The Psychology of the Language Learner

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE LANGUAGE LEARNER INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Second Language Acquisition Research Theoretical and Methodological Issues Susan M. Gass, Jacquelyn Schachter, and Alison Mackey, Editors Schachter/Gass Second Language Classroom Research: Issues and Opportunities Birdsong Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypotheses Ohta Second Language Acquisition Processes in the Classroom: Learning Japanese Major Foreign Accent: Ontogeny and Phylogeny of Second Language Phonology VanPatten Processing Instruction: Theory, Research, and Commentary VanPatten/Williams/ Form-Meaning Connections in Second Rott/Overstreet Language Acquisition Bardovi-Harlig/Hartford Interlanguage Pragmatics: Exploring Institutional Talk Dörnyei The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition Monographs on Research Methodology Tarone/Gass/Cohen Research Methodology in Second Language Acquisition Gass/Mackey Stimulation Recall Methodology in Second Language Research Yule Referential Communication Tasks Markee Conversation Analysis Dörnyei Questionnaires in Second Language Research: Construction, Administration, and Processing Of Related Interest Gass Input, Interaction, and the Second Language Learner Gass/Sorace/Selinker Second Language Learning Data Analysis, Second Edition Gass/Selinker Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course, Second Edition Mackey/Gass Second Language Research: Methodology and Design THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE LANGUAGE LEARNER INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Zoltán Dörnyei University of Nottingham LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS 2005 MAHWAH, NEW JERSEY LONDON Camera ready copy for this book was provided by the author. Copyright © 2005 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other means, without prior written permission of the publisher. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, New Jersey 07430 www.erlbaum.com Cover design by Kathryn Houghtaling Lacey CIP information for this volume can be obtained by contacting the Library of Congress Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8058-4729-4 (alk. paper) Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid- free paper, and their bindings are chosen for strength and durability. Printed in the United States of America 1098765432 You will go out in joy and be led forth in peace; the mountains and hills will burst into song before you, and all the trees of the field will clap their hands. Instead of the thornbush will grow the pine tree, and instead of briers the myrtle will grow. (Isaiah, 53: 12-13) This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS Preface xi 1 Introduction: Definition, Brief History, and Taxonomy of Individual Differences 1 Definition 4 Brief History of Individual Difference Research 5 Individual Differences in Second Language Studies 6 Taxonomy of Individual Differences and the Structure of this Book 7 2 Personality, Temperament, and Mood 10 Definitions 11 Different Approachest to the Study of Personality 12 Personality and Learning 20 Personality and Language Learning and Use 24 Conclusion 29 3 Language Aptitude 31 Basic Conceptual Issues 32 Language Aptitude Research: From the Beginnings to the 1990s 34 Traditional Issues in Language Aptitude Research 43 New Research Directions and Perspectives 50 Conclusion 63 vii CONTENTS viii 4 Motivation and ‘Self-Motivation’ 65 Three Phases of L2 Motivation Research 66 New Conceptual Issues 88 Reframing L2 Motivation as Part of the Self-System 93 L2 Motivation and SLA Research 109 Educational Implications: Devising Motivational Strategies 111 Conclusion 118 5 Learning Styles and Cognitive Styles 120 What Are Learning Styles? 121 Cognitive Styles 125 Kolb’s Model of Learning Styles 129 Assessing Cognitive and Learning Styles 131 Cognitive and Learning Styles in L2 Studies 136 Practical Implications 155 Conclusion 160 6 Language Learning Strategies and Student Self- Regulation 162 Do Learning Strategies Exist? 163 Learning Strategies in L2 Studies 166 Learning Strategies and Student Self-Regulation in Educational Psychology 188 Conclusion 195 7 Other Learner Characteristics 197 Anxiety 198 Creativity 202 Willingness to Communicate 207 Self-Esteem 211 Learner Beliefs 214 CONTENTS ix 8 Conclusion 218 References 221 Definition Index (Glossary) 253 Author Index 257 Subject Index 264 This page intentionally left blank Preface The study of language learner characteristics, or individual differences (IDs), has a long tradition in second language studies and nobody would question that factors such as language aptitude, motivation, or learning styles are important contributors to success in mastering a foreign language. Accordingly, the existing literature on individual difference variables is extensive. Curi- ously, however, there are very few book-length summaries of the topic—in fact, there is only one single-authored monograph on language learning IDs, Peter Skehan’s (1989) seminal title on Individual Differences in Second Language Learning. Since the publication of that book a great deal of research has been conducted in the field to explore the language learner, and an updated overview has been due for some time. In response to this need, the last five years have seen the publication of no fewer than four anthologies on learner issues (although not all from an ID perspective), edited by Breen (2001), Cook (2002), Cornwell and Robinson (2000), and Robinson (2002). These volumes are all of high quality, with chapters written by some of the best known experts in the field. So what justifies the writing of the current book? Let me mention three reasons: • An authored book can offer certain useful features that anthologies, by definition, cannot: A unified voice and style, an integrated text, and a more even coverage of the domain without duplications or gaps. • Anthologies are, by definition, selective: They focus on key issues and often ignore smaller but nevertheless important subareas that do not warrant a whole chapter. This is certainly true in our case, as none of the four works mentioned above address, for example, ‘learner beliefs,’ or ‘learning styles,’ let alone lesser known variables such as ‘creativity’. So far such topics have been discussed primarily in journal articles and, to a lesser extent, in thematic monographs targeting only the specific ID variable in question. • In this book I would like to extend the traditional boundaries of individual differences and include some important learner variables—most notably various personality traits—that are not normally discussed in this context in the L2 literature. xi xii PREFACE Having said that, The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition intends to be a standard ID book, following the tradition of L2 scholars—particularly that of Peter Skehan and Peter Robinson—working in the individual differences para- digm. I have learned a great deal from the work of the two Peters, for which I am grateful. The following friends and colleagues have given me valuable feedback on various parts of the manuscript: Andrew Cohen, Peter MacIntyre, Kim Noels, Rebecca Oxford, Peter Robinson, and Ema Ushioda; I really appreciate their helpful suggestions and comments and I hope they find that the final manuscript addresses many of the points raised. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to Sue Gass, the series editor, and Cathleen Petree, my editor at Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Their initial encouragement and their ongoing support and friendship have been invaluable! —Zoltán Dörnyei 1 Introduction: Definition, Brief History, and Taxonomy of Individual Differences Why do individuals differ so much in second language attainment success? After all, every healthy human being in an intact social environment masters a first language to a degree of fluency that, in other skill domains, would be recognized as elite or near elite levels… (Segalowitz, 1997, p. 85) Ever since the early days of its existence, the field of psychology has been trying to achieve two different and somewhat contradictory objectives: to understand the general principles of the human mind and to explore the uniqueness of the individual mind. The latter direction has formed an inde- pendent subdiscipline within the field that has traditionally been termed dif- ferential psychology but recently more frequently referred to as individual difference research. As the term suggests, individual differences (IDs) are characteristics or traits in respect of which individuals may be shown to differ from each other. Admittedly, for many psychologists such differences constitute mere distractions to their work: How much easier it would be to formulate valid conclusions and generalizations about the human species if everybody was alike! Research results would then apply to everyone and, based on these findings, we would be able to design effective therapy or in- tervention that would suit all. Thus, in this ideal world “rules and regulations could be developed to cover all situations, and there would be no unknowns” (Breslin, 1994, p. 224). Alas, although the distinctness that each of us displays may be seen by some as a nuisance, it is still there—and the world may be a better place for it. One of the most important ways in which the social sciences differ from the natural

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