Marine Pollution

MARINE POLLUTION

AN INTERNSHIP REPORT SUBMITTED BY BHUWAN BOPANNA. A. S (AME19009) BE(ME) - 19

MARINE POLLUTION

Name: Bhuwan Bopanna A.S Sub:EVS Roll No:2955B BE ME 19 1st Year Marine pollution occurs when harmful effects result from the entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential waste, noise, or the spread of invasive organisms. Eighty percent of marine pollution comes from land. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off pesticides or dirt into the ocean. Land and air pollution have proven to be harmful to marine life and its habitats.[1] The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris, and dust. Pollution in large bodies of water can be aggravated by physical phenomena like wind driven Langmuir circulation and their biological effects. Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually nitrates or phosphates, stimulate algae growth. Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by plankton and benthic animals, most of which are either deposit feeders or filter feeders. In this way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing estuaries to become anoxic

When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire food web. Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a change to tissue matter, biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction, and suppress growth in marine life. Also, many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way, marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, and appear later in meat and dairy products. In order to protect the ocean from marine pollution, policies have been developed internationally. There are different ways for the ocean to get polluted, therefore there have been multiple laws, policies, and treaties put into place throughout history. History Although marine pollution has a long history, significant international laws to counter it were not enacted until the twentieth century. Marine pollution was a concern during several United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea beginning in the 1950s. Most scientists believed that the oceans were so vast that they had unlimited ability to dilute, and thus render pollution harmless. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, there were several controversies about dumping radioactive waste off the coasts of the United States by companies licensed by the Atomic Energy Commission, into the Irish Sea from the British reprocessing facility at Windscale, and into the Mediterranean Sea by the French Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique. After the Mediterranean Sea controversy, for example, Jacques Cousteau became a worldwide figure in the campaign to stop marine pollution. Marine pollution made further international headlines after the 1967 crash of the oil tanker Torrey Canyon, and after the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill off the coast of California.

Marine pollution was a major area of discussion during the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. That year also saw the signing of the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, sometimes called the London Convention. The London Convention did not ban marine pollution, but it established black and gray lists for substances to be banned (black) or regulated by national authorities (gray). Cyanide and high-level radioactive waste, for example, were put on the black list. The London Convention applied only to waste dumped from ships, and thus did nothing to regulate waste discharged as liquids from pipelines.[2] Types of pollution

The oceans are normally a natural carbon sink, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Because the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are increasing, the oceans are becoming more acidic.[34][35] The potential consequences of ocean acidification are not fully understood, but there are concerns that structures made of calcium carbonate may become vulnerable to dissolution, affecting corals and the ability of shellfish to form shells.[36] Oceans and coastal ecosystems play an important role in the global carbon cycle and have removed about 25% of the carbon dioxide emitted by human activities between 2000 and 2007 and about half the anthropogenic

CO2 released since the start of the industrial revolution. Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification means that the capacity of the ocean carbon sink will gradually get weaker,[37] giving rise to global concerns expressed in the Monaco[38] and Manado[39] Declarations.

Eutrophication Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It can result in an increase in the ecosystem's primary productivity (excessive plant growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations. The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with it the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. An excess of oxygen- depleting chemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[4]

Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land-derived nutrients are concentrated where runoff enters the marine environment in a confined channel. The World Resources Institute has identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones around the world, concentrated in coastal areas in Western Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the US, and East Asia, particularly in Japan.[44] In the ocean, there are frequent red tide algae blooms[45] that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore. In addition to land runoff, atmospheric anthropogenic fixed nitrogen can enter the open ocean. A study in 2008 found that this could account for around one third of the ocean's external (non- recycled) nitrogen supply and up to three per cent of the annual new marine biological production.[46] It has been suggested that accumulating reactive nitrogen in the environment may have consequences as serious as putting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[47] Plastic debris

Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic – a component that has been rapidly accumulating since the end of World War II.[53] The mass of plastic in the oceans may be as high as 100,000,000 tonnes (98,000,000 long tons; 110,000,000 short tons).[54] In a study published by Environmental Science & Technology, Schmidt et al. (2017) calculated that the Yangtze, Indus, Yellow River, Hai River, Nile, Ganges, Pearl River, Amur, Niger, and the Mekong "transport 88– 95% of the global [plastics] load into the sea."[55][56] Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey.[62] Plastic debris, when bulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals. Especially when evolutionary adaptions make it impossible for the likes of turtles to reject plastic bags, which resemble jellyfish when immersed in water, as they have a system in their throat to stop slippery foods from otherwise escaping.[63] Thereby blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection.[64][65] Plastics accumulate because they don't biodegrade in the way many other substances do. They will photodegrade on exposure to the sun, but they do so properly only under dry conditions, and water inhibits this process.[66] In marine environments, photodegraded plastic disintegrates into ever-smaller pieces while remaining polymers, even down to the molecular level. When floating plastic particles photodegrade down to zooplankton sizes, jellyfish attempt to consume them, and in this way the plastic enters the ocean food chain.[67][68] Toxins

Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxins that do not disintegrate rapidly in the marine environment. Examples of persistent toxins are PCBs, DDT, TBT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols, and radioactive waste. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high density and are toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples are mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic, and cadmium. Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. They are also known to accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds: a geological record of human activities of the last century. •Specific examplesChinese and Russian industrial pollution such as phenols and heavy metals in the Amur River have devastated fish stocks and damaged its estuary soil.[82] •Wabamun Lake in Alberta, Canada, once the best whitefish lake in the area, now has unacceptable levels of heavy metals in its sediment and fish. •Acute and chronic pollution events have been shown to impact southern California kelp forests, though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure.[83][84][85][86][87] •Due to their high position in the food chain and the subsequent accumulation of heavy metals from their diet, mercury levels can be high in larger species such as bluefin and albacore. As a result, in March 2004 the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursing mothers and children limit their intake of tuna and other types of predatory fish.[88] •Some shellfish and crabs can survive polluted environments, accumulating heavy metals or toxins in their tissues. For example, mitten crabs have a remarkable ability to survive in highly modified aquatic habitats, including polluted waters.[89] The farming and harvesting of such species needs careful management if they are to be used as a food.[90][91] •Surface runoff of pesticides can alter the gender of fish species genetically, transforming male into female fish.[92] •Heavy metals enter the environment through oil spills – such as the Prestige oil spill on the Galician coast and Gulf of Mexico which unleashed an estimated 3.19 million barrels of oil[93] – or from other natural or anthropogenic sources. •In 2005, the 'Ndrangheta, an Italian mafia syndicate, was accused of sinking at least 30 ships loaded with toxic waste, much of it radioactive. This has led to widespread investigations into radioactive waste disposal rackets.[94]

DEFORESTATION

AN INTERNSHIP REPORT SUBMITTED BY KABISH KUMAR BISWAL (AME19150) BE(ME) - 19

ACADEMY OF MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING(AMET) (Declared as Deemed to be University u/s 3 of UGC Act 1956) 135, EAST COAST ROAD, KANATHUR, CHENNAI - 603 112. TAMILNADU, INDIA

TITLE OF INTERNSHIP

A Report on Internship

In Department of BE MARINE ENGINEERING By

Student Name : KABISH KUMAR BISWAL

Roll No : 3098B

Year : 1ST YEAR

Batch : BE(ME)-19

Group : 3rd

Subject Code : UBBTC01

Subject : DEFORESTATION

CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the project entitled “DEFORESTATION” is to bonafide work carried out by the students of AMET UNIVERSITY, KANATHUR (CHENNAI) during the year 2019 -2020 for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of a Marine Engineering.

INTERNAL GUIDE EXTERNAL EXAMINER

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

PLACE : AMET UNIVERSITY

BE MARINE ENGINEERING

Deforestation

Satellite image of deforestation in progress in eastern Bolivia. Worldwide, 10% of wilderness areas were lost between 1990 and 2015.[1] Deforestation, clearance, clearcutting or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land which is then converted to a non-forest use.[2] Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests.[3] About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests.[4] Deforestation has many causes: trees can be cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel (sometimes in the form of charcoal or timber), while cleared land can be used as pasture for livestock and plantation. Disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management, and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that lead to large-scale deforestation. In many countries, deforestation—both naturally occurring and human-induced—is an ongoing issue.[5][self-published source?] Between 2000 and 2012, 2.3 million square kilometres (890,000 sq mi) of forests around the world were cut down.[6] As of 2005, net deforestation rates had ceased to increase in countries with a per capita GDP of at least US$4,600.[7][8] The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in habitat damage, biodiversity loss, and aridity. Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations, as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record.[9] Deforestation also has adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, increasing negative feedback cycles contributing to global warming. Global warming also puts increased pressure on communities who seek food security by clearing forests for agricultural use and reducing arable land more generally. Deforested regions typically incur significant other environmental effects such as adverse soil erosion and degradation into wasteland. Deforestation is more extreme in tropical and subtropical forests in emerging economies. More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests.[10] As a result of deforestation, only 6.2 million square kilometres (2.4 million square miles) remain of the original 16 million square kilometres (6 million square miles) of tropical rainforest that formerly covered the Earth.[6] An area the size of a football pitch is cleared from the Amazon rainforest every minute, with 136 million acres (55 million hectares) of rainforest cleared for animal agriculture overall.[11] More than 3.6 million hectares of virgin tropical forest was lost in 2018 Causes

The last batch of sawnwood from the peat forest in Indragiri Hulu, Sumatra, Indonesia. Deforestation for oil palm plantation.

According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) secretariat, the overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32%; logging is responsible for 14%, and fuel wood removals make up 5%.[13] Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation.[14][15] Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest.[14] One study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases.[16] Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions,[17][18] the inequitable distribution of wealth and power,[19] population growth[20] and overpopulation,[21][22] and urbanization.[23] Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation,[24][25] though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.[26] Another cause of deforestation is climate change. 23% of tree cover losses result from wildfires and climate change increase their frequency and power.[27] The rising temperatures cause massive wildfires especially in the Boreal forests. One possible effect is the change of the forest composition.[28]

Deforestation in the Maranhão state of Brazil, 2016

In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible", and that deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions".[20] The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation.[29] Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being.[29] From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services. Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cut down their forests centuries ago and benefited economically from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to deny developing countries the same opportunities, i.e. that the poor should not have to bear the cost of preservation when the rich created the problem.[30] Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years.[31] Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government- sponsored development projects like transmigration in countries like Indonesia and colonization in Latin America, India, Java, and so on, during the late 19th century and the earlier half of the 20th century, by the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture.[32] Since 2001, commodity-driven deforestation, which is more likely to be permanent, has accounted for about a quarter of all forest disturbance, and this loss has been concentrated in South America and Southeast Asia

Environmental effects Atmospheric Further information: Deforestation and climate change

Illegal "slash-and-burn" practice in Madagascar, 2010

Deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography.[34][35][36][37] Deforestation is a contributor to global warming,[38][39] and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions.[40] According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, could account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions.[41] But recent calculations suggest that carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding peatland emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions with a range from 6% to 17%.[42] Deforestation causes carbon dioxide to linger in the atmosphere. As carbon dioxide accrues, it produces a layer in the atmosphere that traps radiation from the sun. The radiation converts to heat which causes global warming, which is better known as the greenhouse effect.[43] Plants remove carbon in the form of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis, but release some carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere during normal respiration. Only when actively growing can a tree or forest remove carbon, by storing it in plant tissues. Both the decay and the burning of wood release much of this stored carbon back into the atmosphere. Although an accumulation of wood is generally necessary for carbon sequestration, in some forests the network of symbiotic fungi that surround the trees' roots can store a significant amount of carbon, storing it underground even if the tree which supplied it dies and decays, or is harvested and burned.[44] Another way carbon can be sequestered by forests is for the wood to be harvested and turned into long-lived products, with new young trees replacing them.[45] Deforestation may also cause carbon stores held in soil to be released. Forests can be either sinks or sources depending upon environmental circumstances. Mature forests alternate between being net sinks and net sources of carbon dioxide (see carbon dioxide sink and carbon cycle). In deforested areas, the land heats up faster and reaches a higher temperature, leading to localized upward motions that enhance the formation of clouds and ultimately produce more rainfall.[46] However, according to the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, the models used to investigate remote responses to tropical deforestation showed a broad but mild temperature increase all through the tropical atmosphere. The model predicted <0.2 °C warming for upper air at 700 mb and 500 mb. However, the model shows no significant changes in other areas besides the Tropics. Though the model showed no significant changes to the climate in areas other than the Tropics, this may not be the case since the model has possible errors and the results are never absolutely definite.[47] Deforestation affects wind flows, water vapour flows and absorption of solar energy thus clearly influencing local and global climate.[citation needed]

Fires on Borneo and Sumatra, 2006. People use slash-and-burn deforestation to clear land for agriculture.

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries has emerged as a new potential to complement ongoing climate policies. The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation".[48] REDD can be seen as an alternative to the emissions trading system as in the latter, polluters must pay for permits for the right to emit certain pollutants (i.e. CO2). Rainforests are widely believed by laymen to contribute a significant amount of the world's oxygen,[49] although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net oxygen to the atmosphere and deforestation has only a minor effect on atmospheric oxygen levels.[50][51] However, the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large [39] amounts of CO2, which contributes to global warming. Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere.[52] Hydrological The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. The dry soil leads to lower water intake for the trees to extract.[53] Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that erosion, flooding and landslides ensue.[54][55] Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and transpire precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. Forests return most of the water that falls as precipitation to the atmosphere by transpiration. In contrast, when an area is deforested, almost all precipitation is lost as run-off.[56] That quicker transport of surface water can translate into flash flooding and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased evapotranspiration, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to one study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s.[57]

Deforestation of the Highland Plateau in Madagascar has led to extensive siltation and unstable flows of western rivers.

Trees, and plants in general, affect the water cycle significantly:[58]

 their canopies intercept a proportion of precipitation, which is then evaporated back to the atmosphere (canopy interception);  their litter, stems and trunks slow down surface runoff;  their roots create macropores – large conduits – in the soil that increase infiltration of water;  they contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce soil moisture via transpiration;  their litter and other organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil to store water.  their leaves control the humidity of the atmosphere by transpiring. 99% of the water absorbed by the roots moves up to the leaves and is transpired.[59] As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem functions or human services. Deforestation on lowland plains moves cloud formation and rainfall to higher elevations.[citation needed] The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events, which overwhelm the storage capacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to saturation. Tropical rainforests produce about 30% of our planet's fresh water.[49] Deforestation disrupts normal weather patterns creating hotter and drier weather thus increasing drought, desertification, crop failures, melting of the polar ice caps, coastal flooding and displacement of major vegetation regimes Soil

Deforestation for the use of clay in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro. The hill depicted is Morro da Covanca, in Jacarepaguá

Due to surface plant litter, forests that are undisturbed have a minimal rate of erosion. The rate of erosion occurs from deforestation, because it decreases the amount of litter cover, which provides protection from surface runoff.[60] The rate of erosion is around 2 metric tons per square kilometre.[61][self-published source?] This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of (forest) roads and the use of mechanized equipment. Deforestation in China's Loess Plateau many years ago has led to soil erosion; this erosion has led to valleys opening up. The increase of soil in the runoff causes the Yellow River to flood and makes it yellow colored.[61] Greater erosion is not always a consequence of deforestation, as observed in the southwestern regions of the US. In these areas, the loss of grass due to the presence of trees and other shrubbery leads to more erosion than when trees are removed.[61] Soils are reinforced by the presence of trees, which secure the soil by binding their roots to soil bedrock. Due to deforestation, the removal of trees causes sloped lands to be more susceptible to landslides.[58] Biodiversity

Deforestation on a human scale results in decline in biodiversity,[62] and on a natural global scale is known to cause the extinction of many species.[9] The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity.[22] Forests support biodiversity, providing habitat for wildlife;[63] moreover, forests foster medicinal conservation.[64] With forest biotopes being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as taxol), deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.[65]

Illegal logging in Madagascar. In 2009, the vast majority of the illegally obtained rosewood was exported to China.

Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse ecosystems on Earth[66][67] and about 80% of the world's known biodiversity could be found in tropical rainforests,[68][69] removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded[70] environment with reduced biodiversity.[9][71] A study in Rondônia, Brazil, has shown that deforestation also removes the microbial community which is involved in the recycling of nutrients, the production of clean water and the removal of pollutants.[72] It has been estimated that we are losing 137 plant, animal and insect species every single day due to rainforest deforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year.[73] Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing Holocene mass extinction.[74][75] The known extinction rates from deforestation rates are very low, approximately 1 species per year from mammals and birds which extrapolates to approximately 23,000 species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century.[76] Such predictions were called into question by 1995 data that show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the original forest has been converted to monospecific plantations, but that potentially endangered species are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable.[77] Scientific understanding of the process of extinction is insufficient to accurately make predictions about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity.[78] Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species-area models, with an underlying assumption that as the forest declines species diversity will decline similarly.[79] However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and loss of habitat does not necessarily lead to large scale loss of species.[79] Species-area models are known to overpredict the number of species known to be threatened in areas where actual deforestation is ongoing, and greatly overpredict the number of threatened species that are widespread.[77] A recent study of the Brazilian Amazon predicts that despite a lack of extinctions thus far, up to 90 percent of predicted extinctions will finally occur in the next 40 years.[80] Health Effects According to the World Economic Forum, 31% of the emerging diseases are linked to deforestation[81]. The forum published a call to involve nature recovery in the recovery efforts from coronavirus pandemic saying that this outbreack is linked to nature destruction[82] According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 75% of emerging diseases in humans came from animals. The number of the outbreaks is rising and it is probably linked to the destruction of nature. In response, scientists create a new discipline: Planetary health, which says that the health of the ecosystems and the health of humans are linked[83].Since the 80's every decade the number of new diseases has increased more than 3 times. According to a major study of American and Australian scientists degradation of ecosystems increase the risk of new outbreaks[84] Experts say that anthropogenic deforestation, habitat loss and destruction of biodiversity may be linked to outbreaks like the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic in several ways:

 Bringing people and domestic animals in contact with a species of animals and plants that did not contacted by them before. Kate Jones, chair of ecology and biodiversity at University College London, says the disruption of pristine forests, driven by logging, mining, road building through remote places, rapid urbanisation and population growth is bringing people into closer contact with animal species they may never have been near before, resulting in transmission of new zoonotic diseases from wildlife to humans.

 Creating degraded habitats. Such habitats with a few species are more likely to cause a transmission of zoonotic viruses to humans.

 Creating more crowded habitats, with more dense population.

 Habitat loss makes animals to search a new one what often results in mixing with humans and other animals.

 Disruption of ecosystems can increase the number of animals that carry many viruses, like bats and rodents. It can increase the number of mice and rats by reducing the populations of predators.

 Animal trade, by killing and transporting live and dead animals to very big distances. According to American science journalist David Quammen, "We cut the trees; we kill the animals or cage them and send them to markets. We disrupt ecosystems, and we shake viruses loose from their natural hosts. When that happens, they need a new host. Often, we are it."[85][86].

 Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest increase the likelihood of malaria because the deforested area is ideal for mosquitoes[87]. When climate change or deforestation cause to virus to pass to another host it became more dangerous. This is because viruses generally learn to coexist with their host and became violent when they pass to another[88]. Economic impact

A satellite image showing deforestation for a palm oil plantation in Malaysia

Damage to forests and other aspects of nature could halve living standards for the world's poor and reduce global GDP by about 7% by 2050, a report concluded at the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) meeting in Bonn in 2008.[89] Historically, utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, has played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for paper. In developing countries, almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking.[90] The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or over- exploitation of wood products, typically leads to a loss of long-term income and long-term biological productivity. West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually.[91] The new procedures to get amounts of wood are causing more harm to the economy and overpower the amount of money spent by people employed in logging.[92] According to a study, "in most areas studied, the various ventures that prompted deforestation rarely generated more than US$5 for every ton of carbon they released and frequently returned far less than US$1". The price on the European market for an offset tied to a one-ton reduction in carbon is 23 euro (about US$35).[93] Rapidly growing economies also have an effect on deforestation. Most pressure will come from the world's developing countries, which have the fastest-growing populations and most rapid economic (industrial) growth.[94] In 1995, economic growth in developing countries reached nearly 6%, compared with the 2% growth rate for developed countries.[94] As our human population grows, new homes, communities, and expansions of cities will occur. Connecting all of the new expansions will be roads, a very important part in our daily life. Rural roads promote economic development but also facilitate deforestation.[94] About 90% of the deforestation has occurred within 100 km of roads in most parts of the Amazon.[95] The European Union is one of the largest importer of products made from illegal deforestation.[96] Forest transition theory

The forest transition and historical baselines.[97] The forest area change may follow a pattern suggested by the forest transition (FT) theory,[98] whereby at early stages in its development a country is characterized by high forest cover and low deforestation rates (HFLD countries).[32] Then deforestation rates accelerate (HFHD, high forest cover – high deforestation rate), and forest cover is reduced (LFHD, low forest cover – high deforestation rate), before the deforestation rate slows (LFLD, low forest cover – low deforestation rate), after which forest cover stabilizes and eventually starts recovering. FT is not a "law of nature", and the pattern is influenced by national context (for example, human population density, stage of development, structure of the economy), global economic forces, and government policies. A country may reach very low levels of forest cover before it stabilizes, or it might through good policies be able to "bridge" the forest transition.[99] FT depicts a broad trend, and an extrapolation of historical rates therefore tends to underestimate future BAU deforestation for counties at the early stages in the transition (HFLD), while it tends to overestimate BAU deforestation for countries at the later stages (LFHD and LFLD). Countries with high forest cover can be expected to be at early stages of the FT. GDP per capita captures the stage in a country's economic development, which is linked to the pattern of natural resource use, including forests. The choice of forest cover and GDP per capita also fits well with the two key scenarios in the FT: (i) a forest scarcity path, where forest scarcity triggers forces (for example, higher prices of forest products) that lead to forest cover stabilization; and (ii) an economic development path, where new and better off-farm employment opportunities associated with economic growth (= increasing GDP per capita) reduce the profitability of frontier agriculture and slows deforestation.[32] Evidence of deforestation has been found in Minoan Crete; for example the environs of the Palace of Knossos were severely deforested in the Bronze Age.[105] , Industrial era In the 19th century, introduction of steamboats in the United States was the cause of deforestation of banks of major rivers, such as the Mississippi River, with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results. The steamboat crews cut wood every day from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines. Between St. Louis and the confluence with the Ohio River to the south, the Mississippi became more wide and shallow, and changed its channel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by the use of snag pullers often resulted in crews' clearing large trees 100 to 200 feet (61 m) back from the banks. Several French colonial towns of the Illinois Country, such as Kaskaskia, Cahokia and St. Philippe, Illinois, were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to the cultural record of their archeology.[118] The wholescale clearance of woodland to create agricultural land can be seen in many parts of the world, such as the Central forest-grasslands transition and other areas of the Great Plains of the United States. Specific parallels are seen in the 20th-century deforestation occurring in many developing nations. Rates of deforestation

Slash-and-burn farming in the state of Rondônia, western Brazil

Global deforestation[119] sharply accelerated around 1852.[120][121] It has been estimated that about half of the Earth's mature tropical forests—between 7.5 million and 8 million km2 (2.9 million to 3 million sq mi) of the original 15 million to 16 million km2 (5.8 million to 6.2 million sq mi) that until 1947 covered the planet[122]—have now been destroyed.[10][123] Some scientists have predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed)[122] are taken on a worldwide basis, by 2030 there will only be 10% remaining,[120][123] with another 10% in a degraded condition.[120] 80% will have been lost, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species.[120] Some cartographers have attempted to illustrate the sheer scale of deforestation by country using a cartogram.[124] Estimates vary widely as to the extent of tropical deforestation.[125][126] Over a 50-year period, percentage of land cover by tropical rainforests has decreased by 50%. since 1950 and 40% of all the rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years.[148] Brazil has lost 90– 95% of its Mata Atlântica forest.[149] Paraguay was losing its natural semi humid forests in the country's western regions at a rate of 15.000 hectares at a randomly studied 2-month period in 2010,[150] Paraguay's parliament refused in 2009 to pass a law that would have stopped cutting of natural forests altogether.[151]

Deforestation around Pakke Tiger Reserve, India

Regions Main article: Deforestation by region

Rates of deforestation vary around the world. In 2011 Conservation International listed the top 10 most endangered forests, characterized by having all lost 90% or more of their original habitat, and each harboring at least 1500 endemic plant species (species found nowhere else in the world).[159]

Top 10 Most Endangered Forests 2011

Predomin Remaini Endanger Regi ate ng Notes ed forest on vegetatio habitat n type

Tropical and Rivers, floodplain wetlands, mangrove Asia-

Indo-Burma 5% subtropical forests. Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambod Pacific moist ia, India.[160] broadleaf Top 10 Most Endangered Forests 2011

Predomin Remaini Endanger Regi ate ng Notes ed forest on vegetatio habitat n type

forests

Tropical and subtropical New Asia- 5% moist See note for region covered.[161]

Caledonia Pacific broadleaf forests

Tropical and subtropical Asia- Western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago

Sundaland 7% moist Pacific including southern Borneo and Sumatra.[162] broadleaf forests

Tropical and subtropical Asia- Forests over the entire country including 7,100

Philippines 7% moist Pacific islands.[163] broadleaf forests

Tropical and subtropical Atlantic South Forests along Brazil's Atlantic coast, extends to 8% moist [164] Forest America parts of Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay. broadleaf forests

Mountains Temperate of Asia- 8% coniferous See note for region covered.[165] Southwest Pacific

forest China Top 10 Most Endangered Forests 2011

Predomin Remaini Endanger Regi ate ng Notes ed forest on vegetatio habitat n type

Tropical and California subtropical North Floristic 10% dry See note for region covered.[166] America

Province broadleaf

forests

Tropical and Coastal subtropical Forests of Africa 10% moist Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia.[167] Eastern broadleaf

Africa forests

Tropical and Madagascar subtropical & Indian Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Seychelles, Co Africa 10% moist Ocean moros.[168] broadleaf Islands forests

Tropical and subtropical moist Eastern broadleaf Forests scattered along the eastern edge of Afromontan Africa 11% forests Africa, from Saudi Arabia in the north

[169] e Montane to Zimbabwe in the south. grasslands and shrublands

Table source:[159] Control Reducing emissions Main international organizations including the United Nations and the World Bank, have begun to develop programs aimed at curbing deforestation. The blanket term Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) describes these sorts of programs, which use direct monetary or other incentives to encourage developing countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation. Funding has been an issue, but at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties-15 (COP-15) in Copenhagen in December 2009, an accord was reached with a collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources, including forestry and investments through international institutions, that will approach US$30 billion for the period 2010– 2012.[170] Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing country adherence to their agreed REDD targets. These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and other data sources, include the Center for Global Development's FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiative[171] and the Group on Earth Observations' Forest Carbon Tracking Portal.[172] Methodological guidance for forest monitoring was also emphasized at COP-15.[173] The environmental organization Avoided Deforestation Partners leads the campaign for development of REDD through funding from the U.S. government. Control can be made by the companies. In 2018 the biggest palm oil traider, Wilmar, decided to control his suppliers for avoid deforestation. This is an important precedent[178]. Land rights

Transferring land rights to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.

Transferring rights over land from public domain to its indigenous inhabitants is argued to be a cost-effective strategy to conserve forests.[180] This includes the protection of such rights entitled in existing laws, such as India's Forest Rights Act.[180] The transferring of such rights in China, perhaps the largest land reform in modern times, has been argued to have increased forest cover.[181] In Brazil, forested areas given tenure to indigenous groups have even lower rates of clearing than national parks.[181] Farming New methods are being developed to farm more intensively, such as high- yield hybrid crops, greenhouse, autonomous building gardens, and hydroponics. These methods are often dependent on chemical inputs to maintain necessary yields. In cyclic agriculture, cattle are grazed on farm land that is resting and rejuvenating. Cyclic agriculture actually increases the fertility of the soil. Intensive farming can also decrease soil nutrients by consuming at an accelerated rate the trace minerals needed for crop growth.[5] The most promising approach, however, is the concept of food forests in permaculture, which consists of agroforestal systems carefully designed to mimic natural forests, with an emphasis on plant and animal species of interest for food, timber and other uses. These systems have low dependence on fossil fuels and agro-chemicals, are highly self-maintaining, highly productive, and with strong positive impact on soil and water quality, and biodiversity. Monitoring deforestation

Agents from IBAMA, Brazil's environmental police, searching for illegal logging activity in Indigenous territory in the Amazon rainforest, 2018

There are multiple methods that are appropriate and reliable for reducing and monitoring deforestation. One method is the "visual interpretation of aerial photos or satellite imagery that is labor-intensive but does not require high-level training in computer image processing or extensive computational resources".[95] Another method includes hot-spot analysis (that is, locations of rapid change) using expert opinion or coarse resolution satellite data to identify locations for detailed digital analysis with high resolution satellite images.[95] Deforestation is typically assessed by quantifying the amount of area deforested, measured at the present time. From an environmental point of view, quantifying the damage and its possible consequences is a more important task, while conservation efforts are more focused on forested land protection and development of land-use alternatives to avoid continued deforestation.[95] Deforestation rate and total area deforested, have been widely used for monitoring deforestation in many regions, including the Brazilian Amazon deforestation monitoring by INPE.[52] A global satellite view is available.[182][183] Forest management Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has long been known that deforestation can cause environmental damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to collapse. In Tonga, paramount rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from converting forest to farmland and long-term problems forest loss would cause,[184] while during the 17th and 18th centuries in Tokugawa, Japan,[185] the shōguns developed a highly sophisticated system of long-term planning to stop and even reverse deforestation of the preceding centuries through substituting timber by other products and more efficient use of land that had been farmed for many centuries. In 16th-century Germany, landowners also developed silviculture to deal with the problem of deforestation. However, these policies tend to be limited to environments with good rainfall, no dry season and very young soils (through volcanism or glaciation). This is because on older and less fertile soils trees grow too slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there is always a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it matures. In the areas where "slash-and-burn" is practiced, switching to "slash-and-char" would prevent the rapid deforestation and subsequent degradation of soils. The biochar thus created, given back to the soil, is not only a durable carbon sequestration method, but it also is an extremely beneficial amendment to the soil. Mixed with biomass it brings the creation of terra preta, one of the richest soils on the planet and the only one known to regenerate itself. Sustainable practices

Bamboo is advocated as a more sustainable alternative for cutting down wood for fuel.[186]

Certification, as provided by global certification systems such as Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification and Forest Stewardship Council, contributes to tackling deforestation by creating market demand for timber from sustainably managed forests. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "A major condition for the adoption of sustainable forest management is a demand for products that are produced sustainably and consumer willingness to pay for the higher costs entailed. Certification represents a shift from regulatory approaches to market incentives to promote sustainable forest management. By promoting the positive attributes of forest products from sustainably managed forests, certification focuses on the demand side of environmental conservation."[187] Rainforest Rescue argues that the standards of organizations like FSC are too closely connected to timber industry interests and therefore do not guarantee environmentally and socially responsible forest management. In reality, monitoring systems are inadequate and various cases of fraud have been documented worldwide.[188] Some nations have taken steps to help increase the number of trees on Earth. In 1981, China created National Tree Planting Day Forest and forest coverage had now reached 16.55% of China's land mass, as against only 12% two decades ago.[189] Using fuel from bamboo rather than wood results in cleaner burning, and since bamboo matures much faster than wood, deforestation is reduced as supply can be replenished faster.[186] Reforestation Main article: Reforestation

In many parts of the world, especially in East Asian countries, reforestation and afforestation are increasing the area of forested lands.[190] The amount of woodland has increased in 22 of the world's 50 most forested nations. Asia as a whole gained 1 million hectares of forest between 2000 and 2005. Tropical forest in El Salvador expanded more than 20% between 1992 and 2001. Based on these trends, one study projects that global forestation will increase by 10%—an area the size of India—by 2050.[191]

In the People's Republic of China, where large scale destruction of forests has occurred, the government has in the past required that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work in other forest services. The government claims that at least 1 billion trees have been planted in China every year since 1982. This is no longer required today, but 12 March of every year in China is the Planting Holiday. Also, it has introduced the Green Wall of China project, which aims to halt the expansion of the Gobi desert through the planting of trees. However, due to the large percentage of trees dying off after planting (up to 75%), the project is not very successful.[citation needed] There has been a 47-million-hectare increase in forest area in China since the 1970s.[191] The total number of trees amounted to be about 35 billion and 4.55% of China's land mass increased in forest coverage. The forest coverage was 12% two decades ago and now is 16.55%.[189]

An ambitious proposal for China is the Aerially Delivered Re-forestation and Erosion Control System and the proposed Sahara Forest Project coupled with the Seawater Greenhouse.

In Western countries, increasing consumer demand for wood products that have been produced and harvested in a sustainable manner is causing forest landowners and forest industries to become increasingly accountable for their forest management and timber harvesting practices.

The Arbor Day Foundation's Rain Forest Rescue program is a charity that helps to prevent deforestation. The charity uses donated money to buy up and preserve rainforest land before the lumber companies can buy it. The Arbor Day Foundation then protects the land from deforestation. This also locks in the way of life of the primitive tribes living on the forest land. Organizations such as Community Forestry International, Cool Earth, The Nature Conservancy, World Wide Fund for Nature, Conservation International, African Conservation Foundation and Greenpeace also focus on preserving forest habitats. Greenpeace in particular has also mapped out the forests that are still intact[192] and published this information on the internet.[193] World Resources Institute in turn has made a simpler thematic map[194] showing the amount of forests present just before the age of man (8000 years ago) and the current (reduced) levels of forest.[195] These maps mark the amount of afforestation required to repair the damage caused by people. Forest plantations

In order to acquire the world's demand for wood, it is suggested that high yielding forest plantations are suitable according to forest writers Botkins and Sedjo. Plantations that yield 10 cubic meters per hectare a year would supply enough wood for trading of 5% of the world's existing forestland. By contrast, natural forests produce about 1–2 cubic meters per hectare; therefore, 5–10 times more forestland would be required to meet demand. Forester Chad Oliver has suggested a forest mosaic with high-yield forest lands interspersed with conservation land.[196]

Globally, planted forests increased from 4.1% to 7.0% of the total forest area between 1990 and 2015.[197] Plantation forests made up 280 million ha in 2015, an increase of about 40 million ha in the last ten years.[198] Globally, planted forests consist of about 18% exotic or introduced species while the rest are species native to the country where they are planted. In South America, Oceania, and East and Southern Africa, planted forests are dominated by introduced species: 88%, 75% and 65%, respectively. In North America, West and Central Asia, and Europe the proportions of introduced species in plantations are much lower at 1%, 3% and 8% of the total area planted, respectively.[197]

In the country of Senegal, on the western coast of Africa, a movement headed by youths has helped to plant over 6 million mangrove trees. The trees will protect local villages from storm damages and will provide a habitat for local wildlife. The project started in 2008, and already the Senegalese government has been asked to establish rules and regulations that would protect the new mangrove forests.

CONVERSION BIOLOGY

AN INTERNSHIP REPORT SUBMITTED BY OJUKWU SAMUEL UDOCHUKWU (AME19151) BE(ME) - 19

ACADEMY OF MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING (AMET) (Declared as Deemed to be University u/s 3 of UGC Act 1956) 135, EAST COAST ROAD, KANATHUR, CHENNAI - 603 112. TAMILNADU, INDIA TITLE OF INTERNSHIP : CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

INTERNSHIP AT HOME

A Report On Internship

Department of BE MARINE ENGINEERING

By Name : SAMUEL OJUKWU UDOCHUKWU Register Number : AME19151 Roll No : 3099B Year : 1ST YEAR Batch : BE(ME)-19 Group : 4 Subject Code : UBBTCO1 Subject : EVNIROMANTAL SCIENCE

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “COOLER CUM HEATER” is to bonafide work carried out by the students of AMET UNIVERSITY, KANATHUR (CHENNAI) during the year 2019 -2020 for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of a Marine Engineering.

INTERNAL GUIDE EXTERNAL EXAMINER

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

PLACE : AMET UNIVERSITY BE MARINE ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION

We are going to go through the subject ENVIROMENTAL SCIENCE . We are going to go through the topics of CONSERVATION BIOLOGY And we are going to talk about  INTRODUCTION TO COSERVATION BIOLOGY • DEFINITION OF CONSERVATION BIOLOGY • GOAL OF COSERVTION BIOLOGY • PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION BIOLOGY • IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVATION BIOLOGY • DEFINITION OF NATURAL RESOURCES; . CLASSICIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCE . IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL RESOURCE

INTRODUCTION TO CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGY

In the 20 years since Conservation Biology was launched with the aim of dis- seminating scientific knowledge to help conserve biodiversity and the natural world, our discipline has hugely influenced the practice of conservation. But we have had less impact outside the profession itself, and we have not transformed that practice into an enterprise large enough to achieve our conservation goals. As we look to the next 20 years, we need to become more relevant and important to the societies in which we live. To do so, the discipline of conservation biology must generate answers even when full scientific knowledge is lacking, structure scientific research around polices and debates that influence what we value as conservationists, go beyond the certitude of the biological sciences into the more contextual debates of the social sciences, engage scientifi- cally with human-dominated landscapes, and address the question of how conservation can contribute to the improvement of human livelihoods and the quality of human life.

DEFINITION OF CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

"Biological conservation" and "Conservation ecology" redirect here. For scientific journals, see Conservation Biology (journal), Biological Conservation (journal), and Conservation Ecology (journal). For the popular movement, see Conservationism. Conservation biology is the management of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.[1][2][3] It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.

GOAL OF COSERVATION BIOLOGY

Biological diversity throughout the world is being threatened by human activity: species are being driven to the edge of extinction; biological communities are being degraded, fragmented, and destroyed; and the genetic variation within species is being lost as populations are reduced in size and lost. Conservation biology is a multidisciplinary science that has developed in response to this biodiversity crisis. Conservation biology has three goals:  to investigate and describe the diversity of the living world  to understand the effects of human activities on species, communities, and ecosystems to develop practical interdisciplinary approaches to protecting and restoring biological diversity.

Conservation Efforts The single most important method to protect biological diversity is to establish national parks, nature reserves, and other protected areas. Such efforts to protect biological diversity in their natural habitats are referred to as in situ or on-site conservation. Approximately 6 percent of the world's land surface is designated as protected, with more national parks being designated each year. Many new marine reserves are being established to protect the nursery grounds for commercial fish species and maintain high-quality areas for rec- reation and tourism. To be effective at preserving biological diversity, protected areas must be well-designed, be as large as possible, and contain a variety of vegetation types and water sources. Management practices—such as regulating hunt- ing, removing exotic species, and employing controlled burning to maintain habitat diversity—need to be developed and put into practice. One of the most rapidly developing areas of conservation management involves restoring native biological communities on degraded lands, often by planting the original species. Protected areas must be periodically monitored to make sure they are meeting their objectives. Where species can no longer live in the wild due to continuing threats, they can be maintained in zoos and botanical gardens. In such places, information can be gathered about the biology of the species and the public can be edu- cated about conservation issues. The goal of such captive breeding programs is to return species back into their original habitat, known as "reintroductions," once the original threat to the species has been identified and eliminated. The greatest challenge involves developing projects in which conservation efforts are integrated with rural economic development. If local people benefit from conservation efforts through obtaining jobs, improved infrastructure , or new business and education opportunities, they will contribute to conservation objectives. But if local people perceive that the establishment of a protected area is harming their livelihood, they may actively oppose conservation efforts and damage the area. Since the 1980s, conservation biology has become one of the most vibrant subject areas within biology. Enormous interest has led to whole new fields of knowledge being developed. However, conservation biologists are not simply content with developing new knowledge. The field of conservation biology will only be judged a success if this knowledge is used in a practical way to protect and restore the world's fragile biological diversity. The academic disciplines of population biology, ecology, taxonomy, landscape ecology, and genetics constitute the core of conservation biology, with increasing inputs from economics, law, philosophy, anthropology, and other related fields.

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION BIOLOGY Conservation biologists seek to maintain three important aspects of life on Earth: the natural diversity found in living systems (biological diversity); the composition, structure, and function of those systems (ecological integrity); and their resiliency and ability to endure over time (ecological health) (Cal- licott et al. 1999) . (A) Biological diversity: Biological diversity is the variety of living organisms at all levels of organization, including genes, species, higher taxonomic levels, and the variety of habitats and ecosystems. (1) There is an immense and often unmeasured variety of living organisms on Earth. (2) The diversity of nature can be measured in a variety of ways, including absolute numbers, relative abundance, and ecological distinctiveness. (3) Biological diversity is threatened with extinction when one of two related patterns is observed: when an element is rare or when it is in decline. (4) Biological diversity, even under conditions not altered by human actions, is not fixed over time but is influenced by both ecological and evolutionary processes. (5) Changes in biological diversity that are more rapid or more extensive than changes that would occur without the impacts of human actions are likely to negatively affect ecological integrity and ecological health. (6) All aspects of biological diversity potentially play a role in maintaining ecological health and, therefore, are considered of value in conservation biology. (B) Ecological integrity: Ecological integrity is the degree to which an assemblage of organisms maintains its composition, structure, and function over time relative to a comparable assemblage that has been unaltered by human actions. (1) The integrity of an ecological system (e.g., population, ecosystem) can be measured in a variety of ways, including measures of its structure (what a system looks like in space and time), function (the relationships between components), and composition (what the component parts of the system are) relative to that of the system were it unaltered by human actions. (2) Protecting and restoring the ecological integrity of an ecological system require conservation across all levels of the biological hierarchy and across all ecological aspects of structure, function, and composition. (C) Ecological health: Ecological health is a relative measure of the condition of an ecological system with regard to its resiliency to stress and ability to maintain its organization and autonomy over time. (1) Ecological health is evaluated through a combination of measures, none of which alone is an index of health. Pertinent variables include productivity (a system’s ability to produce more biomass), complexity (the number of elements in the system, the number of connections among those elements, the strength of interactions among the elements), and resiliency (the ability of the system to return to a particular state following perturba- tion) and are assessed relative to that of the system were it unaltered by human actions. (2) Ecological health focuses on the processes underlying the observable patterns of biological diversity and ecological integrity

IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

Here at Pure Leisure, we’re committed to doing our bit for our natural world around us and our Fell End Nature Reserve offers a habitat to many protected species of flora and fauna, as well as a peaceful place for visitors to come and do some wildlife watching.

But why exactly is it so important to do conservation work and protect our natural world? We thought we’d talk you through some of the reasons why it’s so important not only to us but for everybody! To protect wildlife

The most obvious reason for conservation is to protect wildlife and promote biodiversity. Protecting wildlife and preserving it for future generations also means that the animals we love don’t become a distant memory. And we can maintain a healthy and functional ecosystem.

Some species cannot survive outside of their own natural habitat without human intervention such as in zoos and aquariums. So the destruction of their natural habitats poses a real threat to their sur- vival. Furthermore, species that migrate and inhabit more than one natural habitat are also vulnerable. So the preservation of these habitats helps to prevent the entire ecosystem being harmed. As more and more species face extinction, the work being done to protect the wildlife that calls this planet home is becoming more and more important. To protect the earth

It’s no secret that the future of our planet desperately needs to be safeguarded, with climate change already wreaking havoc on our natural environment. In order to preserve the earth for future generations, we not only need to reduce the amount of harm that human activities have on the environment but support the natural world as much as we can.

Nature itself is our biggest tool in the fight against global warming, and through conservation work, we can fully utilise nature’s contri- bution to the mitigation action that is needed to avoid a catastrophic increase in temperature.

Everything from tropical forests to our coastline has a part to play in the fight against climate change, as well as protecting our communities. So it’s important to do all that we can to protect them.

For human health

One pretty big reason for conservation work that is talked about a little less often is the impact that it has on human health. Both in terms of preventing the emergence of new diseases, and the production of medicines that we rely upon.

Having wild habitats for animals serves as a barrier. It prevents emerging infectious diseases from jumping from animals to humans. Previously undisturbed habitats have been cleared to make way for humans and agriculture. This has brought wild and domestic animals together and helped to facilitate the jump of diseases to humans. One such example is the Ebola outbreak. Ebola is a zoonosis (an animal disease that can jump to humans). It is believed that it most likely spread to humans from bats.

A lot of the medicines that we use as humans are also derived from chemicals that are produced by animals or plants. So by protecting nature we also protect the lifesaving drugs we rely upon, including anti-cancer drugs.

Simply put, we cannot be healthy in an unhealthy environment. It is in our own best interests to preserve the natural world as much as we can. The exploitation of the natural world threatens our capacity to provide food and water for the people on earth, and things like pollution are directly harmful to human health.

With all of this in mind, we are very proud of the work we do here at Fell End Nature Reserve, so if you would like to pay us a visit to learn more about nature and enjoy the peace and tranquillity of this undisturbed haven, we look forward to welcoming you soon.

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversi- ty is typically a measure of variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem level.[1] Terrestrial biodiversity is usually greater near the equator,[2] which is the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity.[3] Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richest in the tropics[4]. These tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 percent of earth's surface, and contain about 90 percent of the world's species.[5] Marine biodiversity is usually highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest, and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity.[6] Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots,[7] and has been increasing through time,[8][9] but will be likely to slow in the future.[10] Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions.[11][12][13] More than 99.9 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, amounting to over five billion species,[14] are estimated to be extinct.[15][16] Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million,[17] of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described.[18] More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.[19] The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes.[20] In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon).[21] In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common An- cestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.[22] The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years.[23][24][25] The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago,[26][27][28] during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year- old sandstone discovered in Western Australia.[29][30][31] Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion- year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Green- land.[32] More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.[33][34] According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth .. then it could be common in the universe Since life began on Earth, five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity. The Phanerozoic eon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion—a period during which the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared.[35] The next 400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity losses classified as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life.[36] The Permian–Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago, was the worst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years.[37] The most recent, the Cretaceous– Paleogene extinction event, occurred 65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.[38] The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity. Named the Holocene extinction, the reduction is caused primarily by human impacts, particularly habitat destruction.[39] Conversely, biodiversity positively impacts human health in a number of ways, although a few negative effects are studied

DEFINITION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

• Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of hu- mankind. This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravita- tional, electrical properties and forces, etc. On Earth it includes sunlight, atmosphere, water, land (includes all minerals) along with all vegetation, crops and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the previously identified characteristics and substances

• Particular areas such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems. Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be found within the environment. Every man-made product is composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level

• A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, air, and as well as any living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form that must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, rare- earth metals, petroleum, and most forms of energy

CLASSIFICTION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage of development, and by their renewability.

On the basis of origin, natural resources may be divided into two types: • Biotic — Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material), such as forests and animals, and the materials that can be obtained from them. Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter • Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non- organic material. Examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air, rare earth metals and heavy metals including ores, such as, gold, iron, copper, silver

Considering their stage of development, natural resources may be referred to in the following ways: • Potential resources — Potential resources are those that may be used in the future—for example, petroleum in sedimentary rocks that, until drilled out and put to use remains a potential resource • Actual resources — Those resources that have been surveyed, quantified and qualified and, are currently used—development, such as wood processing, depends on technology and cost • Reserve resources — The part of an actual resource that can be developed profitably in the future • Stock resources — Those that have been surveyed, but cannot be used due to lack of technology—for example, hydrogen

The ocean is an example of a natural resource. Ocean waves can be used to generate wave power, a renewable energy. Ocean water is important for salt production, desalination, and providing habitat for deep water fishes. There are biodiversity of marine species in the sea where nutrient cycles are common

TYPR OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Many natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non- renewable:

 Renewable resources — Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available and their quantities are not noticeably affected by human consumption. Though many renewable resources do not have such rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over-use. Resources from a human use perspective are classified as renewable so long as the rate of replenishment/recovery exceeds that of the rate of consumption. They replenish easily compared to Non-renewable resources.

Oceans often act as renewable resources

 Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment. Minerals are the most common resource included in this category. From the human perspective, resources are non-renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example of this are fossil fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow (potentially millions of years), meaning they are considered non-renewable. Some resources actually naturally deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these being radio-active elements such as uranium, which naturally decay into heavy metals. Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them,[5] but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled.[6] Once they are completely used they take millions of years to replenish.

A coal mine in Wyoming, United States. Coal, produced over millions of years, is a finite and non-renewable resource on a human time scale.

IMPROTANCE NATURAL RSOURCES

1. Air: Clean air is important for all the plants, animals, humans to survive on this planet. So it is necessary to take measures to reduce air pollution. 2. Water: 70% of the Earth is covered in water and only 2 % of that is freshwater. Initiative to educate and regulate the use of water should be taken. 3. Soil: Soil is composed of various particles and nutrients. It helps plants grow 4. Iron: It is made from silica and is used to build strong weap- ons, transportation, and buildings 5. Forests: As the population increases, the demand for housing and construction projects also increases. Forests provide clean air and preserve the ecology of

Uses of Natural Resources We depend on natural resources so much that most of our activities use a natural resource or derived products. Everyone consumes natural resources, directly or indirectly. Even our most fundamental needs rely on resources: we consume water and food. Natural resources also supply energy for houses and industries. Transportation and the factories that make many different products need energy to work. Fossil fuels are still the main energy source of the world. Many resources are used to make the different products that we use. Everything from construction materials, electronics, books, jewelry; anything you can think comes from a natural resource or a combination of them.

Deforestation for opening a coal mine Just as the resources aren't equally distributed, their use is also different from place to place. North America is probably the largest consumer of food and energy, while Africa uses significantly smaller amounts.

INTERNSHIP ALLOCATION REPORT 2019-20 Name of the Department: BE MARINE ENGINEERING

(In view of advisory from the AICTE, internships for the year 2019-20 are offered by the Department itself to facilitate the students to take up required work from their home itself during the lock down period due to COVID-19 outbreak)

Name of the Programme : MARINE ENGINEERING Year of study and Batch/Group : 1ST YEAR BE (ME)19 G-4 Name of the Mentor: Title of the assigned internship : CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

ENVIROMENTAL SCIENCE

Nature of Internship : Individual

Reg No of Students who are assigned with this internship: 3099B

AME19151

Total No. of Hours Required to complete the Internship: 45 HOURS

Signature of HoD/Programme Signature of the Internal Head Examiner Signature of the Mentor

INTERNSHIP EVALUATION REPORT 2019-20 Name of the Department: Marine Engineering (In view of advisory from the AICTE, internships for the year 2019-20 are offered by the Department itself to facilitate the students to take up required work from their home itself during the lock down period due to COVID-19 outbreak)

Name of the Student SAMUEL OJUKWU UDOCHUKWU

AME19151 Register No and Roll No 3099B

Programme of study ENVIROMENTAL SCIENCE

Year and Batch/Group 1ST YEAR BEME19 G-4

Semester 2ND

1) CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2) NATURAL RESOURCES Title of Internship

Duration of Internship 45 Hours

Mentor of the Student Muthu Bhaskar

Evaluation by the Department Sl Criterion Max. Marks Marks Allotted No.

1 Regularity in maintenance of the diary. 10

2 Adequacy & quality of information recorded 10

3 Drawings, sketches and data recorded 10

4 Thought process and recording techniques used 5

5 Organization of the information 5

6 Originality of the Internship Report 20

Adequacy and purposeful write-up of the Internship 7 10 Report Organization, format, drawings, sketches, style, 8 10 language etc. of the Internship Report Practical applications, relationships with basic theory 9 10 and concepts

10 Presentation Skills 10

Total 100

Signature of the Internal Signature of HoD/Programme Signature of the Mentor Examiner Head