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Access to Communications Technology A Access to Communications Technology ABSTRACT digital divide: the Pew Research Center reported in 2019 that 42 percent of African American adults and Early proponents of digital communications tech- 43 percent of Hispanic adults did not have a desk- nology believed that it would be a powerful tool for top or laptop computer at home, compared to only disseminating knowledge and advancing civilization. 18 percent of Caucasian adults. Individuals without While there is little dispute that the Internet has home computers must instead use smartphones or changed society radically in a relatively short period public facilities such as libraries (which restrict how of time, there are many still unable to take advantage long a patron can remain online), which severely lim- of the benefits it confers because of a lack of access. its their ability to fill out job applications and com- Whether the lack is due to economic, geographic, or plete homework effectively. demographic factors, this “digital divide” has serious There is also a marked divide between digital societal repercussions, particularly as most aspects access in highly developed nations and that which of life in the twenty-first century, including banking, is available in other parts of the world. Globally, the health care, and education, are increasingly con- International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a ducted online. specialized agency within the United Nations that deals with information and communication tech- DIGITAL DIVIDE nologies (ICTs), estimates that as many as 3 billion people living in developing countries may still be In its simplest terms, the digital divide refers to the gap unconnected by 2023. between people who have easy, reliable access to the Internet and those who do not. In the United States, ICT DEVELOPMENT INDEX that divide occurs in varying contexts. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) reports that in The ITU, which had been founded in 1865 to man- urban areas, 97 percent of Americans have access to age the first international telegraph networks, began high-speed broadband service. However, only 65 per- publishing the ICT Development Index (IDI) in cent of Americans living in rural areas have access to 2009 and continued to do so on an annual basis that service. In all, according to the FCC, some 30 through 2017. The ITU did not publish the IDI in million Americans cannot access the benefits of the 2018 or 2019. digital age because of deficiencies in the broadband The IDI combines eleven key indicators into one infrastructure. benchmark measure that can be used to monitor and Even in regions with good connectivity, there are compare advancements in ICT (information and differences in which households have access to com- communications technology) between countries, puters and the Internet because of socioeconomic and over time. The index is aimed at first tracking factors. A study conducted by the Pew Research Cen- individual nations’ ICT readiness: the level of net- ter in 2019 found that 46 percent of US adults with worked infrastructure and access to ICTs as measured household incomes below $30,000 per year did not by number of fixed-telephone subscriptions, mobile- have a computer at home, while 44 percent did not cellular telephone subscriptions, international Inter- have broadband Internet at home. Race and ethnic- net bandwidth per Internet user, households with a ity are also significant factors in the United States’ computer, and households with Internet access. 1 Access to Communications Technology Principles of Information Technology Next, ICT intensity (the level of use of ICTs in in-person help at a local DMV office. Most important, the country) is examined by surveying how many the digital divide perpetuates economic inequality individuals use the Internet, how many have fixed and impedes social mobility given how often school broadband subscriptions, and how many have coursework, even for the very youngest students, mobile-broadband subscriptions. Finally, a snap- involves computer use. Additionally, many well- shot of ICT impact (the concrete outcomes of more paying jobs rely on employees being at least some- efficient and effective ICT use) is taken by looking what computer literate. at mean years of schooling, gross secondary enroll- There are strong indications that a citizenry with ment, and gross tertiary enrollment. Those factors unimpeded access to the Internet can more easily serve as proxy indicators of overall skills and abilities. engage civically, leading to healthier democracies and In 2017, the United States ranked at number six- participatory decision-making. Consider the case of teen in the IDI. The top five spots were taken by Ice- North Korea, whose regime has greatly limited global land, South Korea, Switzerland, Denmark, and the Internet access for its citizens. Growing a more robust United Kingdom. information infrastructure can also be a pathway to economic growth for less developed nations, since ACCESSIBILITY FOR PEOPLE WITH PHYSICAL ICTs tend to be associated with marked improvements DISABILITIES in productivity. There are, in short, clear benefits to closing the digital divide—and myriad ramifications People with physical disabilities are also sometimes to allowing people to remain members of what has subject to a digital divide—a state of affairs that been called an “analogue underclass.” is easily overlooked by those who can effortlessly — Mari Rich manipulate a mouse, hear output from speakers, and clearly see whatever appears on a screen. True accessibility means, however, that everyone can use Further Reading the same technology as anyone else, regardless of Anderson, Monica, and Madhumitha Kumar. their level of vision, hearing, or manual dexterity. “Digital Divide Persists Even as Lower-Income In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Americans Make Gains in Tech Adoption.” Pew Act (ADA) sets forth guidelines for digital acces- Research Center, 7 May 2019, www.pewresearch. sibility, although compliance has not always been org/fact-tank/2019/05/07/digital-divide-persists- widespread. To address that issue, user experience even-as-lower-income-americans-make-gains-in- designers are increasingly ensuring that technology tech-adoption/. Accessed 29 June 2020. can be employed successfully by people with a wide “Bridging the Digital Divide for All Americans.” range of functional abilities. Users of desktop com- Federal Communications Commission, www.fcc.gov/ puters, for example, can now input information in about-fcc/fcc-initiatives/bridging-digital-divide- multiple ways, including via mouse, keyboard, or all-americans. Accessed 29 June 2020. speech-recognition software. “Digital Accessibility.” Partnership on Employment & Accessible Technology, www.peatworks.org/futureof- WHY IT MATTERS work/a11y. Accessed 29 June 2020. “The ICT Development Index (IDI): Conceptual A constantly growing number of essential services are Framework and Methodology.” International Tele- conducted digitally. Thus, those on the wrong side of communication Union, www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/ the digital divide miss out on the long-term benefits Statistics/Pages/publications/mis/methodology. of innovative technology. In addition, their day-to-day aspx. Accessed 29 June 2020. lives become exponentially harder, as information James, Jeffrey. “The ICT Development Index and the vital to their health, safety, and financial stability is Digital Divide: How Are They Related?” Technologi- provided online. Consider, for example, the con- cal Forecasting and Social Change, vol. 79, no. 3, 2012, trast between clicking a few links on a Department of 587–94, doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2011.08.010. Motor Vehicles website and waiting for hours to get Accessed 29 June 2020. 2 Principles of Information Technology Acoustics Li, Austen, and Jacqueline Sussman. “Bridging the All—Digital Gaps with Whites.” Pew Research Digital Divide.” Wharton School of the University of Center, 20 Aug. 2019, www.pewresearch.org/fact- Pennsylvania Public Policy Initiative, 10 Apr. 2018, pub- tank/2019/08/20/smartphones-help-blacks-his- licpolicy.wharton.upenn.edu/live/news/2420- panics-bridge-some-but-not-all-digital-gaps-with- bridging-the-digital-divide/for-students/blog/ whites/. Accessed 29 June 2020. news. Accessed 29 June 2020. “Time to Close the Digital Divide.” Financial Times, 22 Perrin, Andrew, and Erica Turner. “Smartphones May 2020, www.ft.com/content/df6d1cd2-9b6e- Help Blacks, Hispanics Bridge Some—But Not 11ea-adb1-529f96d8a00b. Accessed 29 June 2020. Acoustics ABSTRACT to larger and better established divisions of science, but then acoustics would lose its unique strengths Acoustics is the science dealing with the produc- and its source of dynamic creativity. The main dif- tion, transmission, and effects of vibration in mate- ference between acoustics and more self-sufficient rial media. If the medium is air and the vibration branches of science is that acoustics depends on frequency is between 18 and 18,000 hertz (Hz), the physical laws developed in and borrowed from other vibration is termed “sound.” Acoustics is also used in fields. Therefore, the primary task of acoustics is to a broader context to describe sounds in solids and take these divergent principles and integrate them underwater and structure-borne sounds. Because into a coherent whole in order to understand, mea- mechanical vibrations, whether natural or human sure, and control vibration phenomena. induced, have accompanied humans through the The Acoustical Society of
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