Synthetic Worlds We Live By

Abstract

Computer Simulation Gaming has been found to enhance learning in many disciplines for various academic settings, including high school and higher education. It is hypothesized that integration of 2 simulation game into the aspects of lesson planning will foster learning among adolescents who are moving through a process of psychosocial moratorium, as compared to equivalent students in comparable conditions who are not exposed to gaming.

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to find and discuss supportive studies about using games in teaching and learning. Although the author previously intended to explore educational technology in the area of narrative, he found himself fascinated by the controversial possibilities of using computer games in narrating not only educational concepts, but also personal development concepts. To be more specific, his appeal to narrative began while he was writing his autobiography and teleography for the class assignments. By then, he was captivated by the power of narratives to help writers in retrospection and in projecting their life.

Even though the author was not originally intending to aim his study at video game research in general, he is certain that reviewing such studies was worthwhile. For game developers and scholars, videogame study is known as ludolugy. Gonzalo Frasca (2003a) defines ludology as a discipline that studies games in general and video games in

1 particular. The term is not new and has been previously used in relation with non- electronic games, particularly among the board gaming community. Consequently, the term lodologist is used to describe any type of game scholar.

Narrative and Game study: An Ongoing Debate

Game scholars are divided into two camps. In the first camp, Mateas (2002) coined the term narrativist to distinguish its meaning from narratologist, which is a term widely used in humanities and one that independent from our medium of representation. Mateas proposed the term narrativist to refer to “a scholar who uses narrative and literary theory as the foundation upon which to build a theory of interactive media.”

For the second camp of game scholars, Game-research.com’s dictionary states that ludology is “the study of games, particularly computer games. Ludology is most often defined as the study of game structure (or gameplay) as opposed [italics added] to the study of games as narratives or games as a visual medium.” However, Frasca (2003b) argues that the term ludologist simply refers to a game scholar, regardless of his or her position on narrative and games. He also argues that narrativists do not really exist and that Mateas (2002) fails to name any such scholars.

Pearce (2005) claims that having two camps of game scholars is somewhat beneficial. She further explains that one should not argue whether or not games are narratives by various theoretical definitions, but rather in which ways they are narrative.

In other words, narrative should be framed as an adjective rather than a noun. In her opinion, games such as the Indiana Jones series by LucasArts and Blade Runner by

Westwood studios fall into the category of a spatial narrative; the game stories are

2 embedded in a deconstructed form, and the player is to reconstruct the story. In contrast, games like The Sims or Everquest, give players a “story kit” that allows them to craft their own stories through gameplay. This is what Pearce refers to as “emergent authorship.”

Defining Narrative

Gordon and Alexander (2005) argue that the term narrative has been evolving over time and that it needs to be clarified for two reasons. First, they claim that the meaning of narrative in the classic sense--well structured, coherent stories that had beginnings, middles, and ends--is dead. Postmodern narratives are not united and ordered with fragmented time lines. Secondly, the interpretation of the significance of narrative differs among theorists. Some believe that humans are storytelling animals and that narrative automatically surrounds us. Others suggest that narrative sensibility is not automatic and that good storytellers are crucial.

For the sake of this exploration, the author decided to use Branigan’s seven-stage model of cinematic narrative structure (1992) as a framework reference; this model consists of the following:

1. Introduction of setting and characters

2. Explanation of a state of affairs

3. Initiating event

4. Emotional response or statement of a goal by the protagonist

5. Complicating emotions

6. Outcome

3 7. Reactions to outcome

Branigan’s model builds on a well-defined system of constraints, and a story that satisfies his model must contain all seven stages (Ventura and Brogan, 2002). The author will discuss the use of this model later in this paper.

Discussion of the Game Genre

Before going further, the author feels that it is worth framing some definitions of the game genres. How should we categorize computer games like World of Warcraft,

Simcity, or The Sims? Most gamers would likely say that World of Warcraft is a role- playing game (RPG), or to be more specific, a Massively Multiplayer Online Role- playing Game (MMORPG). Game enthusiasts may all agree that Simcity and The Sims are clearly part of the simulation genre. If you ever visit Amazon.com’s computer and video games catalog and look into the PC games section, you will find The Sims series in both the simulation and in the strategy sections, while World of Warcraft can be found in online, role-playing, and strategy sections. The classifications are fairly self-explanatory; a simulation game is a replication of a real world environment and is built upon such behavioral rules; an RPG is a game in which players take a certain role and participate in a gameplay. Even so, we can probably propose that some simulation games like The Sims should be labeled simulation-RPG genre because such games replicate sources and maintain interaction from the original sources. From the player’s point of view, it is possible to immerse oneself in a single role of the gameplay while the game itself is considered to be a part of the simulation genre. The Sims game even begins with an

4 opportunity for the player to create an avatar; thus, the player--consciously or unconsciously--commits to a certain role. However, Answers.com files Simcity and The

Sims as god games; computer games that let players create and control the lives of virtual people, cities, or worlds. The Answers.com also subdivides god games into two levels, which are an individual level (The Sims) and a City, Nation, World level (Simcity). In the author’s opinion, the division (or diminution, to be more precise) of the god game as an individual significantly breaks the meaning of the god game itself, consequently overlapping with RPG genre.

Unlike manifest god game such as Black & White or the SimCity series, a diminutive god game, such as The Sims, can definitely be played as a role-playing game.

The Sims is a hybrid of god game, simulation, and RGP--depending on the gameplay-- that provides a deeper level of immersion; player plays with self, not as a god. Thus it offers an opportunity to extend the story by self.

Simulation As a Narrative Story Kit

To narrate is to recount a story, setting, and outcome. To simulate, however, is to model a (source) system through a different system which maintains to somebody some of the behaviors of the original system” (Frasca, 2003a). Fransca carries this further:

Unlike traditional media, video games are not just based on representation but on

an alternative semiotical structure known as simulation. Even if simulations and

narrative do share some common elements--character, settings, events--their

mechanics are essentially different. More importantly, they also offer distinct

rhetorical possibilities [italic added]. (¶2)

5

Fransca (2003a) seems to take the first three stages of Braingan’s model (1992) and leave the rest to the player. In computer gameplay, characters and setting are introduced and a state of affairs and events are initiated; moreover, the protagonist usually has a goal to accomplish. We know that Lara Croft, the British archaeologist-mercenary, always searches for mysterious artifacts all around the world, namely Peru, South America,

Greece, Egypt, and Atlantis in her first PC game episode (tombraider.com). We also know that by entering The Sims, you will direct your Sims citizen over a lifetime and will mix their genes from one generation to the next. You also set your Sims’ goals in life, which may include popularity, fortune, family, romance, or knowledge (TheSims2.com).

The game outcome and the player reactions are generally unpredictable. Fransca

(2003a) differentiates an alternative of game end using Caillois’ distinction between paidia and ludus, which describes the difference between “play” and “game.” Paidia refers to the form of play present in early childhood (construction kits, games of make- believe, kinetic play), while ludus represents games with social rules (chess, soccer, poker). He argues that “structurally, ludus follows the same three-act rule behind

Aristotelian stories. Ludus sessions go through a first act where the rules are acknowledged, a second act where players perform, and finally, a third act that concludes the game and draws the line between victors and losers” (Aristotle on the Holodeck section, ¶4).

Fransca (2003a) concludes that ludus is a centralized author, a closed product prepared by game designer that works well with a fantasy-like, binary ending; Lara Croft must go to Peru before Greece, then on to Egypt to find a certain artifact. On the other

6 hand, piadia is an open-ended gameplay that is appropriate with human relationships and unclear situations; University Expansion Pack does not force players to be only Kurt Cobain, although this character is the most popular among The Sims 2 community.

Immersion or Alter Ego?

Castronova (2005, p.87-88) argues that today’s computer graphics are already sufficient to enable full, unconscious immersion in synthetic worlds and that in simulation, selective fidelity--rendering only the things that matter for a certain environment--is more important than perfect virtual reality. He also believes that players in a synthetic world would feel that an avatar’s attributes are their own personal attributes and may later develop some desires that correspond to those characteristics with respect to the world (p.45).

Gee (2003, p.58) developed the concept of projective identity, which argues that game players will redo a fight scene again and again if they fail because they feel that they have “let their character down.” While Castronova (2005) believes that players completely immerse themselves in the new world--which is similar to McAdams’s idea of juggler (1997, p.125)--Gee (2003) appears to disagree, claiming that players only project their identity onto their avatar based on their own values and a certain gameplay experience.

Nevertheless, it is possible that both Castronova and Gee are right, as these responses depend on individual experience. One player might claim that a synthetic world is as real as life on earth, while another might argue that an avatar is only a close

7 friend. This author suspects that a level of immersion exists for some players who have multiple avatars in single or multiple worlds. If a player creates two or three dwarfs to help gather resources for his favorite avatars, for example, a beautiful half-elf; what would be his feeling for those enslaved dwarfs?

Fast Forwarding Your Life with Simulation Games

With the game’s family album feature that allows players to capture gameplay moments, and with an online community feature that allows players to share these snapshots and stories over the Internet, The Sims has allegedly become a serious social and personal expression arena, as well as a tool for unburdening past torment. Results from searching The Sims online albums show that 63 albums deal with abuse issues; one such album was a story about a woman’s abusive relationship and how she got out of it.

There are also several well-crafted stories, such as a story of a young woman’s drug addiction and recovery, an African-American adoptee in a white family, and a six- episode story of three sisters separated by the murder of their mother (Wired News,

2003). In search of abusive albums in The Sims 2, this author found 67 albums dealing with traumatic issues. These stories are full of emotional, mysterious, and tragic feeling from people like a bullied girl who has been involved in violence and teenage sexual harassment and a woman who is being abused by her husband who tries to find a better life. The author also found four albums that demonstrate life stories and autobiographies of individuals and families through a story exchange area.

According to Wired News (2003), Will Wright, The Sims’ lead designer, mentioned that his game is about real life and about making decisions to maximize Sims’s happiness.

8 This is a very important issue if we are to use this game as a myth-exploring tool. From both psychological and social standpoints, a good personal myth can provide one’s life with meaning, although happiness may or may not follow (McAdams, 1997, p. 265).

Gee (2003, p.62) claims that video games allow players to take more risks through a process of psychosocial moratorium than real-world environment. McAdams (1997, p.92) explains that psychosocial moratorium is a process through which young people actively explore new alternatives in life. They may try new roles and relationships.

Simulation games, especially The Sims 2, certainly create an opportunity to form identity and develop a personal myth. In order to limit gameplay to the psychosocial moratorium process, this author would like to discuss some possible ways to promote the experiment:

1. Avatar design should be as real as possible; this is to avoid an alter ego

experience.

2. Friends and family members should be related to real life situation so that the

gameplay will help enhance players’ reflection. This will also help players to

experience a psychosocial moratorium.

3. Cheat codes and extra gifts are not allowed or allowable according to real bank

statement. This is to support McAdams’s belief that we can never transcend our

resources (1997, p.92).

4. Regarding aspiration points and rewards in the game, this author suggests that

we should allow players to redeem aspiration rewards. Although using rewards

may alter the avatar’s attributes and fortune, there should be some uncontrolled

circumstances as in real life.

9 Although the psychosocial moratorium process usually occurs in the adolescent years, the author argues that it is possible to broaden this age range, as the scenarios presented may fit both teenagers and young adults. Nonetheless, it is also dependent on how each individual approaches gameplay.

Conclusion

In this paper, the author tries to bring forward an opportunity in computer gameplay, especially in the simulation-RGP genre, to help in developing personal myth and in simulating the psychosocial moratorium process. However, The Sims 2’s gameplay should be examined in more detail to help create an environment offering the best possible roles and relationships to help young people to form identity and develop a personal myth. This proposed framework might also be adapted in other expansion packs as they may fit in other psychological or anthropological approaches.

References: Answers.com (n.d.). God game. Retrieved April 9, 2006, from http://www.answers.com/ god%20game Branigan, E. (1992). Narrative Comprehension and Film (Sightlines Series) (1st ed.). New York: Routledge. Castronova, E. (2005). Synthetic worlds: The business and culture of online games. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Frasca, G. (2003a). Simulation versus Narrative: Introduction to Ludology. In Mark J. P. et al. (Eds.) Video/Game/Theory. Routledge, (in press) Frasca, G. (November 2003b). Ludologists love stories, too: notes from a debate that never took place. Level Up, Digital Games Research Association (DiGRA) Conference Proceedings. Game-research.com (n.d.). Dictionary. Retrieved April 11, 2006, from http://www.game- research.com/dictionary.asp Gee, J. P. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gordon, D. & Alexander, G. (2005). The Education of Story Lovers: Do computers Undermine Narrative Sensibility? Curriculum Inquiry, volume 35 (issue 2), p.133- 159.

10 Mateas, M. (2002). Interactive Drama, Art and Artificial Intelligence. Ph.D. thesis, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA. Retrieved April 11, 2006, from http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/ ~michaelm/publications/CMU-CS-02-206.pdf McAdams, D. P. (1997). The Stories We Live By: Personal Myths and the Making of the Self. New York: The Guilford Press. Pearce, C. (2004). Towards a Game Theory of Game. In Wardrip-Fruin, N. & Harrigan, P. (eds.). First Person: New Media as Story, Performance and Game. Retrieved March 30, 2006, from http://cpandfriends.com/writing/first-person.html Pearce, C. (2005). Theory Wars: An Argument Against Arguments in the so-called Ludology/Narratology Debate. Proceeding Digital Games Research Conference 2005. Retrieved April 12, 2006 from http://www.gamesconference.org/digra2005/ viewabstract.php?id=114 Tomb Rider Legend (n.d.). Game Info / History / Tombraider I. Retrieved March 30, 2006, from http://www.tombraider.com/main.html TheSims2.com (n.d.). About The Sims 2. Retrieved April 1, 2006, from http://thesims2. ea.com/about/index_ts2.php Ventura, D. & Brogan, D. (2002). Digital storytelling with dinah: dynamic, interactive, narrative authoring heuristic. In Nakatsu, R. & Hoshino, J. (Eds.), Entertainment Computing : Technologies and Applications (IFIP International Federation for Information Processing) (p.91-99). Springer. Wired News. (2003). Every Sims Picture Tells a Story. Retrieved April 15, 2006, from http://www.wired.com/news/games/1,59461-0.html

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