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Carlson FINAL DISSERTATION July 27 2015

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Carlson FINAL DISSERTATION July 27 2015 ! ! ! ! ! ! ABSTRACT! ! Researchers!and!policy!makers!largely!focus!on!genderSbased!violence!(GBV)! in!eastern!Congo’s!conflict!zones,!leaving!the!remainder!of!the!vast!country! understudied.!!!Few!inSdepth!studies!exist!regarding!the!nature!and!dynamics!of! genderSbased!violence!that!occurs!in!nonSconflict!zones!in!the!Democratic!Republic! of!Congo!(DRC)!or!on!a!regular!basis!within!households!of!eastern!DRC.!!!This!study! uses!the!2014!DRC!Demographic!Health!Survey!(DHS)!data!to!explore!the!key! factors!that!are!associated!with!all!forms!of!violence!against!women!and!girls!in!the! DRC!and!takes!a!more!refined!look!at!the!association!between!conflict!and!GBV!than! any!other!empirical!study!to!date.!!! By!using!a!multilevel!modeling!approach,!the!research!examines!key!risk! factors!at!the!individual,!community!and!province!level!that!influence!a!woman’s! exposure!or!not!to!physical!and!sexual!violence!in!the!DRC.!!By!developing!and! including!variables!that!quantify!social!norms!and!attitudes!as!well!as!spatially! joining!data!from!the!Armed!Conflict!Location!and!Event!Database,!the!study! analyzes!the!role!of!individual!and!contextual!factors!and!the!relationship!between! genderSbased!violence!and!conflict.!!! Findings!highlight!that!a!woman’s!experience!of!intergenerational!violence! and!patriarchal!norms!at!the!individual!and!community!levels!are!among!the! strongest!predictors!of!GBV!in!the!DRC,!and!that!intimate!partner!violence!(IPV)!is! ! ! ! ! the!most!prevalent!form!of!GBV,!even!in!areas!of!conflict.!!Surprising!results!show! that!a!woman!is!less!likely!to!experience!GBV!in!areas!of!higher!armed!conflict!–! even!when!considering!nonShusband!violence.!!The!results!do!not!show!higher! levels!of!IPV!in!areas!that!experience!higher!instances!of!violent!conflict,! contradicting!studies!conducted!in!other!contexts.! One!of!the!most!striking!results!of!this!study!is!the!significant!and!consistent! role!that!communitySlevel!variables!play!in!the!models!SS!demonstrating!the! valuable!contribution!of!multilevel!analysis!and!use!of!contextual!variables.!!This! study!underscores!how!critical!the!use!of!“neighborhood”!variables!is!to! understanding!GBV!risks!and!validates!the!use!of!the!ecological!theoretical! framework,!moving!beyond!only!individual!risk!factors!to!explain!GBV!in!the!DRC! context.!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! © Monica!Carlson,!All!rights!reserved,!2015! ! ! ! ! ACKNOWLEDGMENTS! I owe profound thanks to so many people over the years who have supported me, encouraged me, and guided me through the doctoral process. First and foremost, I’d like to thank my committee members: my committee chair, Dr. William Bertrand, who never stopped advising me to finish my research since I began in the doctoral program; Dr. Eamon Kelly’s encouraging wisdom and guidance over these years propelled me forward in my research; and Dr. Elke DeBuhr for providing critical input that enabled me move ahead during this final year of analysis. I also extend a sincere appreciation to Sheila Favalora for all of the administrative support that she provided to me over the years. Several key colleagues have supported me over my last year of analysis and statistics. I’d especially like to thank Mia Darrouzet-Nardi who was instrumental in getting me off on the right foot with my quantitative analysis and Juan Leon who provided superb statistical guidance and support on multilevel analysis methods. The U.S. Agency for International Development, my employer, also supported me by granting a year of leave to finish my doctorate and, in a more indirect manner, by financing the Demographic Health Survey (DHS) around the world. The DHS represents a fascinating and rich set of data, and by making the data public, USAID has done a great service to social science researchers. I am grateful to USAID/Democratic Republic of Congo Mission Director, Dr. Diana Putman, who met with me to go over initial research ideas and whose expertise and passion for gender equality in the DRC inspired me to finish my academic quest over the past years. Lastly, I am grateful to my parents, Eric and Mary Ann Carlson, and Alan Brain for continuous moral support and letting me bounce my ideas off of them throughout this final analysis and writing stage of my degree. ! ii! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! TABLE!OF!CONTENTS! ! TABLE!OF!CONTENTS! III! LIST!OF!TABLES! VII! LIST!OF!FIGURES! IX! ABBREVIATIONS! X! MAP!OF!THE!DEMOCRATIC!REPUBLIC!OF!CONGO! XI! CHAPTER!1:! INTRODUCTION! 1! 1.1!PROBLEM!STATEMENT! 1! 1.2!RESEARCH!OBJECTIVE! 8! 1.3!SIGNIFICANCE!OF!RESEARCH! 8! 1.4!DEFINING!KEY!TERMS! 10! 1.5!ORGANIZATION!OF!THE!DISSERTATION! 13! CHAPTER!2:!CONFLICT,!GENDER!INEQUALITY,!AND!GBV!PREVALENCE!IN!THE!DRC! 15! 2.1!AFRICA’S!WORLD!WAR:!!CONFLICT!DYNAMICS!IN!THE!DRC! 16! 2.2!GENDER!INEQUALITY!IN!THE!DRC! 18! 2.3!PREVALENCE!OF!GENDER3BASED!VIOLENCE!IN!THE!DRC! 23! iii! ! ! ! ! ! CHAPTER!3:! LITERATURE!REVIEW!OF!KEY!CONCEPTS! 28! 3.1!INTRODUCTION! 28! 3.2!THEORETICAL!APPROACHES!TO!UNDERSTANDING!GBV! 29! 3.3!KEY!FACTORS!ASSOCIATED!WITH!GBV! 38! 3.4!GENDER3BASED!VIOLENCE!AND!CONFLICT! 49! 3.4.1!UNDERSTANDING!GBV!IN!THE!CONTEXT!OF!ARMED!CONFLICT! 50! 3.4.2!INCREASES!IN!INTIMATE!PARTNER!VIOLENCE!IN!CONFLICT/POSTSCONFLICT!SETTINGS! 56! CHAPTER!4:!!STUDY!DESIGN!AND!METHODOLOGY! 59! 4.1!CONCEPTUAL!FRAMEWORK! 59! 4.2!RESEARCH!QUESTIONS! 60! 4.3!METHODOLOGY! 64! 4.3.1!DEMOGRAPHIC!HEALTH!SURVEY!2013S2014! 65! 4.3.2!THE!ARMED!CONFLICT!AND!LOCATION!EVENT!DATA!PROJECT!(ACLED)! 68! 4.4!OVERVIEW!OF!MULTILEVEL!MODELING! 69! 4.5!CODING!AND!CONSTRUCTION!OF!VARIABLES! 72! 4.5.1!INDIVIDUALSLEVEL!VARIABLES!(LEVEL!1)! 72! 4.5.2!COMMUNITYSLEVEL!VARIABLES!(LEVEL!2)! 77! 4.5.3!PROVINCESLEVEL!VARIABLES!(LEVEL!3)! 81! 4.6!DATA!ANALYSIS!OVERVIEW! 86! CHAPTER!5:!RESULTS! 92! 5.1!OVERVIEW!OF!DESCRIPTIVE!RESULTS! 92! iv! ! ! ! ! ! 5.1.1!DEMOGRAPHICS!OF!SAMPLE! 93! 5.1.2!WOMEN’S!EMPOWERMENT!AND!ATTITUDES!AT!LEVEL!1! 96! 5.1.3!EXPERIENCE!OF!GBV! 102! 5.1.4!OVERVIEW!OF!COMMUNITY!AND!PROVINCE!CHARACTERISTICS!(LEVEL!2!AND!3)! 107! 5.2!BIVARIATE!ANALYSIS!OF!KEY!VARIABLES! 115! 5.3!MULTILEVEL!MODELING!RESULTS! 133! 5.3.1!KEY!PREDICTORS!OF!GBV!IN!THE!DRC!(MODELS!1!TO!5)! 133! 5.3.2!EXAMINING!GBV!RISKS!AMONG!EVERSMARRIED!WOMEN! 140! 5.3.3!RANDOM!EFFECT!VARIATION!–!MODEL!COMPARISON! 144! 5.4!!DISCUSSION!OF!KEY!PREDICTORS!OF!GBV! 146! CHAPTER!6:!THE!ASSOCIATION!BETWEEN!CONFLICT!AND!GBV!IN!THE!DRC! 149! 6.1!CONFLICT!EXPOSURE!AND!SEXUAL!AND!NON3HUSBAND!VIOLENCE! 149! 6.2!CONFLICT!EXPOSURE!AND!INTIMATE!PARTNER!VIOLENCE! 156! 6.3!DISCUSSION:!CONFLICT!AND!GBV! 161! CHAPTER!7:! DISCUSSION!–!UNDERSTANDING!GBV!IN!THE!DRC!CONTEXT! 166! 7.1!SIGNIFICANCE!OF!THE!FINDINGS! 166! 7.2!POLICY!IMPLICATIONS! 171! 7.3!LIMITATIONS!OF!THE!STUDY! 174! 7.4!FURTHER!RESEARCH!RECOMMENDATIONS! 182! 7.5!CONCLUSION! 184! v!! ! ! ! ! BIBLIOGRAPHY! 186! ANNEX!1:!SPATIAL!JOINING!OF!DHS!CLUSTER!AND!CONFLICT!EVENT!MAPS! 196! ANNEX!2:!!INDEPENDENT!AND!DEPENDENT!VARIABLE!CHART! 199! ANNEX!3:!!ETHNIC!NOMENCLATURE!IN!DRC! 201! ! ! ! vi! ! ! ! ! ! ! LIST!OF!TABLES! ! ! Table!1:!Gender!Inequality!Index!for!the!DRC!............................................................................!18! Table!2:!Country!Comparison!of!Physical!and/or!Sexual!Violence!Survey!Data!.........!25! Table!3:!Sample!Size!Characteristics!by!Level!of!Analysis!.....................................................!88! Table!4:!Key!Demographic!Statistics!of!Sample!.........................................................................!95! Table!5:!!Individual!Wife!Beating!Attitudes!.................................................................................!96! Table!6:!!Wife!Beating!Attitudes,!by!Province!.............................................................................!98! Table!7:!!Key!Descriptives!of!EverSMarried!Women!.............................................................!100! Table!8:!!Women's!Empowerment!SS!Male!Control!and!Female!Decision!Making! Power!...............................................................................................................................................!102! Table!9:!!Experience!of!GBV!Outcomes!by!Key!Variables!...................................................!104! Table!10:!Perpetrators!of!Physical!and!Sexual!Violence!in!the!DRC!..............................!105! Table!11:!!IPV!Severity!and!Frequency!in!Lifetime!and!Past!12!Months!......................!106! Table!12:!!Community!Conflict!Descriptive!Statistics!...........................................................!108! Table!13:!!Community!Conflict!Exposure!of!Sample!by!Level!of!Conflict!.....................!110! Table!14:!!Descriptive!Statistics!of!Community!Level!Variables!......................................!111! Table!15:!!Descriptive!Statistics!of!ProvincialSLevel!Variables!........................................!114! Table!16:!Bivariate!Associations!with!GBV!and!Sexual!Violence!Outcomes!...............!118! Table!17:!Ethnic!Group!Association!with!GBV!and!Sexual!Violence!Outcomes!.........!119! Table!18:!Correlation!Matrix!of!Key!Variables!.........................................................................!120! Table!19:!!Women's!Empowerment!and!GBV!Experience!..................................................!122! Table!20:!!Association!between!Intergenerational!Violence!and!Wife!Beating! Attitudes!.........................................................................................................................................!123! Table!21:!!Husband!Characteristics!and!GBV!outcome!........................................................!125!
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