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State Societyand Governancein Melanesia

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State Societyand Governancein Melanesia THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies State, Society and Governance in Melanesia StateSociety and in Governance Melanesia DISCUSSION PAPER Discussion Paper 2006/1 GOVERNMENTS, STATES AND LABELS1 INTRODUCTION Some terms have, of course, been devised to be HANK NELSON decorous or diplomatic: they are as precise and analytical as saying ‘things are a bit crook’. Various Pacific Island states have been The first of these terms that I became aware labelled ‘at-risk’, ‘weak’, ‘fragile’, ‘dysfunctional’, of was the ‘broken backed state’. It was a term 2 ‘broken-backed’, collapsed, ‘failing’ and ‘failed’. used by Hugh Tinker in 1964, but became While some of these terms have been around for well known in Port Moresby in 1967 when over forty years, and attempts have been made the magazine, New Guinea, republished Tinker’s to define them, they remain imprecise and have article. Forty years on, much of what Tinker little explanatory value. They have particular said still seems prescient (Tinker 1967). Tinker disadvantages when applied in the southwest said that the granting of independence to those Pacific. colonies prepared for it had begun with India In so far as they have become part of social and the Philippines and had ended with Malaya science jargon, they have generally originated and Nigeria. From then, independence had been elsewhere and are of doubtful descriptive granted to the unready. Tinker claimed that in the value when applied to the diversity within all mid 1960s even the prepared countries in Africa Melanesian states. There is simply no uniform were struggling, and for those that followed the ‘weakness’ or ‘risk’ or ‘failure’ across government prospects were grim. Tinker disagreed with those departments, levels of government or regions. who thought the alternatives were Communism, Even where quantitative measures have been military dictatorship or rabble-rousing despotism. introduced into the definitions, they remain The more likely outcome, Tinker thought, was arbitrary. The blanket descriptions offend island the ‘broken backed state’. That, he said, was governments, especially those struggling to already the case in the Congo where a wounded carry out reforms declared essential by outside state persisted in spite of ‘massive intervention’ agencies. by the United Nations, and he also drew on what The most significant failure of these labels had happened in Burma. He pointed out that The contribution is that while they attempt to describe a stage rebellions had occurred in Burma, governments of AusAID to reached in a process, they say nothing about what had changed and the military intervened, but bits this series is that process is, what causes it and what forces of the rebellions persisted and the military and acknowledged might accelerate it, slow it down or reverse it. with appreciation. Government, States and Labels other governments were not strong enough to is not intended to give the impression that the 2 impose their rule across the country. Tinker went current position in Melanesia is cause for greater on to give some characteristics of the broken hope or alarm than previously conveyed; and backed state in which there was a government it may still be appropriate at times to call some in the capital, it was recognised internationally, states ‘weak’ or ‘failed’; but it is hoped that the it had an economic plan (analysed at length by categories used are more relevant to the region postgraduates), and passed some ‘enlightened and give a more accurate impression of a varied legislation’ (that had no influence any distance and dynamic situation. Most examples are taken from the capital), government services were from Papua New Guinea, the largest and most poor (half the letters posted got delivered), and populous of the Melanesian states, and the one through much of the countryside there were I know best. The comments are most likely to competing political bosses, bandits who levied have relevance to Solomons, Vanuatu and West tribute, and detachments of the police and the Papua. army who behaved like the other contending forces. The broken backed state emerged, Tinker argued, not out of a dramatic collapse of the THE OPTIONAL STATE former state, but gradually, and it could persist. The broken backed state, Tinker said, was a Within ten years of independence, Tabara ‘poor thing’, but within communities, religion, village on the mid Gira River in the west of Oro magic, tradition, family and clan continued to Province had few obvious connections to the be important. People could survive, and that was outside world. Travel was by river or walking something.3 track, there was no store and no cash was used in I have drawn attention to the broken backed daily exchanges. There was no school teacher and state because I want to emphasise just how long the small aid post had no supplies. Government this sort of labelling and its associated debate has officers made no regular visits. While Tabara been around. It precedes by a decade the granting was enclosed within the geographic area of the of independence in Melanesia. I also like Hugh nation of Papua New Guinea, the state of Papua Tinker’s comments because of the relevance New Guinea had withdrawn from Tabara. Nearly of four characteristics of the states that he all decisions about law and order, communal describes; firstly they are not necessarily getting fencing of gardens against pigs, and other group any better or worse; secondly, they can last in activities that might involve more than one their inefficient way for a long time; thirdly, they family were made within the village. If people can vary from areas of warfare (but not always the wished to use the services of the state they had to same areas), to regions of peace and prosperity; leave the village. That was an option. But it was and fourthly the basic weaknesses apply across an option more likely to be exercised by some institutions so that a change in government rather than others. Middle aged and older women by election or takeover by civilian or army rarely left the village — or went beyond other dictator is unlikely to solve anything because the villages equally outside the state — and families incoming government will bring with it many of that already had members in paid employment the deficiencies of the previous government, and in Popondetta or Port Moresby could travel will inherit the same defective institutions. For knowing that they would be looked after at the the same reason, the deployment of police and end of the journey, and be given the cash for a army units to solve problems in particular areas fare home. Such families were more likely to send is unlikely to be successful: the army and police children to secondary school — they could raise will suffer from the problems of supply, transport, the fees and the children would have somewhere discipline and accountability that afflict other to stay while at school. So because of their age, sections of government. gender and connections, some people enter the The aim, here, is not to take labels generated state from time to time, and some of the young elsewhere and apply them in Melanesia, but to people will make a long term commitment to stay start in the region and define the significant within those areas administered by the state; but characteristics of governments and states. The for all people in Tabara to enter the state and use comments have been grouped under sub-headings its services is to exercise choice. in the hope that these will not only help describe Those people living beyond the reach of the what is actually taking place, but also give some state are not only people in scattered and isolated indication of the diversity and complexity of the communities. They include some communities processes at work. The use of new categories is on small islands and on the larger islands such not a repackaging of the old in new wrappers; it as New Britain, as well as in various parts Government, States and Labels of mainland Papua New Guinea. These are and rebels take over some of the functions of not necessarily people where the level of tribal the state in a limited area or for a particular 3 fighting has forced the withdrawal of public service. The Japanese might build a school or servants and has made it difficult for police to hook Kundiawa to broadband internet service. enter the area unless they go in force and heavily Australian Apexians might build a hospital or armed. a Polish community provide equipment for the The extent to which state services — in Modilon Hospital in Madang or an aid agency effect the state — has withdrawn is apparent take over a function of a government department in a statement by Transparency International such as the supply of certain medicines; but more on health services in Papua New Guinea. In significant are those areas where virtually all February 2006 it said that only about half of the government services are controlled by another medical aid posts operating thirty years ago were authority. The case of the Pomio Kivung in East then working, and where it had been government New Britain has become well-known since the policy to ensure that no one walked more than release in 2005 of Gary Kildea’s and Andrea four hours to an aid post, some people were Simon’s film, Koriam’s Law — and the dead who walking four days to reach medical help (Post- govern. The anthropologist, Andrew Lattas, has Courier, 6 Feb 2006).4 provided detail and perspective on the Pomio movement (Lattas). The Kivung predates Independence by over a decade so it was not a THE INCOMPLETE STATE reaction to a failure of the national government, but a response to obvious inequalities in apparent It follows that there are many areas with just knowledge, wealth and prestige of the villagers one or two government services — the people in their relationships with government, church live in an incomplete state.
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