

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mit the )

–

CEU eTD Collection ‗screening‘ for psychopathy? See psychopathy? for ‗screening‘ arena moral ‗alien‘ the and logical all.‖ at man fullybeinga ma him consider to inclined be shall inhumanity; I ofand insanity speak beginto but shall essentials, on disagree wethat declare men, mostor myownthatmorality of from or of code merelydifferent a him to attribute to anantidote would be sinceeither kills family, or his pebble kicksa whetherhe difference no makes whomman literally to it a find ifBut I case. huma the and one, 84 later the especially philosophy, Wittgenstein‘s between relation the by unanswered left problems not is This cementgap depth? without ina to now move We rifts. seal to trying and over, oscillating psychology of nature, bordering ir on culture touching reason of of explanation, idea on touching the understanding with struggles early been the have we in perspective, mostly that interested From studies. humanistic of autonomy the of defenses that to continuous not but related, as seen be should Wittgenstein by provided marginal psychologically the on angle the that said be should it on, move we Before about views psychologywork areinWittgenstein‘s philosophy. atlater which general the on more based be will otherwise which Context discussion. the for context useful a provide will they but overstated, be not should remarks such of role The madness. of fearful points, at and, irrationality, of instances preoc also is he life; of forms certain in home at become gradually people how in and language of learning the in interested however, is, He Wittgenstein. of preoccupations mar The is thekindofabysmal example Another here. explored be cannot which pathsrelevant) partly (therefore overlapping

―[I]f I say of someone that he is kind or cruel, l cruel, or iskind he that someone ―[I]fsay I of d, as a man who thinks he is Napoleon is mad; which is a way of saying that I do not regard suchas being a not regard do that I wayofsaying iswhich a mad; is Napoleon hewho is man thinks as a d, is the debate about the concept of psychopathy: is it a moral or a medical category, should there be be there should medicalcategory, a moral or isita psychopathy: of theconcept about isthe debate gins of psychology of gins

to say that say to

( Berlin, 1980, p. 166 1980, Berlin, moral one can expect can one

( 1991 usinn te aue f h fut ie. ht f n tid o pour to tried one if What lines. fault the of nature the questioning ( will be will

Seabrook, 2008 Seabrook, devianceIsaiahBerlin was prepared as insanity. toregard -

ennui

endnote #112 endnote

Verstehen or inactivity, I shall not be dispos notbe inactivity, or shall I

explore

) a . I was led to Berlin‘s essay by Conant‘s comparison between the between comparison Conant‘s by Berlin‘s. was essay to I led succession oves truth or is indifferent to it, he remains human in either inhuman either heremains it, to is indifferent or oves truth ) ) . A recent example of this problem emerging in the public the public in emerging problem this A . exampleof recent . d here d

97 rdto. T tradition.

in their separate ways separate their in

–

of steps in which Wittgenstein solves the solves Wittgenstein which in steps of the infant and the madman madman the and infant the i i nt h pae o vlae the evaluate to place the not is his ed, like consistent relativists, to to relativists, like consistent ed, psychological concepts and and concepts psychological

rationality, of history and and history of rationality, ,

a characteristic number of tectonic of number –

cupied core not are 84 in

with

nist the the

CEU eTD Collection nesadn wih eoe psil oc te eeat concepts relevant the once possible becomes which understanding or notion the much so not is matters what which in perspective a opens His Wittgenstein. by suggested obscurity the of out way the is there other, the On Wittgenstein. Onthe o the Geisteswissenschaften in understanding of notion the about hesitations the contrasts and diagnoses he when clear much a gets century twentieth expression the of beginning the and nineteenth the of end the at positivism to reactions the informs which preoccupation uneven the sense, this In tradition. those to perhaps not though the studies, of autonomy human the of defense the in faced difficulties some of clarifications providing us about say to has science what to limit principled sci natural to study serious of equation the resist to effort the of part a as Wittgensteinto seesense little makesIf it Wright, 2007 convention and talking thinking, of life the illuminate to method scientific the applying of usefulness the about skepticism certain a by rol the by language, of centrality the by determined those notably anti humanistic by raised problems specific directly not was Wittgenstein said. be can things basic few a But tradition. iiain, eptei udrtnig (n, n h teteh century, twentieth the in them explain were philosophicallyunilluminatin to attempts (and, their and obscure were thought understanding' (Collingwood)), 'reenactment' they 'empathetic that understanding divination', and knowledge of o distinctive form the of character the articulate to inchoately attempted followers their and Weber] and Dilthey to Vico from descends that tradition the in [those thinkers such which in terms The –

) it culminates, a culminates, it .

f hermeneutics, 'fantasia', 'inner understanding', understanding', 'inner 'fantasia', hermeneutics, f

ne hand, ne o h ve o lnug, enn, n ato poie by provided action and meaning, language, of view the to s it were it s

–

in Wittgenstein. This is what Hacker seems to suggest to seems Hacker what is This Wittgenstein. in g.

( - Hacker, 2001b, p.54 Hacker, 2001b, oig ens uh s us as such beings loving 98 -

positivism,

ifclis s ocie from conceived as difficulties –

s hrd Ad one And shared. is geisteswissenschaftlich entific methodology entific although e of culture and history, and and history, and culture of e )

method

Einfühlung there are intersections, intersections, are there

– ( akr 2001b Hacker,

, as the activity of of activity the as , thought, meaning, meaning, thought, interested can –

'cs of 'acts ,

of drawing a a drawing of tradition, the

within e hm as him see

in the in ;

von von that CEU eTD Collection games? [Cf. Z 371]‖ [Cf. Z 371]‖ games? question important 85 ‗us‘. or communities hypothetical contemplate to is one which in examples work later his throughout often uses Wittgenstein 1.13 That contributestomakinggoes mysterious this question. less understanding without dissolving as much so solving as Wittgenstein mass, their evaporating by but weight, equal an with them balancing by not way, different rather a in opposes Wittgenstein which ideas does psychology explanative often was result the such, as and, aim the was methodology constructive mainly were efforts their that fact the with do nothingto has this Perhaps to. committed were they standpoints the from available not were solutions is There rushed. somewhat seems thinkers the about rudimentary above the of component diagnostic The though fact often ofhuman life. difficult, t a as not appears then Understanding life. of etc. itself, understanding intention,

Translation

Some Resistance: Wittgenstein Resistance: 37 Gesel Gesel wü Wie 1.]

: ―What : ―What such scenarios demandsuch thattherea scenarios

lschaft, die viele unserer gewö unserer viele die lschaft, l ( schaft von ‗Geistesschwachen‘? ‗Geistesschwachen‘? von schaft Wittgenstein, 19 rde eine Gesellschaft von lauter tauben Menschen aussehen? Wie, eine eine Wie, aussehen? Menschen tauben lauter von Gesellschaft eine rde ! What, that is, would a society be like, that never played a lot of our ordinary language ordinary our of lot a never played that like, wouldsocietybe a is, !that What, ( Wittgenstein, 1990a, p. 169e p. 169e Wittgenstein,1990a, would a society all of deaf people look like? Or a society of ‗mental defectives‘? An defectives‘? society‗mental a Or of like? look people ofdeaf all wouldsociety a

‗

that 90a, p.169 90a, tribes Hacker mentions. I mentions. Hacker , , descriptive psychology will do will psychology descriptive ,

anthropological difference anthropological – ‘

are seen in their interdependencies within specific forms specific within interdependencies their in seen are which are dissimilar in various ways and ways various in dissimilar are which

- -

§957 §957 hnlichen Sprachspiele nie spielte? [Vgl. Z [Vgl. spielte? nie Sprachspiele hnlichen echnical achievement, but primarily as a regular, a as primarily but achievement, echnical

99 der considerder radical deviance: by deflating their urgency. their deflating by

) the problems faced by someone like Dilthey. Dilthey. like someone by faced problems the

)

85 ihie Frage Wichtige

t seems more likely that certain k certain that likely more seems t –

that a that

kn o parallelism of kind a

We as, eine also, Wie, ! this counterpart ).

They took seriously seriously took They I t is best not t not best is t

degrees from degrees

to scientific scientific to

inds of inds (where (where - o see see o CEU eTD Collection in what they do, and we treat them accordingly based on this recognition; when what people people what when recognition; this on based accordingly them treat we and do, they what in becomesincre a transform can modifications Successive concepts. of behavior mappingthe is one familiar, the from distant areincreasinglythat ways variou in embedded being by meaning with ‗infused‘ are concepts how of picture general a to contribute to supposed are deviations to subjected when problematic as appear to is anyway) them of (most them of point The anthropology. fictional doing in interested not is Wittgenstein examples, such proposing In Chinese.e.g. French to as opposed language different speak appearconvention may or habit and pretend, h may the tribe example, a of For members beings. these and with familiar are we people between psychological) as perversion and madness even with deals which tribe a of case the invokes repeatedly of volumes two the in collected remarks the In fashion. gradual more a in ‗home‘ from depart others Some uh yohtcl ae d not do cases hypothetical Such 1999, p.20 all fours. beganwalkingif one on ofus As absurdrepulsive. and true ― say: they but crazy.‖ he's then lying. ― isn't it a lying view people that imagine one Could !‖ this

tru asingly opaque. At home, we recognize what people mean, aim at, think, or feelor think, at, aim mean,people what recognize we home, At asingly opaque. – Butwon't say he

hy o o s mc co much so not do They then?!‖ it yousay can how so e, at rtns nte hlspy f Psychology of Philosophy the on Writings Last leads to a convention which marginalizes pretense in their culture. But the But culture. their in pretense marginalizes which convention a to leads )

Yes, it would certainly be pleasant if he if pleasant be certainly would it Yes,

s not because they inherit in their genes a preference for the sound of of sound the for preference a genes their in inherit they because not s Now one tries to get to tries one Now v booia tat w traits biological ave

: that h that in the absence of in the

necessarily

e is feeling pain if he isn't! isn't! e pain he isfeeling if s practices. By considering people people considering By practices. s

philosophical dm lig s hy es i a something as it sense they as lying ndemn

100

them to understand the te the understand to them imply differences in nature (i.e. biological or or biological (i.e. nature in differences imply

clarify They would h would They any such traits or dispositions, just as people aspeople just any ordispositions, such traits ih made hich s a kind of insanity. They say ― say They insanity. of kind a s recognizable

lying in unfamiliar ways. unfamiliar in lying reflection

fa miliar

t seily ad o te to them for hard especially it ave no appreciation for appreciation no ave believed –

. Moreover, the hypothetical the Moreover, . (‗our‘) concepts which concepts (‗our‘) fr xml, Wittgenstein example, for , If s he form of life into one which one into life of form mptation to lie, to mptation

ays it anyway, ays anyway, it ( – Wittgenstein, who

, but it isn't it but ,

act and think in in think and act They treat They But one’s own one’s

may it it

CEU eTD Collection 86 the with engagement personal a is there occasions, other in As here. intersect preoccupation and themes Wittgenstein‘s of number a because also interesting are Frazer on remarks The psychological qualifications or childish as culture whole a regarding of faults the to point they because interest of are matter the on 115 1936, (after on later then and 1930s, the of beginning the but culture, exotic some not was case in when infan ‗ the of idea the In anthropology. early of mistakes characteristic the of one to led has otherwise think To 1953/2009 calls Wittgenstein what to amounts Not difference concepts. regular of projections and extensions unproblematic illustrate often differences that say to is This bizarre. apparently the in familiar the noting of direction the in or uprooted become concepts Before conditions. pr the destabilized, ideal on depend not does concepts gets what vary, practices When endemic life. tothose forms of life of forms modify the to concepts relevant the apply to position the in less and less are we feeling, certain a having or something at aiming fo characteristic as recognize to able are we what to similar less and less becomes do

See below. See ) ), ie iplie ceuos stupid credulous, impulsive, tile,

W ittgenstein attacked this stance as manifested in Frazer‘s in manifested as stance this attacked ittgenstein

- mad

§§ 385,420 primitive‘ ad seily eas te sre s otat o h cases the to contrast as serve they because especially and , ocedure of imagining variations and deviations from the familiar can point point can familiar the from deviations and variations imagining of ocedure

–

eventually a series of prototypical images overlap: natural, subhuman, barbaric, barbaric, subhuman, natural, overlap: images prototypical of series a ) .

ir have

behavior. To change the physiognomy of how people act people how of physiognomy the change To behavior.

displaced is not an ideal, and the meaningful application of application meaningful the and ideal, an not is displaced

a place. results in destabilizing whole destabilizing in results

( ic, 1964 Winch,

101

―limiting ) . This happened to some extent even even extent some to happened This . ot o Erp‘ own. Europe‘s of roots rbbyi th in probably ae ( case‖

array Golden Bough Golden Grenzfall s

e late 1940s late e of concepts which are which concepts of )

n hc such which in 86 ( . His remarks His . Wittgenstein,

First

( 1993, p. 1993,

t the at every every r e.g. e.g. r –

to CEU eTD Collection 14 al which custom ofthe barbarity and very rudeness isthe lawn.It theof society Italian polished the from isolation striking times, intoimperial surviving and, age, barbarous ofa savours custom sucha that probablydeny antiquity 88 87 of rite terrifying the terms Romantic less no in sketches then He painting. homonymous the begins Frazer one doesat better the surface. tostay after is one If appearance. discomforting initial the collapse not does claim, would transparent o the tracing and appearance, the under digging where, it as invited, Itsisolation context. our in reflection of matter suitable particularly a it makes environment native its in alone stood ritual this that fact The antiquity. ceremonial explanation of demanding priest the of murdering ritual the made what priest the of succession the the on meditates Wittgenstein A that pressure. interpretive significant withstand to meant Cioffi Hacker as course, Of aesthetics. and art about notes his with what with h viewing of idea

Frazer a See - 15 last this setofthis remarkssubstantive enough somelessons home is todrive -

lso lso emphasisadded (

set hc rvas these reveals which aspect , and canno and , Hacker, 2001a Hacker, himself describes the ritual this way: ― way: this ritual the himselfdescribes ( Cioffi,1998 Wittgenstein – seemed

an instance of which is what Frazer did. But all this excavation, Wittgenstein excavation, this all But did. Frazer what is which of instance an t be explained from it. To find an explanation we must go farther afield. No one willone No afield. farther go mustwe find an explanation from To explained it. t be uman life exclusively through scientific lenses. There are also similarities also are There lenses. scientific through exclusively life uman odn Bough Golden )

) . .

abru ee we oe re t adopt to tried one when even barbarous See also , p. 75 p. ,

writes - –

kings of Nemi or the Be the or Nemi of kings ) (

Hacker, 2001a, p. p. 74 2001a, Hacker, rigins and motivations of the ritual in such a way as to render it it render to as way a such in ritual the of motivations and rigins ,

a ta i see wtot precedent without seemed it that was 87 elsewhere genetic explanations genetic

since this is a fragmentary and unpolished text, it was never was it text, unpolished and fragmentary a is this since

with a reference to the ethereal quality of Turner‘s 1834 1834 Turner‘s of quality ethereal the to reference a with remarks as especially interesting is their subject matter. matter. subject their is interesting especially as remarks

The strange rule of this priesthood has priesthood ofthis rule strange The

about religion and generally about spiritual life, and and life, spiritual about generally and religion about - 102 king studied in the in studied king

)

day .

, like a primaeval rock rising from a smoothshaven smoothshaven froma rising rock ,likeprimaeval a

suggested by Frazer for bizarre rituals bizarre for Frazer by suggested But that there are there that But ltane fire festivals fire ltane low us a hope of explaining it.‖ it.‖ ofexplaining hope a us low Golden Bough Golden advises tnad ftig classical fitting standards n t on times own its in

debates about it about debates . It . no parallel in classical classical in parallel no

. n i polemic his in

is noteworthy that that noteworthy is

striking stands out in in out stands ( 1890/2009, pp. pp. 1890/2009, that .

88 attests , then then , –

with with

The and –

CEU eTD Collection 89 unearthed. society‖ descended stood it as sense little made Nemi at ritual murderous The to sources. of was diversity a from recovered project pieces and bits The from image an together cultures. put gradually (‗primitive‘) various in practices similar documenting of a into engaged Frazer question, this answer To sacred? the of category the to belonging as practice their regard to moreover, and, manner a such in act to ‗civilized‘ and What Nemi: of tenure the governed which succession

Therefore the terminology of ‗geneticexplanation‘. theterminologyof Therefore could have led a group of people in a society which we otherwise recognize as orderly as recognize otherwise we which society a in people of group a led have could

having slain him, he retained office till he was himself slain b craftier. slain himself was he till office retained he him, slain having A sanctuary. the candidateofficefor couldand thepriesthood onlypriest, to by slaying succeed the of rule the was Such stead. his in priesthood the hold and him was looked he whom for man the and murderer; a and about priest a was warily He enemy. an by upon set be peering to expected he everyinstant at if as kept him he and sword, drawn a carried he hand his In prowl. in recurring far any probably and at and day, which the round strange of time tree certain a a grew of there grove scene sacred this the In […] was tragedy. landscape sylvan this antiquity In haunt these woodlands wild. stil might herself Diana […] it. forget ever can hills, Alban the of hollow green a in lapped water, calm that seen has who one No Nemi of lake woodland little natur fairest the even transfigured and steeped Turner of mind divine the which in imagination of glow golden the with suffused scene, The Bough? Golden the of picture Turner's know not does WHO

( Frazer, 1890/2009, p. 15 p. 1890/2009, Frazer, 89

rm ― from

( Frazer, pp.12 1890/2009, motives [that] have operated widely, perhaps universally, universally, perhaps widely, operated have [that] motives

) , th ,

— en it would it en

"Diana's Mirror," as it was called by the ancients. ancients. the by called was it as Mirror," "Diana's the sacerdotal office of ‗king of the sacred forest‘ at at forest‘ sacred the of ‗king of office sacerdotal the - 13 to the night, a grim figure might be seen to seen be might figure grim a night, the to

103 ) al landscape, is a dream a is landscape, al

ipso facto ipso l linger by this lonely shore, still shore, lonely this by linger l

be explained, and its significance its and explained, be , but if one could show that it it that show could one if but ,

sooner or later to murder to later or sooner - like vision of the the of vision like y a stronger or a a or stronger a y

monumental effort effort monumental n human in CEU eTD Collection 1993, p. p. 131 1993, 92 119 plausible willneverbe it But ofstupidity. pieces speak, to so as, presented are practices these all final analysis in the that isveryIt remarkable priest viewslike look 91 90 ( ( senses his of out as ‗savage‘ the regard to close comes da glauben, zu Stande d and life of issues to comes it when stupidity by blinded is individual his preparing or hut his building no ―physics‖ mistaken a that cal Wittgenstein which actions human o context the in later, bit A irrationality. Resisting this error. infantilizing whether here matter i not Wittgenstein will It project. a such about doubts his expressed Wittgenstein unsi

Translation: ― Translation: ― Translation: Fo tes, the same person deemed ‗savage‘ is ‗savage‘ deemed person same the tes, )

r comments on this point, see see point, commentsthis on r - nnig k

If that were the case, a whole culture could be suspected of something akin to akinsomething ofsuspected be couldculture whole a case, the wereIf that ing id s br luil, a de eshn u prr umet l ds tun. das all Dummheit purer aus Menschen ( die daβ plausible, Nie aber werden. es dargestellt wird Dummheiten als sozusagen endlich Gebräuche diese de ähnlich sie ist, tut, Frazer was Alles, verfehlt. mir scheint wollen, Idee,Gebrauchden die Schon unbefriedigend:ist diese Anschauungen sieläβt als Me der Anschauungen religiösen und magischen der Darstellung Frazers Wittgenstein, 1993,p.118 ): – )

seems wrong to me. All that Frazer does is to make them plausible to people who think as he does. whoas hedoes. think people to plausible make isto them does AllFrazer me. that wrongto seems

Perhaps a Perhaps the people engaged in such rituals as being disconcertingly unable to overcome overcome to unable disconcertingly being as rituals such in engaged people the errors Frazer would be capable ofthats believing a capable would be Frazer makes these it is unsatisfactory: mankind viewsof religious and magical the of Frazer‘saccount cret n i criticisms his in correct s kn i e, luil z mce. s s sh mrwri, a alle daβ merkwürdig, sehr ist Es machen. zu plausible er, wie nken . […] The very idea of wanting to explain a practice practice a wantingexplain to of idea very The […] . more expressive translation would end with end would moretranslation expressive

β wahnsinnig

to say that mankind does all does mankind say that to i Wle u Irrtum aus Wilder ein

is what grounds rituals grounds what is

co f distinguishing between the effects of false opinion and certain and opinion false of effects the between distinguishing f ( mes uprepeatedly inthe Bouveresse, 2008 Bouveresse,

)

weapons ) is qualified by Wittgenstein as itself devoid of sense sense of devoid itself as Wittgenstein by qualified is ) (note that the individual acts as proxy for his culture here) culture his for proxy as acts individual the that (note 91

– ls ―ritualistic‖ ls

etwa die Tötung des Priesterkönigs Tötungdes die etwa f Frazer of

; not ( 104 Cioffi,1998 p 124 pp.

that out of sheer stupidity.‖ stupidity.‖ outsheer of that stirbt a prisoner of false physics when it comes to comes it when physics false of prisoner a

( avage dies because of an error.‖ error.‖ ofan because dies avage 1993, pp. 128 pp. 1993, , we are told that it would be would it that told are we , . 90 - .

‖ 125 remarks

; What does matter is the rejection of of rejection the is matter does What (

Hacker, 2001a Hacker, ‗by mistake‘. ‗by p. 130 p. ) S hw s n t tik ht this that think to one is how So . Irrtümer –

on Frazer on

for example, the killing of the ofthe killing example,the for ) 92 - 129

This kind of stance which stance of kind This zu zu

erscheinen. […] ) ) .

. Menschen, die so die Menschen, ( After all, Wittgenstein all, After eath? Wittgenstein, 1993, p. 1993, Wittgenstein, :

–

erklären zu erklären ( ― Wittgenstein, Frazer wäre im im wäre Frazer silly to think think to silly nschen nschen malignant

CEU eTD Collection say: t 94 magic their writewereit down, to is,if they That phenomena. ofthe interpretation peculiar a whereaspossess only they ofnature, ofthe course idea insane) 93 murderous the of that like tales of bizarreness the ‗settling‘ by understands one what around revolves dispute Cio with effort original the from however is 132 pp. Wittgenstein by suggested is that explanation description to alternative The ritual. Nemi the goes it Wittgen of thrust main The critics ofanthropology. Victorian blunders. as them presenting by actions these of aspects unspeakable an reveal continuity. instead they ‗savage‘, the and us between separation the mark to sinis are stories These what but ritual, the of origins the not is It sleeve. its on character its wears grove Diana‘s in places taking killing and combat the like terrifyingceremony A think. to like may we than us to closer but mysterious, or alien something express recognizable us trouble which deeds human the be, may they as brutal and Absurd

― Translat Nur Nur his is what human life is like.‖ is what life human his is

is different.‖ isdifferent.‖ beschreiben nicht si Natur, sie wenn der Naturkenntnis, ihre Laufe vom Vorstellung D.h., besitzen. Phänomene der Interpretation merkwürdige eine eine nur sie während wahnsinnige) Völker diese (ja hätten alt falsche darstellt, so vollkommen es Frazer daβ hier, ist Unsinn Der - against the idea that explanation (in terms of origins) is what should should what is origins) of terms (in explanation that idea the against 133 ion: ― ion: f ta epaain icuig h gntc kind, genetic the including explanation, that ffi 94 It is a measure of the interpreter‘s own limited horizon that he defuses the darkest darkest the defuses he that horizon limited own interpreter‘s the of measure a is It )

fundamental The nonsense here is that Frazer represents these people as if they had a completely false (even (even false completely as ifa had they people these represents isthat Frazer here nonsense The and especia and or the seeing of connections. The point of presenting this example here deviates deviates here example this presenting of point The connections. of seeing the or –

priest that is precisely is that

( kann man hier und sagen: hier mankann Wittgenstein, 1993, p. 141 1993, Wittgenstein,

- kings of old of kings ter because they produce echoes produce they because ter lly ―perspicuous representation‖ ―perspicuous lly

unterscheiden. Nur ihre stein‘s remarks on remarks stein‘s )

(

Wittgenst knowledge of nature would not differ not differ would ofnature knowledge why

it is transparently about transparently is it

of suggesting a better approach better a suggesting of ( Cioffi, 1998, pp. 81 pp. 1998, Cioffi,

they trouble us in the firs the in us trouble they

so ist das menschliche Leben. menschliche ist so das ein, 1993, pp. 120 1993, ein, )

neeshibn wre o dr nen sich unsern der von würde niederschrieben, e 105

Frazer takes however a specific coloring, since since coloring, specific a however takes Frazer

Magie - 121 which resonate in us; paraded in order order in paraded us; in resonate which

- ist anders.ist 82, 105 82,

)

(

– Wittgenstein is not far from other other from far not is Wittgenstein übersichtliche Darstellung übersichtliche is

human sacrifice sacrifice human

needed, and that the important important the that and needed, fundamentally ‖ (― ‖ t place. These people are not are people These place. t - 106 Here one can only only can one Here One .

( 1993, p.140 ) . B . could ut that Wittgenstein that ut

from ours. Only their their fromOnly ours. – settle

that upsets us. upsets that perhaps agree agree perhaps ) 93 describe

cases like cases )

( 1993,

and and CEU eTD Collection practice makes demanding for justification awkward justification for makes demanding practice will practitioners 96 savages…‖ 95 practice mean not said that, be will on illuminating insists one if for; reasons asks one kind the of not are practices relevant of terms in actions ‗barbarous‘ for accounts aim Wittgenstein‘s level, this At survives. attributio reason of one not is ritual the of transparency the dimension, one in least at that, suggests el more the at operating inter surely is it though of matter a th not This is do not part the that show togethercan put elements But practitioners. the to lost probably significance ritual they isexceptional their practice, in moreover, The reasonable. the of opposite very the seems which manner a in acts which community a with deals one since point, this on emphasis specific a distributes Frazer of discussion The making itselfattribution the more a unmistakably is what to irrationality massive attributing all rejecting in obscurantism of kind a to e succumb context, this in not, does or does xplanation does not affect a separate lessons of these remarks. The lesson is that the cost of cost the that is lesson The remarks. these of lessons separate a affect not does xplanation

I take it that this is one of Cioffi‘s important observations observations important Cioffi‘s ofone takeit that is this I ― Frazer ist viel mehrviel ist Frazer

that things are done blindly and some of the participant the of some and blindly done are things that express ly a role a plays n. )

( Wittgenstein, 1993, pp. 130 pp. 1993, Wittgenstein, opinion Whatever one may think of of think may one Whatever e place todiscuss

never a o vision

savage

be able to justify their practice; the point is rather that they need not do it do not need they that israther the point justify practice; to their able be (

1993, pp. 122 pp. 1993,

n ht omnt, n is oe s eonzbe sne e ae as have, we since recognizable, is role its and community, that in esting that he considers the connection between ‗us‘ and ‗them‘ as as ‗them‘ and ‗us‘ between connection the considers he that esting f life, but exhibit perversef life, butexhibit barbarity. , – als die meistenseiner als die mnay ee o isic ad ― and instinct of level ementary

or it it or

Wittgenstein‘s that ‗primitive‘ claim behaviorisnot may irrational - 131 - 123

happen that that happen )

)

or having or

is to erode the plausibility of the conception which which conception the of plausibility the erode to is that 95 . icipants are blind to what theya what to areblind icipants

savages

106 than whatever su itis te rtcl oc o te eak o Frazer on remarks the of force critical the ,

erroneous

– nothing helpful is said is helpful nothing …

that it makes l makes thatit reasons own circumstances, its origins or original origins circumstances, or own its ‖ fr Wittgenstein, for ,

(― Frazer is much mores much is Frazer

opinion and and opinion

( pp. 138 pp.

instinct culture s end up dead by mistake. The The mistake. by dead up end s ittle sense to insist that the that insist to sense ittle pposed to explain. pposed to - -

actions 139 very rapidly escalates, escalates, rapidly very dubious

) . 96

avage than most his of than avage o even not for what one does, one what for

re doing, that they they that doing,re But this does not does this But ‖ ( 137 p. , that , the reaso essentially essentially

all ns. The The ns. )

This . these hing CEU eTD Collection society, may not be itself mad; it may even prove healing. mayprove mad;it even itself not be may society, as psychiatrists do members convictions, bizarre voicing despite isthat, notice to thing striking situations,the best life. Inthe communal benign sects,to fromsuicidal different instances, ofrather number a cover and indee cases are These by delusions. infected be can communities whole that implies movements‘ withthe psychotic dealing literature of thread the example,that for 97 Hacker century. past the of genocides the consider lesson, important this of us convince see may Italy Roman in place taking killing obscure an If be one, will us to by it accident. psychologyof representmargin a not do beings.Theyhuman whi sacrifices human psychologically tosay Thisis toourperspective, differenceallpossibilities. theirfor and relative distance that, re we because dreadful are they But dreadful. be to turnout expression avenues life. suchexpressing Some dealing facts ofhuman of withand the does bizarre, seemingly anterior enormous an is There sciences. social the and history ofphilosophy the in concern typicala to This human a of life the community in role a play does it that fact the from character, its from emanates the of opinions the righting ve practice; may the participants to incidental are reason bad and belief false or ( in ungrounded is practice a that say To fears Wittgens

This ― childlike

) is what most troubles us. And this And us. troubles most what is

. would obviously require an extended discussion, and discussion, an extended wouldrequire obviously

en as a mgc o or w (f own our of ‗magic‘ a says, tein plausibility –

‖ would rather put it, they remain remain they put it, wouldrather

that its very savagery makes it a functional element of a functioning culture. culture. functioning a of element functional a it makes savagery very its that ( kindliche

(for all we know), the priest the know), we all (for

ry well leave the practice intact. Its meaning (and its effect on us) us) on effect its (and meaning Its intact. practice the leave well ry

o h fc ta a that fact the to h uvv i te om f h Blae ie etvl are festivals fire Beltane the of form the in survive ch ) not

( Wittgenstein, 1993, pp. 140 pp. 1993, Wittgenstein,

indulge in random acts. random in indulge

is a crucial aspect of the example, one which relates it it relates which one example, the of aspect crucial a is functional false) belief is not, in this context, to make it opaque it make to context, this in not, is belief false) functioning or example, we tame, in our own ways, similar similar ways, own our in tame, we example, or - 107 kings of Nemi or the people participating in the the in participating people the or Nemi of kings

. Even a society of the mad, to the extentit to mad, that ofthe Even society . a

it depends on how one reads ‗functioning‘. Note, Note, ‗functioning‘. reads howon one it depends cognize them, when honest, as our own our as honest, when them, cognize 97

ua communit human

- - Cultures arrive at various manners of manners various at arrive Cultures 141 like characteristic of some ‗new religious religious ‗new some of likecharacteristic ) . It is to say, rather, that eventual eventual that rather, say, to is It . – to an o a eape to example an of faint too m

and if anthropology ever takes takes anthropology ever if and , vn t t most its at even y, not unexceptional d problematic d

appear appear ill is . Or, Or, .

CEU eTD Collection thiscon hurmuchofa play,as I it cer And know. wantdon‘t I to 98 swit communities, bizarre actual considering of case the unlike question, his on Insisting principle excl be stand, we secession the allow would which sense a in c one Admittedly, assemblycarries an of it assumption with a in embedded as actions their and the with do to lot a has question this acts beings human of community a how matter no that, think to one Is effect. an if such produce what, could anything, of question the raises halt, difficulti a to pose into may it bringing cultures however, without, past understanding or foreign of practices exotic the that Insisting plea,with this which isworthkeeping inmind: autobiograp fictitious the Writing Gulag. the of or camps concentrations the of butchers calculating the were neither And mad. nor childlike, of way terrible a at arrive they that saying of way Flies the mentio

Translation: cerns you.‖cerns ns in his comment on comment his in ns concerne. avez vous chance de peu un avec pressés, trop pas n'êtes vous trouve se ça si mais choses, de beaucoup passé s'est il tout jeaprès long, peu moral, un d'être conte risque Ça l'assure. véritable vous un aussi, édifiante mais histoire, sombre d'une s'agit rétorquerez frère, votre laissez humains, Frères sure you. You might find it a bit long bit it a find might you.You sure

, and not, for example, as a matter of Victorian hypocrisy or fragmentar or hypocrisy Victorian of matter a as example, for not, and , ( Hacker, 2001a, p. 77 p. 2001a, Hacker, ry; withlit a ry;

― Oh myhu Oh (

Littell,2009 uded. ( ould Littell, 2006 , one should be able to make sense of their behav their of sense make to able be should one , e ep. t us a os ocre vu vre be qe a vous ça que bien verrez vous : concerne vous ça puis Et temps. le

manbroth tle luck you‘ll have some time to spare. And al spare. to sometime haveyou‘ll luck tle insist that the possibility of of possibility the that insist Could tain )

Wittgenstein‘s remarks on the on remarks Wittgenstein‘s ly is true that this is a bleak sto bleak a is lythis is truethat

ers, let me tell you how it hap it howmeyou let tell ers, there not be human be not there ) - ) - 98 vous, et on ne veut pas le savoir. Et c'est bien vrai qu'il vrai bien c'est Et savoir. le pas veut ne on et vous, . T . moi vous raconter comment ça s'est passé. On n'est pas pas n'est On passé. s'est ça comment raconter vous moi

hose children, one may say, turn into mo into turn say, may one children, hose culture decision — a lot of things hap things of lot a

intelligibility todispute. extremely hard thatis . That is to say that the very idea of a functional functional a of idea very the that say to is That . of intelligibility from culture cannot, from where where from cannot, culture from intelligibility of 108

of qualifying a group of people as a as people of group a qualifying of

hy of an SS officer, Jonathan Littell begins begins Littell Jonathan officer, SS an of hy thought community which would be would which community losing pened. I am not yourbroth am not I pened. pened, af pened, ry,ed but an

that would remain opaque to us to opaque remain would that their childhood. They are neither are They childhood. their Golden Bough Golden so, this so, con ter all ter ify — ing one too, a re a too, ing one ior? As suggested above, above, suggested As ior? cerns you: you‘ you: cerns but per

nsters; but this is a is this but nsters; haps you‘renot haps Golding‘s er , you‘ll , re dys al moral al y evidence? evidence? y community ll see that that ll see functional Lord of of Lord tort, and and tort, es for for es ity

in too too in ches in , CEU eTD Collection certain concepts, but of being clear about what a decision to apply these concepts involve concepts these apply to decision a what about clear being of but concepts, certain applying in wrong be cannot we that fact the of or discovery of matter a not is This mad. or ab dark the arein we that do, own religious claiming neither while more people practices) orless feel we thatthese like northink our of some to analogous role a plays which (one practice religious a e.g. in engage s no makes It practice. the in involved agents the of reasonableness and reasoning, motivations, the about presuppositions it with carries cultural practice a as something categorizing since principle, of matter as happens limitation This action seen ofis individuals as embeddedinaculturewhichfor provides i psychological for left space little is there that saying in expressed better of amount the or concepts psychological ‗standard‘ applying in instability of amount the community, a of life the of expressive as cultural, as practices of set a recognize we that given opposite: specifically community, working human a of existence the with compatible are which profiles psychological of array the clear or impermeable as demarcation observe also I But exorbitant. usually is causes psychological putative its and difference anthropological observed between distinction the blurring of cost the that emphasized I Frazer, on remarks Wittgenstein‘s discussing In Jaynes vs. anthropological 1.14 Parenthesis: logically alien thought. ofissue mentioned already the of direction thein points it psychological; the from awaygears

opacity attributed to the practitioners is thereby limited. Perhaps this would be be would this Perhaps limited. thereby is practitioners the to attributed opacity

Our goalOur istoturnnotaway however topsychology. from, butcloser out them, that they may just be very stupid, mechanical, childish,mechanical, stupid, verybe may just they that them, out

with what we recognize as culture. The perspective was the was perspective The culture. as recognize we what with - cut. Our aim should not be seen as one of determining of one as seen be not should aim Our cut.

psychological differen psychological d that there is little sense in conceiving this this conceiving in sense little is there that d 109

ense to suggest that a group of people people of group a that suggest to ense ce ; Snell ; speculation ts significance.ts ,

Onians and and Onians

once the the once

s . If .

CEU eTD Collection Homer‘s world beca world Homer‘s of strangeness the missed not have we whether wonder can one happenings, Roman recent more of significance the about doubts raising Frazer with as But, pantheon. its to assimilated Iliad the of battles the fought and civilization sophisticated a built Greeks first the that know We If, world. Greek could beuncovered same at location. the metaphor this the in truth of of kernel the beginnings perhaps there, the invented was mind to the metaphorically, time in back and the Mediterranean to travel eastern and behind Italy central leave We spectrum. a across arbitrarily drawn line ju be all after could study, case his not if view, his Frazer, by described one the than cases ambiguous more gap looked at one diagnosing if aasand psychological.Perhaps anthropological it considering language having remember to claimed who mute deaf a of that James, by described case a on made he those of notably remarks, his of use exam such discusses Wittgenstein apart. coming to close come concepts psychological of application the and life human characteristically the psychological the where area the to turn gradually now We at aseparate stage expository to thereby ant as difference a qualify to way: this in stressed be can point The also unreasonable todeny therange within that they fall psychological concepts. ofour is it then culture, to amounts people of group a of life the that deny to unreasonable it find we Erp otn atd to wanted often Europe . . Let us be us Let .

exclude use. But it suggests a perspective in which the anthropological loses critical mass critical loses anthropological the which in perspective a suggests it But use. stified. Perhaps the contrast we aim at illustrating is not a contrast at all, but a a but all, at contrast a not is illustrating at aim we contrast the Perhaps stified.

– serious psychological difference. This is surely too strong, and at most of most at and strong, too surely is This difference. psychological serious

gin use of our familiarity with Plato‘s. How did the early Greeks think think Greeksearly the did How Plato‘s. with familiarity our of use earlier , however, with a with however, ,

–

relati

see in this dawn its own; Achilles and Hector have been been have Hector and Achilles own; its dawn this in see ve tothe psychological.

stream of ideas in which there is a is there which in ideas of stream had had 110

ples in a number of places, and we will make make will we and places, of number a in ples

ohsiae togt bfr h learned he before thoughts sophisticated

detached from culture, where where culture, from detached hropological or cultural is cultural or hropological tension

between

before -

CEU eTD Collection v hum the They discovered philosophy. and the sciences suchas discussion, for subjects 100 everythingi us to is familiar whatis from different ‗howwould radically be: the waylastpart render better to a Perhaps experience the radically how forget to quick we resultare as a and appeal; emotional withstrong usa to speak ofthetradition, Greek source the standat which Odyssey, 99 his that means distance his and see, can we as far as about is Homer ours. from different very world a of glimpses get indeed can one results, classical its at arrives process this Before discovery the by means Snell what is This people. seeing of way novel truly a in result would process which long a of beginning the at stand They map. monarch‘s some on put be to waiting arrive, not do Greeks early The transformation. tectonic a undergoing landscape a is us to open poems epic great the what Snell, to According familiarity: mid the in Writing differentcontext, questions? Finally, own? our fromdifferent minds of also but life, ofway distant a of only not remains hexameter in and stone in us with still are that remains the Are it? imagine somewhat a speaking merely diff they Were place? in not were map the on put definitively mind the invented they )

Translation

Translation: ― Translation: erent and more primitive tongue? Have we simply lost too much of their world to even even to world their of much too lost simply we Have tongue? primitive more and erent 7 stehen, Griechischen ist. alles alles Homer bei Gewohnten uns dem Anfang von grundverschieden am die un und sprechen Odyssee, uns zu unmittelbar und Ilias da Zumal wir Denken nennen, erst geschawir Denkenerst nennen, gegebenen vorweg was erweitert,haben, Verfahren) ein sondern logisches und alte (etwa Methoden schon eines Hilfe mit gewonnen Philosophie) und Wissenschaft (etwa Gegenstände neue nur Denkens nur nicht haben Griechen [D]ie )

99 nHomer‘. ( Entdeckung

(unfortunately this English edition sometimes deviates from the original) from the deviates sometimes edition English this (unfortunately They did not, by means of a mental equipment already at their disposal, merely map out newmap merelyout disposal, alreadytheir at mentalequipment meansa of by not, did They

- 1940s, Bruno Snell invites the reader to give up the comfort of false false of comfort the up give to reader the invites Snell Bruno 1940s,

)

( of the min of nous

)

, when most of the categories which their classical descendants classical their which categories the of most when , d:

ffen… s stark anrühren, übersehen wir leicht, wie leicht, wir übersehen anrühren, stark s 111

(

194 of Homer differs from our own.‖ own.‖ from differs our Homer of

like Columbus, to a continent already there, there, already continent a to Columbus, like 6/2011, p.7 6/2011, ) 100

an mind.‖ an

: ―The Iliad and the and Iliad ―The : ( 1946/2011, p. 1946/2011, are these, in such a a such in these, are ( Snell, 1953, p. v Snell,1953, ( Snell, 1953, p. p. Snell,1953, )

CEU eTD Collection 1953, p. viii p. 1953, himself. of man'sawareness upon dependent soul are the and the intellect theof existence For precision. of lack and makeofconfusion guilty us would qualification without Greeks the to thelatter ascribe but to to t conceded later place the occupied which 'something' was there Of two.course […] the not know did they that sense in this it is and the soul; or intellect ofthe as actions matters ofconceivethese and reflection, ofor joy, werenot capable characters his that mean not thereby wedo many things, of therefore other or ofthe soul, or intellect, ofthe knowledge 103 the Western of meaning informthe 102 101 numerous in ( body designating it documents he and deviance, circumstances conceptual being this on insists Snell a way between I on. so and determination action processes, view the out laying as Greeks first the of psychology the a in which, thought mannerof to tries Snell agglutinated. language Homer of language the from reconstruct of strata which in chants transmitted orally were testimonies oldestremaining language theuse inthe conceptualin terms ofas repertoire of a by illustrated is question the also is world

Translation: ― Translation: This ― d ie uns entfernteste und f und unsentfernteste ie wayit ofputting nur wird dergleichen eben nicht als Aktion des Geistes oder der Seele Seele auffaßten der Seele oder Geist als Griechen oder Geistes „etwas― des war Natürlich Aktion als nicht in interpretiert: eben dergleichen wird wäre; absurd nur was fort, so und können denken etwas an nicht oder freuen nicht a ist nicht gekannt, noch anderes viel sehr auch infolgedessen hätten und Menschen Seele keine homerischen Geist, keinen die wird, behauptet etwa Folgenden im Wenn usw. „sind― Ge Seele und Geist natürlich Griechen ) rede, wenn man ihnen deswegen Geist und Seele zuspräch Seele und Geist deswegen ihnen man wenn rede,

on the lines of ‗ of lines the on –

If, th If, the e the – psychology and worldviewpsychology and

strangest rm h mliue f eb related verbs of multitude the from erefore, in the chapters to follow we shall venture to say that Homer's men had as yetno men as had Homer's say to that venture shall wefollow to thechapters in erefore, pic poems. The evidence being considered is furnished by what, at origins, origins, at what, by furnished is considered being evidence The poems. pic

demas nur imSelbstbewußtsein.

has little to do with psychology, but refers to a cultural heritage which has come to to come has which heritage cultural a to with but refers do to psychology, has little lso nicht gemeint, die homerischen Menschen hätten sich noch noch sich hätten Menschen homerischen die gemeint, nicht lso remdeste Stufe des Griechentums des Stufe remdeste dem

. does not approximate the later use of use later the approximate not does 101 what did these people know about know people these did what

concept of concept

in a e nc kie Ge keinen noch es gab Sinn It is crucial to note to crucial is It sense

da, das an der Stelle dessen stand, was die späteren späteren die was stand, dessen Stelle der an das da, , predates thought. predates , thought –

which avoids ambiguities: which Greek classical from different significantly one — t is informative is t so forth. We merely want to stress that they did not theydid that want merelystress to We forth. so

. 112 ( unprägnantes verwaschenes, es wäre nur , Snell, 1946/2011,p.10 Snell,

—

how

in dem Sinn hatten die homerischen die hatten Sinn dem in ‖ ( Snell, 1946/2011, p. p. 12 Snell,1946/2011,

102 Snell reads this difference. His driving His difference. this reads Snell

o eig t te bec o nouns of absence the to seeing, to

He is not so much speculating about speculating much so not is He at work in their in work at

however s und ist themselves soma

e: denn Geist, Seele Seele Geist, denn e:

how difficult it is to find to is it difficult how ) keine Seele. […] […] Seele. keine 103 ) or mind ( mind or ) he intellect, or the soul; the soul; he intellect,or

)

‘ concepts of mental mental of concepts . The answer is set is answer The . psyche ‖

( Snell, Snell,

and and –

CEU eTD Collection 104 Homer‘s horrific in heroes act Onians ways writes: they animal; d a not were Greeks early The oppositions. of set similar a with work to tries he And strangeness. this illustrate to Homer of language the on focuses Onians Snell, Like Homeric worldclarity thefamiliar with classical era: ofthe Entdeckung Ju seemhesitation and theinclination natural. hesitate, buthe isclearlyinclining to seems sometimes Snell think‘? ‗we of tense past the thought‘ ‗they Is choice?) a have we What? discove not do Greeks T would become the thymos he difficulty here is that of keeping apart concepts from what they are concepts of. No, the No, of. concepts are they what from concepts apart keeping of that is here difficulty he

t fw er atr nl, .. nas ulse a ok iia i sii t Snell‘s to spirit in similar book a published Onians R.B. Snell, after years few a st See ( Snell, 1953 Snell,1953

They ainls o hs ae ut o bid s o h srnees f i world. his of strangeness the the to and us art blind his not ( of must perfection race The different his […] a of beliefs. earlierrationalism through the is of it hints for shines, look day th all, above clear Homer, to is It the world. different a upon century and atmosphere fifth the in When such barbarism of action, whether survival or recrudescence, is almost almost is recrudescence, or fallacies. b thought, survival of barbarism whether by accompanied action, invariably of barbarism such but Europe; of history subsequent the in there, another and here one to features, by is ideals and It ideas lived. the in they as which nature their in much so not lies difference The are not used as used not are 1951/2000, p.2 :

thought of themselves differently; can can differently; themselves of thought h Oiis f European of Origins The just

- (

1951/2000, pp. 7 1951/2000, pp. chapters 1, 10 1, chapters definite articledefinite a a ifrn mnst Atr itn a ubr f xmls n which in examples of number a listing After mindset. different a had

r a preexisting continent, but ― but continent, preexisting a r nous )

would be), to the impact of the substantivization allowed by what what by allowed substantivization the of impact the to be), would )

o dfiut o rdc a aall o ay f these of many to parallel a produce to difficult not . 104 - against 8

)

making these aliens.Both ancestors ofours the into Thought

113

we ( 1951/2000 of c of

think of them in ou in them of think ourse there was something there‖ something was there ourse

y crude superstitions and and superstitions crude y ) Oin to otat the contrasts too Onians . r own terms? (Do terms? own r at we must must we at ifferent kind of kind ifferent

. CEU eTD Collection of the Iliadicof the ― of that to similar tone a In hypothesis. psychological a as Jaynes understanding of progression Snell‘s spotlights. inner lack still humans which in world a to window a is it because translations of difficulties poses language Homer‘s mind. conscious antedating one o of remains the In Jaynes. Julian psychologist eccentric,the displacement ‗natural‘ a of indicative is cultures older and civilization Western current between rift conceptual the that idea the avoid to struggled languages, classical in specializing philologists Onians, and Snell What is unspeakable. what, about testify to behind left monument solitary a was this if as is it and displaced, now by language a of fragment a in path a find to tries Onians evidence. the with struggling be to has a indicate to this takes one and shudders One gods. the of whims blind the by around matter the at or spilt is blood which recognizably, is, reaction This What is mind in the in mind is What iaea Mind Bicameral i fmla lnug, oeie wt te iul ua f fmla fin or friend familiar a authority of aura visual the with sometimes language, familiar his c no with organized the call can we minds, mentality conscious subjective own our to distinction In upon. world,no awarenessawareness nointernal ofthe mind ofhis had he we; do as subjectivity have not did Iliadicman other. each with do we as We emptiness. and heartlessness mind inventing by heroes these and approach cannot strangeness of one is then picture The bridge ther early civilizations one civilizations early ther hero –

a ?‖ ?‖

smhw Te ey xrsin braim f thought‖ of ―barbarism expression very The somehow. d figure or ‗god‘ or figure

of the Myceneans a bicameral mind. Volition, planning, initiative is initiative planning, Volition, mind. bicameral a Myceneans the of somewhat Hegelian view of the mind coming into its own its into coming mind the of view Hegelian somewhat (

p. 73 ( Iliad 1976/2000 ) ?‖ ?‖ , and answerhasvery his a different sound: onsciousness whatever and then ‗told‘ then and whatever onsciousness ( 1976/2000, p. 69 p. 1976/2000,

close to Frazer‘s. One can but shudder at the facility with with facility the at shudder but can One Frazer‘s. to close , or , ) ,

Jaynes put forward the idea that in the the in that idea the forward put Jaynes sometimes as a voice alone. The individual obeyed individual The alone. voice a as sometimes - of

could – - fact way in which people let themselves be pushed pushed be themselves let people which in way fact

was The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown ofBreakdown the Consciousness in of Origin The 114

see evidence of a different human psychology human different a of evidence see

) explicitly embraced in the 1970s by another another by 1970s the in embraced explicitly .

But he also asks: ― asks: also he But - spaces behind their fie their behind spaces the philologists, Jaynes asks: Jaynes philologists, the

[W]hat to the individual in individual the to - space to introspect space tointrospect

is the psychology the is Iliad

– rce eyes rce is a sign of of sign a is

is recast by recast is

n i the in and gap

to us, us, to

that – –

CEU eTD Collection man would be like.‖would be man have ‗absent withthe mananalogy by bicameral 107 106 writings. antipsychiatric in happens usually it though intersect, schizophrenia and ofcivilization kind whichcertain a in construction we voices 105 criticalin asimilar that tone, be will this but it, with ― it Does half. in cut is which a at look may one how describes Jaynes psychology, anthropomorphizing criticizing In to imagine de first the imagination: the on pressures different two are These familiarity. very its experience familiar from subtracting of fragility the becomes distance a at translating of instability The change. b not is Jaynes if even and same, the less or more is considered evidence the if even happens This consciousness. of origins the explain as set explicitly tu doubtful a takes Onians and Snell of struggle The discontinuity. from seen but, guesswork, of piece fascinating a only not remains latter the But effort. speculative critical the that evident is it and psychology, action ―preposterous‖ as old of gods hallucination the interprets hypothesis mind bicameral Jaynes‘s

See especi See See whileabsent our e.g. ( Jaynes, 1976/2000, pp. 73pp. 1976/2000, Jaynes,

( hallucinat these have clear evidence about in ‗normal‘ and clinical settings. This is not the only instance of theoretical oftheoretical instance only not the is settings. This clinical and in ‗normal‘ about evidence clear have Jaynes, p.75 1976/2000,

( 1976/2000, pp. 84 pp. 1976/2000, context, also a particularly clear example of psychologizing an anthropological anthropological an psychologizing of example clear particularly a also context, mands us to imagine something which is which something imagine to us mands differently ally the Introduction, Introduction, ally the s not dissimilar in nature from the putative voices heard byheard voices putative the from nature in dissimilar not s - mindedly driving: ― mindedlydriving: – (

How ans 17/00 p 84 p. 1976/2000, Jaynes,

and, one assumes, inspired by inspired assumes, one and,

, one mightask. want to one ,

without being tospecify able differencewithout this what their d ocs eas h cud o ‗see‘ not could he because voices ed - 85 )

, where Jaynes tries, and, I think, fails, to convey the experience ofthe experience the fails, convey think,to I and, tries, where , Jaynes agony, not the worm‘s the not agony, 74 (

pp. 1 pp. writhe in writhe ) . This view naturally led Jaynes to speculate further about hallucinated hallucinated about further speculate Jaynes to naturallyled . view This Now simply subtract that consciousness and you have whatbicameral a youhave and thatconsciousness subtract simply Now ) - 18

- mindeddriver‘, ) .

agony‖

lind to the fact that what he deals with is with deals he what that fact the to lind ) 115

? idea never made it to the mainstream of of mainstream the to it made never idea part

No, we are told. ― told. are we No, – minus

difficult translation becomes an attempt to attempt an becomes translation difficult

106 ( difficult 1976/2000, p. 6 p. 1976/2000,

whatev f anss ok s togr than stronger is book Jaynes‘s of

er conscious thoughts the driver might the driver thoughts conscious er to envision; the second wants us us wants second the envision; to

ht o o y himself. by do to what Most people will will people Most ) n nJye; problem a Jaynes; in rn . Later on, Jaynes notes, notes, Jaynes on, Later . consists in consists Jeanne d‘Arc. Jeanne - . 107 controlling controlling identify‖

cultural 105 worm

This

its

CEU eTD Collection the foreign material is Greek.‖ Greek.‖ is material theforeign particu unduly sceptical, not be need We words. own our in significance to precise defineits able be maywenot although havewedelimited, what inmeaning vital isa that and there us, to intelligible thoughtsare 108 the of part certain a cover concepts these hand ps itself as cases.two the in bifurcates ‗psychological‘ observetothat fail to is this in mistake suture, needing wound the difficulty, the seeing of risk the runs one intelligibility, at effort one‘s of part become notions these once But concepts. such acted king the we since contexts, these in role a play concepts Psychological difficu the illustrate genuine they because but eccentricity, their of because not however, here, are They curiosities. intellectual as dismissed be could considered briefly have we examples three The difficulty: our to guide lucid more the remains Snell nonstarter. a but be, may worm ― a as Jaynes, with him, us. moves be, may it as strange story, his why is This seas. same the sail we on, walked he stones the unearth we does, he what told are We background. this against certain sharewi we is There must. absolute this of source the misidentifies Jaynes but true, is This

Translation: ― Translation: , in noting that we deal with psychological concepts, one indicates that, pre that, indicates one concepts,psychological with dealwe that noting in ,

as they did they as ua, en s ih m rehshs adl, ruhn i i di in sein… skeptisch zu nicht allzu wir brauchen handelt, Griechisches um sich es wenn Zumal, lebendigem können. greifen Sprache unserer mit mit nicht Sinn diesen wir doch obwohl erfüllen, Sinn Ausgegrenzte so das wir daß heißt, das ist, verständlich Überzeugu die allerdings steht Dahinter there absolutely [s] - ret o Nm o te re wrir wo ok ry huh ad felt and thought Troy took who warriors Greek the or Nemi of priests

omehow we sti we omehow th Achilles and his world, despite our many differences. That he feels comes up as as up ourcomesfeels despitehe world,That many differences. his and Achilles th At bottom, of course, we must be convinced that weconvinced must be ofcourse, bottom, At lty of confronting forms of life different from those familiar to us. us. to familiar those from different life of forms confronting of lty . It would be hard for us to even conceive of the problem without appeal to appeal without problem the of conceive even to us for hard be would It .

must noble ll wish to identify with Achilles. We still feel that there must, there that feel still We Achilles. with identify to wish ll ( Snell, 1953, p. vii Snell,1953, be somethingbe he feels

automaton‖

( 1946/2011, p.10 )

life of a human being: thinking, feeling, suffering, suffering, feeling, thinking, being: human a of life ( 9620, . 75 p. 1976/2000, 116

g dß is rme n toz allem trotz uns Fremde dies daß ng, inside

despite these complications the strange the strange complications these despite ) 108 .

( 1976/2000, p.84

)

are s o rplie a ctig a cutting as repulsive, not is

trying to understand what what understand to trying ) sm Punkt esem ychological. The The ychological.

–

and his own his and - theoretically, theoretically, so much so To t To , why they they why , larly when larly one the On hink of of hink

that that

–

CEU eTD Collection our perspective, seem bizarre. Now we aim at finding situations in which biz which in situations finding at aim we Now bizarre. seem perspective, our sense of matrix public the in individuals is considering are we contrast the of dis side psychological the to us takes that step The difference psychological Wittgenstein, 1.15 Resistance: their for,agony counts notagainst,being isours genuine. its could skull Achilles‘s nor verse, Homer‘s Neither psychohistorical. not historical, is problem this ―psychohistorical‖ the What under happened what understand one help could this And nowadays. of unheard tendencies had they that warriors Achilles‘s of skulls the from tell could scientist the ( h or philologist the from relegated is conceived, thus issue, the words, InJaynes‘s mentioned. just one the from subject of diagram functional a reason mind, their specifying of individuals theory a is needed is what that suggest to is nature in hand other the On their language. of theearlyspeculating Greeksthey se struggle when tomake aboutthemind why is This framework. a e private of model a in constructs theoretical as function not do notions these that forget not does one if mind, the of life the existence human of part this call can One etc. pretending, remembering, 1976/ solving the circumstances which usually support interpretation by placing the actions of of actions the placing by interpretation support usually which circumstances the solving ever 2000, p. 76 p. 2000, ntity called ‗mind‘, but as crucial elements of a public (inter ofaelements public butas crucial called ‗mind‘, ntity

show that Homer or Achilles had no so no had Achilles or Homer that show

) , to say that the gap seen in anthropological discontinuities is psychological is discontinuities anthropological in seen gap the that say to , . Now, it is not that the two enterprises could not work in parallel. Perhaps Perhaps parallel. in work not could enterprises two the that not is it Now, . –

and this is the sense in which in sense the is this and

soin o h eaiain f ― of examination the to istorian enterprise cannot do is do cannot enterprise ing, emotive or mnemonic capacities. This is a different different a is This capacities. mnemonic or emotive ing, - making. We have considered have We making. 117

ul. We look at their deeds and see it. That it. see and deeds their at look We ul. take over take –

Snell and Onians find themselves find Onians and Snell

the problem of intelligibility; of problem the psychohistorical psychohistorical - individual) interpretive individual) practices

the wa the nse of (translate) nse of arreness is not a a not is arreness

which, from which, lls of Troy. of lls scientists ‖ CEU eTD Collection RoyalSoci thewith members of thecase be to byGalton Mr. waswords. ascertained This on depend and power visualizing their lost have they more,rule, as a the moreas thinkers, effective the menand are older that thecase the be a advantage somesuch not possess they Did experience. our of items other any easilythan very they are only have.Not we elements N the for purpose. willthebest be handiest iswhich 109 appealsJames therecollections to ofone extensively: Mr.Ballard, from quotes whom he words contra the picturing ―handiest‖ is thought linguistic that ― in thinking with words in In 9 the each other. to intelligible us makes conceptswhich of net the through fallcan cultures, wholethey, unlike own their in interpretation of problems serious to amounting it, erodes bizarreness ormatter culture of practice, ritual,

― The scheme of relationship and the conclusion being the essential things in thinking, that kind of mind kindof that thinking, in things essential the being the conclusion and ofrelationship scheme The or Washington, be itto perfectly show […] possible. deaf a Ballard, Mr. by childhood philosop among language discussion without word possible a is of that thought as whether rational and effective as quite thought of system a images into visual and tactile his man canweave dumb deafand [A] hnig t vr ln tm. y uist ws wknd s o ht a the was what to as awakened was curiosity My time. long a over it thinking being into world question: the myself ask to began I […] observation own my of however, being, intercourse our going hardly and affairs home of medium; routine daily the to confined same the by me to said they what understand could I and pantomime, or signs natural by brothers and parents my grown other andparents school their of every talk the from school, primary common the of exercises the from derive from debarred was I infancy, in the hearing enjoying my of loss the of consequence ―In th

ety. The present writer observes itinwriter observes present The ety. chapter ofthe in images, as one can ask a question in English or in Chinese. To support this claim, this support To Chinese. in or English in question a ask can one as images, in For such a story, we return to William suchFor we a toWilliam James. return story, st as one between more or less inter less or more between one as st

datgs hc cide i te ul ossin f hi senses their of possession full the in children which advantages Principles We ti qeto ocre t m mn, st yef to myself set I mind, my to occurred question this When ? - tactile and visual visual and tactile fellows and playmates, and from the conversation of their of conversation the from and playmates, and fellows

- up persons. up , entitled ‗The Stream

rapidly –

faux pas faux in most in es Sm itrsig eiicne o his of reminiscences interesting Some hers. cases in which, instead of synchronizing social behavior, insteadbehavior, ofsynchronizingcases social inwhich, his own person most distinctly.‖ person hisown

revivable, but they are revivable as actual sensations more sensations actual as revivable are but they revivable, - ow words, uttered or unexpressed, are the handiest mental the handiest are unexpressed, or uttered words, ow mute instructor in the National College at at College National the in instructor mute I could convey my thoughts and feelings to to feelings and thoughts convey my Icould images 118

cases or

contretemps oil niomn ps sc a challenge; a such pose environment social , 109 ‖ (

1890/1983 but he sees no principled difficulty in difficulty principled no sees he but

of Thought‘, James contrasts James thin of Thought‘,

has been a favorite topic of of topic favorite a been has

translatable . Isolated individuals who raise who individuals Isolated . ) . James is ready to conc to ready is James . ( James, 1890/1983 James, - user. media

beyond the circle the beyond

How came the came How

The question question The s . One can think in think can One .

this, it wouldhardly it this, ) -

day day -

stuff king ede ede CEU eTD Collection And a later: bit correspondence, as wrote follows: toJames d‘Estrella Dumb, and Deaf the for Institution California the of recollections deaf the educated Ballard another Melville of story the to adding by case his support to trying the of publications the after years Two by feelings for what I should either wish or deny. For example, the idea the example, For deny. or wish either should I what for feelings by signs; my but suchasmoved thatis, mygestures, mother mightunderstand were intelligible make hardly could I language. instinctive of possible, ever if little, a moth d‘Estrella‘s when age,years of 5 [~ time this till Hitherto this to led which circumstance the communication.‖ recall not do I countenance. her on look solemn a with and sky the towards finger her pointing above, up being a about m told once mother my that remember I […] confusion. inextricable the of vortex laid I that it a into with drawn were, it as being, escape grappleto glad mind, my of out and to aside subject inability my bec at I bewildered that so and well mystery remember I and comprehend; could mind my than greater much matter a was it that perceived I time, considerable a subject this with myself occupied had I When answer. satisfactory a to attain strug vain a which in revolved mind about my question the was came universe the which from source The stars. and […] moon, sun, earth, the of existence the of cause the also and well, as hum of origin other. each understand us make to conventional or rational something seek would I or she that necessary a was It was desires. my understand guardian not could my and me, But to stranger part. my on attempt forced any without beforehand, k have must mother My acquired? signs essential the were How mental My reason. Signs. and of Logic the to think reduced properly and elaborated to favorably was condition how learn to able also was I spontaneously Not […] surely. but slowly me to opened was evil and good of knowledge the than guardian my of charge in left been I had sooner no But […] wanting. was conscience of faculty the even and either persons the deligh recognize with could I yet I all, Signs. at reason of Logic nor the think neither from could different is it that mind in bear Feeling; of the Logic constitutes simply This hunger. of feeling the by mind my in aroused was

( 1892b, pp.617

t or with dislike. Still, nearly all the human emotions were absent, were emotions human the all nearly Still, dislike. with or t an life in its first appearance upon the earth, and of vegetable life life vegetable of and earth, the upon appearance first its in life an - mute per mute

( James, 1890/1983 James, - 618 son, Theophilus H. d'Estrella, ― d'Estrella, H. Theophilus son, )

gle to grasp it, or rather to fight the way up to up way the fight to rather or it, grasp to gle Principles ) only could I think in pictures, but almost almost but pictures, in think I could only

119

Jms would James ,

n the and m s aple a its at appalled so ame instructor in drawing […] at […] drawing in instructor Blind oe ak o hs topic, this to back come er died] I had but Ihad died] er ‖ nown my wants wants my nown ( 82, . 614 p. 1892b,

of food of e ) In . CEU eTD Collection p. 127 p. already Ballard because without language possible is thatthought claim James‘s support JamesWittgen to that objection isan obvious enough,there 110 ofhisattackstressedin the context by of onthe privatization Wittgenstein thought. is recollections authentic as reports autobiographical such of acceptance definite‖ ―more became memories his of remembering instanc as reports their of accuracy the Notably, desire). and fear they as naturally as wonder and believe reflect, think, people (these vocabulary psychological typical in described isolate solitary un that, says ― James signing, conventional example, for d‘Estrella, About language. without thought not is James perhaps Signs‖ of his to refers he reading,when this explicitlydeny to seems language‖ ―instinctive minimal d‘Estrella‘s signi spontaneous as examples both Sure, language. of absence us by the themselves expressing mention in Ballard and d‘Estrella thought for evidence cases these both in saw James

Contrary to what is claimed by Russell Goodman in his discussion of James and Wittgenstein and ofJames hisdiscussion in Goodman Russell by what isclaimed Contraryto )

what he ta he what

622 language. dumb and deaf the of symbols the like all at not fashion Mexican the after conventional somewhat but extensive not were signs The eye. mind's my in fleeting and momentary were They general. were but details, in exact not school. to came I before signs and pictures in shows thought IIt that language. in meanings definite more and style better get to then and now changed havewords the though same, the been have recollections mysince Ithelped school. to came I before did I what about write me make to used teacher, my was he when Wilkinson, Mr. thought‖ Ti de nt ae h rcletos es miuu, u oe a acp that accept can one but ambiguous, less recollections the make not does This . )

is not questioned, and this despite d‘Estrella‘s telling remark that the that remark telling d‘Estrella‘s despite this and questioned, not is –

the second less than the first the than less secondthe kes to be a genuine, though perhaps ephemeral, phenomenon which is to be to is which phenomenon ephemeral, perhaps though genuine, a be to kes ( 1892b, p. 623 p. 1892b,

stretching g I oe o ead alr‘ ― Ballard‘s regard to one Is ng. i csooia ad tia rfetos ee h otit o his of outbirth the were reflections ethical and cosmological his

too -

emphasis added emphasis much the original reports when he reads them as claiming as them reads he when reports original the much

as instances of sign of instances as once he could use words. That the uncritical uncritical the That words. use could he once 12 – me much thus to repeat the memory. Ever Ever memory. the repeat to thus much me

0 are deeplyare

stein does not make: the Ballard case does not does case make:Ballard the not does stein ) . It is reasonably clear that James tries to tries James that clear reasonably is It . aua sgs n pantomime and signs natural ambiguous later ing signs. But it is also true that true also is it But signs. ing

language evolution towards ―the Logic ―the evolutiontowards

110 The pictures were pictures The

in whattheydescribein has has ? At least d‘Estrella least At ?

uiu wud be would dubious language.‖ language.‖ : ― : Strangely Strangely

meaning ie his like ( ( p. 2004, 2004, es of of es or ‖ CEU eTD Collection ( phenomenon memory him? memorywriter‘sdeceives the say that question why this does And words? thoughtsinto 113 § 214 1990b, 112 111 necessary is it context, notethe plays role the to concept intheattackonJames. the of part this for the fromthought of separation the about skepticism his was it Fundamentally, views. these all of critical be would Wittgenstein content. existing already an for vehicle a merely being latter the expression, its in place at happen must it that take and words, in rendered be then can can it that images, thinking that believed above, illustrated as James, thinking. of theory p is report The claims. Wittgenstein thoughts one‘s describing and remembering of framework familiar the in it for place autobiogra Ballard‘s Wittgenstein asks: pre the in discussed Köhler psychologist other only The remarks. Wittgenstein‘s in frequently appear that characters the of one is James Wittgenstein, 1953/2009, § 342 § 1953/2009, Wittgenstein, resented it as an unproblematic case of remembering, since he wanted Ballard to confirm his confirm to Ballard wanted he since remembering, of case unproblematic an as it resented

Translation: ― Translation: too notes, in isother mentioned Ballard seeOn this, - igitc eahscl huhs n brie and thoughts metaphysical linguistic . ihnen ziehen kann! Erzä des Vergangenheit die auf Schlüsse welche nicht, weiß ich Gedächtnisphänomen seltsames ein sind Erinnerungen Diese würde. sagen Gedächtnis? sein Schreiber den täusche scheint existieren zu nicht gar ist? Worte in Gedanken wortlosen deiner Übersetzung richtige die dies daß sicher, du Bist 111

) ae‘ cmet o Blad ae o oe f h mr itrsig examples interesting more the of one for make Ballard on comments James‘s .

( Goodman, 2004 Goodman, Are you sure Are Philosophical

– – Investigations

possibility and I don‘t know what conclusions one can draw from candrawone whatconclusions don‘t know I and möchte man fragen. Und warum reckt diese Frage diese reckt warum Und fragen. man möchte hcl eoti srne ( strange is report phical

–

one would ask like to one ; ) (

1953/2009, §342 1953/2009, Hacker, 2010, p. p. 278 2010, Hacker,

of its exp itsof Investigations . While the concept of thinking is not the main focus in our our in focus main the not is thinking of concept the While . – –

e.g. extra

I don‘t even know if I‘d sayI‘d if know don‘t even I ression which made the Ballard case relevantmaterial Ballard whichcase the ressionmade

– in –

riay n hs pcfc es. ae, however, James, sense. specific this in ordinary hier ihren Kopf hervor? Will ich sagen, es es sagen, ich Will hervor? Kopf ihren hier Zettel which otherwise seems not to exis not to seems whichotherwise – 121 ) ;

113 seltsam . Schulte, 2003, pp. 8 pp. 2003, Schulte, that this is the correct translation of your wordless your translationof correct is the thatthis

112 l dsrbn Jmss nepeain thereof, interpretation James‘s describing fly

(

Wittgenstein, 1998, 109 § 1998, Wittgenstein,

– fe smln Blads eois f his of memories Ballard‘s sampling After

c wi nct iml o ich ob einmal, nicht weiß Ich – ) because one has difficulties finding a a finding difficulties has one because )

with and without explicit mentioning explicit without and with confronted by Wittgenstein so often is is often so Wittgenstein by confronted that - 9 ) . These recollections are a strange a recollections are These . . them about the narrator‘s past!‖ thepast!‖ narrator‘s themabout

)

t / –

– RPP

an earlier stage than than stage earlier an arise here? Do I want I Do to here? arise die doch sonst sonst doch die hlers man aus aus man hlers

II (

Wittgenstein, –

und das –

or so or –

CEU eTD Collection remain irreducibly ambiguous remainirreducibly 114 be one could Ballard, sophisticated linguistically and educated an with present, narrative‘s the or universe the of origins the about thoughts (nonverbal?) pove expressive his given Ballard‘s then, of Ballard, linguistic) status‘ ‗evidential the pre young, the called with confronted oneself imagines be one If recollections. may what with is concern immediate a is, target larger The discussion. this of in positions symmetrical concepts the that note to important is It aboutnot, but the propermanner of thr went what about observation an as not comes is, that diagnosis, Wittgenstein‘s situation. the describe James and Ballard which in manner the but erode not does criticism The did. he way th the things describe later happenings to Ballard (psychological) been have might There the mentions. thinking of he capable thoughts was Ballard that doubtful is it regarding negative: question the in the be to must answer thinking the holds, criticism Wittgenstein‘s that extent the To of Ballard‘s embedd notes is autobiographical theme the is This language. public ―ethereal‖ or private the the James of capable was he whether or time, thoughts If,ea at the least

Suppose Investigations –

, and what James acceptswhatand James 114

we read his autobiography thus; wethus; his autobiography read

then the question is not whether he perhaps was thinking of thinking was perhaps he whether not is question the then thinking

(§§ 316 (§§ rly stages of his signing, Ballard Ballard ofhissigning, rly stages

mis remembers

sphere of the mind, and only incidentally expressed by means of a of means by expressed incidentally only and mind, the of sphere

n sc tig, n wehr he whether and things, such any - 362) to reject the reject to 362)

–

as authentic memories. It is the larger aim of this section of sectionthis of largeraim Itthe is memories.authentic as – characterizing

what Ballard‘ a recurrent one in one recurrent a

he then thought. The question rather is whether whether is rather question The thought. then he snotes

conception of thinking as thinking of conception 122 ed.

thinking

support this reading, but, as already noted, noted, thisas already but, reading, support

his pastpredicament. could rty, one should not attribute to him him to attribute not should one rty, Wittgenstein

not have expressed his metaphysical his expressed not have ough Ballard‘s mind and what did what and mind Ballard‘s ough and remembers s mentioned, thinking, but the but thinking, mentioned, s remembering divine

–

. But confronted, in the in confronted, But .

in which the discussion the which in a proce a - verbal (probably pre (probably verbal

something ht e rsns to presents he what

ss happening in happening ss do not occupy occupy not do this

t inclined at possibility,

else they at the at he he - CEU eTD Collection manage to assimilate Ballard‘s claims to any array of connections, analogies connections, of array any to claims Ballard‘s assimilate to manage are forc ‗remembering‘) (‗thinking‘, words familiar because notes autobiographical Ballard‘s case of beinga onthis to insist circumspe be to appropriate games language of concept the terms, Wittgenstein‘s In force these circumstances, ordinary In thoughtsexpressible (a are pleonasm) together; hang thought and expression that view Wittgenstein‘s from issues constraint second c one those are remember can one thoughts the memories their to comes it whenauthoritative of what The heclaims a torememberthepuzzle. havingis This thought. pre a that conviction separate our overlook cannot we remembers), he us tells someone what accept to be would default the (indeed, ignored testimony his that recognizing that, is point The issue. at is this of None voices. he conviction the to him led have could things of kinds all memories; B that assume can One self Ballard‘s why explain to try us Let context. present the in interesting it makes which slippery treatme different about question the So on. so and thoughts past memories, partici can ‗m his aboutsimilarly skeptical remembering - ed into unfamiliar uses, andunanchored, thus uses, theired meaning, fails unfamiliar into tocarry over. We donot portrait as a youngman ishard a tokeepportrait as infocus. ae s el s nbd i te agae games language the in anybody as well as pate

nt. It presents us with a puzzle, and it is precisely the fact that the question is question the that fact the precisely is it and puzzle, a with us presents It nt.

is caught here between two sources of pressure: (i) people are normally normally are people (i) pressure: of sources two between here caught is hc gons t maig Ti i wy n alr‘ cs i i more is it case Ballard‘s in why is This meaning. its grounds which allard is honest is allard ct about the very application of the concept of concept the of application very the about ct faulty emories‘? By ‗no emories‘?

remembering. One is at a loss when one tries to interpret interpret one triesto a when loss isat One remembering. all s are aligned, but here they pull in opposite directions. opposite in pull they here but aligned, are s –

the thoughtscould entertain. one remembering convinced that he is aiming at articulating genuine articulating at aiming is he that convinced 123 – ould have expressed (even if one did not). This This not). did one if (even expressed have ould

the standard is to accept their testimonies; (ii) (ii) testimonies; their accept to is standard the

w‘, Ballard is well within our form of life of formour within well is Ballard w‘, - linguistic Ballard linguistic

s up is –

and its phrasing its and remembering rooted from the usual range of of range usual the from rooted

n hc pol dsus their discuss people which in pplication of the concept pplication of theconcept could

seems to ask for a a for ask to seems remembering –

not have thought thought have not

, cannot be cannot

or comparisons comparisons or easily

than than ; he he ; CEU eTD Collection 115 mutandis mutatis character induc is say‘that to knowingwhat ‗not reactionofThe sensations. discussing (§342 Ballard on paragraph inclined‖ be ―would ―tempted‖ ‗destabiliz above called was aof as translation appears make exceptional scenario.The inthis sense issue beginsto it that indicate not Ballard ofdoes casein the itself invite to seems question the That ‗grammatical‘ tandem. expressing at good very are we of concepts the because because but ourselves, not happens This of. expression an is it what gapbet question expressi and thought of view this rejects clearly the of paragraphs these in Indeed, English. representation inner is expressed is thought when happens what that accepts Wittgenstein pre his of W that this of exegesis his In to say them. about o why is this and freely float They weight. their carry to enough solid

See also also See ittgenstein a ittgenstein ween expression and thought in which error could intervene, derailing expression from from expression intervene, derailing could error which in thoughtand expression ween would be ― be would

- ( ( recollections Ballard‘s of

Hanfling, 2001, p. 156 2001, Hanfling, verbal thoughts. The question is rhetorical, formulated in these terms not because not terms these in formulated rhetorical, is question The thoughts. verbal ( versucht a isig rm sros rso o te otx o uig certain using of context the of erosion serious a from issuing as ,

sks whether Ballard provides a ―correct translation‖ ―correct a provides Ballard whether sks senseless

– t tk te que the take to ) to answer it ( answer it to

passage say, a sentence in Mentalese in sentence a say,

) with an earlier paragraph, earlier an with ) ‖ )

for similarfor observations. n‘ f h gons f app of grounds the of ing‘ ( ( 1993, pp. 365 pp. 1993, 1993, p. 366 p. 1993, möchte antworten möchte §342, §348) is explained by reference to this paragraph, this to reference by explained is §348) §342, to seriously stion thought Investigations ) ; for a person expressing his thoughts, there is no is there thoughts, his expressing person a for ; 124 - 367

and that of that and on. In a regular context, Hacker observes, the observes, Hacker context, regular a In on.

) ,

115 – )

( to a public language language public a to

1953/2009, §348 1953/2009, Hacker notes the importance of the factthe of importance the notes Hacker ( itesen 15/09 §288 1953/2009, Wittgenstein, §288, which appears in the context of context the in appears which §288, , as in other in as , expression of thought of expression yn cran ocps Oe is One concepts. certain lying occasions ne does not know what know not does ne

) ( . Hacker compares the comparesthe Hacker . richtige Übersetzung richtige trans –

say, a sentence in in sentence a say, symptom ed by the bizarre bizarre bythe ed lation , Wittgenstein ,

func

tion as a a as tion rm an from

of what of ) one ; ) CEU eTD Collection of error also exists.‖ also oferror wigame language thenormal of theabrogation assume if I fromthis: what arises it is than other something for sensation – in the language place no has expressionofdoubt That .‖) . . believed wasI born I before sometime that remember ―I distinctly seriously, someonesay heard weas if rather would be (It makeof. anything can‘t 116 rel the sensation/ of expressions recognizable of one as fetus acan (what belief of concept the of application meaningful liberal most the even from unanchored utterly so is belief intrauterine of idea The autobiography. Ballard‘s of version extreme the as beliefs having remember to claiming is individual an It means). ‗pain‘ what know with confronted not being with ‗pain‘ of use does deviant this compares Wittgenstein that or noteworthy knows either pain, feel not does or feels ei person hypothetical (that concepts regular applying of terms in decided be can case the ( reaction strange a with confronted too, Here not beingsure the understood he that claimed someone if What expressions.

are excluded, it looks as if I might then legitimately begin to doubt. My temptation to say that one might take a might take that one say My to doubt. temptation to begin legitimately might then as if it looks I excluded, are

Translation: ― Translation: evant concepts are are concepts evant th the expression of a sensation, I need a criterion of identity for the sensation; and thenpo the and thefor sensation; identity of criterion a need I sensation, a of expression th the dann scheint es, ich ich es, scheint dann Benehme der menschliche Empfindung, Ausdruck das der nun wenn aber Sprachspiel; dem zu nicht gehört Zweifels des Ausdruck Jener Zeitdeutlich, einigemeiner Geburtgeglaubt haben, vor zu ..‖) wäre w (Es etwa, wissen. anzufangen nichts wir der mit eine ansehen, für Reaktion Worte seltsame seine müßten und schütteln Köpfe die bloß wir würden [D]a §288 Irrtums. des Möglichkeit die auch bestünde dann abgesch Empfindung der Ausdruck kommt dem mit ist, Sprachspiel normale sie das ich was Wenn daher: als halten, andres etwas für Empfindung die könne man do believing ) ?) that it destabilizes in the same the in destabilizes it that ?) [W]e‘d merely shake our heads and have to regard his words as a strange reaction reaction strange as a words his regard to have and heads our shake merely [W]e‘d 116

whether what he experienced at that moment was pain? moment heexperiencedwaswhetherwhat pain? at that ft ek, ruh ih u en rtru dr dniä fr i; und sie; für Identität der Kriterium ein nun ich brauche denke, afft

e en i jmn i Ent sgn ötn ―c einr mich erinnere ―Ich hörten: sagen Ernste im jemand wir wenn ie ( Wittgenstein, 1953/2009, §288 1953/2009, Wittgenstein,

n a oe of one as and embedded is ―abrogated‖ is embedded dürfe dürfe

wieder zweifeln. Daß ich hier versucht bin, zu sagen, sagen, zu bin, versucht hier ich Daß zweifeln. wieder

remembering thought are not available, the language game language the available, not are thought )

- 125 game; but if expressions ofsensation if but expressions game; seltsame Reaktion seltsame

move both the characterization of this situation this of characterization the moveboth

. The critical observation here is that if if that is here observation critical The . ( in utero in abgeschafft . Such a suggest a Such .

(

Wittgenstein, 1953/2009, 1953/2009, Wittgenstein, word ‗pain‘, but then confessed then but ‗pain‘, word ), and the application of those of application the and ), ), one should not assume that assume not should one ), n, ausgeschlossen ist,n,

ion could be seen be could ion –

human behaviour behaviour human which wewhich

in which in ssibility ther ther - CEU eTD Collection thinks wirer sagen, damit alles tun, ofthought is cont observation This theyar sind. Denkens ― ‗metalogical‘ of sense earlier in Wittgenstein‘s special is not Thinking sees §35 1990b, one which through 117 lens the on decide to comes curiosity a about speculation brushed undercarp the ignored, but with, lived not is ambiguity The such. and such thought having informative remembering an as testimony Ballard‘s takes he thinking; more and else, something wants James But childhood. traumatic a with peace make him helps it perhaps role; fruitful a plays recollections Ballard‘s accepting which in scenarios imagine even can We life. of part are situation of unheard an not is This sight. in solution wondering oneself find instead would One word. his at Ballard taking of effort the made one if sin mortal a commit would one if as not is It fl best, at has, it where situation a in concept the apply to continue to driven instead but concept, the applying for grounds recognized publicly on dependent nonetheless paradig is it but uses, of range considerable conceptof thinking ma why clear be now should It ‗abrogation‘ undoingasof a or of conceptual exception. is state this by opened perspective The undermined. seriously least at or excluded thereby is concepts Die Begriffe des Glaubens, Erwartens, Hoffens, sind einander weniger artfremd, als sie dem Begriff des des Begriff wenigerals siedem artfremd, einander sind Hoffens, Erwartens, Glaubens, des Begriffe Die

Even if gnl Ee i oe evs h ― the leaves one if Even rginal. !‖ e from the concept of thinkin of concept from the e ) ( matic Wittgenstein, 1990a, §563 §563 1990a, Wittgenstein,

aside, since it since aside, ( thinking ; Wittgenstein, 1998, §110 1998, Wittgenstein, 1998, §113 1998, remembering ‖ (― ‖ – The concepts of believing, expecting, hoping are less different in kind from one another than fromanother kind one different in less hoping are expecting, ofbelieving, concepts The

otxs f plcto. cs lk Blads does Ballard‘s like case A application. of contexts is often treated together wit together isoften treated ) inuous with another aspect of this con this with of aspect another inuous

–

i et. Andsothecase isgivenaet. bluntly, misleading Toputit presentation. may enlarge the scope of the discussion beyond the the beyond discussion the of scope the enlarge may t also has a place in other themes, for example language, calcula examplefor language, themes, in t alsoother has place a

denke is a is bona fide bona ! g.‖) g.‖)

‖ (― ‖ ) alr cud e en s n ntne f h psychologically the of instance an as seen be could Ballard ) .

which makes for a for whichmakes

What a lot of things a man must do in order for us to say he usfor to manin order must do a things of lot a What , from this case. He presents it as it presents He case. this from , ( Wittgenstein, 1953/2009, §574 1953/2009, Wittgenstein, widely

psychological notion, if anything is. This concept has a concepthas This anythingis. if psychological notion, h other psychological concepts concepts psychological h other ramified 126

difficult presentation difficult destabilizes

cept‘s complexity, that of the ‗scattered‘ ofthe that complexity, cept‘s how ; ambiguity, vagueness, and contradiction contradiction and vagueness, ambiguity, ; ‖ ( itesen 19, §110 1998, Wittgenstein,

to do that, without having a durable durable a having without that, do to

( see Hacker, 2010, p. 282ff 2010, Hacker, see

)

r rds hs gons oe is one grounds: these erodes or See also also See –

: – indeed indeed ―

e.g. W ( as muβ der Mensch nicht Mensch muβ der as evidence Wittgenstein, 1990b, §12 Wittgenstein,1990b,

( not Wittgenstein, 1990a, §129 1990a, Wittgenstein,

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Ironically, one is reminded here of a charact ofa here isreminded one Ironically, ― further goes sometimes withbut Rorty privacy, and ‗inner‘ withmental the ofthe aligning is the Inquestion Wittgenstein rejects the possibility of a scientific psychology; that is, any theory that purports to explain to purports theorythat any is, that psychology; scientific ofa the possibility rejects Wittgenstein mental that, see e.g. no e.g. see that, l and radical rejection of the possibility the of rejection radical and l n terms of inner mental causes.‖ ofinner nterms is not the case: ― case: the not is a certain kind certain a ‖ ‖ bt s elyd n wy hc de nt ov our solve not does which way a in deployed is but , f hs sa i t eps te ― the expose to is essay this of (

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( Wittgenstein, 1990b,§62 it need not be decided be not need it

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(or thinking, intending, feeling pain, etc.) is by the the by is etc.) pain, feeling intending, thinking, (or

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Resistance: a note onMcDowell note a Resistance: Could a legislator a Could presupposes thatconceptsremain most unaltered. us. for concept new a introduce later we that happens it Sometimes so closely with what is most fundamental in our way of living that they are are they that living of way our in fundamental therefore unassailable. most is what with closely so - . 122 using beings that we are. beingsmight―craving We using that be external for friction‖

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John McDowell of thedifficultieskind confronts this in inherent

abolish the concept of pain? The basic concepts are interwoven interwoven are concepts basic The pain? of concept the abolish Bildung zum Menschen zum Bildung

( Wittgenstein, 1999,pp.43

is don is the given‘begun the by Sellars e essentially by hijacking such regular concepts. If a If concepts. regular such hijacking by essentially e

130 ), as Herder called it called as Herder ),

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( 2000, p.121

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Concluding remark Concluding

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ill see in the next chapters, perspective seeill this goes inthe next without ( - 2000, p.55 theoretical approximat theoretical 132

similation is animportant is lesson indeedsimilation leveling )

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133

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Jacobi does not already introduce another one one another introduce already not does Jacobi edicine. That this question has a place is one of a number of interesting analogies between between analogies interesting of number a of one is place a has question this That edicine. paper ) . But this is not to say that this form of study disappeared or did not continue to exert exert to continue not did or disappeared study of form this that say to not is this But . ) ) - , . One wonders whether in rejecting one kind of illusion illusion of kind one rejecting in whether wonders One .

seven yea seven

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Piaget is perhaps the best known of its laterPiaget perhaps the incarnations. is best of known its eet 21, . 98 p. 2013, Levelt, on seems to have been present, abstracting, as it were, the future adult futurefrom a tohave on seems present,aswere, been abstracting, it the rs ago with respect to one of [his] own [his] of one to respect with ago rs as go as kind The modern discipline of pediatrics has established itself precisely by by precisely itself established has pediatrics of discipline modern The ing from Taine‘s 1876 article to the establishment ofdevelopmental article tothe ing 1876 Taine‘s from

( Levelt, 2013, pp. 94 pp. 2013, Levelt, ‘ followed. David Ingram dates ― Ingramdates David followed. ‘ miniature men and women and men miniature

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‖ that children are mini are children that ( - Darwin, 1877, p. 285 p. 1877, Darwin, 1920s

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Plusieurs vocabulaires peuvent se succéder dans son esprit, par l'oblitération sonesprit, par dans peuventsuccéder Plusieurs vocabulaires se ( Taine, 1877, pp. pp. 257 1877, Taine, When the question arose question the When ) cadres 124

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he quotes a shorter passage from this fragment, in the 1877 English translation. Here is Here translation. English 1877 in the fragment, from this passage shorter a hequotes

By this delicacy it is capable of general ideas. We only help it to catch them by the the bycatchthem it to only help We ideas. ofgeneral it iscapable this delicacy By :

― - 258 The variety of intonations that it acquires shows in it a superior delicacy of delicacy superior it a in shows that it acquires ofintonations variety The ressionistic, focused on detailed description. Some parents were parents Some description. detailed on focused ressionistic,

) t des gestes vocaux naturels. vocaux gestes des t déjà faite déjà

– :

— Ingram notes Ingram ). This is not an alien world, but one whi one but world, alien an not is This ). -

made language as a true musician learns counterpoint or a or counterpoint learns musician true as a madelanguage Il y accroche des idées sur lesquelles nous nous lesquelles sur idées des accroche y Il 136

aning of the word, but the word itself. Several itself. word but the word, the aning of

—

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CEU eTD Collection the idea that the inflation of cogwheel mentalism, typical of cognitivism and exemplified in exemplified and cognitivism of typical mentalism, cogwheel of inflation the that idea the be will discussion this backgroundfor The reasons. such some discusses chapter making.This the a in is witness we intentionality what that doubt to shared is, that Reasons, of context. developmental concept the of potential explanatory the about skeptical i which one with but elusive, or hard is that concept a with faced not is One missing. are construction meaningful a for foundations the however, stand, things As incremental. be can discovery a Consistency it. for meaning intentionality shared of notion the justify may research empirical ongoing that possibility the dismiss cannot One nature. human into insight settle be not needs that Perhaps straightforward. all at not is mean should intentionality shared what writing, learned of quantities significant and are we case particular the in happens what sense not is this But expectations. common divorce to unnatural, be to science good of nature the concept unnatural an remains intentionality shared man, of sociality and ontogeny evolution, the about considerations general making placewhen common becoming its Despite field the in enterprises research influential more the of one is which colleagues, and Tomasello intentionality developmenta in role visible increasingly an play to were, it as silently allowed, was construction theoretical problematic a consequence, a As rule. the less or more been has it paper; particular this of discussion the in only happened not has This downp or ignored part most the for were children, of abilities cooperative rudimentary the and literature, philosophical .

s blurred to the point of being unusable. If this is so, there are obviously reasons to be be to reasons obviously are there so, is this If unusable. being of point the to blurred s

has become the common interpretative halo of the experimental work of of work experimental the of halo interpretative common the become has nd consensus can be manufactured, and the process of scientific scientific of process the and manufactured, be can consensus nd additional discussing the significance of experiments or whenor experiments of significance the discussing . Lewis Wolpert Lewis .

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criticism will be the explanatory language used by Tomasello and Tomasello by used language explanatory the be will criticism . The two concepts differ at least in terms of scope, but more but scope, of terms in least at differ concepts two The .

This is to say that in this example of developmental developmental of example this in that say to is This present

philosophical intentionality 140 n ad comparing and ing

illustrated by the ideas of Searle and Bratman Bratman and Searle of ideas the by illustrated re to the point that real discoveries might be be might discoveries real that point the to re

is of cooperative action as a cognitive a as action cooperative of is

concept

is invoked as an explanatory umbrella explanatoryumbrella an as invoked is ion turned into a philosophical philosophical a into turned ion

h acut o shared of accounts the ely disregarded by by disregarded ely

is more than than more is - CEU eTD Collection else, psychologists may very well play language games of their own. A decade of empirical empirical of decade A own. their of games language play well very may psychologists else, an introduced gradually have talk by inspired that, option the leaves This case, developmental beshould explained. the in which, of emergence the abilities very the of exercise mature the presupposes which psychology rational of kind Toma a is of doing is enterprise Bratman What colleagues. explanatory the for inadequate is notion the that indicates is such as and, attitudes, et Tomasello, operationalized been) has (and be may that one thus treatment, clearer much a has hand, other the on Bratman, proposal. Searle‘s of operationalization proper a as count could what see to hard is it be, may one as charitable As an Rakoczy as and, obscure constructed, ill is notion the However, psychologists. Planck Max the by made proposals the suit to seem we fact in particularly are Both research. developmental interpreting for apparatus conceptual adequate an provide treatment Bratmanian a nor Searlean, a neither that suggest to is step next The intenti shared does the How serves? theory advertised the needs explanatory the in are What interrogative: once make to supposed is intentionality shared i what on be will focus The scientists. these of texts inclined theoretically more the on based survey a sketch instead w the of presentation exhaustive an give to context unde research psychological the regards what In - neto i piiie and primitive is intention onality serve them?

l pae we i cms o nesadn im understanding to comes it when placed ill l, 2005 al.,

s taken to be the be to taken s ) not Hwvr hs oin f hrd neto i rdcbe o familiar to reducible is intention shared of notion his However, .

a mentalistic construct. The latter remark is fundamental, since it it since fundamental, is remark latter The construct. mentalistic a autonomous e i trs f ne poess (mentalistic) processes inner of terms in set explanandum d Tomasello Tomasello d

concept of shared intentionality. Like everybody Like intentionality. shared of concept ( 141 ol Tmslo 2007 Tomasello, & Moll o

f the philosophers the f

dsuso, t il o b psil i this in possible be not will it discussion, r ork of Tomasello and colleagues and Tomasello of ork

in the materials, and on the contribution the on and materials, the in ( 2007 mature minds. Searle‘s notion of of notion Searle‘s minds. mature ) explanans

have n have , Tomasello and colleagues colleagues and Tomasello , oted, curiously inclusive. inclusive. curiously oted,

oiin Pt n the in Put position. ; oael, 2010 Tomasello, ad hs would this and , el and sello . I will will I . - ; CEU eTD Collection keep themso. to effort deliberate a is there when and synchronized, rationally are etc. beliefs intentions, is aggregate intention accountof his from anal an on based is intention, shared family, theoretical this in notion core the of treatment Bratman‘s because is This subject. the changing to purposes, practical all for amounts, context developmental inten shared of notion his where i.e. readingelsewhere, givenabe psychological specific could psychologicalifthey process,even And discussion. under context specific do could ever they if however, not, is issue The cooperation. diagnostic as operationalizable are checkpoints these that thought be may it cooperation, genuine for checkpoints sets theory Sinc notion. interesting possibly a analyzing at aimed engineering reverse conceptual non the approximate gradually context. developmental the in work it make to done be can anything if account see and (Bratman‘s) promising available more the to return to is consideration into taken strategy charitable A Bratmanian interpretation, and 2003 Rakoczy, 2011 re close a on collapses however, option, This philosophyaction. the of in homophonous counterpart a has Tomasello intentionalityla à wo construction theory and work not ;

a previously unthought previously a oael, 2008 Tomasello, rta‘ aayi sget isl bcue t ois nme of number a posits it because itself suggests analysis Bratman‘s state of affairs of state

) Te ugse aaye ae au, ntbe ewe a eren n a and Searlean a between unstable vague, are analyses suggested The . ysis of mature, everyday, unmistakable everyday, mature, of ysis ; , kept together, essentially, by norms of rationality. of norms by essentially, together, kept , oael, t l, 2005 al., et Tomasello, simpliciter -

of insular mental capacity, but capacity, mental insular of they misconstrue concept. rather thanreplace thephilosophical - symptoms technical notion of cooperation. It can be seen as a case of of case a as seen be can It cooperation. of notion technical uld back the notion up, and it would matter little if shared shared if little matter would it and up, notion the back uld

in os pl. prtoaiig i ciei i a in criteria his Operationalizing apply. does tion . The resulting picture of shared intention is that of an of that is intention shared resultingofpicture The . ading of the relevant material relevant the of ading n hs context this in

for a distinct psychological process which underlies underlies which process psychological distinct a for 142

; oael & ol 2011 Moll, & Tomasello

Bratman‘s criteria could not target a a target not could criteria Bratman‘s planning what emerges what that, but if they could in the the in could they if but that, . This approach is inherited is approach This . -

e.g.

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Shared intention intention Shared Callaghan et al., al., et Callaghan when individual when ; criteria oael & Tomasello

which e the the e

CEU eTD Collection progressbut anoldmis psychology, in of mark a not is This achievement. normative and social a as seen best is what mentalizes intentionality shared of theory developmental The attitude. of kind novel a as attributed be intentionality, haswhich, thatit astable tothe extent meaning, shared feature, a attribute They justification. debatable be to out turn will what with children the to states mental complex attribute colleagues and Tomasello that only Not specific. more is attack my but justified, partially is criticism a such think I confusing. and cheap is liberally states mental attributing that grounds usual the on attacked be can colleagues and Tomasello informative. is failure This of a interpretation proper ofan already body impressive empirical of work. way the in stands artifact conceptual this that indicates actually It play. to it want colleagues intentionali shared that fact the change not does this But history. evolutionaryof properobjectsthe be well verycourse,could of range resultant a in consists it most, at pressures; adaptive sp under evolution in acquired faculty human mental novel the a be from not emerges capture to purports it p what though even faculty, mental wi concept the ideas, Bratmanian of loose however on understanding intentionality shared one‘s bases one if But, intentionality. shared is ability fundamental the by driven being as agents of understanding the was performance social 1993 Ratner, & Kruger, (speci evolution both to extends quest Their apes. great the us like relatives, close even makes from mentally, different, what of source the for looking are colleagues and Tomasello research. of aims psychologist story the to turn we When sychological makeup, the child‘s ―original genius‖sychological―original thechild‘s makeup, es history) and ontogeny (individual history). In the 1990s 1990s the In history). (individual ontogeny and history) es )

these psychologists these A heavily mentalistic developmental theory as that proposed by by proposed that as theory developmental mentalistic heavily A y ol nt ly h epaaoy oe oael and Tomasello role explanatory the play not could ty take. s tell, we get a very different picture in terms of the the of terms in picture different very a get we tell, s

143 thought the psychological key to our distinctiv our to key psychological the thought

here included. Shared intentionality could Shared here included.

is not thekindof thingis not thatcan social aptitudes. The latter, of of latter, The aptitudes. social rln ad pce specific species and iraling goals ll not refer to a new new a to refer not ll

. Now they think think they Now . ( e.g. Tomasello, Tomasello, e.g. e CEU eTD Collection = MSW = Actions‘ and Intentions ‗Collective = CIaA 126 philosophya need we muchphilosophy a not so need reality.We social of existence modethe and nature ofthe understanding weclearer geta if sciences social the in research our help and 125 departures of from line argument. its notable the note briefly then and CIaA on focus thus will I texts. recent more the in present ever in paper point‖ turning ―crucial a is publication latter this in defended account individualistic 2007 Gilbert, this about commentators among agreement is There substantive. most the remained tha for point, the to more or, intentionality, collective ‗ also part infrastructure ofthe conceptual Neurobi and Freedom Reality Social of Construction The society and ( similar ― calledrecently elements central the of one is It 1990s. the since published ontology‘ ‗social on writings Searle‘s of most in present is intentionality shared or collective of concept The 2.3 Co 1990/2002 The Construction of Social Reality Social of Construction The

As I try to summarize and evaluate Searle‘s views on this issue, the foll the issue, this viewson Searle‘s evaluate and Assummarize tryto I generally phenomena social of understanding willour deepen it ‗I believe willinstructive: full be The quote lcie netos n Actions‘ and Intentions llective Influences: Searle Influences: Making –

accounts ) ( , in an essay that prefaces a volume dedicated to Searle‘s philos Searle‘s to dedicated volume a prefaces that essay an in , 2007 ything else Searle has written on the subject, despite some interesting variations variations interesting some despite subject, the on written has Searle else ything

the Social WorldSocial the ; a philosophy a uwg 2007 Ludwig, ) for for , and in in and ,

the social sciences of the future‘. the sciences of thesocial r gvn n n ery ae, ‗ paper, early one in given are ology

Making the Social World Social the Making .

( for

2008 ; SO = ‗Social Ontology: The Problem and Steps toward a Solution‘ (2007), Solution‘a (2007), toward Steps and Problem The ‗SocialOntology: = ; SO ;

the . . mt, 2003 Smith, C. B. ) cletv itninlt, huh o dsusd hr, is there, discussed not though intentionality, collective ;

–

Intentionality ( social sciences‖ social

1995 page numbers refer to the reprint the reprint to refer numbers page is Searle‘s first attempt to argue for the notion of of notion the for argue to attempt first Searle‘s is of ) Rationality inAction Rationality in , 144

id Lnug ad Society and Language Mind,

(

2003, p. 14 p. 2003, wi of of 125 th that of CIaA, Barry Smith notes tha notes Smith Barry CIaA, of that th ( the social sciences of the present and the past as the past and present ofthe sciences the social 2010

( ; 2010, p. 2010, t of collective intention, and it has has it and intention, collective of t Co abr, 2003 Zaibert, ) . Shorter sections are included in included are sections Shorter . lcie netos n actions‘ and intentions llective owing abbreviations will be used: willused: be abbreviations owing ) . We will find the ideas of this this of ideas the find will We .

(

( 2003b 5 Searle, 2002, pp. 90 pp. 2002, Searle, ) . Fuller . ) . 126 ) Cnrsig the Contrasting . –

but substantiallybut

of what he has has he what of pyo action of ophy ( 1999 - 105 ) , and in in and ,

of ) ; CoSR (e.g. t CEU eTD Collection difference. this of characterization illuminating an give to is ramifications. notes, himself Searle as problem, the case, future and counterfactual include in mainly understood be which could divide the Alternatively, chains longer of part being socio the of because arise might For be. could right details the getting uncontroversial, seems this Eventhe cooperative iftheysituations. if ‗movements‘go case,thesame even inboth through them of each when case the actions their and action, in an performs independently as thing same the doing not are they something, doing in cooperate people some If reading. neutral on least at accept, to easiestthe is thesis first The claims thatmatter: these five around structured is paper The intentions supplemented with beliefs, including mutual beliefs, about the the about beliefs, mutual including beliefs, ofotherintentions membersgroup. ofa with supplemented intentions 2 Thesis intentional ofindividual behavior.not the same as thesummation is which behavior intentional collective as thing a such is really There 1: Thesis intentions andintentions actions. ro the of conception certain 5 Thesis activity. cooperative a of members potential or actual as but agents, conscious mere than cooperat for candidate a as other the of sense background a presupposes intentionality Collective 4: Thesis below) ( constraints t reducible we that thesis The 3: Thesis

: :

h ntto, n hne h ter, of theory, the hence and notation, The We I o

ehdlgcl niiuls ad metho and individualism methodological - netos cannot intentions - netos ls uul eif i consist is beliefs mutual plus intentions

ive agency, i.e. it presupposes a sense of others as more more as others of sense a presupposes it i.e. agency, ive - communicational context of the actions and/or due to their to due and/or actions the of context communicational - e f h Bcgon cn comdt collective accommodate can Background the of le intentions are a primitive form of intentionality, not intentionality, of form primitive a are intentions

e nlzd no es f I of sets into analyzed be s, the middle triad (theses 2, 3, and 4) containing the the containing 4) and 3, 2, (theses triad middle the s, 145

happen causal (psychological) terms. In any In terms. (psychological) causal Intentionality

to add up to the same result as in as result same the to up add to dological solipsism solipsism dological ent with these two two these with ent -

netos ee I even intentions, xml, h difference the example,

oehr ih a with together –

see see - CEU eTD Collection neet n neto ad lnig Tee s oprtvl ngiil atnin o other to attention negligible comparatively is There planning. and intention in interest Socially generally. coordinated subject the on literature philosophical the for case the is this chapter, we or collective concerns only intentionalit between liberally switches Searle While has it since proven tobeseductive. to, amounts aspect latter this what out spell to try us Let literally. plural, the its approach 3) (thesis individualism methodological with compatible is reductivism intentions individual regular t that claim The on. focus to need we one the thesis, second the by covered territory the enter to is question this ask To special above character performed actions mentioned tosome contexts? insocial collective of nature the is What follows: as paragraph previous the of end the at raised problem the rephrase to position a in now are collective is it inherited; thus di a ‗ of calls he which variety, is intentionality this thinks Searle them. ‗behind‘ intentionality the is thesis 1990/2 in component, mental the of feature special some in ca psychological ―mental‖ be must two diff the actions, individual versus collective performing in ‗movements‘ body (roughly, behavioral and Si mental components. into movements) parsed be can action an that thinks Searle 0, . 91 p. 002,

action in think can mind individual each but minds, group no are There profile. specific usation: ― usation: ) ht ae atos olcie n h rbs sne pcfe b te first the by specified sense robust the in collective actions makes What .

s ht hs p these what is

in the sense that the two situations diverge in their recent histo recent their in diverge situations two the that sense the in collective intentionality‘. The special characte special The intentionality‘. collective So if there is anything special about collective behavior, it must lie must it behavior, collective about special anything is there if So he intentional component of collective actions does not reduce to reduce not does actions collective of component intentional he nce a person or a group can go through exactly the same same the exactly through go can group a or person a nce – intentionality

oehr ih h smwa reoia cam ht uh non such that claim rhetorical somewhat the with together - intention ioohr wn t udrtn, n ti epan their explains this and understand, to want hilosophers

. Indeed, as mentioned at the beginning of this this of beginning the at mentioned as Indeed, . netoaiy ad ht n hsntr cnes the confers nature this in what and intentionality,

which makes the difference. This means that we we that means This difference. the makes which 146

y and intention, the discussion in CIaA in discussion the intention, and y the form of the intentionality.‖ the of form the r of collective actions is actions collective of r erence between the the between erence –

gives Searle‘s Searle‘s gives

( Searle, stinct ry of ry - CEU eTD Collection or the performance of complex musical pieces like symphonies. symphonies. like musicalpieces theofcomplex performance or 127 re to andanticipates prepares intention that idea the to refers it i.e. ‗intention‘, of everyday the use with less or more conceptoverlaps is sense this in Intention component. 98 between distinction the is source defended theaccount in continuous with is types attitude individuate properties formal that idea The intentions. collective ‗typifies‘ The cha of conditions the in elements the sat that way the in not involved, intention of type the in special a are they that idea the is, that reduce, not do intentions collective that claim the is substantive des to acceptable be may it as harmless, seem may form This identification. formal first a given thus we or Collective X‘. do to intend ‗we form the of intentions are there action collective on then focus us Let carry thatwhether andmatter. should over, being there collective such priorities, other by defined literature of bodies to gestures nodding only and belief, as such attitudes,

) Especially actions that can that actions Especially isfaction relateeach other.‖ to . The latter concept captures the idea that genuine action has a contemporary intentional intentional contemporary a has action genuine that idea the captures concept latter The . uti ato.Ti wyo pcaigitnin may intention speciating of way This action. in sult rb atos efre b gop i sc terms such in groups by performed actions cribe type racteristic ofSearle‘s element account anattemptcertain is that toshow a form logical intentionality may be an important topic, the material is at most an argument for for argument an most at is material the topic, important an be may intentionality

intending of intention: ― intention: of s ht n omn knowledge common on that as

in the plural. We will have the opportunity later on to ask if the lessons the if ask to on later opportunity the have will We plural. the in only The real distinction between the singular and the col the and singular the between distinction real The

be performed by groups. Searle‘s favorite examples are moves in team sports movessports inteam are favoriteexamples Searle‘s groups. performedby be

( prior intention prior netos Sal mitis ht t h bss f collective of basis the at that maintains Searle intentions. subsequent Searle, 1990/2002, p.102 Searle, 1990/2002,

concomitant with, and part of, the doing. The former former The doing. the of, part and with, concomitant Intentionality

147 deeds and also to the idea that intention may intention fail that the idea to also and deeds

and and

( adrcra & ilr, 2009 Sillari, & Vanderschraaf intention

. Amore importa

(actually, ) .

. - 127 in -

action ht ae te position the makes What does nt idea taken from that from taken nt idea

( Searle, 1983, pp. 84 pp. 1983, Searle, )

involve debatable debatable involve - lective case is is case lective intentions are intentions ) S, while So, . - CEU eTD Collection I might, as part of a political movement, desire something as a part of our desiring our of part as a something desire movement, political a of might, I as part faith. our of as part it, believing our of as part only something believe faith, religious memberofa example,as a 128 are other Some clutch). the releasing you and pushing me of means are goals collective some suggested, by causal ―the these gun the share. her or his do to intending them of each like something be must there cooperate, people when that, is here idea driving The of‘. mod the on intentions collective analyze to proposes Searle proper. theory the to move now us Let collective orshared intentionality. collective intentions analysi his but intentionality, collective mentions Searle following: the that and treatment Searle‘s on see, will between we as focuses, who Bratman, by developed contrasts important the of one is This gratuitous. writings other in desires and beliefs collective of mentioning the like intentions, prior collective of mentioning the cau by work intentions cause to supposed are Intentionality intentions prior that given Indeed, a says he what whether clear collective discussing only is he explanation; any without i prior collective once mentions Searle While accountcollective of intention. shou that step a is it but commitments,

E.g. ― E.g. el of the singularintentions the of el But there are also forms of collective intentionality intentionality of collective forms also are there But by means of means by sing other intentions, the extension of the account seems even more dubious, and and dubious, more even seems account the of extension the intentions, other sing ), and that in CIaA Searle explicitly rejects the idea that collective intentions intentions collective that idea the rejects explicitly Searle CIaA in that and ), - -

pulling the trigger, or I can intend to vote to intend can I or trigger, the pulling

means in - action. Even if the analysis is correct, it would not deliver a concept of deliver concept a correct,of is wouldnot analysis Evenit action. ifthe

( - ere 19, . 23 p. 1995, Searle, of‖, and ―the constitutive by constitutive ―the and of‖,

bout this notion is supposed to carry over to prior intentions. intentions. prior to over carry to supposed is notion this bout

- in -

action that involve operators like ‗by way of‘ or ‗by means or ‗by of‘ wayoperatorslike involve that action achieved d e et n id n re to order in mind in kept be ld In the singular case, I can I case, singular the In 148 ntentions in CIaA in ntentions

by means of means by ;

07 p 12 p. 2007, in such things as believing and desiring. I might,for I desiring. and believing as suchthings in - prior way

intentions individual acts (we start a car by by car a start (we acts individual -

; of‖ intentions. The picture so far is is far so picture The intentions. by 08 p 85 p. 2008,

( rais relations. Analogously, it is it Analogously, relations. 1990/2002, p. 104 p. 1990/2002,

for example intend to fire fire to intend example for it. constituted by constituted ing my arm. Searle calls calls Searle arm. my ing - ‖ in

(2010:43) - s covers exclusively exclusively covers s action nesad Searle‘s understand ; - 00 p 43 p. 2010, in ad t s not is it and , -

cin à la (à action

individual ) , this is this , ) , 128

CEU eTD Collection 130 129 this does how is one first The order. in are questions few a and intend...‘, ‗we form the of those as intentions collective of identification first the from distance some at now are We According wouldtranslateyet this (filling toSearle, as follows in another B A causes: i.a. (this A singular of means by B collective i.a. 102 ― i of inflation an induces formalization the case, benign this in even that, note should One intention. the of content the inside for stands part the while intention, of type the specifies parentheses the outside locution The i.a. B i.a.causes: A by meansAtrigg (this of the trigger exam Searle‘s of another use To i.a. B i.a.causes: A by meansA (this of intention rendering formal following the have we cases, individual the In meant capture to violin) the you and piano the playing me by duet a play (we acts it isn't just any old type of i.a., it is an achie an is it i.a., of type old any just isn't it )

Mutatis mut Mutatis Searle‘s examples are The ) . Analogou oe wih i ta cnet cue i t b te ae a B ta te engine the that B, as case, starts. the be to it causes context, that in which, moves intention this context, that in that, is intention the of content the and A, act singular my performing intention collective a have I - in

( - 1990/2002, p. 102 1990/2002, p. action: andis ( 2007, p.19 sly, in the case of collective intentions, we getsly, case wecollective formalization: inthe of the following intentions,

the idea ofdoing idea share. the one‘s for the ‗by wayoperator. theof‘ for ‗by

( 2007, 19 p. 2007, )

)

- . This will be analyzed as: beanalyzed . Thiswill in ples, I can intend (B) to fire the gun by means of (A) pulling pulling (A) of means by gun the fire to (B) intend can I ples, - cin ass t o e h cs, s , ht h car the that A, as case, the be to it causes action ) .

- in ntention types. As Searle says about the example the about says Searle As types. ntention - action, B, which I do my part to carry out by out carry to part my do I which B, action, content ofA

er pulls, causes:gun B pulls, er fires). ve 149

- B

- by , causes: B, causes: - means

content of A of content - of content of B content of - A type of i.a.‖ of type A . 129 , 130

Again, the operators are operators the Again,

hr ‗.. sad for stands ‗i.a.‘ where , causes: B causes: ,

example ofhis): example ).

( 1990/2002, p. 1990/2002, content of content

above,

CEU eTD Collection about i.e. scope, of terms in expressed difficulty a with started we while So, intentions. the typifies part one’s we is by does one all individual; causation the beyond i.e. explains collective, are goals the what only Roughly, intentions. is this actions; guide can intentions collective Searle, p individual‘s the from out‘, ‗bottoms ( anything?‖ cau int of question a as above the answer to tries Searle by offered analysis formal The an determinesintention such how about said be to needs something device, conventional or communicational such that intend literally I If body. own one‘s over control one‘s beyond and actions, own one‘s beyond extends suddenly intention one‘s since evaporates, control of that and intending about talking begins one once that is context, this in problem, The Bratman. shortly, see will we as and, Searle both for case the aft are, they since restriction, this seriously take and inherit analyses philosophical relevant the Now, it. rigged I unless tomorrow, lottery the win to intend cannot I it. desire might I though process, o control no exert can I If control. of that to linked is intention of notion the use, everyday its In answer. to easier is problem first The related such motivate what questionis a could cumbersomestructure. our hinder, to opposed as further, analysis 2007, p. 17 p. 2007, sation. Here are two examples: ― examples: two are Here sation. - and what - uh ad hs s o tkn s xrsig n ord an expressing as taken not is this and such,

onegiven canwe expressed interms are intend, of a solution m a as ( ; er all, analyses of the common notions, or at most of extensions thereof. This is This thereof. extensions of most at or notions, common the of analyses all, er 1990/2002, p. 100 p. 1990/2002, 2010, p. 50 2010,p. as o civ te ol. t s h cletv poie f h gas which goals the of profile collective the is It goals. the achieve to eans both ) . The suggested solution is that although the intention is collective,itis intention althoughthe that suggested is Thesolution . me and youme and todosuch ) ― ; o could How [T]he puzzle is, how does this colle this does how is, puzzle [T]he collective erspective, in singular acts. This is why, according to according why, is This acts. singular in erspective, ver a process, I cannot intend the outcome of that of outcome the intend cannot I process, a ver

150 nesadn o coeain Te eod and second The cooperation. of understanding

our our netos te vra between overlap the intentions, -

and collective intention collective - such.

er to you, as referring to a a to referring as you, to er

ality move move ality how ctive intention cause intention ctive

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Bratman makes clear, his analysis is not only of the of only not is analysis his clear, makes Bratman ), but also of the other elements that must be present in order to arr to order in present be must that elements other the of also but ), hat we J. hat we ls ― shared collaborative agency collaborative shared

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allows the child to become a more ac more a become to child the allows s look at the metric applied to the evidence, as this should make the criticism above above criticism the make should this as evidence, the to applied metric the at look s ( reversal 2005, p.680 ad o a a lat oetal hl te te wt hs r his with other the help potentially least at can so and ) - activities

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mentioned in this context context this in mentioned , if by this one implies that the view of planning agency on which Bratman‘s Bratman‘s which on agency planning of view the that implies one this by if , eres rmsuu attributio promiscuous Searle‘s

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s say, but the explanation would still have to focus on the the on focus to have still would explanation the but say, s

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as showing that children understand the understand children that showing as , but the fact that the child wants some things andthings some wants child the factthat the but ,

179

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primitive notion of collective intention. The structural analysis is not of a of not is analysis structural The intention. collective of notion primitive themselves), then they should be able over repeated enactments of the joint joint the p. 116 of enactments repeated participant over able to each activity be that should roles they then the themselves), grasp participants and the this goal with displeased be should other(s) to in attempt the part, if her doing First, stops simply criteria. Bratman‘s operationalize w shared a pursue participants the collaboration to attempting preverbal collaboration, interpreting for analysis this adapted recently (2005) al. et Tomasello p. 114 p. ( 1999, p. 121 p. 1999, 2007, p. 114 p. 2007, - )

. If Searle is ready to go as far as talking about collective intentionality in social in collective intentionality about talking as far as go readyto is Searle If . emphasis added , it , it reciprocate and reverse roles reverse and reciprocate reengage could ) , then clearly one cannot use a concept advertised as similar to Searle‘s to similar as advertised concept a use cannot one clearly then ,

) not happen. What happens instead is that Rakoczy and Tomasello insteaduse isthatRakoczy not happen. happens What . This does not happen, and, if the above discussion of Searle is even is Searle of discussion above the if and, happen, not does This .

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ors tell us that they will use ― use they will that us tell ors , a fortiori a

180 as needed. needed. as trd n h b nw nw trs f shared of terms known now by the in ptured

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tributary to the misunderstanding described in tothe misunderstandingtributary described minds minds

of this issue. They claim that they agree with Searle that Searle with agree they that claim They issue. this of

the attractiveness of Searle‘s intuitive approach for the the for approach intuitive Searle‘s of attractiveness the o itnus bten oriain n collective and coordination between distinguish to of - intending, and intending,

added – iay socio dinary –

what was it meant explain, to

amless social interaction possible. This matches matches This possible. interaction social amless 181 What would be needed is a a is needed be would What oe etr ihrtd rm n evolutionary an from inherited feature some

to these views to make them more precise or or precise more them make to views these to

in an individual an in special of sufficient conditions, but not sufficient not but conditions, sufficient of - one may safely may one cultural achievements in one broad broad one in achievements cultural

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- - CEU eTD Collection appropriate conception of collective intentionality.‖ of collective conception appropriate p theoretical different combine ableto be to hope we sequences, ontogenetic and evolutionary ofreconstructing goal the decisive considering appear of life that,in the assumption is right the Searle in considered, All things way. inrecursive other a each understanding of challenge intentionality collective [of development the ofthis earlystages describe wellto suited mind,is especially our to Bratman‘s account, [...] development. and evolution thetheoryof viewsre the because them, between havechoose to 139 what to expression in phrasing similar a ( in appears necessary when longer development no of is stage dissecting recursive some painstaking at justified be can intentions collective primitive of Sear that idea the example, For reply. this in new essentially nothing is There this response The doing. are they what for adequate is Gilbert‘s) Bratman‘s, (Searle‘s, appealto colleagues and Tomasello that intentionality collective of conceptions philosophical the of comments 2011 Moll, Moll and Tomasello that reply a to pointing by section this conclude me Let Tomasello, 2008, pp. 95 pp. 2008, Tomasello,

My translation: Mytranslation:

criticism qua qua primitivum Intentionalität mü zu küren e unterschi ontogenetisc Jedenfall ist. Hi mentale rekursive, das auf nicht man fü Bezugn gemeinsame die konstitutive Menschen erwachsener heutiger Leben zu Weise beschre zu Bratmans angemessene verschiedenen mü zu wählen ihnen zwischen se Wir inen Gewinner in der Debatte um Debatte der in Gewinner inen came from came )

wrote in response to comments somewhat similar to those I made here (the (the here made I those to similar somewhat comments to response in wrote went asfollows hen uns weder veranlass weder uns hen

contemporary adults, the collective intentions which are constitutive for norms and instituti normsfor and whichconstitutive are intentions the collective adults, contemporary ―We do not consider ourselves compelled either to refute each of these conceptions, or to to or conceptions, ofeachthese refute to either compelled ourselves not consider do ―We dih tertsh Versatzstüc theoretische edliche

Konzeption angemessen, um die frü die um angemessen, Konzeption erie. All begreifen. iben, in denen denen in iben, , and one does not depend on the individual recursive mentalback therecursive on individual notdepend does one and , is he Sequenzen Sequenzen he s

Weise zur Anwendung zur Weise

mistaken in the way Tomasello and colleagues think about these issues. these about think colleagues and Tomasello way the in mistaken hof Hans Be Hans tle der Stellen - fen wir wir fen ieces eclectically, rather than choosing a winner in the debate about the about winnerthe debate in a choosing than rather eclectically, ieces 96 ) : . The merit of this passage however is to give a cleargivea a passage to howeverthis is of merit The .

rnhard Schmid). The critique in that case pointed out that out pointed case that in critique The Schmid). rnhard rig gh Sal rct in recht Searle geht erdings – ssen.

niiun esct id e sind, versucht Individuen angesicht zu rekonstruieren rekonstruieren zu evolutionä zurü Konzeptionen dieser jede t,

sn wi de ot eteee Ansi vertretenen dort die weil ssen, ( Tomasello & Moll, 2011,pp.164 Tomasello & Moll, ahme

presented there can be used adequately in different parts of different parts in usedadequately canbe there presented

die angemessene Konz angemessene die kommen kö kommen s 182

des dezidierten Ziels, evolutionäre und evolutionäre Ziels, dezidierten des

u primitivum qua

ren und Entwicklungstheorie auf auf Entwicklungstheorie und ren n ke kombinieren kombinieren ke - und hen Stadi hen - Zurück Einzelner angewiesen angewiesen Einzelner Zurück nnen. Nre und Normen r –

– auf

my note], my […] […] e An der

en dieser Entwicklung dieser en inander u dn ln rt und tritt Plan den auf

eption eklektisch u kö zu Uns scheint ge scheint Uns am, as im dass nahme,

when individuals face the facethe when individuals ckweisen, auf auf gemeinsamer nn anstatt nnen, - Institutionen and - 165 Weise e - rekursive rekursive he an chten forth. In any case, forth.case, Inany le‘s conception le‘s ) 139 ( Tomasello & Tomasello noch

rade nd concise concise nd none ons ons to to

CEU eTD Collection lose something of explanatory power if one stopped describing the cooperative talents of of talents cooperative the describing stopped one if power explanatory of something lose The remarks 2.6 Concluding does not k To framework. that still are in commitment, specified roles explanatory the performing of as framework, original the within analysis of conceived the of reading motivational the example for notions, c Bratman‘s of operationalization the in saw we as notions, existing down tone to ways find to is try they What contrary. the on propose authors the that evidence textual no is there Second, n is observe we What together. belong not do pieces the irrelevant.philosophers thinkis becan briefly. response This dismissed letusrepeat First, that a pieces different that however claim might intention. shared of concept the of treatments different the clear make to trying in points attempt last One aninto eclectic onenotcuredisease will medicine. hybrid; withBratmanian a Searlean within needs intentionalit shared of conceptions r no is There happen. not does This debates. the started are debates these what grasp to necessary is it but waste to necessary not is It debate. philosophical a of winner concepts the what say to is asked are they What

above amounts to criticizing a way of talking. I do not think, for example, tha example, for think, not Ido talking. of way a criticizing to amounts above revise one

the concept ofsharedthe concept it intention;

at a response still needs to be blocked. I used Searle and Bratman as cardinal as Bratman and Searle used Iblocked. be to needs still response a at

cognitive new e t this to eep

ocp hs en ogd s ta te hl dsuso o wa the what of discussion whole the that so forged, been has concept

the eclecticism mentioned in the quote above means that means above quote the in mentioned eclecticism the -

developmental theory. And it is false that they can be combined combined be can they that false is it And theory. developmental

example, talking about motivations to share mental states states mental share to motivations about talking example, y originating in philosophy can serve different explanatory different serve can philosophy in originating y iei fr C. hr, h dprue fo te initial the from departures the Third, SCA. for riteria 183

misconstrues about they

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CEU eTD Collection As we seen, have thestoryhas the u is are we what us makes which adaptation the that Tomasello by told were we 1990s, the In ourselves capable of doing. find wethings the all facultiesfor mental the tendencystipulate is to This transcendsfashions. a reveals it psychology, in fashion another just is intentionality shared of talking if Even intentionality. shared of terms in children small nderstanding ofother‘s intentions: self species evolved humans which in process coevolutionary a of of part as motivations arose intentionality and shared Skills teaching. and communication, cooperative attention, motiv and ability collaborative the and activities, in others with intentions and goals shared form to motivation and ability the as things such involve These ). 2005 Moll, & Behne, Call, Carpenter, cultural of ski as collectively to modesrefer and lifeways speciesof set a are transmission cooperative uniquely humans‘ Underlying ( institutions br individual their put to ability unique their of because rather but brainpower, individual greater their of because not cognitively sophisticated especially are beings human is, factors.That i gap human the that is here proposal general the (1999), Tomasello and (1978) Vygotsky Following th of some desired outcome, their in choices make representation mental a byguided arechoices these that othersand action and perception that understanding the concerns cognition social understa of type motion a is which (1990), Premack and (1954) Piaget by of hypothesized as power, and sources animate as others of understanding the cognition concern social just of not form does human uniquely this that emphasize to important is It with andunderstanding being conspecifics as intentional identifying of way new a evolved beings human that hypothesis the upon alighted have I thus and leverage, with adaptation biological single a find to is attempt My Tomasello & Moll, 2010, p.331 Tomasello & 2010, Moll, - built cultural worlds (Richerson &(Richerson cultural ). built Boyd, worlds 2006 nding seemingly possessed by all primates. Rather, this new form of of form new this Rather, primates. all by possessed seemingly nding -

neli b sil ad oiain fr hrd i shared for motivations and skills by underlain - unique ways of operating, indeed c indeed operating, of ways unique s best explained in terms of, ultimately, social (or cultural) (or social ultimately, of, terms in explained best s ainpowers together to create cultural practices, artifacts, and and artifacts, practices, cultural create to together ainpowers

then then lls and motivations for shared intentionality (Tomasello, (Tomasello, intentionality shared for motivations and lls at agoal. is, changed: - unique social unique )

ation to share experience with others via joint via others with experience share to ation

184 ( philosophica

1999, pp. 204 1999, pp.

- cognitive processes, which we may we which processes, cognitive ooperating, within their own their within ooperating, ( l

Tomasello, 2011, p. 6 Tomasello, 2011,p. - view of the human nature that that nature human the of view 205 s. […] )

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natural history. But if it is a genuinely difficult question how to go about goabout to how question a genuinely difficult is it if But history. natural and

that this adaptation is to be described in terms of psychological psychological of terms in described be to is adaptation this that day explanatory language we use to use we language explanatory day pain –

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in miniature form form miniature in 186

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―[C]linicians and even scientists attempting to discover genetic or neural underpinnings of disease have all haveall disease of neural underpinnings or genetic discover to attempting scientists even and ―[C]linicians by itself by

reiterated this stance, but went one step further by drawing an instituti an drawing by further step one went but stance, this reiterated

reifying

exclude the possibility that DSM diagnosis locks on ‗natural kinds‘. Indeed, systematic co Indeed, kinds‘. ‗natural on locks diagnosis DSM that thepossibility exclude medicine ince it will resurface in the following. in the will resurface inceit

the disorders listed in listed DSM disorders the v (cross ive progression 140 could not could ) re

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overlap with causally identified disease entities, and that consequently medical that and consequently entities, disease withidentified causally overlap

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CEU eTD Collection Friedman,2013 141 distinction dysfunctional) vs. (functional abnormal vs. normal the with case the is as say, to things both have culture and nature where area an in threshold causal probable and (de)feats; behavior) human for accounting in embedded conditions) (~brain antecedents (~socially elements public balance to how like concepts of significance the is what case); this phenomena explaining in invoked be may that entities the are what explanation; questions difficult ea can one illustration brief this in Even reminder. a as chapter this of beginning the at stands tale This adjudicate. economics pharmaceutical history, intellectual consensus biological its by covered necessarily not but psychiatry on touching areas to discussion of horizon the expanding while psychiatry in issue an consider to were one If brain. the organ, underlying the of complexity only cancer, or failure kidney from kind in different not nature, in biological is illness mental that consensus its to committed otherwise ‗camp‘ a in stressed, be should it originated, debate particular This intensely be to continue will and been has initiative this NIMH), the by far so supported (financially illness mental about thinking of mode associated its and system DSM the of dominance long epistemi Hyman what of out way decision a Insel‘s as itself come, presents to years many for place in be will DSM the purposes, insurance)

For a sample of the public discussions elicited by the publication of the DSM 5, see 5, DSM ofthe theby publication elicited discussions sampleof thea public For c

debate prison iy e ta te motn dbts n psychiatry in debates important the that see sily

; G. Greenberg, 2013 Greenberg, G. d ‖ . 141 ( – Hyman, 2010 Hyman,

what counts as science; what counts as (scientific, medical) evidence and and evidence medical) (scientific, as counts what science; as counts what

; Hacking,2013 )

(cf. (cf. First, 2012 First, –

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things would be exponentially harder to to harder exponentially be would things G. Greenberg, 2013 Greenberg, G. diagnosis within oe ope, eas o the of because complex, more immediately

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and

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n h following the in ology has an analogue in the ‗young medicine‘ medicine‘ ‗young the in analogue an has ology 2013 190 Smlry o oael‘ epaain o the of explanations Tomasello‘s to Similarly . As we have just seen, they constitute first of all of first constitute they seen, just have we As nating from the relevant scientific communities communities scientific relevant the from nating

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cases of abnormality or ambiguity to paradigmatic human thought and behavior. behavior. and thought human paradigmatic to ambiguity or abnormality of cases Frith‘s account Frith‘s ant lre back larger a gainst

psychiatry, influential

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su, h cnetaiain il lc te icsin amtel loey udr the under loosely, admittedly discussion, the place will contextualization the ssful, he larger perspective which forms the loose common thread of this essay and the the and essay this of thread common loose the forms which perspective larger he –

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ae f ociig h pyhlgcly agnl n em o the of terms in marginal psychologically the conceiving of case e margins of psychology exemplify two divergent directions of of directions divergent two exemplify psychology of margins e f iw Mdes s biul not obviously is Madness view. of - giving explanation makes this kind of theorizing of theorizing of kind this makes explanation giving 192

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143

- CEU eTD Collection more so than the idea that Schreber was in some sense a sufferer. sufferer. wasa some sense in Schreber that thanidea so morethe mentalilln of wasthis case whether a given that matter might 144 has label, anachronistic the use to Melancholy,disorders. mood with people from division, grand Kraepelinian the of side other the from coming that with compare to Garden that often Schreber‘s less from examples, happens it illnesses, mental book readable, write schizophrenics various with diagnosed those Among constructions. iswh This theoretical dissimilar verbally of commitments conceptual common the highlighting helps long is case this because precisely But discussed. and storySchreber‘s of details the into dive placeto the not Illness Nervous My of Memoirs ren book uncanny and brilliant a wrote Schreber, Paul Daniel times, all 1940 of butchery the before decades few a just the of queen the measures, all by was, psychiatry German which in world a in this and Europe, in institutions mental progressive 19 the in that Sonnestein same the was This groundfor thedeath camps. training and study‘ ‗pilot a be to out turned what in burned and gassed were thousands Many n ‗defective‘ otherwise or ill

The translation is sometimes contested, because the original refers to an ill person, not to an illness. This This illness. an not to an illperson, to refers original the because contested, sometimes translation is The - standing explanatory and interpretive tendencies in psychopathology. And in this role it role this in And psychopathology. in tendencies interpretive and explanatory standing

( 1964/2009 ) , to Elyn Saks‘s Elyn to ,

y a return toSchreber isinorder brief context. inthis

oue t Jan Greenberg‘s Joanne to volume, ot by uneducated bullies, but by Nazi doctors and eugenicists. eugenicists. and doctors Nazi by but bullies, uneducated by ot

( Denkwürdigkeiten eines Nervenkranken eines Denkwürdigkeiten - length autobiographical material. There are well are There material. autobiographical length The Center Cannot Hold Cannot Center The field

th ( 194 Shorter, 1997 Shorter,

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discussed classic, it brings into relief into brings it classic, discussed it is, after all, abundantly researched researched abundantly all, after is, it ) . The same Sonnenstein in which, in Sonnenstein same The . Nvr rmsd o a Rose a You Promised Never I

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CEU eTD Collection ( man society‖ by on imposed ofthe limitations his appreciation not clouded had his illness into lackofinsight if and perspective, proper in their things see unableto he and life pathological, to whole attitude not his were public, ofthe the eyes in severely so him compromise incomprehensib quite findsone it etc., words, vulgar most offensive the use of the events, and situations impossible aesthetically and most doubtful ofthe detailing unembarrassed the in them, contained others and himself to relating indiscretions Memoirs say the to about this had release, patient‘s his against while court a advising Weber, Guido Sonnenstein, members 146 fro writingscoming 145 Schreber‘s book. fa Schreber. met: never he patient a about wrote Freud because but otherwise avoided, systematically Freud psychosis, (paranoid) topic, a with deals it because only not remarkable ( autobiogra Paranoides)‘ (Dementia Paranoia schizophrenia died Schreber year the 1911, In culture. larger the the in and to psychiatry in but elicited book however, the interest book, his of merits obvious the to only not fame his owes Schreber and what observeone but symptoms, l well very may one certainly, And was. ever there kind its of book best the many by considered is His writer. accomplished an is bizarre, most his at even Schreber, that denying censorship), by mutilated perh remains was it (though interference editorial professional by texts, comparable recent more the as unaided, book, Schreber‘s reason. only the far, by not, is It payingattention tothe our in presence respectable and vocal more quoted in Santner, 1996, 80 p. 1996, in Santner, quoted irly complex explanation complex irly

The entire third chapter, which discussed family history, was withdrawn from publication, probably by familyprobably by withdrawnfrom publication, was history, family which discussed chapter, third entire The mystical numerous possibilitythat adjudicate) to (hard account the nottakeinto does one if only,But perhaps, after a third and final return of his illness, Freud published one of his few studies on on studies few his of one published Freud illness, his of return final and third a after : ―When one looks at the content of his writings, and takes into consideration the abund the consideration takes into writings,and his of thecontent at looks one―When : ( Dinnage, 2000, p. xxiii p. 2000, Dinnage, hsh ecreee Fl vn aaoa Dmni paranoides) (Dementia Paranoia von Fall beschriebenen phisch aps the most authentic such document we have access to. Moreover, there is no is there Moreover, to. access have we document such authentic most the aps –

m undiagnosed individuals are in fact manifestations of psychotic delusion. delusion. ofpsychotic manifestations fact in individualsare mundiagnosed

‗Psycho le that a man otherwise tactful and of fine feeling could propose an action which would would which anaction propose could offinefeeling and tactful mana otherwise that le

Denkwürdigkeiten ) - . nltc oe o a Atborpia Acut f Cs of Case a of Account Autobiographical an on Notes Analytic

; was put forward solely on the basis of a speculative reading of of reading speculative a of basis the on solely forward put was Santner, 1996, 35 p. 1996, Santner,

reads . Psychoanalytische Bemerkungen über einen einen über Bemerkungen Psychoanalytische

is eloquent prose. is eloquent culture the tremendous overvaluation of his own person caused by caused person own his of overvaluation tremendous the 195 ) . In the autumn of 1900, Schreber‘s psychiatrist at at Schreber‘spsychiatrist Inthe . 1900, autumnof

. 145

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See below for qualification. for below See follows: writesas Shorter historian Edward the whom about sameFlechsig is the thathowever this Note Schreber )

- père soul cin i dsrbd y ru a a general a as Freud by described is ection‘ via cipher

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the intolerable in order to order in intolerable the ode ‖

in which a series of perfectly intelligible underlying themes underlying intelligible perfectly of series a which in . 148 Eduard Hitzig in Halle in 1885. […] Both men had immense achievements. Both Both achievements. immense had men […] Both 1885. Hitzig in Halle Eduard

content –

see below. , and it maneuvers that content in light of certa of light in content that maneuvers it and ,

196

defend

Enigma it is not what matters in the current context. context. current the in matters what not is it

earningab the integrity of at least some regions of of regions some least at of integrity the

machine. That is to say that it works works it that say to is That machine. psych(patho)logical ‘s homosexual attachment was was attachment homosexual ‘s out patients or their problems.‖ theirproblems.‖ or out patients father , 147 ee wud accuse would reber

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CEU eTD Collection by erecting the defensive sympt the defensive by erecting 153 ignored. often Freud distinction a literarya character, not person, is a FrauP patient. 152 151 ( all. theat ego to occurred never had idea if the behaves as withaffect and its together idea theincompatible 150 mental life: psycho to necessity by belong not does desc is it since implications, larger has also which but symptoms, paranoid of explanation the in essential is which projection of account sophisticated a find wird; errichtet andere gegen als the analogy best the perhaps is paranoia with encounter This P‘. ‗Frau calls he patient a about study case external the into substance its projecting by ego, the with incompatible is that idea an off ward to thus is paranoia of so the in later, year One in 1894: category the discussingof context the in writes Freud what is here route, as Breuer the (from old itself psychoanalysis as roots from develop to seems It parenthesis. a deserves projection of notion The to berooted inthepsychologically be can symptoms the and recovered is code the explained, Freud, 1962b, p. 313 1962b, Freud,

―In paranoia, the self the ―In paranoia, attem actually Freud that sense in the example, interesting moreif a solid less indeed, is, It paper. this of original German not find could the I ― Translation: inte Projektion rpretation Freud proposes: ― proposes: Freud rpretation Ich das an nie Vorstellung die ob als benimmt, herangetreten wäre. so sich und verwirft die Abwehr, der die Art Ich das dass besteht, erfolgreichere darin und energischere weit eine nun gibt Es 152

one can find in Freud with the Schreber case. Projection is already at the center of center the at already is Projection case. Schreber the with Freud in find can one

There is There

eecnn an vrrnt idm a Awhsmtm e Misstrauens des Abwehrsymptom das indem verdrängt, kann, bezeichnen )

- reproach is repressed in a manner which may be described as projection. It is repressed isrepressed It as projection. maydescribed be which manner in a is repressed reproach , however, a much more energetic and successful kind of defence. Here, the ego rejects therejects ego Here, ofdefence. kind successful and energetic much more a however, ,

- called om ( world 1894/1925, p.303 1894/1925, ‖

of distrust of other people.‖ other of distrust of

( 1896/1925, p. 385 p. 1896/1925, Draft H Draft .‖ familiar ( Bei Paranoia Bei 1966

unerträgliche Vorstellung mitsamt ihrem mitsamt Vorstellung unerträgliche – , which F which ,

Freud conception of hysteria). To briefly sample t sample briefly To hysteria). of conception Freud pathology ) 151 .

197 Yet another year passes, and Freud published a published Freud and passes, year another Yet )

150

wird der Vorwurf auf einem Wege, den man man den Wege, einem auf Vorwurf der wird reud sends to Flie to sends reud

)

. , but which is an integral part of of part integral an is which but , 153 ( Freud, 1962a, p. 403 1962a, Freud,

Finally, in the article on Schreber, we Schreber, on article the in Finally, under stood ss, we read: ― read: we ss, ribed as a process which which process a as ribed

)

. Indeed, they turn out turn they Indeed, . of ‗defence hysteria‘ hysteria‘ ‗defence of pted to treat thistreat to pted

Affekt Affekt The purpose purpose The regular ‖ his

CEU eTD Collection regular share assigned to it in our attitude towards the external world. the external towards attitude our it in to assigned regularshare not makesappearance it its the notplay does projection place, first Inthe things. i element hate. as externally perceived islove internallyas felt have whatbeen should ofaffect; transformation a in consists distortion the persecution case the percep ofan external form the in consciousness enters ofdistortion, kind certain a of particularities of name the deserves fascinating the 154 all fact), in psychology clinical psychoanalysis (typical typical but revolutionary, not is then, Schreber, about writes Freud What incarnations tobeobserved is mental illness ofthe that throug idea case) this in (psychodynamic functional invites explanation it such as and life), mental of variety metabolism a remains it but remains it environment, nonetheless: anaerobic an to aerobic an from were, it as unambiguous and themselve life mental regular between certain in processeswhich, pathology/deviance. The continuity close a indicates which projection, that idea the of rejection careful the also Note valence. emotional and ( meaning both content covers of notion the on centered is projection of anatomy the how Note

Translation: ― Translation: a dß h en eemßgr nel n nee Entlug u Außenwelt zur Einstellung unserer an Anteil regelmäßiger ein ihr daß ja, 2. und spielt Seelenlebenim vorkommt, Verhältnissen anderen unter auch Paranoia,sondern Rolle gleiche die Paranoia von Formen 1. daß würde, erinnert daran rechtzeitig nicht man wenn hinzustellen, dieselbe für pathognomonisch absolut als Paranoiaund der Bedeutsamste das als Vorgang merkwürdigen diesen versucht, wäre Man Liebe als was hätte innen Affektverwandlung; einer in Verfolgungswahn beim besteht Entstellung Die Bewußtsein. zum außen von Wahrnehmung als hat, erfahren Entstellung gewisse eine er nachdem Inhalt, ihr kommt sie für Ersatz zum und Benennung die der auffällig, Zug jener allem vor ist Paranoia bei Symptombildung der An z ugewiesen ist. n paranoia and as being absolutely pathognomonic for it, if we wereweifit, for pathognomonic as being absolutely and nparanoia s pathognomonic. The mental metabolism of the psychotic the of metabolism mental The pathognomonic. s by itself by . This way of thinking is common to Freud and, as we will see, to the more recent recent more the to see, will we as and, Freud to common is thinking of way This . The most striking characterist most striking The

Projektion projection verspürt werden sollen, wird als Haß von außen wahrgenommen. außen von Haß als wird sollen, werden verspürt , tr ,

( iggers psychosis. It is crucial to keep in mind this kind of qualification qualification of kind this mind in keep to crucial is It psychosis. iggers

1911/1924, pp.417 1911/1924, only in only p We should feel tempted to regard this remarkable process as the most the as this process remarkable regard to should feel tempted We functional . An internal perception is suppressed, and, instead, its content, after undergoing undergoing after itsinstead, content, and, is suppressed, An perception . internal

edet En inr Wahrne innere Eine verdient.

aranoia but under other psychological conditions as well, and in fact it has a facthas it in and well, as conditions psychological other under but aranoia

n h lgt f h crusacs i spot after supports (it circumstances the of light the in ic of symptom of ic - 418

same part in all forms of paranoia; and, in the second place, in place, the second and, ofparanoia; informs all part same 198 )

154

- formation in paranoia is the process which process isthe in paranoia formation circumstances

die Projektion nicht bei allen allen bei nicht Projektion die ‖ ( Freud, 1958 Freud, hmung wird unterdrückt, unterdrückt, wird hmung

a se ih nr bei nur nicht sie daß

not opportunely reminded oftwo reminded not opportunely h a psychologicalh lens. , produce psychosis are notpsychosisare produce , tion. In delusions of Intion.delusions ) is

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CEU eTD Collection another. the his of the whatcontent determined are nothing) knowwe it construe therefore we and must with God, him to conflict as a revealed withbecame Flechsig struggle patient‘s The complex. 157 history accomplished. in manner well as the as transformation a ofsuch motives the discover to glad would be he and ofthi thought that even withsuspicion a 156 this to relation an invariable) (perhaps 155 And later: of his ‗patient‘: history‘ ‗case the giving after study, the in on early presents he contrast a example for is Here this emphasize to need no is There story. the of aspect central the least, at purposes our for remains, projection of concept special a takes homosexuality repressed connect the places, other in than More notwithstanding.

Translation: ― Translation: ― Translation: ― E.g. sort is brought to light by analysis is abse analysisis light by to isbrought sort nking are nevertheless derived from derived nevertheless nkingare

Das Interesse des praktischen Psychiaters an solchen Wahnbildungen ist i ist Wahnbildungen solchen an Psychiaters praktischen des Interesse Das durch die Analyse in solchen Fällen aufgedeckt wird, alles ist durch durch ist alles wird, aufgedeckt Fällen solchen in irgendwelche vertreten. Andeutungen Analyse die durch sonst das Material, dem von nichts fehlt Es haben. bestimmt Wahns des Inhalt übersetzen, Vater geliebten dem Konflikt mit infantilen einen in diesen wir müssen so enthüllt, Gott mit Konflikt Vaterkomplexes des b Wir ( Wahnes des Einzelheiten die in wie Entwicklungsgeschichte die Menschen in der Denken W die gewohnten wie Motive die möchte und sind, hervorgegangen Seelenlebens des dem Regungen von den aus Gedankenbildungen weit abweichende so absonderliche, Psych der Kenntnis von seiner bringt Psychoanalytiker Der Verständnisses. seines Anfang der nicht ist seinen und festgestellt Verwunderung Wahnes seine hat; beurteilt Kranken des Lebensführung des die auf Einfluß Leistung die er wenn erschöpft, Regel of its development. of 1911/1924, p.365 ‖ [W]e are in point of fact driven by experience to attribute to homosexual wishful phantasies an intimate an intimate wishful phantasies homosexual to attribute to drivenexperience by infact of point are [W]e ( Freud, 1958 Freud,

efinden uns also auch im Falle Schreber auf dem wohlvertr dem auf Schreber Falle im auch also uns efinden ege dieser Umbildung kennenlernen. In dieser Absicht wird er sich gerne sich er wird Absicht dieser In kennenlernen. Umbildung dieser ege With this aim in aimthis With Thus in the case of Schreber we find ourselves once again on the familiar ground of the father ofthe ground familiar the again once on weourselves find ofSchreber the case in Thus psycho The

as an infantile conflict with the father whom he loved; the details of that conflict (of which (of conflict ofthat whom thedetails heloved; father with the conflict infantile as an )

‖ - ( analyst, in the light of his knowledge of the psychoneuroses, approaches the subject thesubject approaches ofthe psychoneuroses, knowledge his light of the in analyst, Freud, 1958 1958 Freud, -

. Wenn sich dem Kranken der Kampf mit Flechsig als ein als Flechsig mit Kampf der Kranken dem sich Wenn . view, he wilhe view, emphasis addedemphasis

- structures so extraordinary as these and so remote from our common modes common our from remote so and as these extraordinary so structures respect. this in clear quite is himself Freud since commentary, in

particular form of disease.‖ form of particular oneurosen her die Vermutung mit, daß auch so so auch daß mit, Vermutung die her oneurosen the most general and comprehensible and general most the -

l wish to go more deeply into the details of the delusion and into the intothe delusion and the of the details deeply into more go to wish l emphasisadded nt in the present one: every element is hinted at hinted is element every one: ntpresent inthe emphasis ) ( 156 dessen uns unbekannte Einzelheiten den den Einzelheiten unbekannte uns dessen 1911/1924, p. 406 1911/1924, 199

delusions. delusions.

) , lgmise ud begreiflichsten und allgemeinsten

155

but the but ( Freud, 1958 Freud, ion between paranoia, projection, and projection, paranoia, between ion None of the material which in other cases of cases whichother in material ofthe None interpretability ) 157 )

impulses of the human mind; mind; human the impulses of auten Boden auten vertiefen

in one way inor one delivered by the by delivered which it haswhich been it n der der n .

- CEU eTD Collection children. 159 158 woman, a into transformation his book, Schreber‘s of themes dominant the of one on focus to such of creator the and children, young disciplining scientifically on authority an Moritz, father Schreber‘s Freud for natural not it Was there with confronted being connections, that, connections however, add wanted upor doholdasFreud themnot quite to. from comes puzzlement The case. ‗real‘ w empty but brilliant as speculations Freud‘s regard to easy too is It interpretation. the by as well as case the by presented puzzlement authentic the observing as interesting less is this but think, I true, are Both mess. methodological a on case bui he that or mistaken likely very is Freud that not is this about say to thing the Now, lens. interpretive psychoanalytic the through case the see to willing reader a to understandable clearly Freud

Source One of a series of sadomasochistic of series Oneofa See the image the See : http://beetleinabox.tumblr.com/post/3268830705/images thinks that he can understand Schreber, and that he can make Schreber Schreber make can he that and Schreber, understand can he that thinks über above. -

Pruss Figure

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- rpa,cmltl neae o the to unrelated completely ordplay, of ? - 159 moritz

Was it not perfectly reasonableperfectly not it Was

- schrebers – 158

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thereis ( down. Ibend automatically whenever almost I it do that habit a becomesuch has bodymy on buttocks female of picturing The […]. impre the rays the and myself give can I night at bed in lying am I when attire; female in room adjoining the in mirror a of front in standing time same the at myself seeI piano c I Schreber, 2000, p.211 –

an also ―picture‖ myself in a different place, for instance while playing the the playing while instance for place, different a in myself ―picture‖ also an history, politics, literature, philosophy, law law philosophy, literature, politics, history, no problem no

is less apparent or that it is reducible, that what it may it what that reducible, is it that or apparent less is ssion that my body has female breasts and a female sexual organ organ sexual female a and breasts female has body my that ssion )

in favor of his views on ‗religion‘ in the same breath in which he all but all but in whichhe breath thesame ‗religion‘ on in favor hisviews of in . Nobody should want to say that Schreber utters noises, that what one one what that noises, utters Schreber that say to want Nobody should . )

- - murderers, and, in a later development of his delusions, to be to delusions, his of development later a in and, murderers, improvised men, improvised 201

nerve –

the next he abruptly switches to rays, rays, to switches abruptly he next the - the ―overwhelming amount of proof‖ proof‖ of amount ―overwhelming the language, and God dealing best with best dealing God and language, –

honi soit qui mal y pense y mal qui soit honi eady infocus.

respond

to is a kind a is to

–

CEU eTD Collection 160 text Schreber‘s of character bizarre the evaporates that technical explanation an at special arrive can means, using scientist experienced an say one, whether is again, question, The professionallucidity and misconduct? delusion,his of mix heartbreaking a with or, interest, romantic of lack his Flechsig reproaching Schreber Is the Is neuroanatomy? often repressed writing homosexual thefollowing? was psychiatry research when era an in patient psychiatric omnipresenc the about What theodicy? elaborate the about proto supposedly the of figure dominant the or culture, surrounding sick a of echoes the seen have many which in nationalism German and racism of traces the about Schreber‘ populate that themes other the of many so with do to what But

From The souls to be purified learnt during purification the language spoken by God God by spoken language the purification during learnt purified be to souls The innate tendencyexpress themselves hyperbolically. to current in already term a using term, better a of lack for souls, the murder‖, ―soul called was it malpractice a stress was this to that forcefully order in hypnosis; during occurs as such power, will his imprisoning in be a should that system impermissible it nervous deeming person's (rays) souls the by explained be can murder soul committed having somebody about voices of talk the all perhaps whether h the of matters experiments scientific care your in patient a using of temptation the resist completely not could doctors, many so like you, that remain perhaps would reproach mild onl and person your upon shadow any cast to need no be then would There ( said be as also will more whom about ―Greco the degree, below), outstanding an in (these Persians history […] etc. holy, for unholy venom, for of juice food, for wealth a poison punishment, for sense by reverse the in reward particularly instance, (for euphemisms characterized German, powerful nevertheless the Himself, Schreber, 2000, pp.26 the open letter to F to letter open the

– h ―rns a te ie f h Cuae) n lsl te Germans. the lastly and Crusades) the of time the at ―Franks‖ the

as the most moral at a given time a at moral most as the

ighest scientific interest arose. One might even raise the question question the raise even might One arose. interest scientific ighest so lechsig with which Schreber begins his book. begins Schreber whichwith lechsig - ald bsc agae, smwa atqae but antiquated somewhat a language‖, ―basic called - Romans‖ (perhaps in ancient Greece and Rome, perhaps perhaps Rome, and Greece ancient in (perhaps Romans‖

- apart from the real purpose of cure, when by chance chance by when cure, of purpose real the from apart

27 )

202 fluenced by another's to the extent of of extent the to another's by fluenced

–

were in order the old Jews, the old the theoldJews, in order were

usage, and because of their their of because and usage,

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Schreber, 2000, p.9 as an object for for object an as - s multiverse? What multiverse? s Nazi father? What father? Nazi ) y the the y 160

–

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explanation. If this essay moves in the right direction, then one should should one then rightdirection, the in moves essayIf this explanation. s Schreber in relation to Hitler‘s regime in his analysis of analysis his in regime Hitler‘s to relation in Schreber s

( picture 1996 ttedly reasonableness. peculiar) xperienced. The question may start from Schreber or any any or Schreber from start may question The xperienced. Verständnis ) . Han Israëls documented the lives of the two Schrebers two the of lives the Israëlsdocumented Han .

f hi relation their of persec spitctd semi sophisticated s 203

to o Shee b psychoanaly by Schreber of ution

Wittgenstein ). In doubt are not the details of Freud‘s Freud‘s of details the not are doubt In ). Z . rnet eoinl vulnerability, emotional ironment, ularly satisfying interpretation of of interpretation satisfying ularly vi Lothane openly attacked the the attacked openly Lothane vi

( 1994

Schreber - fiction, but as science or or science as but fiction, ) .

–

( elicited byaberrant Schatzman, 1971 Schatzman, sts and and sts power –

an ) .

CEU eTD Collection introduced July themselves on 1 people three these how 19 is This experiment. surreal a in for Michigan in Hospital State Ypsilanti assembled Rokeach Milton psychologist social the Christs three the one in Sacks Oliver by recounted L. Leonard of tale known with familiar am I equivalent comparable only the breakdown, mind‘s the byobserversof time scientific our in told greatstories tragicthe of reader, one this eyesof the the use will we so confidential, remains pseudony person this of name real the knowledge, my of best the To time. to time from talk to allowed is he though story, his tells else somebody principle, in least at can, that filter a is book his by started interpretativeavalanche the himself; for Schreber spoke Gabor Leon and 3.3 Rokeach soul necessary, reflection. of objects constituting as psychological, the than sense larger i cases marginal and Schreber‘s, as such cases seeing than stance problematic more far be to interpretation there issomething t But all). after biography any about debates be can (there grounds without not is topic this on debates are there that fact the persuasive; equally or written similarly not are attempts These ―Yes.I‘mGod.‖ ―My Cassel.‖ isJoseph name was fifty Joseph -

Joseph, else you tellus? isthere to anything want m under which he entered the history of psychology: Leon Gabor. His is, at least in in least at is, His Gabor. Leon psychology: of history the entered he which under m

hese authors have hese incommon adjudicated

- tale; our of hero second the with case the not is This apart. set be eight and had decades.eight beenalmostand two for […] hospitalized , a fundamental lesson to take home. This is a far stronger and stronger far a is This home. take to lesson fundamental a , st

of that year,of that with Rokeach‘s commentary:

204

–

the commitmentto ideaan thatthere is Awakenings –

( 1999 )

Leon Gabor was Gabor Leon being the better better the being

- 9 t the at 59 enriching enriching n a a n CEU eTD Collection ( 161 perio this of psychology social the in popular very about fears War Cold by amplified region, thematic this revise. in to Research hard extremely being world, the of constancy the or identify one‘s about those systems‘ ‗belief in hierarchy a is there that view the test to order in experiment his designed psychologist.He social a but psychiatrist, a not was men, three the with years two for puppeteer the played would who Rokeach, Christ. be to claimed all they becaus room same the in themselves found schizophrenics, diagnosed all people, three These Staub, 2011 Staub,

On the paranoid fear of brainwashing and thoroughly changing individuals by Communist psycho Communist by individuals changing thoroughly and fearofbrainwashing Onthe paranoid years old.‖ seventy passed I Hell! ago. year a old years seventy it made I yes. God, made ―I - and five God made I and six.‖ Jesus side vital my that‘s but names, other have I ―Well, - ―My isClydeBenson. That‘s name my straight.‖ name for hospitalized years.seventeen […] been had and seventy was He next. himself introduced Clyde 2011, pp.4 life.‖ my of frequency the of misuse their to consent not do I myself. be to want I here. am I why issue main the is that and born, was I before started and jealousy and prejudice of because place this into railroaded was I that happens so it and testicles; and penis the to pertaining Christ, is rock the I this. salute, Ialso and Nazareth, of Christ Jesus of reincarnation the Iam that certificate mybirth on Itstates also Boy Psychiatrist.] Christian Simple Simplis Doktor Rexarum, Rex et am I Dominorum that says Domino certificate birth my that happens so ―it began, Leon ―Sir,‖ HeChrist. was thirty las the was Leon

DoesGod? mean that you’re Do y ) ,especiallychapter ou have any other names? anyou have other do . [This is all the Latin Leon knows: Lord of Lords, and King of Kings, of King and Lords, of Lord knows: Leon Latin the all is [This .

salute the manliness in Jesus Christ also, because the vine is Jesus and Jesus is vine the because also, Christ Jesus in manliness the salute

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eight and had been committed five years andhad fivecommitted beeneight before. [..] 3, II 3,

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205

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John John 31 identity. given a have can person one only that belief realistic his and beli delusional his them: of each within beliefs primitive two relation dissonant a bringinto to proposed we another, one with threeChrists the the claiming persons more or two ide his in belief mistaken a with psychotic a for case the be would This support. social unanimous has that one of instead support social no has that one is violated be to belief primitive the that Suppose ‖ Greenwood

–

view focused on controlled experiments at the individual level becoming dominant becoming level theat individual experiments controlled on focused view -

32 nting with someone‘s identity: ― identity: someone‘s with nting that ‗delusional‘ is an adjective that attaches to beliefs or belief systems (compare: (compare: systems belief or beliefs to attaches that adjective an is ‗delusional‘ that e‘) without thereby altering their nature in such a way as to render the experiment experiment the render to as way a such in nature their altering thereby without e‘) periods )

not

notes that this was also a time of conceptual change in in change ofconceptual was time a also notes thatthis

a theory a .‖ .‖ (

Rokeach, 2011, p. 31 p. 2011, Rokeach, - driven choice, but an administrative artifice which made possible made which artifice administrative an but choice, driven

se of the kind one must deal with in any empirical study. study. empirical any in with deal must one kind the of se same Social scientists cannot, for ethical reasons, conduct conduct reasons, ethical for cannot, scientists Social ts, eas o te biu ehcl cna of scandal ethical obvious the of because task, y )

Fortun 206

against

mistaken identity? […] In confronting confronting In […] identity? mistaken

ntity. Suppose we brought together together brought we Suppose ntity. 1950s ately, there was a way to circumvent this this circumvent to way a was there ately,

the rationale of the study. But, in order order in But, study. the of rationale the ). were mentally ill and had been been had and ill mentally were 162

oec ws rig o id a find to trying was Rokeach American social psychology, an psychology, American social –

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2011, pp. 2011, ( 2004, chapter chapter 9 2004,

) .

CEU eTD Collection example did Rokeach Rokeach writes: after), soon died (she son her meet to attempt last her during Mary observing directly Upon mother, made ofhim. Paul‘ Daniel been had Schreber Moritz If theory. mother schizophrenogenic the of version impressionistic and territ that deeplyin book his conclude would he and witnessed, he delusions the about speculate often time of course the in would Rokeach psychology, typical of area an at aimed described, as started project the if experiment, the of concern theoretical driving the for not was It resisting great gain. to deal a hopefully, and, lose to little be would there strain, to them subjecting in that, normal with th in belief of systemsdelusional on phenomena focus to reasonable seemed it people, such study to feasible not is it Because modified. be can they which under conditions the and belief of systems of nature general the psychopat with not concern, theoretical a of result a as evolved Christs delusional three the with research the that […] clear be should It she herselfown bitter defeat. inher played part the of awareness any show she does all of Least why. idea faintest the not has who but badly, out turned has highly most valued has she all that realizes def ofShe a gives theimpression 2011, p.46 praying.‖ time the all praying, praying, house, her cleaning not She day for every cooking not Leon, She worse. rosaries. saying back she and look I then And enough.‘ it‘s work go we Then hour. half Mass to go they Sisters, the see hour; half Mass broken a In church. accen in time much too spent she said interviewed, we whom priest, own Her voices. hear to reported was and fanatic religious a was Mary –

beliefs, but people that were ― were that people but beliefs, t he told us: ―I tell her, ‗Go home.‘ I say to her, ‗See me, Father, I say I Father, me, ‗See her, to say I home.‘ ‗Go her, tell ―I us: told he t n n nelcul aum I 14, ulig n her on building 1948, In vacuum. intellectual an in s demon, Leon Gabor was nothing else than what Mary, his religiously obsessed obsessed religiously his Mary, what than else nothing was Gabor Leon demon, s

o arv a sc observations such at arrive not

of the three Christs, Rokeach‘s study would effectively integrate an an integrate effectively would study Rokeach‘s Christs, three the of

)

( 2011, p.32 2011, ory. Indeed, with its focus on Leon as the most articulate, strange, most Leonthe as on focus its Indeed,with ory. boy, crackers and tea, not food for a boy growing. boy a for food not tea, and crackers boy, )

eated woman approaching the end of life, who who oflife, end approachingeated woman the subjec 207

– ted to strain‖ to ted

( oe the note 2011, p. 100 2011,

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the CEU eTD Collection herself be treated by you.‖‖by treated be herself that I sh demanded proposed. whatthan I've other something brother Her events. probably and is paranoia, frank has She ―I'veFrauM. replied, seen Freud suffice? basis wouldan outpatient or in an institution, treated be to needed she think Freud Did opinion: Professor's the sought Ferenczi firstYet from paranoia. suffered who by documented isonehere case, Schreber 163 hungry,role power controlling, incompetent, with primarily, do, to had It disaster? a such of anatomy the was What life. his or her of fabric emotional the warping to progressively object, massive had analyst the schizophrenic, the with b the in acting been had that dealingprocess disease a for compensate In itself. illness the of nature the underst To analyst,Fromm matte the Freudian orthodox the to contrary interventions, psychoanalytic to responsive are delusion of expressions schizop of concept the that noteworthy is It schizophrenia. of root etiological the as mothering of kind certain children the of influence dangerous

A somewhat hypocritical orthodoxy, as most are. To use To most are. as orthodoxy, hypocritical Asomewhat interpersonal sensitivity which remains his for the rest of his life. His initial initial His life. his of rest the for his emotion remains which sensitivity for interpersonal fight early his During mother. schizophrenogenic a in mainly his rule, a as of childhood, and infancy people important in encountered he rejection and warp early severe the schiz The 264 an psychothera constituted psychoanalytic to obstacle that therefore communication schizophrenic the of nature not the was It psychoanalyst. trained the to understandable actually infrequently practically are schizophrenic the of communications the that recognized generally now is It ‖ r (no rapport, therefore no transfer, therefore no therapeutic vehicle). The intrepid intrepid The vehicle). therapeutic no therefore transfer, no therefore rapport, (no r )

( and the nature of this kind of ―communication‖ of kind this of nature the and utd n atel 1996 Hartwell, in quoted - ignorant mothers: ignorant - ophrenic is painfully distrustful and resentful of other people, due to to due people, other of resentful and distrustful painfully is ophrenic - Reichmann claimed, Reichmann in - law, who is accompanying her and is a doctor, is an ass. He will probably advise advise will probably is an ass.He doctor, a is and her iswho accompanying law, rngnc ohr per i a atce hc dfns h ie that idea the defends which article an in appears mother hrenogenic

always meaningful to him, and potentially intelligible and not not and intelligible potentially and him, to meaningful always beyond the border of treatability; still, you can have a go at it and learn fromall learn at her it and at go haveyoua can still,oftreatability; the border beyond ( 1997 )

neial dmneig mother domineering undesirable

communicative Edward Shorter: ― Shorter: Edward al survival, he begins to develop the great great the develop to begins he survival, al will ) ,

rea Fromm Frieda be able tobreakcode the ofpsychosis: py with schizophrenics. with py 208

cs ta teeoe ciohei sol be should schizophrenia therefore that acts,

an In 1908, Ferenczi became keen on treating Fra treating on becameFerenczi keen In1908, e enter the Budapest [private] asylum and there asylum and [private] Budapest the enter e

example - Reichmann explicitly designated a a designated explicitly Reichmann

other tha other it was necessary to keep in view in keep to necessary was it iography of the ill person like a like person ill the of iography on the development of her her of development the on n those revolving around the around nthoserevolving

( 1948,

pp. 263 pp. reticence

- 163 u M., uM., let

on - CEU eTD Collection began to appear in 1948.‖ in 1948.‖ appear beganto use Fromm to mothers‖ ―schizophrenogenic 164 the s discussing explanatorilymothers; bad about interpretationFreud tell possible. socially regular, of limits the beyond far interpretation pushes one when difference a makes it too b indicates seriousmeans misunderstandingsunderstand to about what language it and symbolic of instances as essentially interp the that fact very the children, of behavior responsive early the with As people. curing and understanding about talking for ground thin very a and an for enough not far by the is that not course of surely But possession). is demonic (compare: it stories, possible of number a From sense. make to seems payattention towhat Fromm th consequencespolitical Fromm Freud‘s, with As ehavior generally. (The phrase ―meaningful phrase (The generally. ehavior e one hand, and with the terrible state of someone like Leon on the other, who would not would who other, the on Leon like someone of state terrible the with and hand, one e

Shorter again: ― again: Shorter tory bos a wl a te ep nit pooe b ti hatred. this by promoted anxiety deep the Reichmann, 1948,p.265 as well as abhors, hostility retaliative own his by so equally and others, of distrust and his processes thought specific its with modes of feelingandmotivated by is expression fear repetitionalrejection, of his world private autistic an into world with his and regression emotional partial schizophrenic's satisfied The reached. easily never too all is threshold his this contacts, benevolent for and need lonely sensitivity his of Because endurance. of threshold the neverafor pattern the interpretation, his of virtue by or actually, are experiencespathogenic - maintained accord and convention convention and accord maintained is about you.‖is about attempts to decipher Schreber, ― Schreber, decipher to attempts Generations of American mothers had to suffer unwarranted reproaches as reproaches unwarranted suffer to had mothers American of Generations - ending succession of subsequent s subsequentof succession ending

( 1997 it had it

( 2010 - Reichmann‘s divination is brilliant, for all the terrible ethical and and ethical terrible the all for brilliant, is divination Reichmann‘s )

See also also See . - communication 164 ) Reichmannsuggesting Drawing is and connect the dots? theline

)

Faced with a clearly damaging parent, like Leon‘s mother, onmother, Leon‘s like parent, damaging clearly a with Faced s a believable story about projection, Fromm about projection, believable story s a nothing ( Healy, 2002, p. Healy,141 2002, - Reichmann's notorious phrase after her writingss herthis on after phrase notorious Reichmann's

is thereby settled. As Lothane says in the context of context the in saysLothane As therebysettled. is let every interpreter beware: beware: interpreter every let

209 hud meitl rie kpiim sne it since skepticism, raise immediately should to him‖ to

–

eod ht ae ajdcto o any of adjudication makes what beyond imilar ones. Finally he transgresses transgresses imilarFinally ones.he ) .

is, in this sense, pathognomonic.) Here Here pathognomonic.) sense, this in is, drawal from the outside the from drawal eie fot agt delusions targets effort retive de te fabula narratur fabula te de , which he he which ,

( - Fromm Reichmann one explanation

os one worst ubject ubject - , , CEU eTD Collection paranoid itself manifests stream, ―frictional‖ and ―warped‖ Rokeach‘s tha transparent quite always is It lucidity. cutting and themes delusional b Flechsig, of exposé Schreber‘s as as eloquent not are They interference. brutal Rokeach‘s against protests his stand contrast stark In Leon8, 1959meeting Christs, ofthe writes: Novemb the of report a Concluding poles. these between somewhere hovers he times, Most engagements. polemical sustained to ramblings incoherent from oscillates Leon ambiguity. does and says Rokeach‘s Leon what considers one if case, Schreber the in as Just come as asurprise. not experimentshould itself)andthe (unlike greatermaladiessin no their was natureof the on unde hethought Rokeachtoo company,their yearsin 1969/1987 interpretation messages (conflicting theory communication nothing Bateson, Gregory such producing writing, was Fromm of psychoana of influence the Given Dr. Rexarum Sincerely; meetingClosed singing 4 parchement front in of cosmic Corpus Habeas ―Devine instrumental accordingto information Complete a from draw‖ to like magazine section of DETROITNEWS. who people for looking ―We‘re called item about Read -

; Reichmann would continue to haunt the conceptual landscape in which Rokeach which in landscape conceptual the haunt to continue would Reichmann uhra filter authorial Bateson, Jackson, Haley, & Weakland, 1956/1987 Weakland, & Haley, Jackson, Bateson,

(

Rokeach,2011, p.116

es hn (eatc ter o pyhss pny oee on modeled openly psychosis of theory (semantic) a than less

– the face, of parchement andthis the infront ofpaper.

interpretative pretentions evaporate in a fog of irreducible irreducible of fog a in evaporate pretentions interpretative th ad

clearlyvery from the first meeting: verse ofAmerica. lysis in (especially American) postwar psychiatry, the ideas ideas the psychiatry, postwar American) (especially in lysis - hoc

ahnr a te nleta double influential the as machinery psychology. His resistance, embedded in a vaster vaster a in embedded resistance, His psychology. )

210

t hy r smlr n tutr, mx of mix a structure, in similar are they ut

rstood his subjects, and elaborated freely freely elaborated and subjects, his rstood ) . and management) management) and

The fact that, after spending after that, fact The

t Leon is opposed to opposed is Leon t - –

bind theory of of theory bind

vn through even ( Bateson, er er CEU eTD Collection Madame Dr. R. I. Dung‖ R.I. Dr. Madame Sincerely, D Ward on Hospital State the Ypsilanti youwillat visit permitsI Lord mevisi for to waiting youhavethat been 1 Channel on have aware I been husband, Mydear Hospital State Ypsilanti D Ward ― 165 meetingsIt tolose. Leon showed little afterall, noone up. that atwhich was decided, stood writing by real it made and wife a having of delusion his contrary, the On Leon remonstrations. on aggression such in experiment the stop to enough reason see not did story, the of ‗god‘ delusional fourth the as himself count later would who Rokeach, making magazine article read a theChrists andof about hisstudythem: themselves from name an offered had Leon after Later, Thingswith time: aggravate Dr. R. I. Dung R.I. Dr.

Here is the first (August 1, 1960): 1960): 1, isthe (August first Here here. With a little effort he was persuaded to stay, but as he sat down he he down sat he as but stay, to persuaded was he effort little a With here. anydiscussmatterfur to the want didn‘t he that said and up stood abruptly Leon argument, an following occasion, one On depressing through other the abuse psychologicaldeduction. reasoning one have to pat together bring who people those that realize I And scenes. the behind stay and lines, the between reading to pertaining understand sincerely I ―Sir, said: Leon - o hlig h pro. o‘e gttn. When intelligence.‖ agitating. You‘re person. the helping not You‘re anymore. psychology […] sound not this it‘s agitate, of to out used is missing psychology When that‘s and Christ Jesus as manliness respect I because t finishing on said he ―Sir,‖ against patient one using another, warped and is psychology.‖ this You‘re here. on going what‘s know ―I proclaimed: -

16 […]

Why together? doyou gentlemen supposeyou brought were Rex…

( ‘s ruined mind reached an unspeakable zenith when he took over Leon‘s over took he when zenith unspeakable an reached mind ruined ‘s Righteous Dr. to pp. 159

( Rokeach, 2011, pp. 201 pp. 2011, Rokeach,

- 160

) uncanny picture of his humiliating situation by changing his his changing by situation humiliating his of picture uncanny

he article, ―there‘s indirect warped psychology here here psychology warped indirect ―there‘s article, he - Idealed

( - Rokeach, 2011, p.11 Rokeach, 2011, 202 211 )

Dung (

2011, p. 52 2011, p.

ther, and that he was wasting his time wasting his washe that and ther, h poetd s olw t Rokeach‘s to follows as protested he , letters

o aiae o bltl your belittle you agitate you - ) 16 on this Thursday at 1 o‘clock. 1 at thison Thursday 16

t for you a very long time. If the good good If the youverytime. a long t for 165 )

to the patient and proposing and patient the to –

– s o sound not is

ients

CEU eTD Collection acting,given thecircumstances, good reasons. for men‖ all ―like seen be can person delusional ― the the to Bentall Richard meticulous reconstructive architecture Christopher Frith.Psychosi of of immoderations antipsychiatric the from psychology, clinical Fromm and Freud in clothes, psychoanalytical in met, have we stance theoretical basic the is this Recognizably, And whenreache he book he notes: commitme conceptual longstanding the location cultural particular Rokeach‘s from illustrating unoriginal, and forgettable entirely are speculations explanatory The man. of science putative the and ideology between border porous the light first of collection abundant and careful belief of explanation was what But schizophrenogenic with life; that psychotics, having good reasons to flee human companionship, companionship, human neverthelesscrave it. flee to reasons good having psychotics, that life; with c person a terms best the represent sometimes may it that be; to out it make some state happy the from cry far a is psychosis that understandable; more increasingly becomes behavior and utterance psychotic of incoherence apparent ar we if that learned: alsohave […W]e estrangement.‖ individual of ―finality the accept to refusal a and loneliness‖ transcend to ways theymen. rationalizing were before; encountered all had we type Christsa of men three least at men, The rational not it. if were, explain to designed hypotheses formulated and it, about affect were situation, social and personal their perceived immediately they men, all Like it. to responded and environment their by stimulated were men, all like men, psychotic three these that clear is It The present study represents, in Helen Merrell Lynd‘s words, ―a search for for search ―a words, Lynd‘s Merrell Helen in represents, study present The

gained - ecmn, n i i as oe tha one also is it and Reichmann, s his conclusions Rokeachgoes evens his further:

– by having one unfortunate man pay such a cost? Nothing in terms of of terms in Nothing cost? a such pay man unfortunate one having by

traumatization or delusion. If Rokeach‘s study is important, this is because of its its of because is this important, is study Rokeach‘s If delusion. or

( p. 331 p.

) (

pp. 52 ‖ - ( admtra,adas bcue it because also and material, hand Fromm - 53 212 )

are seen: struggling to express an inner world, world, inner an express to struggling seen: are

ed by it, tried to understand it, understand to tried it, by ed

- Reichmann, 1948, p. 264 p. 1948, Reichmann,

ifrs oe ra o contemporary of areas some informs t t xlrd rsnl. al i the in Early presently. explored nt e patient long enough, the the enough, long patient e

s is familiar ground; familiar s is once an come to come an )

eel i bright in reveals is thought

identified, the identified,

CEU eTD Collection to a new focus on reliability which revived the Kraepelinian approach Kraepelinian the revived which reliability on focus new a to (1980) fade asylum the of era the and possible, longer no are i other developed psychology clinical and bankruptcy intellectual an suffered psychoanalysis meantime the in if even us, with still are Gabor Leon about speculations Rokeach‘s by and Schreber of portrait Freud‘s by exemplified ideas The Bentall Richard 3.4 Counterpoint: himself, and hi ( Leon st a such in seeing in succeeds one If world. a share to benevolent truly the for waiting circumstantial, is psychotic the of loneliness the that idea the beliefs, communicate to attempts delusion of manifestations th idearationality, the of kind degenerate a as madness illuminating by itself outrun can understanding that idea the ourselves: in and theories, these all in confront to need we that one above, to referred continuity of element the to compared his about ultimately and sexually his about confused as but homosexual, repressed a as seen be to not was Leon evolved: since t referring study his concluded Rokeach negation, revealing a as perhaps, read, be may what In o the cannon set by Freud‘s interpretation of interpretation Freud‘s by set cannon the o 2011, p. 327 p. 2011, – –

( s vr I pyhar, fe te aese mre b te hr eiin f the of edition third the by marked watershed the after psychiatry, In over. is ― Mayes & Horwitz, 2005 Horwitz, &Mayes suffering not so much from a delusion of greatness as from a delusion of delusion a from as greatness of delusion a from much so not suffering

(e.g. (e.g. )

– s philosophical camp.

can be seen on the lines suggested by Lothane, as describing the psychologist psychologist the describing asLothane, by suggested lines the on seen be can Borch ance a perpetual but misleading attractor, then R then attractor, misleading but perpetual a ance - Jacobsen, 2000 Jacobsen, ) ,

humanity diagnosis clearly moved psychodynamic away from notions

;

Borch ntellectual envelopes. Experiments like Rokeach‘s like Experiments envelopes. ntellectual

( 2011, pp. 324 pp. 2011, 213

- Schreber Jacobsen & Shamdasani, 2012 Shamdasani, & Jacobsen

–

which he described as it was beginning to to beginning was it as described he which at delusion is (analogous to) belief, and (analogousand belief, to) is delusion at

and suggesting that the science has has science the that suggesting and - 330 ) . But this differenc this But . okeach‘s diagnostic for for diagnostic okeach‘s to mental illness, with illness, mental to ; Meyer, 2005 Meyer, goodness e is minor minor is e DSM DSM .‖ )

CEU eTD Collection 166 last the in nosology psychiatric dominated has that consensus Kraepelinian the to and psychiatrists, by preferred models genetic and biological psychiatry of critics psychological contemporary uncompromising most the of one well is Frith, as Bentall,Richard counterpoint.illustrate this Fri discussing to move we Before cases. clinical typical,ownin its on fine is psychological explanation that and issue, the to orthogonal a This is h Marr David la à theorizing scientific cognitive and functionalism philosophical a assuming on built are models such Indeed, mechanisms. ps non on psychosis modeling of tendency neutral more the illustrates It example. an such is schizophrenia of theory psychological cognitive Frith‘s Christopher a been necessarily in not targeting have that people from psychology, of regions friendlier from even see, to about are we as come, have psychiatry of territory the in Incursions medicalization. someti clinical latter with the relation psychology, professional easy an in remains credentials, medical and scientific its attest to preoccupied always psychiatry, day this to And 1970s. the in and 1960s late the as Shorter Edward psychiatry, biological second The opposition. been has there Naturally, nature associated illness ofmental reorientation. itselfwiththis biological the about consensus A prognosis. and course, clusters, symptom on emphasis its

cooia lvl wtot hrb cnetn epaain i trs f biological of terms in explanations contesting thereby without level, ychological But see the note on the DSM controversies at the beginning of beginning the at controversies theon noteDSM the see But philosophical

called it called iet aho te egig ilgcl osnu aot etl illness. mental about consensus biological reigning the fashion direct

choice and, as such, it is resisted by psychologists who think biology is choice by biologypsychologists whothink as resisted such,itis and,is

( 1997, chapter 7 chapter 1997,

e sen isl a te at are i te a o excessive of way the in barrier last the as itself seeing mes - known in both psychological and philosophical circles. He is is He circles. philosophical andpsychological both in known ) ,

had to had 214

th, it helps, for reasons of contrast, to briefly to contrast, of reasons for helps, it th,

confront antipsychiatry, which peaked in peaked which antipsychiatry, confront decades

this chapter. chapter. this division of labo of division 166

Bentall - euinl ae a the at cases delusional opposes r between levels, as levels, between r

h historian the

mdl of model a ave taught. taught. ave . To the the To . and

in in CEU eTD Collection schizophrenogenic mothertheory schizophrenogenic 167 m in example the keep should reader the But point. this at Bentall attack to intention my not is it and decency, of limits the within discussion into example this bring to hard is It begins suicide: committed story the tragic with hisownbrother,who of of chapter twelfth the in delusions, to treatment this applying In notthreatenwhich, isthought, it does interpretation. periphery emotional or phenomenological a to circumscribed is or disappears either cases t Once circumstances. to reactions understandable be to them showing by illness mental psychotic of manifestations the explains which account with canonicallyantipopular and more Bookwith its A Award. with came Explained madness of account Bentall‘s of presentation substantial most The concerns existential core or 1994) (Bentall universe social the in position persons‘] ill [the their about ― as seen be to not we just have madness thelines entirely on

This seems the correct way to put it, despite various delimitations various delimitations despite put it, way to the correct seems This otrn te Mind the Doctoring shztpl, o wn o ay etr od bt e a nt cioya i a in been schizotypal have not might was he He but life. word, vacuum. brother‘s better my any of of want story for the ‗schizotypal‘, to justice do to seem th yet, And universe. the in knowledge the all absorb to ambition his of neighbour elderly mother‘s my telling time one at beliefs, magical and strange professed sometimes He LSD. with experiments fl of complained He schizotypal. as described be could behaviour his of some psychologist, clinical professional a of perspective comfortable the From unemployment. and taking drug of life a to in drifted had and qualifications, achieving without education formal from out dropped had He peers. his and teachers his with loggerheads at been constantly had he school, At different. been always had Andrew course, Of (Musalek , a volume that the British Psychological Society saw fit to recompense in 2004 2004 in recompense to fit saw Society Psychological British the that volume a ,

( 2003 et al. empty )

1989)‖ . As his intellectual predecessors, Bentall aims at presenting an an presenting at aims Bentall predecessors, intellectual his As . sbc alcntr xeine ta eatiue o his to attributed he that experiences hallucinatory ashback speech acts‖, speech

( see Bentall, 2003, chapter 12 2003, Bentall, see

( Bentall, 2

u a ― as but discussed 004, p. 199 004, p. 215 is kind of diagnostic labelling does not does labelling diagnostic of kind is

abnormal beliefs [which] are nearly always nearly are [which] beliefs abnormal his is done, the alien character of these these of character alien the done, is his .

167 ) .

) .

Psychotic de –

- for example the one from the zeal of the ofthe zeal from the the one example for psychiatri M adness Explained adness lusions, for e for lusions, c version arrivedc in2009 version

xamples, arexamples, Madness Madness , Bentall , - ind for ind CEU eTD Collection hs s h b nw aiir lmn o asmlto, n i i as wa oes h do to door confident interpretation: the opens what also is it and assimilation, of element familiar now by the is This what or out, way a for becoming In example. for cancer, one a psychotic, or infection viral a a as not work is not illness does the it that happening; idea the but claim, this not however is theory the determined environmentally experiences. ― factors: of classes of trials unheard not but major, to reactions are delusions that suggests He above. sketched lineage intellectual the in him places what is this and psychology, of vocabulary the in delivered psychosis to answer solid a at aims Bentall before, ambiguity. ofinescapable that definitive, a for hope the haunting a to answer an for What character. unsettling above considered have we cases the in as reasons same the anybody else anybody euinl hms bevd n lncl rcie icuig ot f hs t those of most including practice, clinical in observed themes delusional common most the that understand apparent is it to made, are made efforts such effort when Indeed, them. the and on extent, some already meaningless to depend, to have seems are delusions subjective I too far experience. they being for or account that this personality criticized individual‘s meant the he to unconnected which by ununderstandable, r will reader The life ‖ ‖ ( 2003 ( reacts 2003 tries

) –

or ― or

) what any thinking, reasonable being reasonable thinking, any what

. traumatic and environment, social general the relationships, family to one‘s environment (one‘s own weaknesses here included), one one included), here weaknesses own (one‘s environment one‘s to

to defend whatever is left of one‘s life. one‘s of left is whatever defend to ecall that Karl Jaspers held all truly delusional beliefs to be be to beliefs delusional truly all held Jaspers Karl that ecall ie a eti lvl f vulnerability of level certain a Given the ordinary miseries ordinary the

else epistemically authoritative answer. The proposed horizon is, as as is, horizon proposed The answer. authoritative epistemically why –

some people will become psychotic. The defining element of of element defining The psychotic. become will people some to do in such a case than look for an explanation, for reasons, for explanation, an for look than case a such in do to ? Again, the criticism develo criticism the Again, ?

- of stressors, circums stressors, of 216 of life‖ of

( 2010, p. 40 p. 2010, –

– would tances Bentall prefers to call ― call to prefers Bentall tances

ped here does not target not does here ped the understandability of of understandability the –

precisely for its difficult and difficult its for precisely The mentally ill person does person ill mentally The ) in the given circumstances given the in .

– He documents He

which may be itself itself be may which ee causal mere a I hat three such such three that looks , but , the the .

CEU eTD Collection ( 169 not ha wedo bodythat malfunctioning a organism, patien the treat to licence apparent givenwe an are unintelligible, are experiences patient‘s that the wedecided have once Moreover, experiences. person‘s ofthe aspects other intelligible the recognize empa to are they amenable how to according indegree varymay experiences and behaviours However, disease. frombiological suffering a and psychotic the is patient functions the patient 168 wh lines these on argue to seems Bentall And intact. remains classification a such The illnesses. mental of segmentation adequate an identify to failed psychiatry sympt of clusters ‗natural‘ for looking of strategy the that mean not does arbitrary are system DSM the form which syndromes the that claim to hand, one the on because, independent are They cr of strands logically Bentall themtogether. puts independent, but two These questioned. is entity pathological circumscribable a is nosology present the only Not psychiatry. th fact the by aside set is criticism Bentall‘s that is on move we before make to point The following. the in again with dealt be will it Frith Christopher by shared also being and familiar, now by commitme conceptual fundamental The Fromm Frieda of reminiscent passages such of criticism a develop not will I Or: Bentall, 2010, p. p. 110 2010, Bentall,

― many are other There

My own view is that is that view Myown way forward that allows the patient to work towards his life goals without without goals life his towards work to causing toothers. harm patient the allows that forward way a find to possible usually is it negotiation skilful and understanding puz empathetic are that experiences for account these understand to to attempts genuine as them but respect to and origins, their explore to explanations, symptoms, his for explanations patient‘s the dispute cli the for task The universe. social the in position their about concerns patients‘ reflect described, just have m i teey naiae. t a vr wl b te ae ht neo that case the be well very may It invalidated. thereby is oms at it develops as part of a larger offensive against the conceptual roots of current current of roots conceptual the against offensive larger a of part as develops it at

( 2003

as a kind of diagnostic test. If the empathy scanner the empathy If test. ofdiagnostic kind a as )

similar remarks, e.g.: ― remarks,e.g.: similar

most psychiatric diagnoses are about as scientificall as about are diagnoses most psychiatric ) 168

iin ae wt te ain wo ak ‗nih‘ s o to not is ‗insight‘ lacks who patient the with faced nician

(

2010, p.180 nt expressed by them (intelligibility/interpretability) is (intelligibility/interpretability)is them byexpressed nt For Jaspers, the empathetic attitude of the psychiatrist towards towards ofthe psychiatrist the empatheticattitude Jaspers, For ve to relate to in a human way.‖inhuman a to relate veto )

ln ad rgtnn. y poes of process a By frightening. and zling rejected 217 failmay to we enough, hard not empathizing By thy.

169

but the very idea of mental illness as illness mental of idea very the but

returns y meaningful as star signs star ...‖ meaningful as y

the reading ‗ununderstandable‘ ‗ununderstandable‘ reading the ( Bentall, 2003 Bentall, t as a disordered disordered as a t - Reichmann here. Reichmann - ) possibility Kraepelinian Kraepelinian

en he refers refers he en tcs are iticism

of CEU eTD Collection 170 Christopher Frith. debated and sam the not obviously thought writings, Bentall‘s in present all are Christs, the and Rokeach Freud, and Schreber far, so tale our the of characters The explanation psychological ariddleabout and 3.5 Frith:context psychoanalyticanti and jargonized) (less as but account, and level, (psychological) separate The illness. in step mental then can of proposes Bentall model model interpretive medical or disease the illicit render to supposed is which healthy the between that and classification, blocks which illness, of kinds between one the continua: two of cross the to nailed safely be can psychiatry that is line bottom The conceive amedicineof of branchintheabsence of psychiatry but rejected, is day the of psychiatry the only that is here implication continuum a is there that idea the in rooted is which criticism radical more far the is there hand other the On intra are which symptoms of clusters transdiagnostic relativetheDSM framework. to alternative identified have that studies to

Th e last two paragraphs are adapted from ofmy review adapted are last two e paragraphs

with is the proponent of another major contemporary theory of psychosis, psychosis, of theory contemporary major another of proponent the is with

of mental disorders ranging from pure depression to pure schizophrenia. The schizophrenia. pure to depression pure from ranging disorders mental of the

cognitive

true theory of psychosis. This is why, even if Bentall‘s account itself is a a is itself account Bentall‘s if even why, is This psychosis. of theory true

- all psychiatric vi

classifications will verge on the arbitrary. And this means that not that means this And arbitrary. the on verge will classifications scooia ter, t pioohcl ua iuts t lsr to closer it situates aura philosophical its theory, psychological

not ews modelwe than consider the

s mr atraie or alternative mere a as 218

Doctoring the Mind the Doctoring some not

nosology.

as an explanation of madness at a a at madness of explanation an as e lessons are lessons e simpliciter

( complementary humanistic humanistic complementary Tudorie, 2011 Tudorie,

, since it it since ,

drawn. Also present present Also drawn. . 170

) .

and the ill, the and is hard to to hard is -

or CEU eTD Collection 171 how we philosophical was ourselves, understand interest especially high. understanding than less nothing as many by seen been has mind‘ of ‗theoryon grasp a getting engine reverse to autism, alongside opportunity, second a offered have could Schizophrenia itself. the on light shed to likely were valid, if ideas, Frith‘s research. of area hot a itself i effort explanatory credible any and subject important an been always had psychosis reasons: two least at for interest elicited schizophrenia to design its of adaptation Frith‘s promising, looked research of strand this As not understand p what other of ‗theory a Thesemind‘. were, children touse S develop (adequately) not did children autistic that fact the by for accounted of region Cohen, different significantly a in place psychopathology taking was breakthrough a that seemed cond this with ‗theory inthe individuals ofmind‘ dysfunctional a to reference by schizophrenia of symptoms key the explain to aimed Frith beingexplanation mainones. thetwo conf has a at appearing psychiatryits of result a was theory the mainstream of popularity The peripheral. seems, it remained, on influence Its literature. philosophical and psychological cogniti a together put has Frith 1992, from book a notablyin and 1980s late the since published papers of seriesa In

The triad refers roughly to impairments in socialization, communication socialization, in impairments roughly refers to triad The luence of topics, the nature of psychopathology and the logic of psychological psychological of logic the and psychopathology of nature the topics, of luence er ‗theory of mind‘, to reconstruct the working whole from the broken pieces. Since Since pieces. broken the from whole working the reconstruct to mind‘, of ‗theory er

had argued that the core symptoms symptoms core the that argued had –

autism. A number of psychologists, notably Uta Frith Frith Uta notably psychologists, of number A autism.

e hoy f ciohei ta hs en nesl dsusd n both in discussed intensely been has that schizophrenia of theory ve eople feeling. were or thinking

nvited legitimate attention; and then ‗theory of mind‘ was was mind‘ of ‗theory then and attention; legitimate nvited imon Baronimon

of autism, the so the autism, of 219

ition. This idea came up at a moment when it ition. a idea This moment when came upat it Cohen‘s expression, ―mindblind‖ expression, Cohen‘s

, -

called Wing called and imagination. and

and Simon Baron Simon and triad

, 171 , theycould explanans

could be could -

CEU eTD Collection intact redshift) (compare: are. attitudes and with beliefs compatible those what about conclusions paranoid of the wrong attitudes if and as beliefs is the It about people. inferences make other can of person intentions the about assumptions mistaken involve inevitably which theory. Frith‘s Chris on 173 to following the in able 172 be to elements contextual enough are there us, o behind psychosis history fragmentary very a with even point, this At pushing theoretical Frith‘s framework tothe limit. persecutory explanator central way. under still is pathology schizophrenic def mind‘ of ‗theory a relates that effort research a that is proposal Frith‘s about think to reason second A settled. from far is issue the moreover, sense, a In matters. wrong went about write to continue to reason One schizophrenia. explain not does probably mind‘ of ‗theory of dysfunction A consistentlybut neither sanctioned,read was hard it towhat into they said. ho The of schizophrenia. mystery the proportion some in elucidating of promise the to part in due was attracted have ideas these interest the that true nonetheless It seems ideas. their of character speculative that fairness, in note, should One implausible. completely are theory the of ideas driving the that say to not is this cases, previous the in As work not does model Frith‘s it case any in now By essay. this in times of number a with dealt have we dispositions philosophical the of continuity the illustrate to simply here is note historical This

For a recent review,recent a see For It is worth looking at the at looking worth is It

as itisderailed. s o te lc t cnet h lgtmc o ti wv o atnin Ti mr o less or more This attention. of wave this of legitimacy the contest to place the not is delusions‖ delusions‖ often – y tenet, accepts that ― that accepts tenet, y

the whole structure of inference is derailed by external forces, but it remains remains it but forces, external by derailed is inference of structure whole the arriving at the wrong conclusions. The answer, as per above, is the usual ‗shift‘ th ‗shift‘ usual the is above, per as answer, The conclusions. wrong the at arriving

ned tee s biul something obviously is there Indeed, ( Abu e f cmrhnie xlnto ws o oe ht h authors the that one not was explanation comprehensive a of pe

an issue that seems settled is that this is a case where sorting out what out sorting where case a is this that is settled seems that issue an whole paragraph: whole ( 2003 - Akel & Shamay Akel&

– )

. 173 not as a comprehensive a as not

hann ocrns ok s h cers eape of example clearest the is work Corcoran‘s Rhiannon

there is obviously something something obviously is there ― Despite this negative evidence, I don‘t think we should give up give should we think don‘t I evidence, negative this Despite - Tsoory, 2013 Tsoory, 172 220

Bentall too, for example, while rejecting Frith‘srejecting while example, for too, Bentall

Frith and colleagues were always aware of the the of aware always were colleagues and Frith

)

theory . other people but, for some reason, reaches the the reaches reason, some for but, people other

‖

explanation One wonders how being able to infer is is infer to able being how wonders One f interpretive attempts to explain explain to attempts interpretive f - of - mind - ish

theory of psychotic symptoms. symptoms. psychotic of about persecutory delusions, delusions, persecutory about is becoming clear that clear becoming is

- of - mind - ish internally internally

icit to icit about about eory eory CEU eTD Collection etr, r eogn t te urn rvvl f ilgcl scity hv hpd ht a that hoped have 174 psychiatry, biological of revival current the to belonging or century, 19 late the in generation founders‘ the of psychiatrists inclined Biologically conunderstandinga ofof level the measureboth intervention of manner specific a and treatment Selective dimension. related and second a illness. the of symptoms and signs the explaining in primarily interested is one theconcept schizophrenia.to stabilize of needed be would dimensions other two least At predict. to us allows exactly what understand Predi the conceptand widely disputed. fragile remains 1997 Shorter, recognized its of spite in entity disease a is schizophrenia that t for and diagnosis, the of validity clinical the for support main the thus is outcome of probable by described symptoms physiognomy and signs the together holds schizophreni What terms. the of different thought quite who in Bleuler, Eugen condition from name the inherit we though Kraepelin, Emil conc a of use (DSM Revision Text Edition Fourth Disorders. Mental of Manual the as systems, diagnostic Current latter. the with begin us Let psycholog cognitive computational current of intersection the at it locate to need we that means This in). it sets himself author the that context (the context conceptual immediate and detail technical propose models developmental the of case the in done have we as But, heritage. intellectual that of part as theory Frith‘s recognize

I refer again to the DSM 5 debate mentioned at the beginning of this chapter. this of theat beginning mentioned debate 5 againthe refer DSM to I to i ivlal fr lncl rcie bt t s lal nt nuh hl w d not do we while enough not clearly is it but practice, clinical for invaluable is ction y,cognitive neuroscience, and DSM a, in the Kraepelinian view, is the fact that the illness has a certain long term term long certain a has illness the that fact the is view, Kraepelinian the in a, ept of schizophrenia developed, under a different label label different a under developed, schizophrenia of ept ; Winn, 2000 Winn,

) . As things stand things As .

course d by Tomasello, this theory should also be seen in its in seen be also should theory this Tomasello, by d Etiology

221 and – -

style psychiatry. style

and as they stood for the last century or so or century last the for stood they as and

dition and the utilitydiagnostic category. the a and of dition

outcome is by far the more faris bythemore . The ability to ability The .

heterogeneity -

( IV igotc n Statistical and Diagnostic impor – - TR)

dementia praecox dementia ) tant

predict and ICD 10, make make 10, ICD and th , 174

Intervention and early 20 early and ( un, 2007 Burns,

especially if

course and course he claim he –

is th – ;

CEU eTD Collection medicalization in medicalization see 175 Pr & Smith 1999, October in example, For impression. an made lines, functionalist familiar such on built approach, Frith‘s translatable inter two on work that explanations groundto meant is this and functioning, neural of indices with correlated are models Cognitive gap. this bridging at aims imaging, brain functional r a neuropsychology, Cognitive by thatbetween psychiatryand psychology. (cognitive)clinical 2003 the on cognitive hand, one the on biological explanations: of families in fracture and a be to seems explanation there fact, In in construction. theory used and studied be can mechanisms of kinds more that is nowadays conducted research and patients, deceased of brains the from samples tissue on microscopes contributions important made Flechsig) (and Wernike and Alzheimer like people when psychiatry, biological of age first the between difference important One understood, for. ifbettercared Schizophrenia isparadigmatic thisuncomfortable situation. for of arrival the with intervention of terms in especially made, were Advances science. medical and biology in base system diagnostic

See

( Healy,2002 ; ( C. D. Frith, 1992 Frith, D. C. Andreasen, 2001 Andreasen, schizophrenia. First, a description of schizophrenic abnormalities at a a of at neuropsychology abnormalities onto abnormalities at aphysiological level. schizophrenic the maps of specifydescription this how of specification a second, description and, to level, psychological a attempt First, any schizophrenia. in components clear two are there brain, and mind between relationship the to approach this Given oust lev ) antipsychotics

. For parallel examples of being favorable to, versus skeptical about medication and and medication about skepticalversus to, favorable ofbeing For examples parallel. the case of depression, see ofdepression, case the els ) , and, in February 2000, 2000, February in and, , . Frith‘s modellocates. Frith‘s itself here: The Monist The )

for an example of optimism; for a a more nuanced history ofantip history nuanced morea a for optimism; anfor example of d on clinical experience would eventually be vindicated by discoveries by vindicated be eventually would experience clinical on d ; Winn, 2000 Winn, , 175

had a special issue on ‗Cognitive theories of menta of theories ‗Cognitive on issue special a had

but it seems clear that psychiatric conditions are still poo still are conditions psychiatric that clear seems it but esearch strategy which had a boost with the arrival of of arrival the with boost a had which strategy esearch

( ) Kramer, 2005 Kramer, . This fracture is imperfectly but consistently mirrored consistently but imperfectly is fracture This . Mind and Language and Mind 222

)

vs. (

1992, p.29 1992, ( Horwitz & Wakefield, 2007 & Wakefield, Horwitz

this area of research between two two between research of area this

had a similar issue, republished republished issue, similar a had )

other

by focusing their their focusing by s ychotic medication ychotic

) ( .

Bolton & Hill, Hill, & Bolton l illness‘ l

( rly B. -

CEU eTD Collection lacking. is knowledge such and conditions, of etiology the about knowledge of amount some imply genu to opposed is Classification enterprises. classificatory largely are psychiatry in theory and practice current that book, the in early very notes, Frith program. research a of foundations the but model, specific a of blocks building finds one that given important, more the are remarks methodological The theory proceed. should adequate an which in manner the and tools the discusses and it, explain to meant theories of state current of chapters first The them. explain perhaps will theory the of sketch A remarks. unexceptional are These Burns: a is here And ofthesumps almost all mood: Philip papersWinn upthis collected inthese publications. as format book in

rt‘ (94 mdl f mard etl tt atiuin n faulty and attribution state mental a cognitivedisorder. model ofthe impaired of tot believe I and selfmonitoring referred model I schizophrenia, in (1994) mind of Frith‘s theory of discussion earlier my In the abandon to pointless seems it concept now. ofschizophrenia theory, testable a of existence any the than Given years recent in interest more has attempt generated the undoubtedly but successful, be will this not or whether know to soon too is It 1992). (Frith, schizophrenia of symptoms and signs the of all for account f theoretical a described has Frith … uh s PSE as such procedure standardised some of terms in schizophrenia of identification the in i it interviews, standardised of use the in training careful with that, showing studies to referred already have I

Frith‘s 1992 book 1992 Frith‘s more recent proof for the canonical status of Frith‘s model, from Jonathan Jonathan from model, Frith‘s of status canonical the for proof recent more affairs, summarizes what is known about schizophrenia and the range of of range the and schizophrenia about known is what summarizes affairs, Pathologies of Pathologies - AEO Wn e a. 16) Ti, oee, s o diagnosis, not is however, This, 1967). al., et (Wing CATEGO

contain a remarkable methodological effort. effort. methodological remarkable a contain Belief his model is a good place to start in constructing in start to place good a is model his

s possible to achieve a high degree of reliability reliability of degree high a achieve to possible s ( 2000, p.253

( ( Coltheart & Davies & Coltheart 2007, p.145 223 ramework that attempts to embrace and embrace to attempts that ramework

ine ine

) diagnosis

)

, since the latter notion would would notion latter the since , ) .

Frith‘s ideas are discussed in discussed are ideas Frith‘s other theory. theory. other

here not only the only not here He

evaluates the the evaluates

CEU eTD Collection 2009 177 to 176 between distinction Frith‘s justified. well seems, it is, approach this informs that caution The so the in involved researchers of number status re Frith surely And enough. real are clinicians by observed signs the and thoseaffected reportedby symptoms such the thing, there isno schizophrenia. if even But trappe are psychiatrists Perhaps issues. both on say to things has Frith used. be should language explanatory or tools what and look to where sure not is he clear, become will it as Moreover, exists. condition the that indeed or t means right the has he that sure being without condition a of causes the investigate to tries He situation. awkward an in is researcher the that is consequence The marker butnosuch marker the for condition, ispresently identified. vindica be would schizophrenia of notion the of validity the that notes Frith happening. is this that clear not is it indicate, debates current and historical as but, overlap, m not should we that right surely is Frith But systems. such by captured is ‗real‘ something that indicate orthodo PSE expla be to something itself is classification in consistency course of but point, made often this on right be may Frith

validity. For a discussion of the effects of medical training, but also of the ‗coaching‘ of patients, see see ofpatients, ‗coaching‘ the of but also medical training, of ofthe discussion effects a For that t Note ) .

–

p. 7 essentially remains problems. schizophrenia many creates approach traditional this of unknown, cause) (or aetiology the As aetiology. diagnosis a making Traditionally, classification. but

omns ht h ivsiao b bid o h dansi label diagnostic the to blind be investigator the that commends and focus on the symptoms. This is a recommendation presently followed by a large a by followed presently recommendation a is This symptoms. the on focus and

) his is the same point made Insel by point same is the his 176 xy, but given that none of the classification the of none that given but xy, istake sociological consistency for explanatory consistency. Ideally, they would they Ideally, consistency. explanatory for consistency sociological istake

nd I may It ined.

d in an error of historical proportions in trying to define define to trying in proportions historical of error an in d

be an artifact of ― of artifact an be –

- see the beginning of the ofthe beginning the see called ‗trans called 224

careful -

diagnostic‘ studies of men of studies diagnostic‘ systems is arbitrary, consistency arbitrary, is systems they

chapter chapter training‖ a ipiain about implications has

need to be explained. Thus explained. be to need

(

C. D. Frith, 1992, Frith, D. C. o identify that condition, condition, that identify o –

when he opposes reliability opposes when he 177 –

and DMS, ICD or ICD DMS, and

ted by a biological biological a byted given its dubious dubious its given ( Borch tal tal - Jacobsen, Jacobsen, illness may .

CEU eTD Collection into categories and to continuously refine the definitions of thesecategories. of thedefinitions continuouslyrefine to and intocategories it since moreradical, 179 178 ( s with associated ― asking second the t approaches, as resurfaces construction theory latter a In others. in not and ways some in cluster symptoms the explain also would successful, if theory, a such symptoms, collect to attempt descriptive co to tends symptom the that fact the predict would symptom given a for explanation an that means this Roughly, approach: a in calls, Frith what using by done be could This symptom definitions. DSM/ICD current of the by clusters specified as conditions to the to symptomsis, that syndromes, of explanations from back work to is move the Here ignored. be cannot this and large looming still are delusions) paranoid say, to, opposed beshould l diagnosis samples control and patient of extraction the in and studies of design the in While are valid or categories the whether open left is it system; categorical Kraepelinian the of vulnerabilities of psychosis views categorical and dimensional between that to similar is diagnosis and symptoms C. D. Fr D. C.

This is one of the place where the contrast with Bentall helps. A committed dimensional approach would be approach dimensional A committed helps. withBentall the where contrast place ofisthe one This See ( Burns, 2007, pp. 50 pp. Burns,2007, associations are pred which in ―story‖ detailed a of construction the requires This approach. driven associations spurious of influence the reduce to way One ith, 1996, p. 619 p. 1996, ith, .

178 eft aside, complete blindness is not possible. The questions about about The questions possible. not blindness is complete aside, eft not

he first trying to capture the ― the capture to trying first he rt i nt neetn n etigti issue this settling in interesting not is Frith . 179 chizophrenia and how do these processes relate to normal brain normal to relate processes these do how and chizophrenia would imply the bankruptcy of the Kraepelinian effort to systematize long term observation long termobservation systematize to effort Kraepelinian ofthe bankruptcy would the imply

what psychological processes give rise to particular signs and symptoms and signs particular to rise give processes psychological what

- occur with other kinds of sympto of kinds other with occur - 51 ) ) . Bentall, as documented above, also favors a dimensional perspective. favorsdimensional also a above, .as documented Bentall, . These two distinctions distinctions two These . icted rathericted .. thandiscovered

dsicin ewe dsrpie and descriptive between distinction a characteristic pat characteristic 225

lgty ifrn cnet a ―theory a context, different slightly –

symptom vs. diagnosis vs. symptom ms (and signs etc.). In opposition to a a to opposition In etc.). signs (and ms .

( and is content to to content is and 1992, p.26 tern of intellectual impairment‖, intellectual of tern

is to adopt a theory a adopt to is paper )

ti epai on emphasis this , schizophrenia , take

and descriptive and functioning mechanistic note

- - driven‖

of or s

why

the (as (as ‖

CEU eTD Collection he saysof chapter: atthethis beginning chapter too challenge. the for the adequate are dispute that philosophical of decades thinks in functionalism he field, the in others like And, discourse. explanatory of kinds two with working in inherent difficulties the of aware is field, the in others as Frith, of levels levels psychological and biological between relation explanations the settle should one how clear not is it because arises jargon explanatory of problem The abuse. amphetamine as such importa is it where practice, clinical in only matters criterion exclusion this that proves condition the of marker of language the to conditions functional other all of and lesi brain a as such dysfunction, physical clear any have patient the that schizophrenia of diagnosis DSM a with inconsistent a considered been has schizophrenia Traditionally, jargon. researc the that is difficulty serious more and second A diagnosis systems. theory vs. .

26 mind the towards attitude This parallelism. form, weaker a in or, theory, identity this each readily can that wayin sucha formulated be can explanation of types Both processes. physiological of terms in or processes mental of terms in explained be can experience and Behaviour d the me For of ) -

the 1992 book 1992 the rvn approaches driven

- complementary or competing of one as seen is problem the because indeed , brain is much influenced by experience with computers. with experience by influenced much is brain

psychology nt to make sure that psychotic symptoms do symptoms psychotic that sure make to nt istinction between mind and brain concerns levels of explanation. explanation. of levels concerns brain and mind between istinction

contains the bulk of Frith‘s effort to tackle this issue. Here is what what is Here issue. this tackle to effort Frith‘s of bulk the contains –

(

Morton, 2004, p. 21 p. 2004, Morton, on. If this is taken seriously, explanations of schizophrenia of explanations seriously, taken is this If on. form the roots of Frith‘s solution to the fragility of current current of fragility the to solution Frith‘s of roots the form –

should be confined to the language of function, that is, that function, of language the confinedto be should

be mapped onto the other. Philosophers call Philosophers the other. onto mapped be 226

) . The continuous search for a biological biological a for search continuous The . e i cnrne wt a hie of choice a with confronted is her functional not

have known etiologies, known have

illness. Currently, it is it Currently, illness. ( 1992, pp. 25 pp. 1992, ls forged by by forged ls The third third The - –

CEU eTD Collection 180 remains scientifi the informs aura conceptual its and problem this how is here note should we What own. his of fault no course, of is, divide‘ the ‗crossing n does Frith That terms. other explanans between that not is predicate biological a and predicate psychological a Thi move. same the in concepts psychological of use makes that explanation ofpattern a point this at rejects clearlyFrith Frith continues bypolemically hisperspectiv situating confusions. his at philo taken be not should Frith and customary, from far is this but reading, functionalist Now other. the on mapping about those are func generic within firmly Frith places one fundamental The here. interest of ideas three are There

Only suggested in this fragment, but explicitly discussed later in the text later discussed but explicitly fragment, this in suggested Only tionalism and concerns, as announced, levels of explanation. The two secondary claims secondary two The explanation. of levels announced, as concerns, and tionalism ohcl od hn e etos iett theory‖ ―identity mentions he when word sophical nopee xlntos n ihr oan To nopee xlntos in explanations incomplete differentmake upa description. complete not domains do Two domain. either in explanations incomplete dom by physical the or mental the either in made be can caused is disorder phenomena these ofexplanations complete that requiresparallelism ofdoctrine The callosum‖. corpus ―thought faulty a via hemisphere say, left the to speaks to hemisphere wrong is rec dopamine it supersensitive think I example, certain that establish to is chapter For not admissible. are simply symptoms forcausalexplanations schizophrenic this of part first the in concern main My

unsolved. . Biology does not explain psychology. The connection must be thought of in some in of thought be must connection The psychology. explain not does Biology .

completeness

, 180

mpig cud e ie a iett tertcl i theoretical, identity an given be could ‗mapping‘ ot have a tenable solution to the traditional philosophical of of philosophical traditional the to solution tenable a have ot

of explanation at each level on the one hand, and inter and hand, one the on level each at explanation of pos, r hluiain ocr hn h right the when occur ―hallucinations or eptors‖, 227 s we can rephrase thus: the connection between connection the thus: rephrase can we s

poet nt ht t unsurpri it that not project, c ; this is just one of a number of of number a of one just is this ; ain. My two examples are examples two My ain. –

see

( 1992, p.26

below.

both explanandum )

biologicaland e a .e. si - level

non n and gly - CEU eTD Collection something about cause.‖ cause.‖ about something 182 181 anything, one won. war wouldbe again, poor. is one this go, analogies As other. the on happens what on two a is goes, story to phenomena, mental of Explanation psychology. cognitive in formulation customary a is This thus: a a at arrived has one If requirement. in explanations complete th of out way The accretion and book inthe in this kindofliteratureillustratesproducesit effects. their if even quirks, these on insist to purposes, our for need, no is There unstable. somewhat nonethel which level a at explanation be exactly may relation their whatever that notes often Frith And brain. the in happens what by were, it as ha thatwhat think scientists cognitive and a majorityof property a not is he but above, example the in as parallelism, mention may He throughout issue the on himself contradicts Frith exact, be To

eod on? meitl floig h famn aoe Fih umrzs i project his summarizes Frith above, fragment the following Immediately round? second E.g. ― E.g. see this to effect, statements some For emphatic

diagnosis h diagnosis explana complete a be eventually should there this with parallel In level. psychological the at explanation an possible as complete as develop to be will approach My versa. the at explanation our influence will physiology about know we what By domains, two easier. the made between commonalities is for other searching the to one mapping that so modified continuously

( 1992, pp.27 in t h pyilgcl ee. oh xlntos hud be should explanations Both level. physiological the at tion as implications about aetiology‖; ― aetiology‖; about implications as explanation e philosophical moving sands is, as evident in the quote above, to ask for for ask to above, quote the in evident as is, sands moving philosophical e (

C. D. Frith, 1992, pp. 33 7, pp. Frith,1992, C.D. - front war. What happens on one side has effects, for strategic reasons, strategic for effects, has side one on happens What war. front - 28 both

a a o t d wt causation. with do to lot a has )

scooia ad ilgcl agn. hs s curious a is This jargons. biological and psychological complete s sad i cua rltos o nua sbtae is substrate neural a to relations causal in stands ess

( C. D. Frith, 2007 Frith, C.D. ) .

228 ―Explaining‖ schizophrenia inevitably involve inevitably schizophrenia ―Explaining‖ explanation of anything, why should one go for for go one should why anything, of explanation

ppens in the mind mind ppens the in psychological level and vice vice and level psychological ) .

this book this 182 One complete explanation of explanation complete One

o h ie o a complete a of idea the So

and and is

caused, ultimately in other writings. other

dualist s saying saying s ; 181

he CEU eTD Collection rcs. hs s biul a ed n. t s ape hr a smtmtc o conceptual for symptomatic as here sampled is It end. dead a obviously is faulty This a process. by explained eventually be might continues, he itself, Schizophrenia betweendistinction and diagnosis symptoms says Frith following: the Forex tothepriorityof But biology. he onthe other points psychology. and biology between symmetry sovereign of kind a is there that idea the invites Frith in seen is This is aninherentof these instability no need to seem usage, naïve their from uprooted concepts, Psychological currency on paradox This priority? lenses, conceptual own their given have, not did biological the if care they should Why fact. biological in mechanisms psychological putative ground to an seem may This vindication. of signs for themsel psychologists cognitive that remains fact the but claim, outrageous biology on kept be times all at must eye way worrying particularly a in fragile remains domain, ontological an itself explanation, psychological complete maximally a is: ‗completeness‘ of understanding and known, im simple, a is there that redundantly, shows, It gratuitous. not is interpretation uncharitable this But reading. strong a such ‗completeness‘ give not should one course, Of por functional , would still be perceived as unsatisfactory. This is because the ‗cognitive‘, construe ‗cognitive‘, the because is This unsatisfactory. as perceived be still would , at esn o wnig w complete two wanting for reason tant onto cn epan i nt ciohei, u shzprnc symptoms. schizophrenic but ( schizophrenia, not is ―explain‖ can cognition functio and structure brain about directly nothing us tell can abnormalities Cognitive development. brain abnormal involves certainly almost schizophrenia of aetiology The inevitably problem. mind the schizophrenia to back us leads This ―Explaining‖ cause. about something saying schizophrenia. involves ―explain‖ not does abnormalities cognitive certain have patients schizophrenic that Demonstrating 1992, p.33 –

s cneune f h rgmnain f eua itninl vocabulary. intentional regular of regimentation the of consequence a is

explanation but suggesting that it it that suggesting but explanation )

too. On the one hand, the talk of separate completeness and parallelism and completeness separate of talk the hand, one the On too. tions. tions. , e aoe ri dvlpet Wa suis of studies What development. brain alone let n,

229

must somehow be backed by backed be somehow must

explanations, no matter how weak one‘s one‘s weak how matter no explanations, ample, in the context ofmakingample, inthe context

– grounding

conceptually. So an an So conceptually. ves are trying hard hard trying are ves biological - brain brain . The result result The . – biological

insisting

hard hard d as d by

CEU eTD Collection imperfect evidence of causation. It is far from clear why a biological explanation would not would explanation biological a why clear from far is It causation. of evidence imperfect cannot mechanism[ they ―cognitive positing While causation, correlational. merely are that studies here criticizes Frith Bulletin res which one symptom, a truly but accident, no is above sample the that stressed be should It Frith psychology of kind the of commitment exemplifies. misplaced the in inherent meaning of regimented of psychological b explanation instability the patch can one that assuming and of levels and with languages, juggling explanatory of mistake the of instance one is above illustrated debacle The confron in difficulties such to led is Frith diagnostic of (fragility categories). reasons methodological local for recommended was symptoms on focus a where earlier, made those with question, in is explanation psychological of nature thi in made observations the between connection no is There symptoms. To havearrangement and symptoms. an historyschizophrenia of of use, just Schizophrenia hand. of out got confusions urfaces in a number of other writings by Frith. For example, in the 1996 the in example, For Frith. by writings other of number a in urfaces uh n xlnto ivle te ecito o a ontv mcaim that mechanism causes the ofinterest. symptom cognitive a of description abnormalities. the brain involves to explanation these an Such link then and terms cognitive in symptoms or an can si particular 'explain' to possible is it contrast, In satisfactory. considered Nor be impairments. schizop cognitive abnormality brain of form particular a which or gene a of of terms in solely explanation in terms sense in 'explained' a satisfactorily is There factor. hidden some by being mediated spurious, be may link apparent an unsatisfactorysince cannot studies such known, assoc are symptoms and signs certain or schizophrenia whether of question the address studies] [These

paper already we striking mentioned, find these remarks:

y themattersgesturing notfix brainbiology. towards Biology will ae wt cran ontv ipimns A i we is As impairments. cognitive certain with iated

address questions of causation and will always be be always will and causation of questions address

( p. 623 ting the hard problem of psychological explanation. explanation. psychological of problem hard the ting s]‖ 230 )

ol. hs em wog Correlation wrong. seems This could.

is , as a matter of definition, medical history medical definition, of matter a as , hrenia will never be be never will hrenia

means s context, where the where context, s British Medical British

to have certain certain to have

gns determine ll is

an CEU eTD Collection eeomn ad ucinn cue a alr i te ontv mcaims o self of mechanism(s) cognitive the monitoring, which atcauses turn its the in failure a causes neural controlling functioning mechanisms and molecular development of level the at problem biological a simpler: so the defending from comes example different quite and last A the includes which elaboration, notable addition ofphenomenologyan explanatory as level: itself further a find we 2000, in coauthored paper, another In cogn ― be interest‖ of symptom[s] its as reasons same the for unsatisfactory be would it that dubious is it and had, be could one if satisfactory, be sne n hc shzprna il ee b stsatrl 'xlie' in 'explained' satisfactorily be never will schizophrenia which in sense a itive impairments‖itive behind the patient‘s report. lies that experience the of inkling some gain should We symptom. that have to some giveus should symptom the of explanation our Third, function. brain underlying to relate model the of components cognitive the how consider to need we level physiological the at Second, not. do which aspects those distinction a between makes which and cases abnormal and normal to applied be can that control motor of model a of terms in arises symptom the how understand we control of delusions like exp symptoms understand to order In 2009, p.509 patient defined physiologically with fo basis a provide may and schizophrenia, of first for explanation mechanistic a neuromodulatory self of failures explain by can mechanism neurobiological NMDARs of regulation like transmitters abnormal to due plasticity in resides schizophrenia in pathology aberrant core the that postulates theory This aain t es tre levels three least at lanation - called ‗dysconnection hypothesi ‗dysconnection called N ) - ‗c

methyl

ognitive‘ counterparts. And if ―cognitive mechanism[s]‖ do cause ―the ―the cause do mechanism[s]‖ ―cognitive if And counterparts. ognitive‘ ? What is thatsense? is What ? , we are back to the problem discussed ab discussed problem the to back are we , dopamine, serotonin, or acetylcholine. We argue that this this that argue We acetylcholine. or serotonin, dopamine, - D -

satt rcpo (NMDAR) receptor aspartate of motor control which reach awareness and those those and awareness reach which control motor of

( C. D. Frith, Blakemore, D.Frith,C. & Wolpert,p.358

core symptoms ofthecore symptoms illness: - Frt a te ontv lvl w must we level, cognitive the at First, . rank symptoms as pathognomonic features features pathognomonic as symptoms rank

231 subgroups

s‘ of schizophrenia. In this case, the view is view the case, this In schizophrenia. of s‘ another r future diagnostic classifications diagnostic future r .

(

Stephan, Friston, & Frith, Frith, & Friston, Stephan, ae, lo ouhrd y Frith, by coauthored also paper, insight into what it is like is it what into insight - monitoring, leading to to leading monitoring, –

mediated synaptic synaptic mediated ove. Why should there still still there should Why ove.

eur an require )

terms of of terms - CEU eTD Collection (a lac (a non and use ofverbal poor and acquisition interactions); (2) ofreciprocal quality the impairment in 184 is that there but also brain, ofthe regions frontalparietal and between e.g. connectivity, states mental 183 represent to capacity the was book Frith‘s of chapter last the in revealed wen proposal the schizophrenia, mind‘ of ‗theory with play tri pretend of lack the communication, abnormal aloneness, (autistic suggested, Gould and Wing he by identified autism, of case mind‘ the of In ‗theory autism. the of by hypothesis schizophrenia of model his constructing in inspired was Frith 3.6 Frith: theme takes here. illustra which model, Frith‘s of details the to hesitations philosophical excusable the from move now us Let former. the of transparency apparent the of unsure always coastlines, biological and functional between commitme misplaced a of because is this Again, explanation. psychological on views take coherent the a to present to posed attempts by difficulties Frith by serious exemplified the of enough evidence be should sample This research program outlined quite is self specific: machinery the Moreover, survives. role causal intermediary an plays machinery la including places, other many in Frith stage center takes biology case this In

( suggests, of‗dis‘ useinstead of‗dys‘ The U. Frith, Morton, & Leslie, 1991, 433 p. &1991, Leslie, Frith,Morton, U. ) k of spontaneous pretend play).‖ pretend k ofspontaneous 184

is thought to be underlain by a by underlain be to thought is

the model the - monitoring mechanisms. As we will see below, this is one of the many faces the the faces many the of one is this below, see will we As mechanisms. monitoring

(ToM) in 1992

e h seii cognitive specific the te

t, a discrete cognitive breakdown was at work. The candidate candidate The work. at was breakdown cognitive discrete a t,

(

. . rt, 92 p 118 p. 1992, Frith, D. C. has taken in recent years.has taken inrecent - verbal means of communication); and (3) impairment in imagination inimpairment imagination (3) and meanscommunication); of verbal )

as explained in as explained describe the triad thetriad thus: describe –

single the hypothesis of hypothesis the terally in CNS CNS in terally 232

impairment in communication (a delay in language delaylanguage in (a impairment incommunication

cognitive deficit cognitive

nt to the conception that one must navigate must one that conception the to nt

( Stephan, et al., 2009 al., et Stephan, - cetfc ooig n tews old otherwise an coloring scientific ― (1) impairment in socialization (a specific (a socialization impairment in (1) –

dysconnection u te da ht psychological that idea the but ) .

– Similarly, in the case of of case the in Similarly,

) eeomna problem developmental a , that is, therenot only adic symptomatology symptomatology adic mis 183 connection. connection.

was pursued by pursued was

lack

of –

CEU eTD Collection positive symptoms like thought insertion, whereas (3) accounted for paranoid delusions. The delusions. paranoid for accounted (3) whereas insertion, thought like symptoms positive s negative explained putatively self of failure (2) action, willed impaired (1) were: mechanisms These symptoms. the explain to posited co on based defined, were previously discussed As inspires activestill research programs. cognitive Leslie‘s on understood mechanistic ToM of disorder a is autism that or cognition, social of core the is metarepresentation that agreement wide of matter a longer no is it indisputable, tremend a suffer schizophrenics process very that in impairment an by caused ideas These abou to think failure a as primarily autism conceive to attempt the was element second The theory. attitude propositional by influenced strongly idea an cognition, social of elements key as ‗decoupling‘ wa trend first The away. fading appeared however, the idea that schizophrenia), for characteristic withdrawal social the name to followers his and Bleuler by used initially was (‗autism‘ reasons historical for part In that of autism. fund the ‗ metarepresentation amental element of ToM, so in effect his explanation of schizophrenia is parallel to parallel is schizophrenia of explanation his effect in so ToM, of element amental

lines. The confluence that inspired Frith‘s ideas is no longer there, but his model his but there, longer no is ideas Frith‘s inspired that confluence The lines. schizophrenia was essentially was―lateschizophrenia – t mental states, i.e. tometarepresent.

ht o i bsd n seii logico specific a on based is ToM that monitoring, and (3) disorders in monitoring the intentions of others. (1) (1) others. of intentions the monitoring in disorders (3) and monitoring, ‘ at . Frith followed in this case Alan Leslie‘s view that metarepresentation is is metarepresentation that view Leslie‘s Alan case this in followed Frith . h cnlec o to hoeia ted, n i dd o srie their survive not did it and trends, theoretical two of confluence the ,

Frith‘s approach was symptom was approach Frith‘s - curne and occurrence, ymptoms such as social withdrawal, (2) could do the same for same the do could (2) withdrawal, social as such ymptoms u stak n hi sca sil. hl ti lte fc is fact latter this While skills. social their in setback ous s defined by Leslie‘s ideas of metarepresentation and and metarepresentation of ideas Leslie‘s by defined s

hn he ifrn cgiiemcaim were mechanisms cognitive different three then 233 –

- were then applied to the long known fact that fact known long the to applied then were onset autism‖. The inspiring model ofautism autism‖. The model inspiring onset

- many in the field were captivated by by captivated were field the in many ytci poes ad ht uim is autism that and process, syntactic - based. Three clusters of symptoms symptoms of clusters Three based. - , CEU eTD Collection 185 and why socalled thu they reactions‘ engage ‗circular inthe failure repeatedmind to seem not do young children why explains Perner ages.early at action in patterns of view Piagetian a against argues Perner to, referred book the In explanation. this but Perner, by work to support, for context, this in refers manifestations. negative cause might goals own one‘s to access impaired that suggesting also are symptoms negative asexplained a The difficulty. this patch to used is artifice transparent An positive making by move, counterintuitive a be to seems what here makes model The autism. with persons to behavior or symptoms of terms in similar most are who symptoms negative with the covers model the whether purposes on following the in focus us Let breakdo general ofa mechanismsall more these are instances crucial theorythree claim that ofthe was

Frithhimself others. of states mental the correctly inferring difficulty have who reference, of delusions and delusions paranoid as such symptoms, positive certain with patients schizophrenic is stereotyped triad: it that suggest shall I However, Wing‘s […]. language poor and ofwithdrawal, social behaviour, version a show with patients patients of Such that schizophrenia. resembles negative autism with people of behaviour the ways many In first p. 207 exp this without And goal. the produce to action planned the of completion expect not do children conception this Without goals. having of conceive yet not do they goal but action, enable that goals have best, at children, young words, other In -

wn symptom schizophrenia cognitively toau closer mechanism that is meant to explain negative symptoms, an symptoms, negative explain to meant is that mechanism

( – C. D. Frith, 1992,p.121 D.Frith, C.

metarepresentational metarepresentational ) says that the proposal uses a ― uses a proposal the that says

breakdown inmetarepresentation,and thetensionbreakdown Frith evaporates. by does this

ectation they do not experience failure or success. or failure experience not do they ectation

failure the second and third mechanisms. It matters less for our our for less matters It mechanisms. third and second the ) all

doubtless o doubtless

symptoms .

( C. D. Frith, 1992,p D. C. 234

ver

. - 185 inclusive

A side note is however necessary. It is It necessary. however is note side A tism: tism:

framework‖ framework‖ s:

. 115ff mut ol t a t a to only amounts d it is the schizophrenics the is it d ) (

1992, p. 133 1992, - directed directed

( 1991, 1991, ) .

entative He CEU eTD Collection that register sensory consequences. The sensory effect of the action is thus anticipated. Corollary discharge refers Corollary discharge anticipated. isaction thus the effect of sensory The consequences. sensory thatregister 186 of malfunction the to something similar expect should One states. mental to argument this of scope the extended Frith and blame faulty for monitoring th dots the connect can one theory, monitoring the to commitment a Given actions. of ownership and/or authorship of recognition and execution, action action), willed of (lack initiation action ar this in problems have to known are Schizophrenics own. our as initiate we that actions the recognize to us allows supposedly what is Monitoring actions. become we that monitoring by also is it that further suggests story The line‘). plans actions the of Some low. correction of price the keeps this and planning, action our correct consequenc of ( is there goes, story the act, we When A mentioned, itmatters less notall symptoms if be canforced one into expla as (though, manifestations of spectrum large a cover moreover, symptoms, negative The first. A failure them. to access‘ of ‗lack a only not goals, of impotency or absence the imply to seems however, which manifestations time reasonable in errors correct to failure or repetitiveness explain could it best At act. a not acting, of patterns explains it sense, makes it supposing since, help, little of is The betweenhaving distinction goals andconceiving of C. D. Frith, 1992, p. 73 p. 1992, Frith, D. C.

This theory This for inspiration crucial

r flee ot al, en fud aly sm atos r ajse o te w the on adjusted are actions some faulty, found being early, out filtered are to act is not a failure to failure a not is act to absence explains that when an action plan is about to be executed, a copy of it is sent to brain structures structures brain to sent ofit is copy a executed, be to isplan about an action when that explains es. At least in some cases we do not need to make serious mistakes in order to order in mistakes serious make to need not do we cases some in least At es.

of action. The distinction is of no help in this case. Avolition, for example, for Avolition, case. this in help no of is distinction The action. of

are ) Frith‘s . This is needed mainly for rapid correction prior to the observation observation the to prior correction rapid for mainly needed is This .

seen in some schizophrenics. Negativity essentially involves, involves, essentially Negativity schizophrenics. some in seen

oolr discharge corollary

model was a theoretical view of action initiation and control. and initiation action of view theoretical a was model reflect e troubles ofschizophrenics. monitoring

on acting, though the second can have effects on the the on effects have can second the though acting, on 235

of the planning and execution of the the of execution and planning the of 186

fetn te ersnain f mental of representation the affecting is what Frith isdrivingis what Frith at.it But

ea: they have difficulties with difficulties have they ea: natory schema). aware failure ay (‗on (‗on ay

of our our of action

to –

CEU eTD Collection Frith ofs notion the Introducing actions. our themas recognize to us whatallows issupposedly fallout words Inplain thisforwarding. to copy are arguably and evaluation semantic to subject are thoughts Fundamentally, view. this against arguments strong are there be, may thought of theory motoric the as fashionable this but choice, philosophical dubious of example another is action to thought of assimilation careless The Moreover: might emerge: lab the if Now, level. of also but actions, of monitoring subject the in originating as reflexes) ( actions willed labels effectively (or discharge corollary that argued been has it actions, of case the In that underlies self this reflectiveef this of terminology the (thus representations mental represent recognizable (phenomenologically) a leaves which effort them of monitoring is there clai is it Typically, schizophrenics. in states e ih wl eprec tee huhs s le ad tu, en isre it our into inserted being minds. thus, and, alien as thoughts these experience well might we ou monitoring, found central reflects wethat effort of If and sense the next.of awareness effort any the without thinking to of thought sense one from a move by we as accompanied choice normally deliberate is actions, our all like Thinking, the thought as wouldbeperceived This t each head. their into coming are if as is It thoughts. own own our recognizing of way some have we their that implies experience not are that thoughts that say Patients says that corollary discharge is a form of self formisa of discharge corollary that says hought has a label on it saying ―mine‖. It this labelling process goes wrong, then wrong, goesprocess labelling this It saying―mine‖. it on label a has hought

( p. 81

is not one we will discuss in this context. One needs to note nonetheless that, that, nonetheless note to needs One context. this in discuss will we one not is fort, we become aware of them: ― them: of become aware we fort, )

- awareness eling/recognition mechanism mechanism eling/recognition ,

too. Thought is thus conceived as a kind of effortful of kind a as conceived thus is Thought too. , we are not surprised by our own actions; anticipating their sensory sensory their anticipating by actions; own we our not surprised , are ‖ as opposed to what to opposed as ( intentions C. D. Frith, 1992, p.116 Frith, 1992, D. C. alien –

as ‗self‘. Since, according to Frith, there is not only only not is there Frith, to according Since, ‗self‘. as

- monitoring .

( med, we become aware of mental states because states mental of aware become we med,

236 C. D. Frith, 1992,p.80 D.Frith, C. to act, something similar would happen at this this at happen would similar something act, to

metarepresentation is the crucial mechanism crucialmechanism the metarepresentationis

(

1992, p. p. 74 1992, Frith calls ―stimulus calls Frith fails trace , symptoms like thought insertion insertion thought like symptoms , meta ) .

)

. (

C. D. Frith, 1992, p. 81 p. 1992, Frith, D. C. ersnain, and representation), )

‗ - driven‖ re - feec copy afference elf

- actions and and actions monitoring, rselves

action logically hs by thus, ) . We We . , an an , ‘ )

CEU eTD Collection experiences and wil and experiences such oftruth ―know‖the ―feel‖ and to will continue wrong, patient the then goes systemIf such a perception. 188 187 adequately ― schizophrenia: in problems communicat discussing when quotes Frith passage telling a by anticipated is explanation model: life‖ of so or years 20 dissimilar schizophrenic the whereas abilities, ‗mindreading‘ the is it that is suggestion The developmental follows. what for consequence some of is an t Frith as Indeed, hallucinations. or but delusions experience interaction, social with difficulties considerable have paradigmatically individuals Autistic here. predictions its and model the handling with careful be to needs One are there where intentions Withdrawalin the first might case,beliefs result inthesecond. paranoid seeing as also but there, are that intentions missing as conversational their of intentions communicative Gricea break to controls normal than likely more are Schizophrenics pragmatics. or discourse of domain of chapter sixth the in schizophrenics o some at look us let other minds, of knowledge with specifically deals which mechanism, third Frith‘s exemplify To acting, includingviaspeech implies thought of expression though actions, with case the not is this language; to connected

Compare: Compare: S byrelevance on work theon Frith draws Here exclusion

the schizophrenic is trying to use an ability that is that ability an use to trying is schizophrenic the .‖ .‖ ― Inferring mental states has become routine in many situations and achieved the status of a direct direct ofstatusa the achieved and situations manyin routine become has states mental Inferring

nrs Acrig o rt, hs s eas te fi t tk it acut the account into take to fail they because is this Frith, to According norms. n ( criterion for autism. There is some hesitation here, but the solution to the puzzle the to solution the but here, hesitation some is There autism. for criterion Bertram 1992,p.105 D.Frith, CohenquotedinC. l not easily accept correct accept easily l not histori

es . This will be a recurrent theme in the later developments of Frith‘s Frith‘s of developments later the in theme recurrent a be will This .

that make the difference. Most autistic persons never had had never persons autistic Most difference. the make that acts.

hr i a uie bt tl pritn struggl persisting still but futile, a is There f the things he says about the communicative difficulties of of difficulties communicative the about says he things the f

ion.‖ his 1992 book 1992 his ( perber and and Wilson perber C. D. Frith, 1992, p. 122 Frith,1992, C.D. 237

partners did not have serious problems ― problems serious have not did . These problems lie specifically in the the in specifically lie problems These . notes

– .

187 no longer no see

( This failure can manifest itself manifest can failure This ( 1992, p. 122 p. 1992, ) 1986/1996

) 188

functional. This kind of kind This functional.

) .

t communicate to e ) , their presence is presence their , e do hey for t for he first he

none. not ive ive

CEU eTD Collection nelciey loe t tk ad ep etr tg, despit time stage, the at idea promising a seemed Metarepresentation center credentials. explanatory keep and take to allowed unreflectively was concept peculiar a contagion, intellectual of cases in happens it as that, clear also is It is Whatever the evidence either,certainly for they are notanalogous. job main whose module ToM a of conception Leslie‘s of physiology the Alan to frompurposes all for identical monitoring, of understanding another to discharge, corollary meaning its inherited which monitoring of idea the from freely For conception. overall in and detail in problematic, is schema This Metarepresentation faulty. again is me others‘ represent cannot patient The intentions. people‘s other of monitoring the be must metarepresentation Therefore monitored. being states the representing as conceived is Monitoring awareness. control of delusions cannot met cannot he He i.e. representation, mental goals. a represent represent to is do cannot patient the what So goals. represent to ability the as conceived is Access states. mental of kind a are Goals goals. to access of lack a by Negative lines. following the on roughly proceeds then reduction The states mental about inferences making with problem larger a of part be may emotions recognizing ―[t] that told are we example, For i early appears idea The ToM. and metarepresentation of framework conceptual the in coagulate mechanisms‘ ‗cognitive separate seemingly three these how ask now us Let .‖ ( use the term metarepresentation. shall I labels. many has mechanism This experience. conscious to fundamental is that mechanism a in defect a of reflections are schizophrenia of symptoms abno cognitive the all that suggest shall I p. 52 )

The last chapter is where the model comes lastchapter together: iswhereThe themodel ,

and the like the and problem. Lastly, paranoid delusions reflect dysfunctional dysfunctional reflect delusions paranoid Lastly, problem.

– e ifcly ht ay ciohei ptet hv with have patients schizophrenic many that difficulty he

is caused by lack of self of lack by caused is

( p. 116 238

)

mlte udryn te in and signs the underlying rmalities arepresent. Passivity arepresent. -

monitoring, which blocks self blocks which monitoring, o ade metarepresentation. handle to

e its lack of convincing convincing of lack its e

xml, rt moves Frith example, symptoms are caused are symptoms –

thought insertion, insertion, thought due to due n the book. the n n tal states. states. tal

Alan Alan -

CEU eTD Collection f eaersnain atr mr i ti cnet Cri ak a iprat question. important an asks Currie context. this in more matters metarepresentation of interp subpersonal the prefers Currie ‗monitoring‘. with difficulties the about above discussion the of lines the on is where places ― t two read fact in can one that argues (2000) Currie Gregory why t a gives which of specifickind story a symptoms, psychotic about story intelligible an tell to motivation sinc schizophrenics in defective motivation the but collapses, necessarily unification Frith‘s of architecture the lost ground this all With Sterelny aboutlatter situationcan this applied says also toFrith‘s be model: its mid the with beginning Leslie by sketched ones the not are cognition social in metarepresentation wha ask to sense makes It these scrutiny, views survived even have psychology. within logico relevant f in then 1992 social of development the to central is it that arguments Leslie‘s While Frith sometimes treats metarepresentation as his central theoretical concept, there are there concept, theoretical central his as metarepresentation treats sometimes Frith While founders - 1980s. Especially so since the ToM theory of autism has diminishing support, even from even support, diminishing has autism of theory ToM the since so Especially 1980s. ; hey believe the strange things that they seem tobelieve.hey believethestrangethatthey things seem Leslie & Thaiss, 1992 Thaiss, & Leslie ( other butthathope aspects ofthesyndrome, nowseemsunlikelyfulfilled. tobe seemed once It years. the few in last ground considerable lost have autism of explanations mind of Theory 2003, p.213 ull

o hs prah ean lrey nat Sca cgiin a kon o be to known was cognition Social intact. largely remains approach his for -

blown he gives more emphasis to the notion of efference of notion the to emphasis more gives he ( Baron - semantic properties of intentional language (notably opacity). Not much of of much Not opacity). (notably language intentional of properties semantic satisfaction - ‗mindreading‘ ) oe, 2002 Cohen,

retation of ‗efference copying‘ or corollary discharge. But his criticism his But discharge. corollary or copying‘ ‗efference of retation : it shows in familiar terms why they act as they act and especially and act theyas act they why terms familiar in shows it : ) . Leslie saw metarepresentation at work early on in pretense and and pretense in on early work at metarepresentation saw Leslie . t happens to Frith‘s proposal if the nature and role of of role and nature the if proposal Frith‘s to happens t e the illness was identified as such after all. And this is the is this And all. after such as identified was illness the e , . He also suggested that such a structure reflected the the reflected structure a such that suggested also He . 2004 likely that interpretative deficits could explain explain could deficits interpretative that likely ; il Fih 2004 Frith, & Hill 239

; ere it Fihs proposal: Frith‘s into heories copying.‖ otn 2004 Morton, cognition (

2000, p. 171 p. 2000,

( ) ele 1987 Leslie, Wa Kim What . )

This ,

CEU eTD Collection action hold. Now, the psychotic person, all humanistic concerns taken into consideration, is consideration, into taken concerns humanistic all person, psychotic the Now, hold. action be connections (conceptual) interpret a if su aperson oneWhen asks do ‗Whatwould in preserves person ill the that assumes pattern The chapter. this in tracking been have we error fundamental the to points typical, indeed if pattern, This mechanism, moves totheregular theargument terr asking: from other? person. ill the against conspire unpredictable, and mysterious seem persons other these makes others of intentions the on reflect adequately to unable being that suggests Frith w a such in others perceived she if (e.g. condition a such in herself found she if experience or believe then do, person a is would ‗What question syndromes the answering of by explained forming their and resistant) being their delusions, of content (e.g. to beexplained; the symptoms cause ofthe mechanism as isindicated the of breakdown a second, posited; is abilities normal underlies that mechanism‘ ‗cognitive are schizophrenia of models cognitive design to trying in that seems It perspective. Fri reasonability. and interpretability of problem the connects question This havecontent? bizarre migh peculiar have hallucinations and delusions Schizophrenic typical many t

at best explain h explain best at Who would not would Who to ad nesadn. hs ut be must This understanding. and ation

individual, one situated well situated one individual,

( Winn, ‗ h wud o g md ih uh mother? a such with mad go not would who

00 p. 249 pp. 2000,

ow a thought can become ―disattributed‖ become can thought a ow become paranoid when feeling constantly threatened? We are not far not are We threatened? constantly feeling when paranoid become

discussion of Frith‘s theory with our larger theme. It invites in the in invites It theme. larger our with theory Frith‘s of discussion tween, say, perception and belief, or between belief, desire, and and desire, belief, between or belief, and perception say, tween, Who - 250 would not would within )

–

one proceeds roughly on the following lines: a a lines: following the on roughly proceeds one

the space of reasons spaceof the 240 ch

and feel

th illustrates a general weakness from this this from weakness general a illustrates th itory ofinterpretation. n niiul bu wo te common the whom about individual an therefore -

such?‘, the question such?‘, threatened being faced with an opaque opaque an with faced being threatened content

threatening, some . But why should the thought the should why But . , the only available world for for availableworld only the , s. Why? Metarepresentation Why? s. ‘

rm pcltos about speculations From

sense intact rationality. rationality. intact sense nature

must therefore ay)? For example, For ay)?

of the symptoms of the

be asked about be about asked –

and there there and iey to likely

CEU eTD Collection influence on the performance in the latter latter the in significant performance the a on influence has former the in performance that concluded and comprehension, proverb more was group violent non and violent in ToM measured the for argued (he impairment intellectual general ( and pictorial or pictorial, wereeither that tasks ToM on schizophrenia with patients examples. few a are Here rare. not are connection the of nature the specify to attempts and schizophrenia, in performance measuring Studies research. inspire to continues model Frith‘s criticism, such Despite 3.7 Frith: forcing interpretative our theminto common practice. T reasoning. have probably individuals Delusional delusions. with definition, case,by the not is This argument. or evidencecommensurate by overcome be could largebias a of result the as seen hallucinations by for Coltheart, and Langdon ex criticisms. similar proposed already have authors Various remains, not Brüne, 2003 Brüne, ample, reject ― that the idea b definition, by , normal

as untenable. always,

aftermath and conclusion and aftermath his obviously erodes the plausibility of understanding, and the legitimacy of of legitimacy the and understanding, of plausibility the erodes obviously his ) esnn poess o xli aern perc aberrant explain to processes reasoning .‖ tried to determine whether a ToM deficit is specific, or whether it is related to arelatedto is it whether specific,or is deficit ToM a determinewhether to tried ( 2000, pp. 185 pp. 2000,

such an individual. The assimilation of madness to its very opposite opposite very its to madness of assimilation The individual. an such bias impaired

in reas in delusions are meaningful hypotheses which have been generatedhavedelusions are meaningful which hypotheses been

- 186 ( aft, Hardy Sarfati, oning (what I have called a theory of shift above). Even a a Even above). shift of theory a called have I (what oning ; - )

violent paranoid schizophrenics, and determined that the that determined and schizophrenics, paranoid violent

( They also reject the idea that such phenomena should be be should phenomena such that idea the reject also They rn & oesen 2005 Bodenstein, & Brüne

task 241

;

- ( al, rnt & ilce, 1999 Widlöcher, & Brunet, Baylé, Chung, Kang, Shin, Yoo, & Kwon, 2008 Kwon, & Yoo, Shin, Kang, Chung, latter

); ( Abu pul xeine, uh as such experiences, eptual - Akel & Abushua‘leh, 2004 Abushua‘leh, & Akel )

deficits esrd o ad then and ToM measured

vru bae) in biases) (versus linguist )

tested tested ToM ToM ic ) ) ;

CEU eTD Collection 189 and performance of measuring been have methods for of series a Fortunately, groups. allow control and clinical between not comparison does ToM of understanding generic A and summarizes aseries of model metarepresentational the to refers She ToM. in dysfunction a with connection strongest the has schizophrenia autism, of exception the with that, show to seem evidence according o understanding Schizophrenia‘ and Mind of ‗Theory In two bookchapters(co) from come blunders such of examples clearest the of Some analogy. to relation in invoked theory‘ for is ‗simulation examplewhen supportthesebrought picture speculations, to the into worse get Things once reserved tometarepresentation. slot conceptual the occupies effectively reasoning Analogical analogies. make to able being aut that Task‘, ‗Hinting her as such tasks, ToM in impairment i Corcoran‘s the of both example, For confused. increasingly become Corcoran co papers in usually lines, these on write to continued himself Frith impaired when tohealthy compared individuals in ToM measured

See below. See borpia mmre. o o, t es i shzprnc, a smtig o o with do to something has schizophrenics, in least at ToM, So memories. obiographical schizophrenics

(e.g. to the contents of their minds‖ minds‖ their of contents the to

e ta wa g what that dea ocrn Fih 2003 Frith, & Corcoran f ToM f

hn hlspia theor philosophical when

cannot reason analogically from the past experiences stored in their their in stored experiences past the from analogically reason cannot signed by studies aimed at testingmodel. studies that –

an ―implicit theory‖ to the effect that humans ― humans that effect the to theory‖ ―implicit an

e wog n cioheis s aaoia reasoning‖ ―analogical is schizophrenics in wrong oes with ‗ultra with Corcoran controls

, high

( ( ( ocrn 2001 Corcoran, 2005 Corcoran, 2001 2001, p. 149 p. 2001, . And so on. . And ies about the nature of nature the about ies 242 -

risk‘ of developing psychosis, and found them them found and psychosis, developing of risk‘ )

Te oe eet ok a unfortunately has work recent more The . 189

)

is supposedly explained by the fact the by explained supposedly is –

) ;

CorcoranKaiser, &2008 and points out that the available the that out points and h author the etoe ppr ae built are papers mentioned - understanding others understanding authored with Rhiannon Rhiannon with authored

trs rm gen a from starts have minds and act and minds have ) .

. The The .

eric eric are are on CEU eTD Collection some in require, to seem which of all measurements, various for explanations putative of series a with left is one available, not is framework that if But options). two the between ambiguity metarepresentat with ToM either and center, its at metarepresentation placing of price the at bought was model sense some in is mis be can uniformity this But ToM. like something the is goes, claim the unlikely, them makes Non series ofdisc ability. single any th all in success whether is avoided be cannot which question The not. do others use make some involvement; emotional un emotional emphasize some intentions; at others beliefs, at aimed are some visual; purely are others yet visual, and verbal are others verbal, are some order; Some common. in have tasks these what say to hard is It at symptomworse least schizophrenic some thancontrols. groupsdo tasks, these all On rules. communicative and jokes, understanding, deception and belief false coincide not does that intention communicative a deduce 155ff p. 2001, into ToM above the translating test, such of One tests. ways tractable empirically four describes Corcoran populations. clinical studying b have others while research, child in developed - ofbehaviors.allalwaysavailable kinds What for arementalistic explanations ifnot often sen se, mentalizing. se, mentalizing. onnected results? results? onnected ) , is based on short stories containing stories short on based is

one Is the claim that ToM is thus tested for more than a verbal umbrella for a a for umbrella verbal a than more for tested thus is ToM that claim the Is

discrete psychological entity. The unifying elegance of Frith‘s initial initial Frith‘s of elegance unifying The entity. psychological discrete

o o mkn TM an ToM making or ion

of social scripts and appropriateness considerations, appropriateness and scripts social of 243 uniformity

een proposed specifically in the context of context the in specifically proposed een indirect leading. It is there to the extent that ToM that extent the to there is It leading. instance - mentioned

of explanation provided by positing positing by provided explanation of

with

are first are speech acts. The subjects have to to have subjects The acts. speech

of metarepresentation (there is is (there metarepresentation of what is said. Other studies use studies Other said. is what ‗ itn Task Hinting -

order, other are second are other order, derstanding, others derstanding, ese measures measures ese ‘ ( Corcoran, Corcoran, equating

lack lack -

CEU eTD Collection components ofthe model. of breakdown separate the to reference by tentatively explained are schizophrenia of place,some in is reasoningmodel conditional + memory autobiographical Oncethe via the explain to trying of sense intuitions, informed by perhaps including is that model justified, independently be explanatorycan operationalization Now, work. the by the justified be to supposed with connection little has tasks test in operationalized is ToM of Corcor reasoningin conditional and autobiographicalmemory models technical on based are ToM But ToM. require tasks which of understanding this: be to seems situation The explanans a by motivated measurements of results ToM so ToM, by meant is what clear very work) Leslie‘s of (because clearer seemed that something mysteryone solve to tried Frith paradigm. same the in work some with difficulties is This tasks. reasoning their also and schizophrenics, of memory autobiographical poor self with m a build to attempts she that fact the in Corcoran of text this in visible is pressure This data. the to justice do to attempt an than effect inertial or methodological a more fears, one is, together explanations the keep to pressure The

ToM, the proble the ToM, what - knowledge (autobiographical memory) as its basis. The justification for this is the is this for justification The basis. its as memory) (autobiographical knowledge .

is the is m remains. Moreover, it is not at all clear that this is the point in this text. this in point the is this that clear all at not is it Moreover, remains. m explanans relation confusing, as it puts what Frith did on its head while still claiming to claiming still while head its on did Frith what puts it as confusing,

between schizophrenia and ToM, and not schizophrenia itself schizophrenia not and ToM, and schizophrenia between and measurements what

the odel of ToM that makes use of use makes that ToM of odel but this needs to be made explicit, or one loses the loses one or explicit, made be to needs this but – explanandum

244 different

the of ToM performance ToM of

explanations explanans –

anterior understanding of that very very that of understanding anterior eaersnain n rt‘ case, Frith‘s in metarepresentation

in these discussions. Even if one is is one if Even discussions. these in

– – –

an‘s. This means that how ToM how that means This an‘s. schizophrenia schizophrenia ToM. It turns out that it is it that out turns It ToM. is revised revised is which relate schizophrenia and and schizophrenia relate which

are guided by an by guided are

in order in analogical reasoning analogical –

by relating it to it byrelating to match match to symptoms intuitive the two the

not the the

CEU eTD Collection mechanisms the to ToM differ results the and ways, different its diagnosis toa deficit isrelated hyper a of use make patients paranoid that with or ToM in deficit a with deals one that with, begin to clear, not for is It context. allow this in not hypothesis certain a does adjudicating data the out, point helpfully authors the As clear. less become things ( difficulty) ToM a (i.e. intentions another‘s about inferences incorrect from feedsframing intuitive of kind This first thus: few pages ofthe paper the in pace the set authors the Frith, Following foothold. initial this substantiate to attempts previous the in As problems howToM conceived with is are transparent. symptom is a ToMimpairment if tosee run comparative studies di of array an trans the long textsecond the arein presentproblems Similar . 207 p. elf in elf persecutory (PD). delusions orig preciseabilitythis was that chapterthis because itis in ToM of definition working the as used be will that others, thoughts, of beliefs the and intentions about think to ability the is It self others. of states and mental the on introspection reflection enables metarepresent to ability The - standing debates and emerging issues‘ emerging and debates standing )

- acute hs ol b s, u we i cms o bui to comes it when but so, be could This diagnostic approach. Some symptoms, such as persecutory delusions, are present in in present are delusions, persecutory as such symptoms, Some approach. diagnostic , is in these conditions these, isin conditions agnoses

relevant states of the the of states paper –

symptoms schizophrenia, cases of psychotic depression psychotic of cases schizophrenia, , there , illness –

a biased or abnormal ToM; some researchers even suggested suggested even researchers some ToM; abnormal or biased a (

is a move from a generic understanding of ToM to ToM of understanding generic a from move a is Corcoran &2008, p.206 Corcoran Kaiser, for example if it is a exampleifitis for

, . Different research groups sample clinical populations in populations clinical sample groups research Different . a challenge.

into another one, namely that ― that namelyone, another into s poe t te otiuin f general of contribution the to opposed as accordingly - ToM. Moreover, it is still debated whether a ToM ToM a whether debated still is it Moreover, ToM.

( Corcoran & Kaiser, 2008 Kaiser, & Corcoran 245

–

‗Persecutory Delusions and Theory of Mind: TheoryMind: and of ‗Persecutory Delusions Sprtn a pcfc otiuin from contribution specific a Separating . trait

dn a ata dtie cua model causal detailed actual an lding

of schizophrenia of inally argued to be relevant to be arguedinally to -

or diagnosis or )

- the proposal that PD stems stems PD that proposal the

awar , )

. This is an instance of of instance an is This . etc. It makes sense to sense makes It etc. ns a wl as well as eness [ – is

- or if it manifests manifests it or if ] specific. Again, specific.Again,

very

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