Transcendentalist Literature and the Question of Slavery: An Examination of Transcendentalist Critiques Before and Aft er the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 By Blake Carrera and John Pipkin, PhD Southwestern University, Texas

1850 stands to this day as a seminal year while certainly infl ammatory at the time and mise of 1850, Margaret Fuller’s review of in the history of American society and de- inspirational in future Civil Rights struggles, The Narrative of Frederick Douglass emerged as mocracy. Henry Clay and Stephen Douglas, was initially designed as a treatise in favor of one of the fi rst pieces of Transcendentalist working under the auspices of a fracturing personal liberty. However, Thoreau and his commentary on the plight of the American Union, drafted and passed into law the Com- fellow Transcendentalists, by 1851, began slave. Prefacing an excerpt from the piece, promise of 1850. This piece of legislation, a their slow awakening from dormancy into a literary critic Lawrence Buell explains that, centerpiece in studies of American history, position of social activism. Liberty and jus- “Fuller carefully distances herself here from was one that attempted to unite the nation tice, key aspects of their philosophy, were abolitionist zealotry, almost as much as Em- while simultaneously creating a divide that endangered. For thinkers such as Thoreau, erson did in ‘Self-Reliance,’ and she carefully led to the Civil War. Beginning with the Mis- Emerson, and Margaret Fuller, a necessity distinguishes her detestation for the insti- souri Compromise of 1820, which divided arose to speak and distance themselves from tution of slavery from her attitude toward the nation into “free” and “slave” states, pragmatic stances of removal from society. slaveholders”.2 Buell’s commentary is direct- America debated the abolition of slavery. In this awakening, they transitioned from ed at early Transcendentalist rhetoric, before However, with the newest compromise of thinkers to activists with distinct beliefs re- the more pragmatic turn over the following 1850, a new law was created – the Fugitive garding not just democracy, but the role of fi fteen years towards overt socio-political Slave Act of 1851. Under this legislation, cit- the individual in such a state. Describing commentary. Emerson sought to point to izens and offi cials in even the most ardently John Brown, convicted of treason for his ideas of individuality and the necessity of in- abolitionist states were required to transfer raid on Harper’s Ferry, Thoreau stated that dividual removal from the dictums of a too- escaped slaves over to the proper authorities. he was “a transcendentalist above all, a man quickly evolving society. As Emerson stated The ideals of freedom and liberty began to of ideas and principles”.1 The Transcenden- in “Self-Reliance”: crumble. It was at this point that Americans talists were once a force of philosophy and began to devolve into factions, divided along education. After 1850, the tides turned and This is the ultimate fact which we so the lines of freedom and slavery. As is often the Transcendentalists assumed their most quickly reach…the resolution of all the case in moments of extreme social strife valuable role: a voice of reason and toler- into the ever-blessed ONE. Self-exis- and radical change, it was the role of the ance. tence is the attribute of the Supreme writer to emerge in cross-examination of the To fully understand the change in the role Cause, and it constitutes the measure very nature of American law. The nation’s of the Transcendentalists in socio-political of good by the degree in which it en- foundations of philosophy were largely con- discourse, it is necessary to progress through ters into all lower forms.3 fi ned to the realms of religion. However, a historical timeline of their essays and ad- branching off of their Unitarian beliefs, the dresses. In doing so, not only is the progres- Emerson’s stance in “Self-Reliance” em- Transcendentalists emerged as the fi rst of sion elucidated, but the writers themselves phasizes the self over society; this specifi c our American philosophers. Early texts such emerge less as philosophers and more as citi- excerpt does not encompass the range of as Ralph Waldo Emerson’s “Self-Reliance” zens. At the center of this progression and Emerson’s ideas, but it does illuminate his and Henry David Thoreau’s magnum opus, debate are the giants of this literary move- early views towards society and the self. In- Walden, spoke to themes of removal and ment: Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David stead of involvement in what Emerson be- self-enlightenment. The Transcendentalist Thoreau, and Margaret Fuller. At the center lieved to be the trivial happenings of soci- goal was not to explicitly spur mass social of the argument are a series of addresses ety, he advocated a search for Truth and the change, but instead to advocate the inde- and essays, ranging from Emerson’s “Self- “One.” This truth, only to be found through pendence and supremacy of the individual Reliance” in 1841 and “Emancipation in the self-exploration, was out of reach for those mind; they sought the mystical “One” and West Indies” in 1844, to Thoreau’s 1854 es- who overly involved themselves in political the greater truth, actively attempting to re- say “Slavery in Massachusetts”. While the debate and social commentary. To fi nd “the move themselves from overt political debate. seeds of changing discourse can be seen ONE,” it was necessary to remain vigilant in Even in Thoreau’s “Civil Disobedience” most clearly in Margaret Fuller’s review of a stance of removal. a text that explicitly tackled the dichotomy The Narrative of Frederick Douglass in 1845, it is In 1844, Emerson’s rhetoric begins to between a government and a subject, there important to track this progression from its change, albeit slightly. Ten years after the de- is a certain reluctance displayed towards all roots to a blossoming voice of political ac- cision for the British Empire to emancipate democratic participation. Thoreau, discuss- tivism. As such, any examination must begin all slaves in their colonies, Emerson delivered ing the act of voting, stated that, “even with a focus on Emerson’s “Self-Reliance” an address to the people of Concord. Today, voting for the right is doing nothing for it. It and its relationship with Fuller’s writings on this text is titled: “Emancipation in the Brit- is only expressing to men feebly your desire Frederick Douglass. ish West Indies”. Emerson began his speech that it should prevail”.1 This oft-cited text, In 1845, fi ve years before the Compro- by directly addressing his peers in Concord:

Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence – Volume VII 8 Literature

The genius of the Saxon race, friend- tion of a former slave to that of a talented Friends and fellow citizens: We are ly to liberty; the enterprise, the very man of rhetoric, unafraid of the dangers that met to exchange congratulations on muscular vigor of this nation, are in- he may be exposed to because of his writ- the anniversary of an event singular consistent with slavery. The Intellect, ing. Tying Douglass to the merits of mixed in the history of civilization; a day with blazing eye, looking through race and widely read authors like Dumas and of reason; of the clear light; of that history from the beginning onward, Soulie, Fuller wrote of African descent not which makes us better than a flock gazes on this blot and it disappears. as a curse or an impediment, but simply as a of birds and beasts; a day which gave The sentiment of Right, once very facet of a man. the immense fortification of a fact, of low and indistinct, but ever more ar- The apex of the piece lies in her descrip- gross history, to ethical abstractions.4 ticulate, because it is the voice of the tion of the slaveholder and those in favor of universe, pronounces Freedom. The the continuation of slavery: Using direct language, Emerson cel- Power that built this fabric of things ebrates that for ten years, the British Empire affirms it in the heart; and in the his- …blindness is but one form of that has declared slavery illegal in its colonies. tory of the First of August, has made prevalent fallacy which substitutes This decision was one that has gone down in a sign to the ages, of his will.4 a creed for a faith, a ritual for a life. history as the beginning of the emancipation We have seen too much of this sys- of African slaves across the world. Emerson With his final words, Emerson recedes tem of atonement not to know that does not speak of slaves or slavery; instead, once again. This element of advancement those who adopt it often begin with he states that the event was momentous be- and retraction is common throughout the good intentions, and are, at any rate, cause of the “reason” that served as its back- early works of Emerson and his fellow in their mistakes worthy of the deep- bone. Transcendentalists. They sought to promote est pity. But that is no reason why the These first lines would seem to be an as- a greater good and a pursuit for truth and truth should not be uttered, trumpet- sault on slavery as an institution in America. reason, but did not wish to take a role in the tongued, about the thing.5 Despite this, Emerson clings to his previous forefront of social commentary. In 1844, rhetorical stances— tempering his words and their rhetoric was still focused inwards, on It is central to the examination of this at times backpedaling to state that slave own- the self and how it interacted with nature. excerpt that the temperance of rhetoric is ers do not possess the entirety of the blame They sought a perfection of the intellect and acknowledged. Fuller is careful to refrain and are, to an extent, victims that must not freedom from oppression. By condemning from any clear denunciation of slaveholders be persecuted: the treatment of African slaves in British or defenders of slavery. The key to her view colonies, Emerson positions his argument is her utilization of “good intentions” and When we consider what remains to abroad. Any condemnations of slavery are “the truth.” Much as Emerson hesitated to be done for this interest in this coun- indirect and seek to prevent the enslavement denounce slaveholders, Fuller uses blindness try, the dictates of humanity make of free Massachusetts citizens who journey as a substitute for consideration. Instead of us tender of such as are not yet per- into southern slave states. Moving back and outright persecution of slaveholders, she ad- suaded. The hardest selfishness is to forth from moderation to condemnation vocates for a view of them as ignorant of be borne with. Let us withhold every was their great tool; by critiquing only up to a greater truth; perhaps the same truth that reproachful, and, if we can, every the point of mild controversy, the Transcen- Transcendentalists so often pursued. How- indignant remark. In this cause, we dentalists eschewed the negative opinion of ever, beneath the tempered rhetoric, there is must renounce our temper, and the the general public and were allowed to re- a clear criticism. According to Fuller, slave- risings of pride.4 main free to focus on their own intellectual holders were blind to the fallacies of their pursuits. stance, and blind to the fact that those of With this remark, the slaver is to some By the next year, this theoretical stance African descent are equal in ability and in- extent pardoned for his actions. The own- began to decay as the eclectic philosophy of tellect. Instead of denouncing the blind, ership of slaves becomes not the crime of Transcendentalism evolved. Margaret Fuller, Fuller advocates re-education. Echoing ear- the individual, but a crime of society itself. a member of the movement and one of the lier thinkers such as Bronson Alcott, Fuller In positioning his argument to eschew blame first American feminists, was often one of believed that the solution to the problem was from those who already possess slaves, Em- the most outspoken writers of her peers— not outright judgment, but the endeavor to erson distances himself from rabid aboli- whether in consideration of American or correct ignorance. tionists. While he may state that “The blood foreign affairs. Her commentary on the ex- By the end of the 1840s, the Transcen- is moral: the blood is anti-slavery: it runs cold istence of slavery in America and abroad dentalist movement changed its strategies in the veins: the stomach rises with disgust, proved to be one of her more radical stanc- towards dealing with the problem of slav- and curses slavery,” he refuses to lay blame es, especially considering the state of the ery. Instead of advocating understanding of on those who perpetuate a system of vio- Union in 1845. During that year, Fuller re- ignorance, they began to directly denounce lence and forced servitude.4 Furthermore, he viewed Frederick Douglass’s autobiography slavery and slaveholders, pointing out the states that: “Many planters have said, since and described the former slave turned writer fact that the African and the slave was no the emancipation, that, before that day, they as “an excellent speaker” who, in “exposing further removed from truth and reason than were the greatest slaves on the estates. Slav- himself to obvious danger,” sets “the seal on the white man or the slaveholder. Thoreau’s ery is no scholar, no improver”.4 his deep convictions as to the religious need 1849 essay “Civil Disobedience” was among But Emerson was not content to simply of speaking the whole truth”.5 Using a strat- the first to shed a negative light on slavery condemn the violence of slavery in the colo- egy similar to that used by Emerson a year and is canonized as a signal of a changing nies. Instead, he declared that the anniversa- before, she moved from moderation to a mindset among Thoreau’s peers and Ameri- ry of the British proclamation was a “moral more outspoken strategy of persuasion and cans as a whole. Though he wrote “Civil revolution”.4 To close, he stated: editorial opinion. By describing Douglass as Disobedience” in 1849, several years after such, she seeks to elevate him from the posi- Fuller’s initial words on slavery, Thoreau was

9 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence – Volume VII Literature the first to explicitly address the problem of ously uncertain stance. ry, the new religion, the chivalry of all gentle- slavery. In this seminal text, admired by Civil Speaking once more to an audience of men,” and indeed it was for both Emerson Rights leaders since its publication, Thoreau his neighbors and peers, Emerson said, “The and his peers.6 Ultimately, it was the liberty states that: one thing not to be forgiven to intellectual and the injustice, finally brought to clear light persons is, not to know their own task, or to on their doorsteps, that pulled these thinkers In other words, when a sixth of the take their ideas from others”.6 He believed from their self-imposed exile into the fore- population of a nation which has that his previous public removal from the front of the abolitionist debate. undertaken to be the refuge of lib- debate surrounding American slavery and By 1854, Thoreau’s rhetoric had moved erty are slaves, and a whole country abolition was justified by his lack of personal even closer towards a clear stance in favor is unjustly overrun and conquered by knowledge about these institutions. By 1851, of abolition. The key difference between a foreign army, and subjected to mili- Emerson saw the effects of slavery and the Thoreau and Emerson was the same vitriol tary law, I think that it is not too soon necessity for freedom, as Concord was often used in “Civil Disobedience.” In what is now for honest men to rebel and revolu- a place of passage for escaped slaves. Speak- known as “Slavery in Massachusetts,” Tho- tionize.1 ing from a sense of horror upon seeing the reau spoke directly to those who remained extensive reach of the new law, Emerson re- indifferent to the debate, stating that, “there Witnessing the effects of slavery in a marked that, is not one slave in Nebraska; there are per- “free” state such as Massachusetts, Tho- haps a million slaves in Massachusetts”.7 reau was pulled from his seclusion in the I have lived all my life without suffer- Thoreau posits that slavery is not simply woods surrounding Concord and became ing any known inconvenience from confined to the plight of those in chains, but one of America’s most outspoken activists American Slavery. I never saw it; also to those who are chained to ignorance. for civil liberty. Massachusetts being a mem- I never heard the whip; I never felt He believed that the citizens of a state that ber of the Union, it was bound to the laws the check on my free speech and ac- deemed itself “free” did not hold a moral ad- of the Constitution. The great problem for tion, until, the other day, when Mr. vantage over those in a “slave” state. Instead, both Thoreau and, as he saw it, America as Webster, by his personal influence, Thoreau saw citizens who remained passive a whole, was that the same document that brought the Fugitive Slave Law on as being guilty of all crimes of slavery. Fur- created democratic liberty was also used to the country.6 ther, the ignorance that led to indifference uphold the atrocities of slavery. With this in towards or support for American slavery mind, Thoreau distanced himself from the Emerson is loyal to previous addresses was a form of slavery itself. This harkened timid inaction of his fellow Transcendental- such as “Emancipation in the West Indies”, back to years of writing on individuality and ists and demanded change. In his essay, he explaining that his lack of knowledge had truth. With these claims, he aimed to both references what he perceives as the injustices halted any direct action against American antagonize and show his fellow citizens that of the Mexican-American War and ties this slavery as a whole. Finally, he refuses to re- their indifference and ignorance left them as same mentality to America’s role as a slave- main inactive and describes the atrocities of slaves to the government. For Thoreau, the holding nation. He speaks of rebellion and slavery in America. Witnessing firsthand the only way to escape these chains was to take revolution, but neither of these terms was effects of the Fugitive Slave Law, Emerson action and a firm stance against slavery as an meant to encourage violence. Instead, Tho- quite literally saw the chains of slavery rat- accepted institution. Any reluctance to act reau’s rebellion and revolution was one of tling past his window. These images served was blindness towards the irony that Amer- mindfulness, in which he encouraged the as a catalyst, inserting Emerson directly into ica, land of the free, was simultaneously the American populace to stand for American the debate surrounding abolition. Describing land of slavery and bloodshed. To spur feel- ideals and refuse to acquiesce to a govern- his internal struggle, Emerson asked the fol- ings of patriotism, he offered a comparison ment that supported slavery. lowing of his peers: of citizens of Concord in 1775 and 1851, Impactful as the essay may have been— exclaiming, “as if those three millions had both in contemporaneous discourse and 20th Are you for man and for the good fought for the right to be free themselves, century movements towards civil rights— it of man; or are you for the hurt and but to hold in slavery three million others”.7 was also inspired by a stint in jail after refus- harm of man? It was the question This statement emphasized the difference ing to participate in public elections or pay whether man shall be treated as leath- between the ideas that gave birth to democ- his taxes. Conversely, Emerson remained er? Whether the negro shall be, as the racy and the ideas that sought to maintain it aloof, waiting to display public judgment Indians were in Spanish America, a in Massachusetts. Thoreau saw compliance until another address in Concord on May piece of money? Whether this sys- with the Fugitive Slave Act as hypocrisy – 3, 1851. Today, this address is referred to as tem, which is a kind of mill or factory citizens of Concord were pleased to glorify “The Fugitive Slave Law”, taking its name for converting men into monkeys, their past but refused to see the crimes of from the law that outraged Emerson. In this shall be upheld and enlarged?6 their own time. He builds upon this idea by essay, he illuminates an evolved mindset to- demanding that Concord “let the State dis- wards American slavery, stating: “I do not Emerson positioned liberty at the heart solve her union with the slave-holder…she often speak to public questions – they are of his argument, capitalizing on founda- can find no respectable law or precedent odious and hurtful, and it seems like med- tional American rhetoric. The imagery of which sanctions the continuance of such a dling or leaving your work…My own ha- abuse is reinforced through comparisons union for an instant. Let each inhabitant of bitual view is to the well-being of students to the Spanish Empire and natives. Most the State dissolve his union with her, as long or scholars”.6 Referencing his seminal works importantly, the slave is described as a man as she delays to do her duty”.7 Echoing the such as “Self-Reliance” and “The American and not a beast. By making such a statement, ideas of the first American patriots, Thoreau Scholar,” these remarks may be seen as ex- Emerson finally stood in clear opposition to explicitly dared those in his audience to re- cuses for inaction; however, it is more likely slavery. Speaking to the nobility of liberty, main blind to the injustice of American de- that Emerson saw these words as an explana- Emerson compared it to “the Crusade of all mocracy. Stirring multi-generational passion, tion for time he used to fully form a previ- brave and conscientious men, the Epic Poet- he asked them to live up to their reputations

Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence – Volume VII 10 Literature as the descendants of revolutionaries. the abolition of English rule in America. New York: Random House. Print. Pg. 132-153, 144. Thoreau’s long analogy of the water- Democracy, much like the flower, was able 4Emerson, R.W. “Emancipation in the British West Indies.” The Essential Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson. lily was meant to remind Americans of the to flourish once it was not lost in the foul Ed. Brooks Atkinson. New York: Random House, 2000. beauty of democracy and the supremacy of scent of a dictatorship. And with the abo- Print. Pg. 753, 753-754, 755, 765, 770, 776. the individual. He believed that, “It suggests lition of slavery, so could America flourish 5Fuller, M. (2000) “On the Narrative of Frederick Doug- what kind of laws have prevailed longest and once more. lass.” The American Transcendentalists: Essential Writings. Ed. Lawrence Buell. New York: Random House. Print. Pg. widest, and still prevail, and that the time The unfortunate nature of this allegory is 355, 356. may come when man’s deeds will smell as that the foul scent continued, obscuring the 6Emerson, R.W. (2000) “The Fugitive Slave Law.” sweet”.7 It is nature that Thoreau uses to re- smell of the water-lily. No matter the efforts The Essential Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Ed. Brooks mind Americans of the promise of the first of abolitionists, slavery would not end with- Atkinson. New York: Random House. Print. Pg. 779, 780, 783-784, 792. democracy. Unsurprisingly, he believed that out war. But the Transcendentalists, writing 7Thoreau, H.D. (2000) “Slavery in Massachusetts.” nature displayed the purity of heart through between the years of 1845 and 1854, sought Walden and Other Writings. Ed. Brooks Atkinson. New which democracy could be born. Laws writ- a reclaimed America, one that was not buried York: Random House. 695-714. Print. Pg. 697, 701, 709, ten on paper are not those that have lived beneath the filth of slavery. The importance 713, 714. the longest; instead, the laws of morality, of this decade was paramount for the legacy liberty, and freedom prevail as eternal. The of the Transcendentalists. Their first state- water-lily is beautiful because it is born beau- ments regarding slavery had been tempered tiful. These qualities are akin to the ideas and refused to take a stand against Ameri- of liberty and freedom – eternal and for- cans. Emerson first tackled the subject in a ever just. He continues with the allegory by criticism of slaveholders in the West Indies, stating that, “it reminds me that Nature has Fuller discussed slaves as men instead of been partner to no Missouri Compromise. I objects, and Thoreau used slavery as a term scent no compromise in the fragrance of the for the ignorance of mankind. But with water-lily”.7 The Missouri Compromise and the passing of the Fugitive Slave Act, their the Fugitive Slave Act, both spearheaded by rhetoric changed and our original American a coalition of representatives who sought to philosophy became one of social activism. find a middle ground, proved to be the most Much as they wanted to remain lost in their egregious of insults to Thoreau’s idea of the thoughts about nature and truth, they were Union. A Union, for Thoreau, was not to be forced into action once slavery presented an entity that chose the least controversial ac- itself on their doorsteps. Emerson himself, tions; instead, it was to be an entity in which though long an advocate for the importance the greater good was upheld, no matter the of self-existence over society, stated that, “it problems that would seemingly interfere in is the genius and temper of the man which the short-term. decides whether he will stand for right or for might”.6 Speaking against the Fugitive Slave “Slavery in Massachusetts” ends with Law, he spoke against his own long-held phi- a proclamation that,Slavery and ser- losophies, admitting that he had to take a vility have produced no sweet-scented stand. Fuller and Thoreau, though often lost flower annually, to charm the senses in the shadow of Emerson, came to define of men, for they have real life: they the activist themes of American literature, are merely a decaying and a death, of- changing fiction, history, and philosophy. fensive to all healthy nostrils. We do Their eclecticism would carry on in their not complain that they live, but that influence. Examining their works as histori- they do not get buried. Let the living cal documents, the impression of a massive bury them; even they are good for change emerges; as America moved towards manure.7 Civil War, so did Transcendentalist philoso- phy shift to pragmatism and fiery rhetoric. Thoreau positions slavery and servility Though it would be years before the Civil (whether they are manifested in the form of War commenced, the first shots had already physical chains or the herd mentality of an been fired. By shifting from abstract con- indifferent populace) as decay and rot. These cepts to an analysis of their own world, the disturbing facets of society obscure the truth Transcendentalists evinced a new patriotism of America, hiding the reality of the life of a that would be mirrored in the gradual prog- slave, as well as the fact that the nation could ress of America during the Reconstruction survive without slavery. The water-lily grows era and afterwards. wild, without the assistance of mankind in a garden. Simply by its own biology, the flower References is self-sufficient. Thoreau considered slav- 1Thoreau, H. D. (2000) “Civil Disobedience.” Walden and Other Writings. Ed. Brooks Atkinson. New ery and servility to be blockades before a free York: Random House. Pg 673, 667-693,720. mind and, thus, a free man. Thoreau was just 2Buell, L. (2000) The American Transcendentalists: The as aware that slavery had always been a facet Essential Writings. New York: Random House. Print. Pg. of civilization, but he also believed that it 354. 3Emerson, R.W. (2000) “Self-Reliance.” The Essential could be eradicated. The abolition of Ameri- Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Ed. Brooks Atkinson. can slavery was just as much a possibility as

11 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence – Volume VII