SEAL APPEAL: A naturalist’s guide to gray seal interpretation

by

Nathan Miller

Dr. David Johnston, Adviser Dr. Grant Murray, Adviser

December 2017

Masters Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Master of Environmental Management degree in

the Nicholas School of the Environment of

Duke University

Grant Murray 12/7/2017 ______(Adviser’s Name Printed & Signature) (Date)

David Johnston

12/7/2017 ______(Adviser’s Name Printed & Signature) (Date) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Gray seals (Halichoerus grypus) are a large phocid species of pinniped found in coastal waters encircling the North Atlantic Ocean. In the Western Atlantic, large concentrations of gray seals can be found in New England – Cape Cod in particular – as well as Sable Island off the coast of Nova Scotia. Whereas gray seals were nearly extirpated from New England by the 1950’s after centuries of both commercial exploitation and targeted bounty programs, U.S. federal laws protecting all marine mammals since the 1970’s have allowed gray seals to recover to population sizes not seen in over 200 years. Currently, between 30,000-50,000 gray seals permanently reside in Cape Cod alone. Gray seals have provided economic opportunity as well as a new avenue through which to educate the public about the significance of marine mammal conservation. There are currently five seal cruise businesses in Cape Cod and Nantucket that ferry visitors, eager to see and learn about marine wildlife, to and from gray seal haul outs. Peak season for seal cruises occurs between mid-summer and early-fall; they last for about two hours and are afforded the backdrop of (ideally) warm sunny weather in addition to beautiful coastal scenery. Seal cruise captains, operators, and guides also spend a significant portion of their time during each cruise offering information about gray seals, the state of Cape Cod’s marine ecosystem, and general history of Cape Cod. Given that they occur in a non-formal setting and appeal to visitors who elect to spend their free time learning about marine life, seal cruises are an ideal scenario in which interpretive communication techniques might help enhance conservation messaging as well as the overall visitor experience during a seal cruise. Interpretation is a form of communication best suited for non-formal education settings where the information presented all serves to directly strengthen a specific message or theme. Programs that apply interpretation are highly structured in their presentation of information, making the program content easy to follow, they strive to make their information relevant to the lives of individual audience members, and they seek to maintain an audience’s attention by being enjoyable. Peer-reviewed research also makes a strong argument for the use of interpretation in environmental education settings. Visitors who participate in programs such as guided tours or museum exhibits are more likely to retain information they hear or read if that program incorporates interpretation into its communication strategy. The most successful environmental programs that use interpretation can even influence visitors to make more environmentally conscious decisions after the program has concluded. The objective of this project, considering this background, was to design products that would help interested seal cruise businesses integrate interpretation into their operations. The first of two products presented in this report consists of a new digital guide offering materials and techniques for seal cruises to achieve such integration. This guide is divided into three sections. The first section includes a summary of what interpretation is, why it might be useful to an ecotourism business, and how interpretation can further encourage public support for conservation initiatives. The second section outlines how interpreters design themes and theme statements, the importance of content structure for a cruise, and how to hold an audience’s attention. The third section covers responsible conduct at sea, including keeping visitors safe while on board and how to minimize potential harassment of marine wildlife during the cruise. The guide also provides fact sheets that cover topics such as mammalogy, gray seal physiology, and community concerns surrounding gray seals (i.e.: human/seal interactions, seal waste and water quality, and shark predation on seals). The second of the two products is a literature review of the history of sealing and seal conservation in New England from the colonial era to the present day. Though literature on this topic is limited, especially for the years prior to the 1880’s, what literature does exist paints a timeline where in the 1600’s gray seals resided from Labrador, Canada to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina in the hundreds of thousands. By the 18th century, gray seals in the 13 colonies/United States were decimated because of the commercial exploitation of their blubber. Bounties lasting from the 1880’s until 1962 further reduced the number of gray seals in New England to near zero. It wasn’t until the ratification of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 when gray seals were afforded the federal protections required to recover to the population sizes seen today. Both products are the result of extensive research using a variety of sources, including, but not limited to, peer-reviewed literature, popular historical literature, academic textbooks, government reports, economic reports, and newspaper archives. Interviews with seal cruise operators were also conducted to learn how they present information to visitors, whether they incorporate audience participation, and any conservation messages they may already have. This guide has not been field tested, meaning a study assessing how affective it is at integrating interpretation is still unknown and would require further research.

SEAL APPEAL A naturalist’s guide to gray seal interpretation

Nathan Miller December 2017 Seal Appeal A naturalist’s guide to gray seal interpretation

By Nathan Miller Illustrations by Joseph Abisso

Dr. David Johnston, Advisor Dr. Grant Murray, Advisor

Masters project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Environmental Management degree in the Nicholas School of the Environment of Duke University 2017

Introduction

The gray seal recovery throughout Cape toolso t organize their cruises. Inside, you’ll find Cod, Nantucket, and the Gulf of Maine is a true strategies that address how to develop theme success story of American conservation. Since statements, organize tour content around your mid-20th century, state and federal laws have theme, how to make content enjoyable for an sought to protect gray seals from commercial ex- audience, and fact sheets that provide specific ploitation after bounty programs in Massachu- information related to two topics pertinent to setts and Maine nearly wiped out the U.S. stock. any gray seal cruise: Gray Seal Behavior & Biolo- Whereas less than 50 gray seals were observed gy and Marine Mammal Conservation in the Gulf of Maine in the early 1970’s, between For some, much of this guide may seem 30,000o t 50,000 currently reside off of Cape Cod self-explanatory. For others, every page might alone, numbers not seen in over a century. be useful. Either way, I hope that anyone read- The conservation of marine mammals has ing this comes away with a better idea of how to enjoyed strong general support for over two gen- build on their skills as a science communicator. erations. This in part stems from the popularity of the whale watching industry, which has grant- Acknowledgments ed millions of tourists first-hand access to these massive animals in the wild. While seal watching I would like to thank the faculty, staff, and operations are no where near the size of their ce- students of the Nicholas School of the Environ- tacean counter part, popular demand for these ment at Duke for their support in the develop- cruises in New England has grown in tandem ment of this guide, especially my advisors, David with the rising number of seals in the region. Johnston and Grant Murray. Thank you to my old It is with the seal cruise industry in mind friend Joseph Abisso for his illustrations. I also that I have designed this guide. SEAL APPEAL want to thank Bert Daly, Blair Perkins, and Rob seekso t supplement the communication styles Wissman of Beachcomber Boat Tours, Shearwa- of seasoned cruise operators and seal guides by ter Excursions, and Blue Claw Boat Tours, respec- discussing techniques related to the field of In- tively, for taking time out of their busy summer terpretation, a style of communication where schedules to speak with me about the work they we intentionally present information to under- do guiding visitors up and down the Cape Cod score larger themes or messages we believe and Nantucket coasts, showing and teaching ev- are important. SEAL APPEAL also acts as a crash eryone who comes onto their boats about the course for new guides looking to use interpretive incredible history and ecology of New England.

i TABLE OF CONTENTS I. WHAT IS INTERPRETATION? 1 Interpretation - New England’s Gray Seals Six Principles of Interpretation Sam Ham: Interpretation is T.O.R.E (Thematic, Organized, Relevant, Enjoyable) Interpretation and Your Audience Why Interpretation Matters CASE STUDY: “Influence of Interpretation on Conservation Intentions of Whale Tourists” II. YOUR ROLE AS INTERPRETER Techniques and Materials for Gray Seal Interpretation 8 Themes 9 What is a Theme? Why Use a Theme? Designing a Strong Theme: Theme Statements 10 1. Picking a Topic 2. Brainstorming Themes 3. Writing the Theme Statement Workshopping Theme Statements Research for Your Theme 17

FACT SHEETS PAGES 18-31 1. Gray Seal Behavior and Biology • What Makes a Mammal? • Gray Seal Anatomy • Gray Seal Life Cycle • Diving Physiology 2. Marine Mammal Conservation • TIMELINE: Gray Seal Conservation in New England • Changing Public Opinions • Challenges Facing Gray Seals • Gray Seal Facts: True or False? • Case Study: A Hard Sell - Negotiating Conservation

ii Putting it all Together 31 1. SYNTHESIS: Gray Seal Behavior and Biology 2. SYNTHESIS: Marine Mammal Conservation Organizing Your Tour 34 Organizing for Your Theme Structuring Information: • Pre-Contact • Contact • Post-Contact Possible Sites Along Your Route Making Tours Enjoyable 39 The Necessity of Holding Attention Tools of Engagement Interpretation and Kids Kids and Questions COMIC STRIP: Relate to What Kids Know III. AT SEA RESPONSIBLY 43 Interpretation as Resource Management Stewardship by Example Guidelines for Responsible Seal Watching: • Defining Harassment/Signs of Harassment • Guidelines for Responsible Seal Watching Environmental Stewardship Off the Boat Touching on Touchy Subjects What is a Shifting Baseline? Final Thoughts 50 IV. REFERENCES 51

iii I. What Is Interpretation? At its core, interpretation is a unique style of communication. Where nature-based tours are concerned, interpretation is a resourceful tool with the potential to shape and influence an audience’s perception of an environmental resource. By em- phasizing how individual pieces of information re- late to one another, interpreters - i.e.: tour guides who use interpretation - reveal through their tour content larger messages that are more significant than any one fact. When we combine organized content with truly breathtaking sites or exhibits, interpretation can transform educational tours into profound experiences that leave lasting impres- sions on our visitors. Interpretation is particularly powerful for discussing all things related to the environment. In order to make seemingly complicated scientific data engaging for audiences, interpreters strive to place issues such as ecology, conservation and cli- mate change within the context of a specific time and/or place. The best interpreters accomplish this by seamlessly weaving scientific research with in- formation from the fields of history, culture, and economics to produce a rich narrative that recounts how and why our relationships with our environ- ment, and even each other, have changed over time.

1 Interpretation - When it comes to sharing information per- taining to New England’s gray seals, cruise opera- New England’s Gray Seals tors and guides who live in the region also have a certain degree of “street cred”. Each summer, seal Nature-based interpretive tours are at their guides ferry visitors to and from seal haul outs, dis- most successful when the guide facilitates how vis- cuss seal behavior and biology, and field all sorts itors experience a specific natural resource. Part of of seal-related questions from curious visitors. Be- what makes this tour style so effective is the inter- cause of these continued interactions, seal guides personal dynamic between an articulate guide and carry a semblance of authority in the eyes of our an audience that is eager to learn. clientele on all things related to the regional marine For decades, the charismatic nature of ma- environment, including how history and culture rine mammals has inspired people to learn more have framed debates over the local impacts of the about how these animals live and behave, and gray seal recovery. guided seal cruises couldn’t provide a more per- So seal cruises provide a structure wherein fect learning environment to meet that demand for a local, knowledgeable guide - the cruise operator knowledge. - can interact with an audience that is interested Peak cruise season occurs in the summer, in the guide’s field of expertise. Because the seal when warm weather and (hopefully) sunny, clear guide personally engages with his or her visitors skies beckon tourists to spend a few hours out on each and every cruise, a rapport between the inter- a boat at sea, a far cry from a rigid classroom set- preter and the audience offers a social incentive for ting. These conditions are ideal for informal edu- visitors to remain engaged throughout the cruise. It cation programs. Our visitors are self-motivated is this incentive that not only helps shape positive to learn more about gray seals, and the relaxed, opinions of an interpretive tour, but also increases inviting summertime atmosphere allows our vis- the likelihood that visitors will retain more infor- itors to take in the scenery while remaining ef- mation long after the tour has ended. fortlessly engaged with the content of our cruise.

2 Six Principles of Interpretation

In his seminal book, Interpreting Our Heritage, Massachusetts writer Freeman Tilden defines interpretation as “an educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through the use of original objects, by firsthand experience, and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information.” He also outlines six principles for interpret- ers to consider when preparing nature-based tours.

1. “Any interpretation that does not 2. “Information, as such, is not in- somehow relate what is being terpretation. Interpretation is displayed or described to some- revelation based upon informa- thing within the personality or tion. But they are entirely differ- experience of the visitor will be ent things. However, interpreta- sterile.” tion includes information.” By relating what an audience experienc- Interpretation goes beyond simply list- es on a tour to what they already know, ing a stream of facts. How information interpreters provide incentive to find is organized and presented is just as im- personal connections to their content. portant as the information itself.

3. “Interpretation is an art, which 4. “The chief aim of interpre- combines many arts, whether tation is not instruction, but the materials presented are sci- provocation.” entific, historical or architec- tural. Any art is in some degree Interpreters hope their content en- teachable.” courages audiences to consider what consequences their behavior and life Interpreters have remarkable creative stories may have had on the subject control as it relates to they want to of their tour, or vise versa. present and how to present it, pulling ideas, visual aids, and data from many fields to support their message.

5. “Interpretation should aim to 6. “Interpretation addressed to present a whole rather than a children (say, up to the age of part, and must address itself to twelve) should not be a ‘dilution the whole man rather than any of the presentation to adults, but phase.” should follow a fundamentally different approach...” The best interpreters work to reveal the “big picture” about their subjects. Think Because how they perceive the world of the big picture as the punchline to differs from adults, interpreters work- a joke, and your content as the set up ing with children must ensure that their that ensures you’ll knock ‘em dead. content is relevant to what kids know.

3 Sam Ham: Interpretation is “T.O.R.E.” In his book Interpretation: Making a Difference on Purpose, Sam H. Ham, Pro- fessor Emeritus at the University of Idaho, proposes the TORE model (Theme, Organization, Relevance, Enjoyability) when assembling interpretive products.

Interpretation has a THEME Interpretation is ORGANIZED Themes help reveal the significance Interpretive content should be easy of any one topic. Strong themes may, for visitors to follow. Non-captive for example, extend beyond gray audiences are much more likely to seals to highlight a larger message remain engaged if the presentation about regional ecology and history. of our information is embedded The best themes resonate with vis- with a coherent, easily recognizable itors beyond their time in our boat. order.

Interpretation is RELEVANT Interpretation is ENJOYABLE For information to be relevant, it Ife w can’t hold the audience’s atten- must be meaningful AND personal. tion, then the program we’ve pre- Information is meaningful if visitors pared is useless. There are a myriad can easily contextualize it within of tools - from humor to anecdotes, their own lives, and it is person- metaphor and more - we can use so al when the information speaks to that everyone is engaged, learning, what audiences care about. and having a good time.

Interpretation and your hoping to witness a shark attacking a seal. Audience The thrill of riding a boat, the excitement of seeing these large animals for the first time - and Why do our visitors want to see and learn perhaps the spectacle of seeing that animal getting about gray seals? What is the reasoning behind eaten - are all uncommon sights and experiences their decision to come on board to begin with? for most of our visitors. These are experiences with While answers to these questions will differ from the potential encourage personal connections be- person to person, there is some value in briefly ex- tween visitors and marine resources in a way that ploring any commonalities concerning what draws videos or second-hand accounts cannot duplicate. visitors to ecotourism. Visitors may have already assigned val- Many visitors who take a seal cruise are ue to gray seals before coming aboard as well. traveling as groups or families from out of town. These values come with pre-packaged mean- For these visitors, seal cruises seem like an experi- ings: we assign the “cute” value, for instance, ence that both kids and adults might enjoy togeth- to people and things we care about, “beautiful” er: you get the adventure of riding a boat to see to what enamors us, and “impressive” to what- charismatic animals in their natural habitat. Those ever may defy our expectations. If a visitor ex- who can stomach more graphic imagery might be presses their belief that seals are “cute” before

4 casting off, there is a chance that that visitor is Why Interpretation hoping a seal cruise confirms his or her sentiment. The implication here is that the confirmation of this Matters sentiment as a result of the seal cruise might just Interpretation offers seal cruise operators be enough to encourage that visitor to make more the opportunity to enhance the quality of a visi- environmentally conscious decisions in his or her tor’s time at sea by combining structured and en- day to day life. gaging information with a sensory and emotional Because they reside year-round in New experience. This one-two combo hopefully enables England, especially Cape Cod, it is virtually guar- visitors to cultivate a personal connection to New anteed that visitors will get to see gray seals on England’s dynamic wildlife. Visitors might not re- each cruise. However, meeting this first expecta- member every fact seal guides present, but they’ll tion is only one component of what makes a cruise certainly remember the impression the cruise left. satisfying for visitors. The consequences of that impression can be sig- Overall visitor satisfaction with marine ec- nificant, not just for a seal cruise business, but for otours is shown to depend highly on both the type conservation initiatives overall. of content a seal guie provides as well as the depth When integrated into marine wildlife of the operator’s knowledge. This shouldn’t sug- tours, interpretation can have direct benefits to ma- gest a need for guides to spew everything know. rine conservation. Interpretive messaging has the Rather, they select a limited number of subjects to potential to cultivate pro-environmental sentiments cover during a cruise, subjects guides know inside that can motivate visitors towards pro-environment and out. If they can then tie that knowledge into the interests or life experiences of visitors, a seal action after the tour has concluded. Such actions guide’s content becomes relevant, and the chances might include making donations to conservation for visitor satisfaction increase. non-profits, volunteering at beach clean ups, or What’s more, if a guide not only address- even making small behavioral changes like reduc- es visitor interests during the tour, but also appeals ing the use of plastic bags. to the values behind those interests throughout the This particular effect is even more pro- tour, the information presented becomes not just nounced when comparing tours that apply inter- informative, but profound for the visitor as well. pretation against those that do not. Interpretation This goal, to make information resonate with your is such a strong form of communication that it is audience, lies at the core of interpretation. even integrated into natural resource management initiatives; the National Park Service offers inter- pretation seminars to its rangers as a means to both Three Sequential Objectives enhance the park experience and minimize any hu- man impact on wildlife. for Interpreters Based on the data available, there is noth- 1. The EDUCATION eObjectiv is success- ing to suggest that integrating interpretation into ful if content spurs a visitor’s curios- seal cruises wouldn’t successfully promote re- ity and participation during the tour. gional seal conservation. The use of structured, thematic, relevant, and enjoyable information as 2. The PEDAGOGIC eObjectiv is suc- a framing device about how gray seals forage, re- cessful if the audience feels enriched produce, and socialize - not to mention how our after the tour, and that enrichment attitudes towards marine mammals have changed affects other aspects of their lives. over time - could help reaffirm visitor support for laws such as the Marine Mammal Protection Act 3. The BUSINESS eObjectiv is success- (MMPA), which protects seals from being hunted ful if you experience returning or in- or harassed by humans. Similar framing around creasing business as a result of posi- seal behavior and seal-shark interactions could tive word of mouth. further encourage visitors to avoid immediate contact with gray seals as a means to both prevent

5 harassment and encourage safety along the coast. evidence that might dispel the concerns of fishers However, presenting strong conservation and New England residents, the presence of such messages during seal cruises comes with its own deeply entrenched anti-seal biases means that in- set of challenges in Cape Cod. As we’ll see in the terpreters face a potential uphill battle each time “Theme” section, the gray seal recovery - while a they seek to justify the continued protection for remarkable example of successful conservation - gray seals. has aggravated a fishing community still feeling While ecotours can always advocate for the impacts from the cod fishery collapse in the conservation, seal guides should strive to incorpo- early 1990’s. rate these viewpoints, as well as socio-economic Many fishers, both commercial and recre- information, wherever possible. Even if they are ational, believe that they must now compete with not pro-conservation, these perspectives highlight gray seals for the same fish species. They also the varying priorities that influence different com- feel that they are at a disadvantage because seals munities and governing bodies as they work to- are federally protected. Cape Cod residents have gether to develop sound marine policies. also expressed concern that seal waste is affecting Interpretation exists for anyone who wants coastal water quality. to convey these stories about nature and our com- These grievances have received both lo- munities to others. It is a tool that hopes to make cal and national media attention; so there is a dis- big ideas about nature feel intimate, for anyone tinct possibility that visitors may be aware of the who wants to inspire others to take a closer look at controversies surrounding gray seals. Despite any the world around them.

6 Interpretation Applied “Influence of Interpretation on Conservation Intentions of Whale Tourists”

Johnston 2017

Jacobs and Harms, two European social Based on their literature review, Jacobs scientists based in the Netherlands, not- and Harms hypothesized that the provision ed how prior research seemed to strongly ofy an information would inspire more con- support the idea that guided, interpreta- servation activity than no information at all, tion-based nature tours inspire participants andt tha interpretive information would be towards conservation-minded actions. How- more effective than the mere presentation ever, Jacobs and Harms were curious to dis- of information. A comparison of the pre- and cover whether that inspiration is the exclu- post-cruise surveys revealed that (4) was sive result of interpretive communication, or more effective than (3), (3) more than (2), if other aspects of the guided tour factored and (2) more than (1) at motivating visitors into conservation-related decisions. Curious, to aid conservation efforts. Visitors who had the two designed an experiment to see if they gone on the 4th cruise were far more likely could isolate and identify the effect of inter- to express a desire to volunteer or donate to pretation towards conservation sentiments environmental organizations than those who among ecotourists. Using whale cruises in Las had taken the 1st cruise. Jacobs and Harms’ Galletas, Spain as their field site, Jacobs and study highlights not just that interpretation is Harms randomly surveyed visitors set to go a powerful communication tool for conserva- on one of four types of cruises where: (1) vis- tionists, but that some interpretive messages itors were provided with no information, (2) are stronger motivators than others. Their visitors were provided with information, but paper documenting these results suggests not interpretation, (3) interpretation framed that because emotions play a powerful role the information around the theme of envi- in our general decision-making, our emotion- ronmental responsibility, and (4) interpre- al perceptions of nature can act as a proxy for tive information was used to elicit empathy. human-environment interactions.

7 II.Your Role As Interpreter Techniques and Materials for Gray Seal Interpretation

Whereas Section I of this guide intro- duces the general ideas and theories behind interpretation, Section II explores how to best apply interpretative techniques to seal cruis- es. This includes the development of themes and theme statements, how the structure of a cruise can make content easier to follow, and a review of techniques that keep visitors en- gaged for the entirety of the cruise. This section also discusses the impor- tance of tailoring content based on who is be most likely to embark on a seal cruise. This is a key factor, seeing as how a basic knowledge of visitor demographics can help interpreters determine if their content will be relevant to their audience. If they can tie their content to the things their visitors already care deeply about, then interpreters offer enough intrigue for visitors to not only lend their attention, but also find personal meaning within their expe- rience of the seal cruise. By encouraging visitors to make per- sonal connections to the marine environment while they’re on board, interpreters create a setting designed to inspire stronger passions for environmental protection.

8 Theme Themes are central to every interpretive project, and for good reason. Themes are powerful. When provided with clear and engaging themes, visitors are more likely to leave with happy memories of their experience. The strongest themes have the potential to influence a visitor’s perception of marine mammals.

What is a Theme? they enable curiosity and then spur the imagina- tion, themes are critical to interpretation. A theme is the overarching message inter- preters want to convey to their audience. They are Why Use a Theme? the takeaways readers carry with them long after they have finished a book, and the reason- audi Themes are both pragmatic and provoca- ences revisit their favorite movies. Themes permit tive in their application. They help interpreters to people to find meaning in their favorite stories, and both organize and strengthen content by embed- they add to the significance of a person’s most pro- ding underlying messages designed to resonate found experiences. with visitors. Interpreters have the same use for themes: Having a theme before even collecting in- they want to convey a specific message. Themes formation helps save time and potentially several allow the interpreter to clearly express the signifi- headaches. When researching something as seem- cance of their subject matter, and the facts they cu- ingly specific as gray seal biology, already pared rate build the arguments that support their theme. down from marine mammal biology, the volume Yet unlike a movie, where the theme of information available can still overwhelm an in- might be the final take away, themes are just the terpreter if he or she doesn’t know what to use it starting point for interpreters. Interpreters want for. But let’s say that interpreter has a theme that their themes to spark curiosity within an audi- solely focuses on how seal physiology compares to ence. If they can do that, then interpreters can a human’s. That theme now acts as a north star, a encourage audience members to make their own guiding compass that determines what to research, connections between what is presented and what what to ignore, and how pieces of information will they experience during a seal cruise. Because eventually connect to one another.

9 Interpreters want audience members to go Intangibles can do one of two things. They beyond initial fascination, and themes enable this can either place a tangible object within a larg- deeper exploration. With a well developed and er scale of time or space (i.e.: eras history, eras of clearly articulated theme, interpreters can create a geology, climate change and food web dynamics), bridge between their tour content and the values of or they can contextualize the object within a UNI- their audience. This is what is meant when by the VERSAL CONCEPT, a recognizable idea that idea that themes seek to provoke; they seek to con- speaks to some aspect of one’s personal or collec- nect the interpreter’s information to some valued tive identity. Universal concepts may include the aspect of an audience member’s life. broad ideas of family, community, conflict, pow- This “bridging” technique creates a di- er, or survival; they are abstract terms individually rect line between a TANGIBLE OBJECT, defined through personal experience, concepts to something one can see or touch, and an INTAN- which we each assign distinct qualities. GIBLE, a phenomenon that’s harder to quantify. By connecting a tangible object to an intan- For gray seal cruises, the tangible objects are pret- gible, interpreters aim to make their content relevant ty obvious - the seals, as well as other aspects of to the individual values of their audience members. New England’s marine ecosystem, including its In the case of a gray seal cruise, theme provides an topography and supporting cast of wildlife. Tan- avenue for visitors to explore what exactly gives gibles might also include local fishing vessels or these marine animals personal meaning. noteworthy locations along a seal guide’s route.

Trumbull 1818, Creative Commons

Designing a Strong Theme: Theme Statements In his contributing chapter to the book This is a prime example of a THEME Meaningful Interpretation, Robert Fudge, the STATEMENT - a short, captivating remark that Chief of Interpretation and Education for the expresses the idea associated with the resource that Northeast Region of the National Park Service, is being interpreted. It is the message an interpreter provides a vivid description of the signing of the wants to convey, the big picture connecting tan- Declaration of Independence, writing, “The sign- gible objects to a intangible or universal concept. ers risked their ‘lives, property, and sacred honor’ In Fudge’s example, the Declaration to issue their proclamation that ‘all men are created of Independence is the tangible object, which equal’.” In one sentence, Fudge captures the severe he then connects to the universal concepts of consequences each framer would face by breaking struggle, sacrifice, and freedom. Very few of us from British rule; yet even these significant person- know what it is like to found a new nation, but al costs were worth the chance to live in freedom. we all possess our own idea of what it means

10 Frequent Seal Cruise Topics • Gray Seal Behavior and Biology • New England Natural History • New England History • Fishing and Whaling in New England • Marine Mammal Conservation • Local Folklore and Legends • Sharks • Weather and Climate Change

1. Picking a Topic The time constraints of a seal cruise natu- rally limit the number of themes a seal guide can share with visitors. This constraint means that, as an interpreter, guides must be selective when pick- ing the topics from which to extract themes. While there are a myriad of topics to discuss on a seal cruise, consider the following criteria when decid- ing whether a particular topic is theme-worthy: • Will this topic appeal to my audience? or... • Can I develop a theme from this topic that will speak to my audience? • Does the topic encompass stories that are to struggle, to sacrifice, or to be free based on our thought- provoking? individual life experiences. Through this theme statement, Fudge uses these intangibles to bridge • Are there easily identifiable universal con- the Declaration of Independence to more readily cepts I can expand on with this topic? identifiable sentiments in an effort to make this • Would those universal concepts resonate historical document relevant to the lives of anyone with the values of my audience? who walks through the doors of the National Ar- chives. These questions require some knowledge Theme Statements are a great messaging of seal cruise patrons in order to answer them. It is tool. Even if they’re not specifically used during impossible to assume the values of each person on the cruise, the theme statement still lies just under- board, but making inferences can at least help to neath everything that is said, ensuring that the sum begin filtering through topics. of a seal guide’s information is greater than any For one, everyone has come on board to one fact. Having a strong theme statement on hand see gray seals, which implies some level of inter- while developing a cruise further hones the scope est in marine mammals, and perhaps marine life of research by narrowing broad topics down to a at large. Many visitors may already have a general singular message, offering direction in the search opinion about gray seals as well. Whether visitors for pertinent information. express that seals are “cute”, or “a nuisance”, their

11 descriptors offer insight into the values through Based off these generalizations, and the which they perceive the environment. fact that this is a seal cruise after all, it is safe to Positive descriptors such as “cute” can speculate that a theme pertaining to the topic of denote values such as protection, and negative Gray Seal Behavior and Biology would be of high descriptors might denote universal concepts like interest to visitors. Any theme that highlights con- conflict. Many visitors who come embark on a seal cepts of conflict, community, family, or protec- cruise are traveling within a group, either as a set tion might be relevant as well. Through the topic of or friends or as families with children. It wouldn’t Marine Mammal Conservation, it might also be be far-fetched to glean that topics emphasizing con- possible to develop themes that speak to the univer- cepts of companionship, family, or community are sal concepts of conflict and community, all while strong foundations on which to construct a theme describing a tenuous history of human/seal interac- that would resonate with groups of travelers. tions in New England.

2. Brainstorming Themes With a select group of topics in mind, themes around science-based topics (such as gray it’s time to begin considering which facts, ideas, seal behavior and biology). Clustering data and and stories might make for compelling tour con- ideas might help to more easily, say, see links be- tent. Some preliminary research may be useful, tween the ways in which seal physiology compares but this brainstorming period is mainly a sur- and contrasts to a human’s. This idea of comparing face-level exploration to find out which -piec physiology might even seem attractive enough to es of information might support a larger theme. develop a theme statement out of it. For those who prefer to organize their Making comparisons is a great strategy to ideas visually, CLUSTERING, seen in the im- package scientific information into easily digest- age above, is a great tool, that allows you to sketch ible content; in this specific scenario, it encourages interesting ideas around an topic in order to lit- audience members to consider the traits they may erally see how facts might relate to one another. share with an animal that has evolved to survive in Clustering is particularly handy for developing an environment that is uninhabitable to humans.

12 Encouraging audience members to find similarities between themselves and other mam- Gray Seal Conservation: mals might even create an opportunity to describe Sub-Topics 1888-2017 how we as a species could ever share an evolution- ary history with creatures that look nothing like us. • Legislative History Thus, comparing physiology transforms into an ex- • Population Data and Marine Science ploration of the biological commonalities between humans and wild animals,with the potential to link • Marine Mammals in Popular Culture biology to the universal concept of lineage. This lays the ground work for one theme: How we are • Changing Ecosystem Dynamics related to gray seals. The second topic, Marine Mammal Con- • Community Concerns servation, starts off as more of an intangible than • Roadblocks to Conservation seal behavior and biology. Whereas that first top- ic is grounded by the physical anatomy of a living thing, conservation is an idea about how human Each of these sub-topics can provide insight societies value and consume natural resources. Dis- into the how marine conservation policies devel- cussing conservation also comes with an inherent oped or were abandoned over time; these sub-top- historical dynamic that outlines how countries and ics might also shed light on how wildlife responded communities have protected marine mammals (or to changing priorities for the marine environment. not) over time. With this in mind, it helps to set a Within your timeline, you may even want to ex- timeline thats limit how far back you want explore plore how new policies affected certain industries marine mammal conservation. or communities. For instance, because fishing -re When focusing specifically on gray seal mains an intrinsic part of New England’s economy conservation in New England, 1888 - when Massa- and identity, any new policy that tries to enhance chusetts enacted its first seal bounty - is a sensible marine mammal protection might meet resistance if place to mark the beginning of your timeline, with it compromises fishing operations and revenue, and the current year marking the end. There is a trove this conflict is apparent in New England’s history of sub-topics to explore within this set parameter of environmental politics (see the harbor porpoise (1888-present day), sub-topics which include but case study further down). are not limited to: To simplify this idea, shifts in marine

13 policy are a product of communities and institutions • How we are related to gray seals. coming together to advocate for their priorities con- cerning ocean resources. U.S. marine policies cur- • Policies change because our priorities rently strive to balance economic activity with the change, and the success of any new policy need for continued conservation. History reveals hinges on our trust in the process and people that strong enforcement of conservation laws yields that created it. successful results, as in the seal recovery, and that The first theme only hints at a relation be- poor enforcement not only undermines the very tween humans and seals, lacking the declarative process that helps opposing parties reconcile their tone it needs to be an effective theme statement. It priorities for the ocean, but also leaves ecosystems ignores the amazing biology that distinguishes hu- vulnerable to unsustainable activity. mans from seals, and the theme still needs to be If we simplify this idea even further, we written as a complete sentence for it to be a state- have a theme for Marine Mammal Conservation: ment of any kind at all. Policies change because our priorities change, The second theme, on the other hand, is a and the success of any new policy hinges on our complete declarative sentence that touches on the trust in the process and people that created it. universal concept of trust. However, the theme is non-specific. Because it doesn’t specifically men- tion marine mammal conservation, the statement 3. Writing the Theme loses any connection to the universal concept of Statement protection that is embedded in the idea of conser- vation. While the theme is collective in tone (“our” Theme statements don’t just convey what a values, faith, and trust) - a technique meant to stress theme is; they express why a theme is significant. inclusiveness - it still isn’t grounded by a tangible Through evocative language and clever sentence that would bridge that gap between an object and structure, theme statements work to stimulate in- more intangible values. tellectual and emotional curiosity, motivating au- As they are written, these themes are a good diences to take personal stock in the content that start, but they need a little work before they can tru- interpreters provide. ly become strong, expressive theme statements. We have formed two themes so far, but nei- ther theme currently reads as a “theme statement”:

14 Workshopping Theme Statements

• How we are related to gray seals • Policies change because our priorities change, and the success of any new poli- cy hinges on our trust in the process and people that created it.

Short, Sweet, and Complete (Sentences) How We are related to gray seals. Try to limit statements to one brief complete sentence. This isn’t a set rule; so if you feel Policies change because our priori- your theme warrants another sentence, add ties change. and The success of any new policy hinges on our trust in the one. A nifty trick: if you can’t read a state- process and people that created it. ment one breath, cut it down or split it up.

Bridging the Gap How We are related to gray seals. By linking tangible objects to universal Seals and Humans share a common concepts like lineage, community, and pro- evolutionary lineage. tection, theme statements contextualize Policies change because our priori- subjects in terms that are relatable to your ties change. and Our faith in any new audience. policy is only as strong as our trust in the process and people that creat- While Ideas like conservation are not tan- ed it. gible, the physical consequences of conser- Marine Conservation signifies how vation are. By latching to an existing object we prioritize the ocean and trust the or place, ideas become situated in the real people who create new policies. world, enabling you to bridge between tangi- bles and universal concepts.

Analogy, Metaphor, and - like - Simile Seals and Humans share a common Analogies, metaphors, and similes are par- evolutionary lineage. ticularly strong tools that can link new ideas Seals are like our distant cousin in and information to scenarios that are more that we share a common ancestor. familiar to audiences.

Make it Personal Seals are like our distant cousin in that we share a common ancestor. Collective language (i.e.: “we”, instead of “I”, “you”, or “they”, or “our”), helps promote Seals are like our distant cousin. the inclusiveness of our message. Also, if you We’re related, but still uniquely suit- ed to different environments. actually decide to use your theme statement during your tour, then the statement should Marine Conservation signifies how sound informal, as though you are having a we prioritize the ocean and trust the people who create new policies. casual conversation with your audience. This is where you could even to include a bit of Marine Conservation signifies our yourself - your humor, your mannerisms - in priorities for the ocean and our level of trust in others. your statements so that your themes appear less academic and more human.

15 Workshopping Theme Statements

Words Words Words Feel free use nouns and adjectives that imme- The more expressive the word choice, and diately describe our big picture as well. This thee mor active the voice, the more effective isy wh words under the umbrella of “family” the statement becomes. work; they quickly evoke both personal and Evocative Words - Evocative words serve genetic relationsips. to stir ideas and images within audiences; Exaggeration - Exaggeration can help un- visual verbs (verbs hinting at actions that can derscore spacial or temporal measurements be seen) seem to be made for theme state- unique to the content behind your theme. ments. The more dramatic the better. (i.e.: “The Northern Elephant Seal has the Chilled > Relaxed longeste div time of any phocid seal in the Devoured > Consumed ocean!”). However, be careful when using ex- Paced > Considered aggerated language to describe matters that Reflects > Signifies aredo har t quantify, like fishery health or community dynamics. These are cases where For the conservation theme, the words “pri- exaggeration can mislead your audience. orities” and “trust” hint at how something is valued. While “to value” isn’t a visual verb, Active > Passive Voice - Tryo t use active it still provokes listeners to recall ideas and overe passiv voice when possible (“We be- objects they cherish themselves. lieve that” > “It is believed that”).

Once we’ve workshopped our themes, we finally have expressive theme statements that cap- ture a message for each of our topics:

“Seals are like our distant, distant cousin. We certainly share a genetic history, but a family reunion in the ocean would be difficult.” “Marine Conservation reflects how we as a society value the ocean ...and each other.”

Frome her on out, every piece of information we collect will work to drive home these themes, and their universal concepts, for our audience.

Again, whether or not it is used is during a tour, the theme statement still provides interpret- ers with a honed idea of the type of content and sentiment they want to share with visitors. The t fact tha the theme statement helps narrow broad topics into a specific idea is especially helpful as interpreters begin assembling research to build tour content.

16 Research For Your Theme Themes help narrow a broad topic down Scientific papers, historical archives, local to a specific area of focus. This is a major boon and personal anecdotes, folklore, literature, film, once interpreters begin researching content for art, and libraries are all fantastic resources from their programs. Interpreters will comb through which to pull information: as long as information is piles of information, sifting out impertinent infor- verifiable in some way, there is no limit as to what mation depending on whether or not it is relevant can be mined for data. to their theme. Once research is done, interpret- The following pages contain just a sample ers are left with a concentration of data to sup- of the potential information that can support the port their message. The content of this data may themes already outlined. be narrow in scope, but its depth is extensive.

17 Fact Sheets Gray Seal Behavior & Biology What Makes A Mammal? Mammals have successfully adapted to every habitat on the planet; so what characteristics could such a diverse group of animals share? From gray seals to you and I, what makes a mammal?

We’re All Warm-Blooded Every single mammal comes complete with so energy intensive, mammalian metabolisms internal mechanisms that keep the body at a are higher than our reptilian counterparts. This constant temperature. ENDOTHERMY requires a demanding metabolic factory stays open with significant amount of energy, but in return, this the help of a respiratory system that can capture stable body temperature optimizes the efficien- more oxygen and a circulatory system that can cyt a which mammalian organs can filter blood deliver higher volumes of oxygen at a faster rate or digest food. Being our own radiator, mammals (fun side note: the architecture of the circulatory may roam more freely than animals that need to system is nearly identical in all mammals). bask in the sun to optimize their physiology. Mammals also work to keep a constant Mammals have also developed some re- temperature regardless of external conditions: markable features that allow us to perpetually hair and fat help conserve heat in the cold, and generate heat. Because being warm-blooded is some of sweat to keep cool during a heat wave. Milk Most, but not every, mammal gives live birth (see: platypus). Yet every female mammal does produce milk. High in fat and protein, this nutri- ent-rich food is unique to mammals as a formu- lao t help newborns grow quickly after they are born. While pregnant, females begin to convert their fat reserves and muscle into milk, which is secreted through the mammary glands whenev- er newborns suckle. Mammals have even devel-

oped both a hard and soft palate, making it pos- Stephan 2007, Creative Commons sible for infants to breathe while feeding. An Elephant Seal pup suckling on its mother.

18 Fact Sheets Gray Seal Behavior & Biology What Makes A Mammal?

Descouens 2011, Wikimedia Commons

Teeth While no two species of mammal have the same set of teeth (above: a mandrill skull; left: the skull of an elephant seal), mammals are the only species where specific teeth serve different purposes (i.e.: incisors in the front to tear food, molars in the back to grind it). Mam- mal diets vary widely, but our teeth allow us to both tear and chew, making food more easily digestible, something non-mammals can’t do.

sonofabike 2012, Creative Commons Jawbone/Ear Over the course of mammalian evolu- tion, three bones gradually shifted away from the jaw to form the middle-ear shared by all mammals today. This makes mammals more sensitiveo t detecting sound in the air and wa- ter. The inner-ear structure is another feature unique to mammals, one that allows us to hear our environment with astounding acuity. Large Brain Proportional to body size, mammal brains tend to be much larger that those of birds or reptiles. Though brain size alone does not in- dicate the intelligence of an animal, mammals

Senex 1723, Creative Commons aree quit adept at learning, coordinating with one another, and responding to changes in their environment by altering their behavior.

19 Fact Sheets Gray Seal Behavior & Biology Gray Seal Anatomy

“True Seals” Bozena 2006 Gray seals are members of the Phocoidea su- per-family (Phocids for short, also known as the “true seals”) that includes elephant seals, Leop- ard Seals, and Weddell Seals. The image to the right depicts two skeletal structures. The Phocid skeleton (bottom) reflects the torpedo-like shape we see in gray seals. The skeleton on the top is that of an Otariid, a family that consists of sea lions and fur seals. Unlike Phocids, Otariids can more readily stand upright on their limbs to roam on land. Phocid seals lack an external ear, and the testes of male Phocids are internal (Otariid testes are external, or “scrotal”). Phocid seals are also CAPITAL BREEDERS, meaning that adults seals will fast while nursing and competing for mates. Physical Description

Gray seals are sexually dimorphic. Size, shape, and coloration all help distinguish males from females. FEMALE GRAY SEALS (above left): MALE GRAY SEALS (above right): • Are approximately 7.5 feet in length and • Are larger than females, measuring up to 10 weigh 550 pounds feet in length and weighing over 850 pounds. • Female coats are often spotted, most notably • Coats tend to be a singular shade of dark gray. on their underbellies. • Males snouts are more elongated than female • Female gray seals can live for up to 35 years in ones, giving them a horse-shaped head that’s the wild, a whole decade longer than males. earned them the nickname: Horseheads.

20 Fact Sheets Gray Seal Behavior & Biology Gray Seal Life Cycle

1. Birth Gray seals in North America come ashore every January/February to give birth to their pups. Newborn pups weigh about 35 pounds and are easily identifiable by their white coats. Mothers will nurse for no longer than three weeks, but because gray seal milk is so rich in fat and protein, pups will triple their weight in this time. Nursing this intensely comes at an extreme energet- ic cost to gray seal mothers. Not only will their metabolism spike to produce milk, but fe- males also fast while nursing. In all, females can lose up to one third of their body mass feeding their pups.

Ward 2014

2. Post-Weaning After weaning, mothers will mate with a male before returning to the sea to forage, leaving their pups to fend for themselves. Gray seal pups, having already shed their white coats, will remain on the beach for up to three weeks - during which time they won’t have access to food - before venturing into the sea. Pups can lose up to 25% of their body mass in the post-weaning fast (PWF), but there is a benefit to waiting a bit before the first dip. During the PWF, pups are still developing the blood chemistry and muscle tissue they’ll need to become be successful divers. The fatter a pup ist a the time of weaning, the longer it can afford to wait and prepare for life underwater.

21 Fact Sheets Gray Seal Behavior & Biology Gray Seal Life Cycle

Geslin 2009

3. Sexual Maturity On average, male and female gray seals where each male tries to bite their rival’s throat. reach sexual maturity at around 5.5 years of age. Even after a male has established dominance, he However, some males won’t reach maturity until remains vigilant, sure to keep other males away age 7, while some females are mature as early from his females for the rest of the season. Males aset ag 3. A the beginning of the mating season, also fast during the mating season in order to con- females usually come ashore just before males tinually patrol for any threats from rival males. to give birth; males will quickly leave the sea at Mating does not occur during the first few the realization that females are congregating on weeks; mothers are preoccupied with nursing land. their young and will ward off any frisky males. Gray seals are POLYGYNOUS, meaning However, once they have weaned their pups, fe- that one male will attempt to mate with as many malese ar more receptive and ready to mate. It females as he can during the season. While fe- takes three months from the time of copulation males give birth and nurse, males will compete for a fertilized egg to become implanted, and an- with each other for access to a group of females other nine months for a new pup to gestate. in a particular area, settling scores via stand offs, Once mature, female gray seals can give birth vocalizations, body slaps, and physical bouts to one pup each year well into their 30’s.

22 Fact Sheets Gray Seal Behavior & Biology Diving Physiology

Aerobic Dive Response The AEROBIC DIVE RESPONSE (ADR) is the physiological reaction of all mammals tow lo oxygen conditions. Marine mam- mals experience the ADR when they have noo time t prepare for long dives. An in- herently survivalist instinct, the ADR con- sists of several drastic measures the body takes to conserve oxygen, including:

BREATH HOLDING - Once underwater, the body closes off all air channels to keep water from the lungs.

BRADYCARDIA - (Slow Heart Rate) - The heart rate begins to slow to ration the amount of oxygenated blood traveling through the body.

VASOCONSTRICTION - the body restricts bloodw flo to muscle tissue, the liver, and kidneys to conserve more oxygen for the heart and brain, organs more sensitive to oxygen deprivation.

During the ADR, muscle tissue can continueo t function after the tissue has exhausted its oxygen reserves. Muscles can continue to exercise without oxy- gen through a process called ANAEROBIC WORK, but there’s a catch. The byproduct of anaerobic work - lactic acid - is toxic in high concentrations. As humans, we trigger the ADR every timee w hold our breath underwater. ADR stops once we come up for air. As we re- cover, our bodies dispose of lactic acid by transporting it from our muscles via the blood to the lungs, where it is converted

to CO2 and exhaled.

23 Fact Sheets Gray Seal Behavior & Biology Diving Physiology

When a Gray Seal Dives... Gray seals routinely swim to depths between 100 and 230 feet to forage on the ocean floor. Dives are typically between 8 and 15 minutes but can last as long as half an hour. They also show no signs of oxygen deprivation when they surface. Gray seals can avoid an ADR when diving because of these remarkable adaptations that transform their bodies into living SCUBA gear.

BLOOD (and lots of it) - Blood makes up 12% MYOGLOBIN - Myoglobin is an oxygen-bind- of a gray seal’s body mass, meaning an ing protein found in muscle tissue, adult male weighing 850 pounds as opposed to the blood stream. carries 102 pounds of blood. Gray seal muscle tissue contains Concentrations of hemoglo- nearly 20% more myoglobin bin (the protein in red blood than human muscles. Once cells oxygen attaches to) blood gets redirected to are also 20-30% high- other parts of the body, er in gray seal blood gray seal muscles tap than human blood. into their myoglobin Increased blood vol- oxygen stores to con- ume and more he- tinue performing moglobin means work without pro- gray seals have a ducing lactic acid. large reserve of oxygen-rich blood RESPIRATORY at their disposal SYSTEM - Gray seals during each dive. hyperventilate be- fore each dive. This CIRCULATORY allows them to sat- SYSTEM - Gray seals urate blood and mus- prep for each dive by cle tissue with oxy- intentionally slowing gen. Once submerged, down their heart rate the water pressure be- (once submerged, heart gins to compress their rates can slow to 4 bpm) lungs, pushing out excess and redistributing blood air. Gas exchange won’t oc- away from muscle tissues, cur again in the lungs until the similar to the ADR. However, gray seal resurfaces. Recovery unlike in the ADR, blood continues time between dives can be as short towo flo t the liver and kidneys. Also, as three minutes. If a gray seal has ex- while blood flow may cease to certain mus- pended all its oxygen stores before surfacing, cles,t tha tissue isn’t entire oxygen-starved thene mor time is needed to recover from during voluntary dives... having performed anaerobic work.

24 Fact Sheets Marine Mammal Conservation Gray Seal Conservation in New England

Massachusetts enacts a bounty 1880 The state raises the bounty to keep seals from fishers’ catch 1888 from $2 to $3 per tail 1892

Massachusetts discontinues 1900 Massachusetts reinstitutes the 1908 the bounty bounty: $2 for the nose and skin of each kill 1919 1920 The bounty rises to $5 per kill Massachusetts ends the boun- 1933 ty after a cumulative 63 years 1940 Between 72,000-135,000 seals were killed in the Gulf of Maine Massachusetts outlaws the because of this bounty and a 1960 harassment, injury, or killing of 1962 similar one in Maine gray seals - punishable up to a $500 fine Congress passes the Marine 1965 Mammal Protection Act, out- lawing the harassment or kill- 1970 An estimated 30 gray seals are 1972 ing of marine mammals left in Maine’s coastal waters 1973

Gray seals are believed to be 1980 migrating from Sable Island in 1980’s Nova Scotia to Cape Cod The amended MMPA requires annual stock assessments of The first survey estimates a U.S. 1990 the Western North Atlantic population of 2,035 gray seals, gray seal population 1994 1995 with most in Cape Cod

2000

The 2011 survey estimates a New surveys using Google Maps population of 15,700 gray seals 2010 imagery estimate that the gray 2011 in U.S. waters seal population in Cape Cod alone hovers between 30,000- 50,000 individuals 2017 2020

25 Fact Sheets Marine Mammal Conservation Changing Public Opinions

Winning Over Hearts trusted naturalist guided people through ex- otic and unfamiliar marine habitats. and Minds Television also provided momentum to a fledgling animal welfare movement. In 1963, Our attitudes towards marine mammals a Montreal production team filmed a baby have certainly changed over the last 100 harp seal being skinned alive for its pelt. years. Whereas we once relied on whales, After the footage was broadcast, furor over seals, and otters for their pelts, blubber and the seal trade exploded overnight. By 1972, meat, marine mammals are now some of the the U.S. banned the import of whitecoat seal most fiercely protected creatures in both U.S. furs, and global demand for harp seal prod- and international waters. So what enabled ucts collapsed by the 1980’s. this dramatic shift in environmental policy? Their ubiquity and positive portrayal in American whaling had peaked long be- media has helped sustain support for marine fore the ratification of the Marine Mammal mammal conservation for over half a century Protection Act (MMPA) in 1972. In fact, the now. The fact that laws like the MMPA and last whale kill in New England occurred in the Endangered Species Act were even rati- 1924, after which whaling along the entire fiedt a all is a testament not only to the pow- east coast ceased altogether. By the 1950’s, er of public support, but also to the idea that more recreational attitudes towards marine education and storytelling can inspire activ- mammals began to take shape as the first ism and popularize environmental causes. whale watching businesses opened shop in California. Tourists’ interest in viewing ma- rine mammals, both in the wild and in captiv- ity, has grown considerably since then, offer- ing curious spectators a glimpse into the lives of animals that are nearly impossible to see without access to a boat. While zoos and tourism certainly helped cultivate concern, no other medium was more influential in shaping the public opin- ion of marine mammals than television in the mid-20th century. For the first time, mass au- diences, regardless of location, could finally experience stories that spoke to the endear- ing qualities of marine life. Scripted shows like the 1960’s Flipper, about a young boy who befriends a perky dolphin, enabled viewers to develop strong emotional connections to marine mammals through this one anthropomorphized animal. The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau, which ran from 1968 to 1976, inspired weekly MGM 1963, Wikimedia Commons wonder for millions as the world’s then-most

26 Fact Sheets Marine Mammal Conservation Challenges Facing Gray Seals

Pollution Human/Seal Interactions

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are Incidents of BYCATCH, where seals be- microscopic compounds found in everyday come entangled in fishing gear, have risen plastics. They also happen to be cancerous to since the 1990’s. Nearly 1200 gray seals die gray seals. Unrecycled PCB’s that make their per year from gillnet or trawl entanglements. way into the ocean will often accumulate in a 90% of these deaths occur in New England’s gray seal, with PCB’s becoming dangerously gillnet fisheries. Gray seals are also targeted concentrated over its lifetime. PCB data are and illegally shot by fishers who believe few- not known for New England gray seals, but er seals will boost their catch. samples from adjacent harbor seal haul outs Such injurious and lethal human/seal already exceed toxic levels.* interactions result in STRANDINGS, where Mercury does not naturally exist in the dead or severely wounded seals wash ashore. marine environment; it is byproduct of in- Strandings have risen since the early 2000’s, dustrial activity. As in humans, mercury ad- peaking in 2011 with a reported 265 incidents. versely affects gray seal physiology and pup Injuries from fishing gear account for 56% of development. Current mercury levels in New all strandings; gunshot wounds account for England gray seals are already high enough 3% of strandings. to stunt a human child.*

* Both PCB’s and Mercury are nearly impossible to remove from the body...with one excep- tion. They can concentrate in the milk of gray seal mothers when lactation begins. A gray seal mother will unknowingly rid herself of some of these contaminants by transferring them to her newborn pup while nursing.

27 Fact Sheets Marine Mammal Conservation Gray Seals Facts: True or False? Fishery Interactions

PERCENT BIOMASS (%) FOUND IN GRAY SEAL SCAT SAMPLES

Winter Flounder Cod 19% 6% Red/White Hake 3% Windowpane Flounder Silver Hake 2% 1%

Other 1%

Herring 4%

Sculpin 4%

Skate FALSE! 6% Sand Lance 54%

Scat samples show that Sand Lance, which have little market value, make up the majority (53%) of gray seal diets in Cape Cod, while Cod makes up only 6% of their diet. In ecological terms, COMPETITION occurs While competition for the same fish is not when multiple species vie for the same resource widespread, DEPREDATION - localized events across an entire ecosystem. Competition for fish where seals take from fishermen’s catch - still oc- between humans and seals is hard to quantify for curs and remains a major concern for local fish- the entire Western Atlantic, but given the data ers because of lost revenue and damaged gear. available on their diets, gray seals don’t seem to However, European fishers have been experi- be competing with humans to catch commercial- menting with seal-proof netting gear (“push up ly viable fish, opting more often for Sand Lance traps”) and non-lethal sensory deterrents such instead. Gray seal competition DOES NOT explain as audio harassment devices (AHD’s) as a means the slow recovery of the Atlantic Cod fishery. to minimize lethal seal/fisher interactions. Gray Seal Waste

Cape Cod beach goers often blame gray seals feces for beach closures. Twice, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute has sampled the water of var- ious Cape Cod beaches to address this very concern. Both studies show that beaches overe fiv miles from a seal haul out were more likely to close because of excessive E. coli than closer beaches, strongly sug- FALSE! gestingt tha seal waste has had little to no effect on beach closures in Cape Cod.

28 Fact Sheets Marine Mammal Conservation Gray Seals Facts: True or False?

This one is hard to call. Let’s break down why. First: Are there more sharks in Cape Cod? • Trend lines show that the number of White Sharks has been growing along the eastern seaboard since the 1990’s, but total population is unknown. • The Atlantic White Shark Conservancy (AWS) confirmed 147 sightings in Cape Cod from June to October 2016, up from 68 in 2014. • HOWEVER: White Sharks are reverting to a pre- seal bounty diet, opting to hunt gray seals along the coast instead of scavenging further offshore. A rising shark concentration near shore certainly signals a shift in species distribution; population Well.. growth is harder to determine.

Second: Are sharks making the beach There are non-lethal measures we can more dangerous? and are employing to protect beach go- ers in Cape Cod. Spotter planes routinely White Sharks don’t have a taste for fly over the coast, scanning for any sharks humans. Attacks often occur when sharks swimming in the shallows. AWS’ Sharktiv- mistake a human for a seal. After a first ity app allows beach goers to track shark “test bite”, the shark usually swims away movements in real time. Outreach cam- from the human. This in no way dimin- paignse ar educating the public about how ishes the human trauma brought on by to avoid sharks, and the development of shark attacks when they do happen. In- new lifeguard protocols will seek to ad- stead, it highlights that White Sharks are dress both beach closures and shark attack as reluctant to interact with us as we are responses. Australian beaches have gone a with them. step further by erecting shark barriers to Still, the rising frequency of high protect bathers, surfers and swimmers. profile sightings just offshore - often in- volving a shark gnashing at a seal - has alarmed many in Cape Cod. In the sum- Verdict? eThe Whit Shark population mer of 2017, one shark even bit into a is most likely growing on the east coast, but man’s paddle board (no one was hurt). thist isn’t jus attributable to the gray seal re- Shark sightings at the beach are so com- covery. However, more sharks are certainly mon now that the Barnstable County concentrating in Cape Cod shore to feed on Commissioner has even suggested a seals. Multiple agencies are working to min- shark culling program. imize the risk of a shark attack through edu- cation, tagging, and new protocols.

29 Fact Sheets Marine Mammal Conservation A Hard Sell: Negotiating Conservation

Harbor Porpoises in the Atlantic Harbor porpoise conservation in New En- gland exemplifies both the successes and challenges of enacting environmental pol- icy through STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT. It demonstrates how parties with different priorities for a natural resource can come to- gether, identify a problem, and work to form a strategy that protects a threatened spe- AVampire Tear 2008, Wikimedia Commons cies. Conversely, it also shows how quickly the trust built between stakeholders can de- once bycatch monitoring had become more teriorate, compromising the success of any expansive, an estimated 2900 harbor por- policy. This story also reflects on the politics poises had been reported dead because of and socio-economic dynamics that make ma- gillnetting, a devastating number for a popu- rine mammal conservation so complicated. lation about of 15,000 individuals at the time. That same year, members of the regional gillnet industry set up informal talks with ma- Beginning in the early 1980’s, research- rine scientists and fishery managers to share ers in New England began to worry that the research and discuss mitigation tactics that regional gillnet fisheries were unintention- might reduce harbor porpoise bycatch. While ally killing an unsustainable number of har- few substantive measures resulted from bor porpoise, a mammal smaller than most these first discussions, this working group adult men. Gillnetting is used to catch fish (known as the New England Harbor Porpoise swimming at depths beyond the sea sur- Working Group) laid the groundwork for fu- face. Fishers will string a gillnet as long as ture related stakeholder management proj- a mile in length and set it in the water, let- ects, including precedents for open commu- ting the net sink to between 150 to 300 nication and decision by consensus. feet. The net’s mesh size determines what In February 1996, many members of this kind of fish get caught. Smaller fish can working group were recruited into the Har- swim through these nets, while the gills of bor Porpoise Take Reduction Team (HPTRT), larger groundfish like cod and dogfish get a group established under the 1994 amend- stuck on the netting, hence the term gillnet. ments to the MMPA and tasked with devel- However, because they are comparable oping a plan to eliminate all Harbor Porpoise ineo siz t the targeted groundfish and swim bycatch along the entire eastern seaboard at similar depths, harbor porpoises can inad- withine fiv years. The plan that the HPTRT vertently become trapped in these gillnets drafted contained two main strategies: im- and drown. Fishing observers began track- plementing a regular series of time-area ing harbor porpoise bycatch throughout the closures in fisheries with high bycatch rates 1980’s and estimated that gillnets were trap- (favoredy b the scientists), and retrofitting ping 700 harbor porpoises a year. In 1990, fishing gear by attaching acoustic alarms (or

30 Fact Sheets

A Hard Sell: Negotiating Conservation pingers)o t the gillnets (favored by the fish- also called for Consequence Closure Areas ers). These pingers would deter harbor por- (CCA’s) in New England, where specific fish- poisesy b emitting a constant pulse of sound eries would close if the two-year bycatch av- that would scare the animals away from the erage exceeded PBR. The plan was finalized nets. Multiple studies during the 1990’s re- by consensus and implemented in 2010. vealedt tha gillnets lined with functioning Between 2010 and 2011, fishers failed to pingers significantly reduced bycatch without meet the agreed upon bycatch limit, trigger- affecting groundfish hauls. HPTRT submitted ing a CCA for the fall of 2012. The Northeast the plan in 1996, and the National Marine Seafood Coalition, representing the fishing Fisheries Service (NMFS) implemented it in industry, requested that NMFS push the CCA 1998. backo t Winter 2013 in order to minimize the The plan seemed successful at first. In economic impact of any closure. Multiple sci- 1999, Harbor Porpoise bycatch had fallen to entists and environmental non-profits pro- 323 individuals, well below the Potential Bio- tested, stating that the CCA stipulation was logical Removal of 747 (PBR, or the maximum binding and formed by consensus. Neverthe- number you can kill without threatening ex- less, NFMS rescheduled the CCA for 2013. tinction). In 2001, bycatch fell to 79 individu- The decision infuriated many members als. However, bycatch rose steadily shorty af- of the HPTRT, arguing that the group was ter, from 79 in 2002 to 1100 in 2005, and 1025 pointless if its recommendations were not in 2006. During the mid-2000’s, many gillnet- enforced. Many scientists boycotted the ters had begun fishing in areas unregulated HPTRT meeting scheduled for November by the HPTRT, and at times, less than 25% of 2012. In October 2013, NMFS eliminated CCA fishers within any regulated area were com- rule altogether. plying with pinger requirements. Even though harbor porpoise bycatch Upset by this up-tick, the HPTRT recon- has fallen since 2013, and pinger compliance vened in 2007 and 2008 to address noncom- has risen, the HPTRT has not reached con- pliance. The group updated their plan to in- sensus on any new conservation plans in the cludew ne fishery management areas in the subsequent years, a direct consequence of mid-Atlantic and New England. The new plan the CCA fallout.

Putting it all Together strike during their programs, it is the hope that these next two pages highlight the final stage of After brainstorming two themes and re- theme development: communicating a persuasive searching for data to support both those themes, argument. it’s time to assemble that collected information into coherent messages. How you deliver that message depends on your own style as a communicator. Given the limitations of a written for- mat, this guide will assemble its fact sheets into two short essays (one page per theme). While essays are more formal in their structure than the conversational nature interpreters hope to

31 Fact Sheets Gray Seal Behavior & Biology

“Seals are like our distant, distant cousin. We certainly share a genetic history, but a family reunion in the ocean would be difficult.”

Gray seals are well adapted for life at and myoglobin in the muscle tissue, a higher sea. Their torpedo-like shape provides the blood volume, the physical capacity to sat- streamlined physique that allows them to urate these oxygen stores and control how move through the water with minimal ef- oxygen in distributed while submerged, gray fort. A large body mass and thick layer of seals can dive deeper (over 200 feet) and lon- blubber also means gray seals can maintain ger (up to 30 minutes) than we ever could. a constant body temperature, regardless of Humans also would not last a generation whether they are foraging in the cold waters ife w attempted to replicate gray seal repro- of the deep or resting on shore during the ductive strategies. Gray seal mothers only winter mating season. tendo t their pups for three weeks after giv- When we consider differences in phys- ing birth. This postpartum period is so short ical appearance in addition to assessing ma- because of the high energy costs of nursing rine-based biology, it might be hard to see on mothers. Whereas a pup can triple in how gray seals and humans ever shared size feeding on its mother’s fat-rich milk, the an evolutionary ancestor. Humans lack the mothers themselves - who are fasting mind physical and physiological characteristics you - can lose up to a third of their body mass that make gray seals so well equipped to while nursing. Mothers must wean their pups the water. While most of us enjoy a refresh- so soon after birth in order to forage in the ing dip, we are not insulated well enough sea and rebuild their fat reserves. to keep our body heat from leeching out Yet these differences, distinct and dra- into the surrounding water, leaving us at maticy b nature (literally), often overshad- risk of hypothermia if we tried to match ow the commonalities of life as a mammal, a gray seal for time spent in the ocean. commonalities that are so normalized within We also have no control over how our our own human life cycle that we forget how body distributes oxygen when we dive. With- unique they are to our class of species. No out even thinking about it, our aerobic dive other class of animal can produce such nutri- response instinctively kicks in whenever we ent- rich food for their young. Our ability to hold our breath under water: our heart rate regulate body temperature grants us the ca- slows down, vital organs like the liver and pacity for greater physical activity. Our sens- kidneys shut down all together, and blood es, especially our capacity to detect sound, gets diverted from our muscle tissue to en- are remarkably adept thanks to the restruc- sure more oxygen for the heart and brain, turing of our jaw and skull. Even though these causing lactic acid to build up in our system. commonalities manifest in specialized forms Sooner rather than later, we have to come up for each mammal, the fact that we as humans for air. share these general traits with a larger group We simply cannot compete with the div- of species is beyond coincidence, offering us ing abilities of gray seals. Thanks to higher a glimpse at our lineage within the larger an- concentrations of hemoglobin in the blood imal kingdom.

32 Fact Sheets Marine Mammal Conservation

“Marine Conservation reflects how we as a society value the ocean...and each other.”

We’ve seen the number of the gray seals interactions (seals get sick and die of natu- in Cape Cod and the Gulf of Maine rise sub- ral causes too), hundreds of gray seals each stantially in the last three decades, from ap- year bear new scars from entanglements or proximately 2,035 in the 1990’s to anywhere gunshot wounds. Marine pollution also con- between 30,000 and 50,000 today. The gray tinues to affect seal health. seal recovery in New England has been an The rapid rise in gray seal numbers has unequivocal success story for marine conser- also triggered palpable grievances among vation. The return of this species, and in such coastal communities regarding public health, abundance, is a testament to how our collec- public safety, and economic security. More tive priorities for the ocean and its marine white sharks hunt along the coast for seals. life have changed over time. Beach goers worry that seal waste is com- Massachusetts law used to reflect con- promising Cape Cod’s water quality, and local tempt for seals. From the 1880’s to the ear- fishermen still believe that seal predation is ly 1960’s, a state bounty on gray and harbor hampering the sizes of their catch. seals nearly rendered these animals nonexis- Despite general support for marine mam- tent in this part of the world. Hunters killed mal conservation, divided opinions over gray tens of thousands of seals during this period seals and their impact on the environment under the assumption that such force was puts the viability of any new conservation necessary to keep predators from feeding initiative into question. Outreach campaigns in valuable fisheries. It was only after public can dispel water quality concerns, but ad- perceptions of marine mammals shifted that dressing seal/fishery interactions is more dif- fortune began to turn for gray seals. ficult.e As w saw in the harbor porpoise story, Beginning in the 1960’s, mass media, even after we’ve identified the problem and especially television, provided Americans negotiated a solution, persistent distrust be- across the country with a window into the tween the fishing industry and the scientist/ lives of charismatic marine creatures. Shows environmentalist collective can cripple policy such as Flipper and Jacques Cousteau’s na- enforcement. Conversely, when cooperation ture series even became cultural phenome- and compliance are allowed to thrive, we can na. Once word got out that whales, dolphins, find solutions that produce real results. and seals were under constant threat from We’ve already seen how other nations human activity, public support for their le- are exploring nonlethal strategies, be it via gal protection grew quickly. Without change seal-proof netting or shark barriers, that al- in public opinion from ambivalence to anger lowo us t continue to take economic advan- over the exploitation of marine mammals, tage of marine resources without harming gray seals would not have the state and fed- the creatures that live in the ocean. As long eral protections they are provided today. as stakeholders are willing to work to togeth- Challenges still remain for New England’s er, there is always a possibility that we can gray seals. Over 1,000 die each year after get- reconcile our seemingly contrasting priorities ting entangled in fishing gear, and though not so that we can both protect these animals all strandings are a byproduct of human/seal and sustain fishing activity for years to come.

33 Organizing Your Tour It is essential that interpreters make their tour content easy to follow. By sequencing sites and information so that their content appears streamlined, interpreters provide a structure that is coherent and requires minimal effort to hold an audience’s attention. Interpreters want their tours to have a seemingly natural progression from be- ginning to end so that the audience’s reward for maintaining attention always outweighs the energy required to pay attention. Fortunately, seal cruises already come with a basic, three-phase tour structure: Pre-Contact (boarding; boating to seals), Contact (seal watch- ing), and Post-Contact (heading back to dock). Yet within each phase, interpreters must carefully select sites along their route that will bolster the significance of their themes. Interpreters must also time their delivery of information so that each fact is pertinent to the moment we present it.

Organizing for Your Theme Organized tours successfully drive home your themes when a clear logic makes your content easy to follow. This is only possible when the selected route com- pliments the information presented, thereby ensuring that every moment of the tour contributes to your overall message.

Structuring Info Knowing Your Route Discussing seals during a seal cruise Time, tide, topography, and weath- is a given, but details that touch on er all limit what you can show vis- the fishing industry, local history, itors during a cruise; so every stop and ecology can help contextualize haso t count! This means selecting those seals within a greater region. sites that are both accessible and Pragmatic information helps set a boon to our themes - either be- visitor expectations during pre-con- cause of their historical significance, tact while also keeping visitors safe. aesthetic appeal, or dramatic scale. With so much information, inter- Each new stop should also build preters must decide not just which on the ideas presented at previous facts to use, but when in the cruise sites, providing a seemingly narra- each fact will be most relevant. tive quality to your overall route.

34 Structuring Information Pre-Contact

Before Leaving the Dock Route Preview Before setting off, let visitors know about Let visitors know where you are taking them your safety policies. This includes, but is not lim- and what you hope to show them during the ited to, showing visitors where the life vests are cruise (maps are a great visual aid here). This and advising everyone to remain seated when helpst se expectations so that visitors base their the boat speeds up. Also, try to get to know who cruise experience on your terms, on the preview is on your boat (“What’s your name? Where are you have presented. Route previews also help you from?” etc.). This icebreaker helps establish remove any ambiguity about what the cruise can a personable, informal rapport with visitors. You and cannot provide. This addresses questions can also adjust your content based on what was such as how close the boat can get to seals (the shared in the icebreaker so that the information answer: 50 yards, not preferable for pictures, but we present is more relevant to visitors. necessary for the animals’ well being).

The First Site While the first site might not be “the main event”, it is the site that solidifies “street cred” with visitors. Regardless of the subject the site to focuses on, the first site is our best opportunity to share what you be- lieve makes your subjects fascinating and to let visitors know that you know your stuff, between your content and the “big picture” inside and out. You can also lay thematic message. This is also the best time to put your groundwork here, using information related enthusiasm on full display, with the hope that to the first site to begin making connections this enthusiasm spreads to your visitors.

35 Structuring Information Contact

All About Seals! It’s best not to bombard visitors with infor- others on the boat. mationt a the first seal sighting. This is one of Right after that initial excitement has faded thet mos exciting parts of the entire cruise. By is the optimal moment to share comments on waiting a few moments before discussing fas- gray seal behavior, biology, and their significance cinating gray seal characteristics, allow some to the history and ecology of the region. This is time for visitors to experience and process their also a critical time to highlight major connections excitement in their own ways - be it through between your tour content and the overarching photography, or sharing their excitement with messages you want your visitors to consider.

Embracing Unpredictability It’s hard to know what will capture your vis- itors’ attention. It’s even harder to predict when a dead whale might wash ashore along your route (see right). Interpreters, need to embrace this unpredictability. When some- ones ask a question you’ve never heard, it’s best to acknowledge the curiosity behind the question then encourage visitors to help find an answer, and if you as the guide see something unusual, you can be fairly certain A seagull pecks the remains of a dead Humpback Whale. that your visitors will too if you point it out. Photographed during a seal cruise along Monomoy Island.

36

Structuring Information Post-Contact Conservation It’s probably safe to say that by this point in our seal cruise, you may have already touched on some major conservation bullet points, including the history of the regional seal bounty and the effect of the MMPA on the gray seal recovery. Adding details to those bullet points during the post-contact phase helps flesh out the story of marine conservation in New England. These details can include the role con- servation should play in a post-recovery sce- nario, particularly how communities and agen- cies might go about addressing entanglement, illegal hunting, and the effects of pollution on the health of not just gray seals, but all marine mammals. How do conflicting human interests for natural resources manifest throughout the development of new conservation initiatives as well? The Final Site Visitors will have more than likely reached Brochures their capacity for new information by the time you reach the final site. In order to keep new information to a minimum, pick a final site that is particularly engaging, whether for its visual appeal or entertainment value. Everything that has already been presented hopefully provides enough context to make the significance of the site apparent to your visitors, allowing them to easily connect the site to your theme(s).

The Conclusion Having brochures readily available - ei- Finally, it’s best to conclude the cruise with ther through your website or in print on site a summary of both the themes explored as well - is a great way to preview the kind of experi- ast wha visitors saw. Your conclusions could of- ence you hope to provide to visitors before fer recommendations for where visitors might they get on your boat. You can use the bro- learne mor about any particular subject you chure to highlight your experience as op- discussed. You might also use your conclusion erators. You might also explain where your to encourage visitors to use this experience cruises typically go and what visitors might as motivation to find ways they could improve see. In effect, brochures help set visitor ex- conservation efforts in their own communities. pectations before the cruise even begins.

37 Possible Sites for Your Route

USGS 2016 Pre-Contact

1

4 1. Hog Island According to legend, the dread- 3 ed pirate Captain Kidd buried his 2 treasure here, and only those willingo t sacrifice sheep’s blood on the full moon can uncover it. Post-Contact 2. Fishing Boats at Port The fishing vessels coming in and out of port are the perfect visual backdrop to describe the importance of fishing to the lo- cal economy and how regional fishing has changed over time.

Contact

3. Chatham Lighthouse Over 200 years old, the Chatham Lighthouse is a local landmark - and still in use! - acting as a bea- con for vessels just offshore. 4. Chatham Fish Pier Visitors can watch as fishermen unload their haul before it goes SEALS! to market - and catch one last When choosing which haul outs to visit, consid- glimpse of the gray seals waiting er their proximity to your dock, weather shifting for any chum to fall overboard. sands have rendered the haul out inaccessible, weather conditions, and the scientific or aes- thetic value of the haul out site in general.

38 Making Tours Enjoyable Seal cruises are already pretty dang en- component of their tours are just as pleasurable as joyable. Who doesn’t want to spend a few hours the setting of the tour itself. While entertainment during a sunny summer day relaxing on a boat, isn’t the end goal of interpretation, interpreters rely cruising along the coast, taking in the scenery? on tools such as humor, storytelling, questions, What’s more, visitors come onto your boat expect- and visitor participation to keep visitors engaged ing to learn a thing or two. As mentioned in Section throughout the tour. I, seal cruises are excellent interpretive settings be- When interpretative tours are enjoyable, cause what you offer - knowledge, a boat, access audience members are not only more receptive to to seals - matches the idea of what most of your the knowledge you provide, but also more likely visitors would consider to be ‘a good time’. to make personal connections to what they see and Interpreters strive to make their content hear, impressions that can last well beyond the con- entertaining and exciting so that the educational clusion of our tour.

The Necessity of Holding Attention

Successful interpretive tours are return on investment. That return enjoyable for the same reason they could be something as profound as are organized: they need to hold vis- new insight or something as simple as itor attention and keep visitors en- a singular hearty laugh. gaged. Interpreters generally interact If interpreters lose their audi- with NON-CAPTIVE audiences - au- ence’s attention, they risk the audi- diences that are mo- ence losing interest tivatedo t learn by in the tour altogether. some internal driving When this happens, force. In the absence audience members of some external in- lose the motivation to centive such as a high both connect to the exam mark, which tour’s content and would force a cap- find personal mean- tive audience to pay ing in the tour’s mes- attention (i.e.: stu- sage. If a seal cruise is dents), interpreters boring, the audience risk losing a non-cap- might lose the chance tive audience if their to discover the signif- tour is boring. Despite icance of issues such their initial desire to learn, boring as marine conservation. content can disincentivize non-cap- By making their tours enjoyable, tive audiences from paying attention. by presenting content in a manner Interpreters need to ensure that what- that entertains and engages, inter- ever effort the audience does put into preters keep that opportunity to learn paying attention receives substantial open for their audiences.

39 Humor! Storytelling Visitor Participation Visitors (most likely) like to Well told stories are not only laugh. Presenting weird facts emotionally compelling, but Visitor participation allows or by approaching dry infor- they also follow a familiar interpreters to strengthen a mation from a comedic angle structure that allows listeners personable rapport with an (“Gray Seals only nurse their to easily absorb information. audience. This sense of com- pups for three weeks before New England’s history and panionship acts as an incen- leaving them to fend for them- culturee ar full of fascinating tive for an audience to stay en- selves. Think of all that tuition anecdotes and lore. Find a few gaged. Participation doesn’t money we wouldn’t have to stories from this trove that are have to be complex; it can be spend if that were us!”) are easily relatable - and ones you as simple as daring someone great strategies to make con- as a storyteller could retell to try and hold their breath tent funny and insightful. over and over again. for as long as a seal can.

Any Questions? Any Other Questions? How an interpreter responds to a question is just as im- For interpreters, asking ques- portant as the answer itself. tions can introduce overarch- No matter how mundane or ing ideas (“How have our con- silly a question may seem, servation attitudes changed your response must respect over time?”), enable partic- the inherent curiosity of each ipation (“Try to guess how inquisitive visitor. If someone many seals we have in Cape asks a question you can’t an- Cod!”), or help transition to swer,e mak sure to offer re- the next idea (“Do you think sourcest tha potentially could. everyone’s happy with the seal recovery?”).

Cause/Effect Focus on a Single A Sensory Seal Experience The cause and effect structure serve to highlight stark com- By identifying an individual Sometimes it’s best to remain parisons (think “before and seal, visitors can visualize the quiet and let visitors soak in after” weight loss photos). On life cycle of that particular the experience. Ask visitors if seal cruises, cause/effect can seal, and the whole popula- they can pick up any details help demonstrate how strong tiony b extension. You might using any sense other than conservation policies enabled discuss how this seal was sight. How does the smell the seal recovery (i.e.: “The born, nursed, how it learned change as we get closer to a MMPA shows us that it’s rel- to hunt, how it will reproduce, colony? What sounds to gray ativelyy eas to conserve seals. any migration pattern, and seals make? We would not, All we have to do is not shoot how it might interact with hu- however, advise telling visi- them!”). mans throughout its life. tors to try and lick a wild seal. Interpretation and Children Kids and Questions When compared to engaging Like adults, children use questions to adults, Tilden mentions in his six princi- reconcile what they know with new infor- ples how interpretation directed at children mation. In answering their questions, you requires “a fundamentally different ap- not only help children make sense of what proach”, particularly for pre-adolescents. they see and hear, but also drive home how That “different approach” does not mean a theme relates to their young lives. “Shoot- we need to abandon the communication ing down” a child if their question appears tools we’ve already discussed for a whole random may discourage their curiosity; in- new grab bag of techniques. stead, that curiosity should be nurtured, Much of what was covered on the approaching their questions in a way that previous page and other sections of this involves sincerity and personal attention. guide are remarkably effective at both holding children’s attention and educat- ing them about their surrounding envi- ronment. Humor, storytelling, organizing content, theme statements, appealing to the senses, and especially individualized visitor participation (maybe let them hold the steering wheel if the conditions are safe!) all help enable children’s instinc- tive curiosity and their capacity to absorb information like a sponge. Instead, the fundamentally dif- Shearwater Excursions 2017 ferent approach addresses the simple fact that a child’s age defines both their range “I’ve had kids that will ask, ‘Do you ever of experience and how they process new see mermaids?’ or, ‘Do I believe in mer- experiences. In order for your program maids?’ When that happens, I’ll kneel to be relevant to children, the stories and down and say, ‘Well, I’ve never seen one, jokes you tell, the analogies you use, the but scientists discover new things every way you handle questions, and how you day. So if you want to find out whether frame your themes all need to acknowl- mermaids exist or not, then you got to edge that a child’s perspective of world is distinct from that of an adult and, more get right into the science.’ I try to relate importantly, still developing. these technical things to the kid’s every- This probably doesn’t come as day life. I won’t just come out and say a surprise to seal cruise operators, many ‘No! Mermaids don’t exist!’ and bum the of whom already interact with families poor kid out. I’ll say ‘I’ve never seen a during each day. When families with mermaid, and I haven’t seen any scien- young children make up the majority of tific evidence of one. But there might be your boat, content should be tailored to one out there waiting for you. But that’s hold the attention of the children. This the beauty of research; that’s the beauty is not an attempt to pander to a younger of science.’” audience, rather a presentation strategy to - Blair Perkins, Tour Operator keep everyone in your boat engaged (as- Shearwater Excursions, Nantucket, MA suming that parents will naturally take in- terest in whatever interests their kids).

41 Relate to What Kids Know There are few areas that can’t be discussed with children during seal cruises, as long as the presentation of information is age appropriate. Also, kids are smart, and if you try to avoid subjectse lik reproduction when discussing a seal’s life cycle, they’ll notice you’ve missed a crit- icale lif component and ask where seal pups come from. In scenarios like this, it’s still possible to be informative and personable without being explicit.

42 III. At Sea Responsibly Conservation does not end once a species’ and the potential to cultivate an experience that not population recovers. It requires continuous work only leaves a lasting impression on visitors, but to both maintain the health of an ecosystem and also inspires them to become better stewards of the ensure that we minimize our threat to the survival environment themselves. of any one animal. Interpreters are given a golden By discussing gray seals with your visi- opportunity to educate the public on ways in which tors and safely ferrying them to and from seal haul people can build on the conservation successes we outs, seal cruises contribute to the management of as a society have already achieved, either through a natural resource in the same way a forest ranger their tour content or by the example they set. guides and engages hikers along a trail. If your ac- tions take into account the animals and ecosystems Interpretation as Resource around you, then you can demonstrate to your visi- tors that our interactions with the natural world can Management be sustainable without being any less enjoyable. The National Park Service has so much invested in interpretation because it is an effec- Stewardship by Example tive method of resource management. “No lit- tering” posts that can capture the attention of While ensuring visitor safety lies at the hikers at the trail head are empirically more suc- heart of responsible conduct, the term also en- cessful at reducing trash in parks than a hasti- compasses how your actions during the cruise ly painted sign. Organized exhibits at the visi- take the environment into consideration. Visitors tor’s center can coherently relay a park’s human on board inherently trust that their guide will do and natural histories. And the multiple benefits everything possible to make sure the cruise does of guided tours include: providing visitors with not cause harm to any wild animals or the ecosys- access to some of the country’s most treasured tems they inhabit. Because they assume that their landmarks, designing tours to control foot traffic seal cruise guide is an authority on responsible around particularly fragile sites, offering an easy conduct at sea, visitors will notice if their conduct to follow body of knowledge to a curious public, disturbs the seals they’ve come to see - whether

43 they stalk individual seals or fail to slow down picking up trash that floats by will hopefully assure early enough when approaching a haul out. visitors that you try to practice what you preach, Even though your visitors already expect that your behavior seeks to demonstrate a stew- to see responsible conduct, it is still optimal to let ardship for the environment and natural resourc- visitors know about the measures you take to en- es. Setting expectations for responsible conduct at sure that your cruise won’t adversely affect any the beginning of the tour also lays the foundation wildlife the boat comes into contact with. Commit- for later discussions over how visitors can become ments to reducing speed, keeping some distance better environmental stewards in their own day to from wild animals, reporting injured animals, and day lives.

44

Guidelines for Responsible Seal Watching

Defining Harassment Signs of Harassment The Marine Mammal Protection Act Harassment forces seals to divert ener- makes it illegal to harass any seal. It also re- gy towards high stress behaviors, including movesy an ambiguity over what constitutes vigilance, fleeing, and even aggression. The as harassment, defining it as (paraphrasing), more energy a seal uses for defense, the less it has for more routine actions such as fishing, “...any act of pursuit, torment, or nursing, and resting. If a juvenile seal spends annoyance which...injures or has the po- tential to injure...or disturbs or is likely more energy swimming away from humans to disturb a marine mammal or marine and less feeding, the chance that it will grow mammal stock in the wild by causing into a fat, healthy adult begins to diminish. disruption of natural behavior patterns, If a heard of seals feels threatened by including, but not limited to, migration, the presence of your boat, they may exhibit surfacing, nursing, breeding, feeding, or the following signs: sheltering to a point where behavioral patterns are abandoned or significantly • Increased Vocalizations altered.” • Rushed exodus from the beach back As opposed to hunting, harassment ad- into the water (individually or as a herd) dresses persistent human/seal interactions that degrade seal health over time. The con- • If a seal or seals are following your sequences of harassment, like higher pup every move mortality, can be significant. By acknowledg- • A seemingly dormant seal or seals ing harassment, the MMPA seeks to protect suddenly react to your presence the quality of life for all marine mammals.

45

Guidelines for Responsible Seal Watching Keep Some Distance Slow Down The National Marine Fisheries Service Boats should begin slowing down well be- (NMFS) recommends keeping no less than 50 fore reaching the 50 yard boundary. The loud yards from any seal. For boat operators, main- sounds of a fast approaching boat can startle taining this distance might be challenging given ad her of seals at rest, and seals need time to that you can neither predict a seal’s movement swim out of any boat’s way. Also, even though nor easily detect any seals that are underwater. boats must keep their distance, it’s hard to con- However,y b at least remaining conscientious of trol whether or not a seal decides to approach the 50 yard boundary, you can minimize the po- your boat. Slower speeds allow you to maneuver tential for any undo stress or incidental injury to around a seal herd without causing any harm to seals as the result of your cruise. the animals. Limit Your Time Don’t Feed the Seals Between seal cruise boats, commercial fish- Collecting discarded food from humans re- ing vessels, sand dredging barges as well as pri- quires less effort than foraging and can adversely vately owned boats, jet skis, kayaks and canoes, alter seal behavior over time. When a seal be- seals are accustomed to New England’s heavy comes dependent on provisional feeding, not waterway traffic. However, any prolonged pres- only does it risk compromising its capacity to fish encet a haul outs still has the potential to stir on its own, but if the food provided is not part of unnecessary stress at a place where gray seals its typical diet, then the seal is at greater risk of have gathered to rest. To minimize stress, NMFS becoming malnourished. There’s also an inher- recommends limiting time at any one haul out to ent danger to the seal’s life by attempting to lure 30 minutes. it close to an active motor boat.

Reporting Seal Strandings Reporting Shark Sightings In Massachusetts, there are multiple Coastal communities and scientists alike agencies you can call if you see an injured, are keen to track any Great White Sharks stranded, or entangled seal on your cruise: swimming along the Cape Cod coast. If you or anyone on your boat believes they’ve • Cape Cod Stranding Network (508-743-9548) seen a shark, you can tag the location of the sighting using the Sharktivity mobile app de- • New England Aquarium signed by the Atlantic White Shark Conser- (617-973-5247) vancy. AWS will then confirm the presence of • International Fund for Animal Welfare a new shark, tag it, and track its movements (508-743-9548) throughout the summer season. Sharktivity is available for both iOS and Android mobile • The Northeast Fisheries Science Center - Protected Species Branch devices. By helping track shark movements (508-495-2000) along the coast, you are contributing to local public safety as well as regional marine con- • Center for Coastal Studies servation research. (800-900-3622)

46

Environmental Stewardship Off the Boat Volunteer Encourage visitors to find environmental causes they care about - even if that cause does not relate to coastal issues - and look for ways they might help. Volunteering not only helps un- der-resourced organizations protect and main- tain forests, clean water and air, biodiversity, and public spaces, it also cultivates a sense of stewardship among local communities. Wheth- er someone wants to provide information at the visitor center of a local park, perform citizen sci- ence, plant fruits and vegetables at a community garden, help with a local beach cleanup, partic- ipate in outdoor education programs, spend a Saturday planting trees, or organize other vol- unteers, every little bit connects communities to the outdoors, making the environment more relevant to their everyday lives.

Civic Engagement Remind visitors of the power they have as constituents. Local environmental policies al- ways require a public comment period before they’re enacted, and initiatives can be altered by public input. Local governments - city, county, or otherwise - often hold town halls while debating new environmental ordinances. Constituents can petition for better environmental and consumer protections that seek to improve things like wa- ter infrastructure or keep BPA out of plastics. They can use social media to highlight important environmental issues. And if there’s an environ- mental cause that requires political action, con- stituents can always peacefully protest. Recycle Donate This one may be obvious, but it’s worth men- Can’t volunteer your time? No worries! Or- tioning. Essentially, the more plastic we recycle, ganizations like the International Fund for Animal the less plastic that ends up in the ocean, or in Welfare or more regional ones such as the Ches- the milk and fat reserves of the marine mam- apeake Bay Foundation or the Atlantic White mals we’ve been working to conserve for nearly Shark Conservancy are able to do the work they half a century. do because of private donations.

47 Touching on Touchy has had no negative impacts on the local ecosys- tem. Subjects As humans, our gut instinct tells us to base personal opinions and sentiments more on experi- Finally, we should probably touch on the ence than data. For a fisher, the recurring sight of elephant seal in the room - pun intended. As seal a gray seal sneaking off with a fish from his or her cruise operators in New England, it is inevitable net carries more weight than a pie chart demon- that at some point you will have to talk about the strating how seals are not in competition with fish- public debate pertaining to the effects of the gray ermen. There’s also the shifting baseline concept, seal recovery on the region’s natural resources. which would suggest that a large seal population Whether you decide to include it in your is bad for the marine environment if it clashes with content or if one of your visitors mentions it in our idea of what a healthy ecosystem is (see next a question, it is imperative to provide historical, page). If someone believes that gray seals pose cultural, and economic context to help situate the even a hypothetical threat either to their wallet or negative sentiments many New Englanders hold health, regardless of what the evidence shows, you towards gray seals. New England’s fishing indus- can expect strong resistance when you try to argue try was hit hard by the collapse of the cod fishery otherwise. in the early 1990’s, and many fishers point to pre- Even if you might disagree with our visi- dation by the resurgent gray seal population as the tors, tone needs to remain cordial. When interpret- reason why this fishery has failed to recover. Many ers choose to highlight the benefits of conserva- coastal residents also believe more seal waste has tion, their interactions with skeptical visitors can deteriorated shoreline water quality, and beach influence a visitor’s perception of environmental goers are still very worried by the rise in shark advocates in general. By remaining calm and cool sightings as these apex predators have returned to while discussing touchy subjects, interpreters can the cape to feed on a buffet of fat, blubbery seals. at least demonstrate that environmentalists are Data provided earlier in this guide can willing to engage people who don’t see eye to eye help address each of these concerns, but there is with them so as to keep important lines of civic no guarantee that these talking points will con- dialogue open. vince skeptical visitors that the seal recovery

48 Touching on Touchy Subjects What is a Shifting Baseline?

For fishers who grew up at a time when baseline should we use to represent the his- gray seals were virtually nonexistent in New torical area for that forest? Do we use our England, seeing seal herds balloon at a time baseline, or that of our grandparents, whose when fisheries are still struggling to recover baseline possibly included more forest area? might confirm their notion that gray seals are Gray seals are not invasive; these ani- invasive to the region. mals have resided in New England waters What we believe is or isn’t natural to a well before the bounty began in the late 19th specific ecosystem is partly the result of the century. However, gray seals might still seem SHIFTING BASELINES CONCEPT. According to “unnatural” because no living New Englander this phenomenon, what we think is the nor- can recall another moment in his or her life mal state for any one ecosystem depends when gray seals were so abundant. The last entirely on how we recall the condition of generation who would consider such large that ecosystem in our earliest memories of numbers of gray seals to be a normal sight it. Whatever that condition is, it becomes our are long gone. “baseline”, or what we use to assess wheth- Because marine mammal conservation er any future changes fall within the param- has allowed gray seals to recover, we have eters of what we perceive is normal for that the opportunity to not only shift the genera- ecosystem. tional baseline for New England’s marine life, Each successive generation will set a but lift ttha baseline as well, normalizing the new baseline for the ecosystem, and because current abundance of gray seals for the first all ecosystems invariably change over time, time in over two hundred years. each successive baseline will “shift” the idea We can respond to this perception of of what is normal. seals as an invasive species by recounting to We always want to be aware of how our audience how this recovery is just one shifting baselines might affect conservation step towards restoring New England’s marine policy. Let’s say we want to restore a patch of life after decades of over-exploitation. foresto t its “historical” expanse. Well, which

49 Final Thoughts

During one of the interviews I conducted incentivizes our audience to continue listening, to while assembling this guide, Bert Daly, a guide for continue learning. In other words, we do all this Beachcomber Boat Tours in Chatham, MA, said prep work so that when it comes time to give a tour, that he tries to approach each one of his cruises not only can we keep it simple, but we also make using the K.I.S.S. philosophy: “Keep it simple stu- the depth of our knowledge appear effortless. pid!” This guide has covered multiple aspects of interpretive tour guiding: From theme develop- This guide is only an introduction to the bevy of re- ment and research aggregation to safety, tour struc- sources available to interpreters who want to make ture, engagement, working with kids, and how to their content more relevant and a more engaging advocate for environmental stewardship. All these experience all around for their visitors. Institutions elements help us design and implement tours that and resources include - though certainly not limit- are well organized, easy to follow, and hold the at- ed to - Whale SENSE, The National Association tention of our audience. for Interpretation, The North American Associ- As tour guides, as interpreters, we go ation of Environmental Educators, The Nation- through these intricate stages of tour design - brain- al Park System, California State Park, and, in storming, research, and logistics - so that by the particular, the work of Dr. Sam Ham, a professor time our tour is ready for an audience, we’ve dis- at the University of Idaho who has written exten- tilled all of our ideas and potential sites into a clear sively on how to create interpretive products. and coherent story. We perform this grunt work, so to speak, so that the easy grasp of our content

50 IV. References I. What is Interpretation? 1. Andersen, M. S., & Miller, M.L. (2006). “On- 11. Kuo, I. (2002). “The effectiveness of envi- board marine environmental education: whale ronmental interpretation at resource-sensitive watching in the San Juan Islands, Washing- tourism destinations”. International Journal of ton”. Tourism in Marine Environments, 2(2), Tourism Research, 4(2), pp.87-101. pp.111-118. 12. Lavigne, D.M., Scheffer, V.B., & Kellert, S.R. 2. Ballantyne, R., & Hughes, K. (2001). “Inter- (1999). “The Evolution of North American pretation in Ecotourism Settings”. The Journal attitudes toward marine mammals”. In Jr J.R. of Tourism Studies, 12(2). Twiss, & & R.R. Reeves (Eds.), Conservation and Management of Marine Mammals (pp. 3. Beck, L., & Cable, T.T. (2002). Interpretation 10-47). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Insti- for the 21st Century: Fifteen Guiding Princi- tution Press. ples for Interpreting Nature and Culture. Ur- bana, IL: Sagamore Publishing. 13. Lück, M. (2003). “Education on marine mam- mal tours as agent for conservation - but do 4. Foundations of Interpretation: Curriculum tourists want to be educated?”. Ocean and Content Narrative. (2007). National Park Ser- Coastal Management, 46, pp. 943-956. vice Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/idp/ interp/101/FoundationsCurriculum.pdf. 14. Meyer, M. (2010). “The rise of the knowl- edge broker”. Science Communication, 32(1), 5. Ham, S. (1992). Environmental Interpretation: pp.118-127. A Practical Guide for People with Big Ideas and Small Budgets. Golden, CO: North Amer- 15. Poudel, S., & Nyaupane, G.P. (2013). “The ican Press. role of interpretative tour guiding in sustain- able destination management: A comparison 6. Ham, S. (2013). Interpretation: Making a Dif- between guided and nonguided tourists”. Jour- ference on Purpose. Golden, CO: Fulcrum nal of Travel Research, 52(5), pp.659-672. Publishing. 16. Sowards, S. K. (2012). “Expectations, experi- 7. Jacobs, M. H., & Harms, M. (2014). “Influence ences, and memories: Ecotourism and the pos- of interpretation on conservation intentions of sibilities for tranformations”. Environmental whale tourists”. Tourism Management, 42, Communication, 6(2), pp.175-192. pp.123-131. 17. Staus, N. L., & Falk, J.H. (2013). “The role 8. Lavigne, D.M., Scheffer, V.B., & Kellert, S.R. of emotion in ecotourism experiences”. In R. (1999). “The Evolution of North American Ballantyne (Ed.), International Handbook on attitudes toward marine mammals”. In Jr J.R. Ecotourism (pp. 178-186). Northampton, MA: Twiss, & & R.R. Reeves (Eds.), Conservation Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc. and Management of Marine Mammals (pp. 10-47). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Insti- 18. Tilden, F. (1977). Interpreting Our Heritage (3 tution Press. ed.). Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press. 9. Knudson, D. M., Cable, T.T., & Beck, L. (2003). Interpretation of Cultural and Natural 19. Zeppel, H., & Muloin, S. (2009). “Conserva- Resources (2 ed.). State College, PA: Venture tion and education benefits of interpretation on Publishing, Inc. marine wildlife tours”. Tourism in Marine En- vironments, 5(2-3), pp.215-227. 10. Kudryavtsev, A., Stedman, R.C., & Krasny, M.E. (2012). “Sense of place in environmen- tal education”. Environmental Education Re- search, 18(2), pp.229-250.

51 II. Your Role as Interpreter 1. Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., et al. Mo- 10. Bass, A.L, Bogomolni, A., Early, G., Nichols, lecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New O.C., & Patchett, K. (2015). Seals and Ecosys- York: Garland Science; 2002. Table 22-1, tem Health: Meeting Report for the Northwest “Blood cells”. Retrieved from https://www. Atltantic Seal Reseach Consortium. Woods ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26919/table/ Hole, MA: Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti- A4143/. tution. 2. AMAP. (1998). AMAP Assessment Report: 11. Beck, C.A., Bowen, W.D., McMillan, J.I., & Arctic Pollution Issues. Retrieved from https:// Iverson, S. J. (2003). “Sex differences in the www.amap.no/documents/doc/amap-assess- diving behaviour of a size-dimorphic capital ment-report-arctic-pollution-issues/68. breeder: the grey seal”. Animal Behaviour, 66(4), pp.777-789. 3. Ampela, A. (2009). The diet and foraging ecol- ogy of gray seals (Halichoerus grypus) in Unit- 12. Beck, C.A., Iverson, S.J., Bowen, W.D., & ed States waters. City University of New York, Blanchard, W. (2007). “Sex differences in New York, NY. Retrieved from https://www. grey seal diet reflect seasonal variation in for- nefsc.noaa.gov/program_review/2015%20 aging behavior and reproductive expenditure: %20Review/BACKGROUND/B2C6War- Evidence from quantitative fatty acid signa- ing%20diet%20and%20foraging.pdf. ture analysis”. Journal of Animal Ecology, 76, pp.490-502. 4. Anderson, S.S., Burton, R.W., & Summers, C.F. (1975). “Behaviour of grey seals (Hal- 13. Beck, L., & Cable, T.T. (2002). Interpretation ichoerus grypus) during a breeding season at for the 21st Century: Fifteen Guiding Princi- North Rona”. Journal of Zoology, 177(2), pp. ples for Interpreting Nature and Culture. Ur- 179-195. bana, IL: Sagamore Publishing. 5. Andrews, J.C., & Mott, P.R. (1967). “Gray 14. Bejder, M., Johnston, D.W., Smith, J., Fried- seals at Nantucket, Massachusetts”. Journal of laender, A., & Bejder, L. (2016). “Embracing Mammalogy, 48(4), pp.657-658. conservation success of recovering humpback whale populations: Evaluating the case for 6. Austin, D., Bowen, W. D., McMillan, J.I., & downlisting their conservation status in Aus- Iverson, S.J. (2006). “Linking movement, div- tralia”. Marine Policy, 66, pp.137-141. ing, and habitat to foraging success in a large marine predator”. Ecology, 87(12), pp.3095- 15. Bennett, K.A., McConnell, B.J., Moss, S.E., 3108. Speakman, J.R., Pomeroy, P.P., & Fedak, M.A. (2010). “Effects of age and body mass on de- 7. Bäcklin, B.M., Eriksson, L., & Olovsson, M. velopment of diving capabilities of gray seal (2003). “Histology of uterine leiomyoma and pups: costs and benefits of the post-weaning occurrence in relation to reproductive activity fast”. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, in the Baltic gray seal (Halichoerus grypus)”. 83(6), pp.911-923. Veterinary Pathology, 40(2), pp.175-180. 16. Bidgood, J (August 16, 2013). “Thriving in 8. Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., & Sutherland, L.A. Cape Cod’s waters, gray seals draw fans and (2011). “Visitors’ memories of wildlife tour- foes”. New York Times. Retrieved from http:// ism: Implications for the design of powerful www.nytimes.com/2013/08/17/us/thriving-in- interpretive experiences”. Tourism Manage- cape-cods-waters-gray-seals-draw-fans-and- ment, 32(4), pp.770-779. foes.html?_r=0. 9. Baraff, L.S., & Loughlin, T.R. (2000). “Trends and potential interactions between pinnipeds and fisheries of New England and the US West Coast”. Marine Fisheries Review, 62(4), pp.1- 39.

52 II. Your Role as Interpreter 17. Bishop, A.M., Lidstone, Scott, R., Pomeroy, P., 28. Champagne, C.D., Crocker, D.E., Fowler, & Twiss, S.D. (2014). “Body slap: An innova- M.A., & Houser, D.S. (2012). “Fasting phys- tive aggressive display by breeding male gray iology of the pinnipeds: the challenges of seals (Halichoerus grypus)”. Marine Mammal fasting while maintaining high energy expen- Science, 30(2), pp.579-593. diture and nutrient delivery for lactation”. In 18. “Blood cell indices”. (2017). The McGill Phys- M.D. McCue (Ed.), Comparative Physiology iology Virtual Lab. Retrieved from https:// of Fasting, Starvation, and Food Limitation www.medicine.mcgill.ca/physio/vlab/blood- (pp. 309-336). New York, NY: Springer Berlin lab/mcv-mchc_n.htm. Heidelberg. 19. Bogomolni, A. (2017). “Seals and ocean 29. Chmael II, G.A., Ainsworth, K.R., & Kramer, health: Benefits, risks, and realities”. Paper R.P. (1994). “The 1994 Amendments to the presented at the Marine Mammal Commission Marine Mammal Protection Act”. Natural Re- Annual Meeting, North Falmouth, MA. sources & Environment, 9(4), pp.18-20; 65-66. 20. Bogomolni, A., Early, G., Matassa, K., Nich- 30. Colquhoun, F. (Ed.). (2005). Interpretation ols, O.C., & Sette, L. (2010). Gulf of Maine Handbook and Standard: Distilling the Es- Seals - populations, problems and priorities. sence. Wellington, NZ: Department of Conser- Woods Hole, MA: Woods Hole Oceanograph- vation. ic Institution. 31. Conniff, R. (October 2014). “Gray Seals: The 21. Boness, D.J. (1984). “Activity budget of male most controversial animal in New England”. gray seals, Halichoerus grypus”. Journal of Yankee Magazine. Retrieved from https:// Mammalogy, 65(2), pp.291-297. newengland.com/yankee-magazine/living/ new-england-environment/gray-seals/. 22. “Bounty on Dog Seal”. (1888, March 23). Bos- ton Daily Globe, p. 2. 32. Crook, L., & Crowley, B. (October 17, 2016). “Pilot spots sharks from above to save surf- 23. Bowen, W.D., & Lidgard, D. (2013). “Marine ers”. CNN. Retrieved from http://www.cnn. mammal culling programs: review of effects com/2016/10/17/health/great-white-shark-tag- on predator and prey populations”. Mammal ging-cape-cod/index.html. Review, 43(3), pp.207-220. 33. Curtin, S. (2010). “Managing the wildlife 24. Brody, M., & Tomkiewicz, W. (2002). “Park tourism experience: The importance of tour visitors’ understandings, values and beliefs re- leaders”. International Journal of Tourism Re- lated to their experience at Midway Geyser Ba- search, 12, pp. 219-236. sin, Yellowstone National Park, USA”. Inter- national Journal of Science Education, 24(11), 34. Curtis, T. H., Bruce, B. D., Cliff, G., Dudley, S. pp.1119-1141. F. J., Klimley, A. P., Kock, A., ... & Werry, J. M. (2012). “Responding to the risk of white shark 25. California State Parks Junior Ranger Program attack: Updated statistics, prevention, control Handbook (2011), Sacramento, CA: California methods, and recommendations”. In M.L. Do- State Parks. meier (Ed.), Global Perspectives on the Biolo- 26. Cameron, A.W. (1967). “Breeding behavior in gy and Life History of the Great White Shark a colony of western Atlantic gray seals”. Ca- (pp. 477-509). New York, NY: CRC Press. nadian Journal of Zoology, 45(2), pp.161-173. 35. Curtis, T.H., McCandless, C.T., Carlson, J.K., 27. “Captain Kidd’s Pirate Treasure”. (2017). Skomal, G.B., Kohler, N.E., Natanson, L.J., ... capelinks.com. Retrieved from http://www. & Pratt Jr, H. L. (2014). “Seasonal distribu- capelinks.com/cape-cod/main/entry/cap- tion and historic trends in abundance of white tain-kidds-pirate-treasure/. sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, in the west- ern North Atlantic Ocean”. PLoS One, 9(6), e99240.

53 II. Your Role as Interpreter 36. D’Entremont, J. (2017). “History of Cha- 45. Ham, S. (1992). Environmental Interpretation: tham Light, Massachusetts”. New England A Practical Guide for People with Big Ideas Lighthouses: A Virtual Guide. Retrieved from and Small Budgets. Golden, CO: North Amer- http://www.newenglandlighthouses.net/cha- ican Press. tham-light-history.html. 46. Ham, S. (2013). Interpretation: Making a Dif- 37. Davis, R.W. (2014). “A review of the multi-lev- ference on Purpose. Golden, CO: Fulcrum el adaptations for maximizing aerobic dive du- Publishing. ration in marine mammals: From biochemistry 47. Hammill, M.O., & Gosselin, J.F. (1995). “Grey to behavior”. Journal of Comparative Physiol- seal (Halichoerus grypus) from the Northwest ogy B, 184(1), pp.23-53. Atlantic: Female reproductive rates, age at first 38. Foundations of Interpretation: Curriculum birth, and age of maturity in males”. Canadi- Content Narrative. (2007). National Park Ser- an Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, vice Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/idp/ 52(12), pp.2757-2761. interp/101/FoundationsCurriculum.pdf. 48. Harms, M., Asmutis-Silvia, R., & Rosner, A. 39. Fraser, D. (May 21, 2017). “What should life- (2013). Whale Watching: More Than Meets guards do during a shark attack?”. Cape Cod The Eyes. Report to NOAA’s Fisheries North- Times. Retrieved from http://www.capecod- east Region Program Office (NERO), 55 Great times.com/news/20170521/what-should-life- Republic Drive, Gloucester, MA 01930. Award guards-do-during-shark-attack. Number NA11NMF4720240. 113pp. 40. Fraser, D. (September 4, 2017). “Shark attacks 49. Herreria, C (August 25, 2017). “Cape Cod seal near beachgoers at Nauset Beach?”. Cape official suggests killing sharks after sightings Cod Times. Retrieved from http://www.cape- spike.” Huffington Post. Retrieved from http:// codtimes.com/news/20170904/shark-attacks- bit.ly/2j8hE88. seal-near-beachgoers-at-nauset-beach. 50. IFAW. (1997). Report of the International 41. Garron, M., & Orphanides, C. (2017). “By- Workshop on the Educational Values of Whale catch and entanglements of gray seals in New Watching, Provincetown, MA, USA, 8th May England fisheries”. Paper presented at the Ma- - 11 May, 1997. International Fund for Animal rine Mammal Commission Annual Meeting, Welfare. North Falmouth, MA. 51. “Impact”. (August 1, 2017). Atlantic White 42. “Gray seal (Halichoerus grypus)”. (2016). Shark Conservancy. Retrieved from http:// NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved from http://www. www.atlanticwhiteshark.org/our-impact/. fisheries.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/seals/ 52. Iverson, S. J., Bowen, W. D., Boness, D. J., & g-seal.html. Oftedal, O. T. (1993). “The effect of maternal 43. “Gray seal (Halichoerus grypus): Western size and milk energy output on pup growth in North Atlantic Stock.” (1995). National Ma- grey seals (Halichoerus grypus)”. Physiologi- rine Fisheries Service. Retrieved from http:// cal Zoology, 66(1), pp. 61-88. www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/sars/ao1995segr- 53. Johnston, D.W., Frungillo, J., Smith, A., wn.pdf. Moore, K., Sharp, B., Schuh, J., & Read, A.J. 44. “Gray seal (Halichoerus grypus): Western (2015). “Trends in stranding and by-catch rates North Atlantic Stock. (2016).” National Ma- of Gray and Harbor seals along the northeast- rine Fisheries Service. Retrieved from http:// ern coast of the United States: Evidence of di- www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pr/sars/pdf/stocks/at- vergence in the abundance of two sympatric lantic/2015/f2015_grayseal.pdf. phocid species?” PLoS One.

54 II. Your Role as Interpreter 54. King, J. (1989). “Otariidae and Phocidae” In 62. McDonald, S.L., & Gallagher, D.R. (2015). D.W. Walton & B.J. Richardson (Eds.) Fauna “A story about people and porpoises: Consen- of Australia - Volume 1B Mammalia. Canberra: sus-based decision making in the shadow of AGPS Canberra. political action”. Environmental Management, 56(4), pp.814-821. 55. Knapp, D. (2007). Applied Interpretation: Putting Research into Practice. Fort Collins, 63. Moxley, J.H., Bogomolni, A., Hammill, M. CO: National Association for Interpretation. O., Moore, K.M., Polito, M.J., Sette, L., ... Larsen, D.L. (Ed.). (2011). Meaningful Inter- & Johnston, D.W. (2017). “Google haul out: pretation: How to Connect Hearts and Minds Earth observation imagery and digital aerial to Places, Objects, and Other Resources, 2nd surveys in coastal wildlife management and Edition. Fort Washington, PA: Eastern Nation- abundance estimation”. BioScience, 67(8), al, National Park Service, National Association pp.760-768. Murray, K. (2017). “Gray Seals for Interpretation. (Halichoerus grypus atlantica) in the North- west Atlantic”. Paper presented at the Marine 56. Lavigne, D. M., Scheffer, V.B., & Kellert, S.R. Mammal Commission Annual Meeting, North (1999). “The Evolution of North American Falmouth, MA. attitudes toward marine mammals”. In Jr J.R. Twiss, & & R.R. Reeves (Eds.), Conservation 64. National Marine Fisheries Service. (2018) and Management of Marine Mammals (pp. “Gray Seal (Halichoerus grypus)”. Nation- 10-47). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Insti- al Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. tution Press. Retrieved from http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/ species/mammals/seals/gray-seal.html. 57. Lelli, B., & Harris, D.E. “Seal bounty and seal protection laws in Maine, 1872 to 1972: His- 65. Nichols, O.C., Bogomolni, O., Bradfield, E.C., toric perspectives on a current controversy”. Early, G., Sette, L., & Wood, S. (2011). Gulf of Natural Resources Journal, 46, pp.881-924. Maine Seals: Fisheries Interactions and Inte- grated Research - Final Report. Woods Hole, 58. Lelli, B., Harris, D.E., & Aboueissa, A.M. MA: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. (2009). “Seal bounties in Maine and Massa- chusetts, 1888 to 1962”. Northeastern Natu- 66. Noren, S.R., Boness, D.J., Iverson, S.J., Mc- ralist, 16(2), pp.239-254. Millan, J., & Bowen, W.D. (2008). “Body con- dition at weaning affects the duration of the 59. Levy, B.A., Lloyd, S.M., & Schreiber, S.P. post-weaning fast in gray seal pups (Halichoe- (2001). Great Tours! Thematic Tours and rus grypus)”. Physiological and Biochemical Guide Training for Historic Sites. New York, Zoology, 81(3), pp.269-277. NY: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 67. Noren, S.R., Iverson, S.J., & Boness, D.J. 60. Lück, M. (2016). “The teachable moments on (2005). “Development of the blood and muscle marine mammal tours: Watching versus swim- oxygen stores in gray seals (Halichoerus gry- with tours”. Coastal Management, 44(2), pus): Implications for juvenile diving capacity pp.131-138. and the necessity of a terrestrial post-weaning 61. Lyssikatos, M.C. (2015). Estimates of Ceta- fast”. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, cean and Pinniped Bycatch in Northeast and 78(4), pp.482-490. Mid-Atlantic Bottom Trawl Fisheries, 2008- 68. Northeast Fisheries Science Center. “Surveys 2013. Woods Hole, MA: Northeast Fisheries show increasing populations of Gray and Har- Science Center. bor Seals in New England”. (2009, February 23). [Press release]. Retrieved from http:// www.nefsc.noaa.gov/press_release/2009/ SciSpot/SS0901/.

55 II. Your Role as Interpreter 69. Nyman, M., Koistinen, J., Fant, M.L., Varti- 78. Reed, J.Z., Chambers, C., Hunter, C.J., ainen, T., & Helle, E. (2002). “Current levels Lockyer, C., Kastelein, R., Fedak, M.A., & of DDT, PCB and trace elements in the Baltic Boutilier, R.G. (2000). “Gas exchange and ringed seals (Phoca hispida baltica) and grey heart rate in the harbour porpoise, Phocoena seals (Halichoerus grypus)”. Environmental phocoena”. Journal of Comparative Physiolo- Pollution, 119(3), pp.399-412. gy B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmen- tal Physiology, 170(1), pp.1-10. 70. Ordway, G. A., & Garry, D. J. (2004). “Myo- globin: an essential hemoprotein in striated 79. Regnier, K., Gross, M., & Zimmerman, R. muscle.” Journal of Experimental Biology, (1994). The Interpreter’s Guidebook: Tech- 207(20), pp.3441-3446. Orphanides, C., & niques for Programs and Presentations, 3rd Hatch, J. (2015). Estimates of Cetacean and Edition. Stevens Point, WI: UW-SP Founda- Pinniped Bycatch in the 2013 New England tion Press, Inc. Sink and Mid-Atlantic Gillnet Fisheries. 80. Richardson, D.T. (1973). Feeding Habits and Woods Hole, MA: Northeast Fisheries Science Population Studies of Maine’s Harbor and Center. Gray Seals April 15, 1973 to November 1, 71. Orphanides, C.D. (2012). New England Har- 1973. Augusta, ME: National Geographic So- bor Porpoise Bycatch Rates During 2010- ciety & Maine Department of Sea and Shore 2012 Associated with Consequence Closure Fisheries. Areas. Woods Hole, MA: Northeast Fisheries 81. Roman, J., Altman, I., Dunphy-Daly, M.M., Science Center. Campbell, C., Jasny, M., & Read, A.J. (2013). 72. Orphanides, C.D., & Palka, D.L. (2013). “The Marine Mammal Protection Act at 40: “Analysis of harbor porpoise gillnet bycatch, status, recovery, and future of US marine compliance, and enforcement trends in the US mammals”. Annals of the New York Academy northwestern Atlantic, January 1999 to May of Sciences, 1286(1), pp.29-49. 2010”. Endangered Species Research, 20, 82. Roman, J., Dunphy-Daly, M.M., Johnston, pp.251-269. D.W., Read, A.J. (2015). “Lifting baselines to 73. Panneton, W.M. (2013). “The mammalian div- address the consequences of conservation suc- ing response: an enigmatic reflex to preserve cess”. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 30(6), life?”. Physiology, 28(5), pp.284-297. pp. 299-302. 74. “Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)”. (2017). 83. “Shark Safety at Cape Cod”. (August 1, 2017). Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved National Park Service. Retrieved from https:// from https://www.epa.gov/pcbs. www.nps.gov/caco/planyourvisit/sharksafety. htm. 75. Perkins, B. (2017, July 2). Personal Interview with Blair Perkins. 84. Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachu- setts (1965). “An Act Providing Protection For 76. Read, A. (2010). “Conservation Biology”. The Gray Seal”. Massachusetts Acts of 1965, In I.L. Boyd, W.D. Bowen, & & S.J. Iverson ch. 129, section 1. (Eds.), Marine Mammal Ecology and Conser- vation: A Handbook of Techniques (pp. 340- 85. Skibins, J.C., Powell, R.B., & Stern, M.J. 359). New York, NY: Oxford Univarsity Press. (2012). “Exploring empirical support for inter- pretation’s best practices”. Journal of Interpre- 77. Read, A. (2013). “Development of conserva- tation Research, 17(1), pp.25-44. tion strategies to mitigate the bycatch of harbor porpoises in the Gulf of Maine”. Endangered Species Research, 20, pp.235-250.

56 II. Your Role as Interpreter 86. Skomal, G.B., Chisholm, J., & Correia, S.J. 95. Tinker, M.T., Kovacs, K.M., & Hammill, M.O. (2012). “Implications of increasing pinniped (1995). “The reproductive behavior and en- populations on the diet and abundance of white ergetics of male gray seals (Halichoerus gry- sharks off the coast of Massachusetts”. In M.L. pus) breeding on a land-fast ice substrate”. Domeier (Ed.), Global Perspectives on the Bi- Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 36(3), ology and Life History of the White Shark (pp. pp.159-170. 405-418). New York, NY: CRC Press. 96. Trumble, S.J., Robinson, E.M., Berman-Kow- 87. Starobin, P. (July 2014). “Cape Cod’s seal alewski, M., Potter, C.W., & Usenko, S. problem”. Boston Magazine. Retrieved from (2013). “Blue whale earplug reveals lifetime http://www.bostonmagazine.com/news/arti- contaminant exposure and hormone profiles.” cle/2013/06/25/gray-seal-population-problem- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci- cape-cod/. ences, 110(42), pp. 16922-16926. 88. Stern, M.J., Powell, R., Martin, E., & McLean, 97. Trzcinski, M.K., Mohn, R., & Bowen, W.D. K. (2012). Identifying Best Practices for Live (2006). “Continued decline of an Atlantic Interpretive Programs in the United States Na- cod population: how important is gray seal tional Park Service. U.S. National Park Ser- predation?”. Ecological Applications, 16(6), vice. pp.2276-2292. 89. Taking of Marine Mammals Incidental to Com- 98. Twiss, S.D., Anderson, S.S., & Monaghan, mercial Fishing Operations; Harbor Porpoise P. (1998). “Limited intra-specific variation in Take Reduction Plan Regulations. (2013). male grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) domi- Washington, D.C: National Marine Fisheries nance relationships in relation to variation in Service. male mating success and female availability.”. Journal of Zoology, 246(3), pp. 259-267. 90. Tardona, D.R. (2005). “Exploring evolved psychological underpinnings of universal con- 99. Vaughan, T.A., Ryan, J.M., & Czaplewski. N.J. cepts and meaningful connections”. Journal of (2015). Mammology, 6th Edition. Burlington, Interpretation Research, 10(1), pp.69-78. MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning 91. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972: 100. Veverka, J.A. “Planning interpretive walk- As Amended 2007. (2007). NOAA Nation- ing tours for communities and related histor- al Marine Fisheries Service. Retrieved from ic districts”. Retrieved from https://portal. http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/laws/ uni-freiburg.de/interpreteurope/service/publi- mmpa.pdf. cations/recommended-publications/veverka_ planning-interpretive-walkingtours.pdf. 92. Thompson, D., & Fedak, M.A. (1993). “Car- diac responses of grey seals during diving at 101. Viewing and Interacting with Wild Marine sea”. Journal of Experimental Biology, 174(1), Mammals: A pre-conference workshop held pp.139-154. before the 19th Biennial Conference on the Bi- ology of Marine Mammals (2011). Tampa, FL: 93. Thompson, D., Hammond, P.S., Nicholas, National Marine Fisheries Service. K.S., & Fedak, M.A. (1991). “Movements, diving and foraging behaviour of grey seals 102. Ward, C.J., & Wilkinson, A.E. (2012). Ba- (Halichoerus grypus)”. Journal of Zoology, sic Interpretation Learning System - Making 224(2), pp.223-232. Connections: The Essence of Interpretation, 2nd Edition. Sacramento, CA: California State 94. Tilden, F. (1977). Interpreting Our Heritage (3 Parks. ed.). Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press.

57 II. Your Role as Interpreter 103. Westerberg, H., Lunneryd, S., Fjalling, A., & Wahlberg, M. (2006). “Reconciling fish- eries activities with the conservation of seals throughout the development of new fishing gear: A case study from the Baltic fishery-gray seal conflict”. American Fisheries Society Symposium, 49(2), pp.587-597. 104. Whatley, M.E. (2011). Interpretive Solu- tions: Harnessing the Power of Interpretation to Help Resolve Critical Resource Issues. Fort Collins, CO: National Association for Interpre- tation. 105. Wilson, C. (2011). Effective Approaches to Connect Children with Nature: Principles for Effectively Engaging Children and Young Peo- ple with Nature. Wellington, NZ: Department of Conservation. 106. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. “Study Looks at Gray Seal Impact on Beach Water Quality”. (2012, December 18). [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.whoi.edu/ news-release/Gray-Seals-Water_Quality.

58 III. At Sea Responsibly 1. Bejder, M., Johnston, D.W., Smith, J., Fried- 11. Perkins, B. (2017, July 2). Personal Interview laender, A., & Bejder, L. (2016). “Embracing with Blair Perkins. conservation success of recovering humpback 12. Pomfret, E. “Seal watching guidelines: Protect whale populations: Evaluating the case for seals - Become a responsible observer!” (Bro- downlisting their conservation status in Aus- chure). National Marine Fisheries Service. tralia”. Marine Policy, 66, pp.137-141. 13. Roman, J., Dunphy-Daly, M.M., Johnston, 2. Bidgood, J. (August 16, 2013). “Thriving in D.W., Read, A.J. (2015). “Lifting baselines to Cape Cod’s waters, gray seals draw fans and address the consequences of conservation suc- foes”. New York Times. Retrieved from http:// cess”. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 30(6), www.nytimes.com/2013/08/17/us/thriving-in- pp. 299-302. cape-cods-waters-gray-seals-draw-fans-and- foes.html?_r=0. 14. Sáenz-Arroyo, A., Roberts, C.M., Torre, J., Cariño-Olvera, M., Enriquez-Andrade, R.R. 3. Brulle, R.J., Carmichael, J., & Jenkins, J.C. (2005). “Rapidly shifting environmental base- (2012). “Shifting public opinion on climate lines among fishers in the Gulf of California”. change: an empirical assessment of factors in- Proceedings of the Royal Society, 272, pp. fluencing concern over climate change in the 1957-1962. US, 2002–2010”. Climatic Change, 114(2), pp.169-188. 15. “Sharktivity”. (2017). Atlantic White Shark Conservancy. Retrieved from http://www.at- 4. California State Parks Junior Ranger Program lanticwhiteshark.org/sharktivity-map/. Handbook (2011), Sacramento, CA: California State Parks. 16. Starobin, P. (July 2014). “Cape Cod’s seal problem”. Boston Magazine. Retrieved from 5. Center for Research on Environmental De- http://www.bostonmagazine.com/news/arti- cisions. (2009). The Psychology of Climate cle/2013/06/25/gray-seal-population-problem- Change Communication: A Guide for Scien- cape-cod/. tists, Journalists, Educators, Political Aides, and the Interested Public. New York. 17. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972: As Amended 2007. (2007). NOAA Nation- 6. Conniff, R. (October 2014). “Gray Seals: The al Marine Fisheries Service. Retrieved from most controversial animal in New England”. http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/laws/ Yankee Magazine. Retrieved from https:// mmpa.pdf. newengland.com/yankee-magazine/living/ new-england-environment/gray-seals/. 18. Weber, E.U. (2010). “What shapes perceptions of climate change?” WIREs Climate Change, 7. Daly, B. (2017, June 30). Personal Interview 1, pp.332-342. with Bert Daly. 19. Wilson, C. (2011). Effective Approaches to 8. Mowat, F. (1984). Sea of Slaugter. New York, Connect Children with Nature: Principles for NY: The Atlantic Monthly Press. Effectively Engaging Children and Young Peo- 9. National Marine Fisheries Service (2017). ple with Nature. Wellington, NZ: Department “Report a stranded/beached marine animal”. of Conservation National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- tration. Retrieved from http://www.nmfs.noaa. gov/pr/health/report.htm. 10. National Marine Fisheries Service. “Greater Atlantic Region: Seal viewing guidelines”. (Pamphlet). National Oceanic and Atmospher- ic Administration.

59 References for Non-Public Domain Images Belonging Neither to the Author Nor Illustrator

4. Descouens, D. (2011). Mandrillus sphinx skull, (Linnaeus 1758). Toulouse, France: Muséum 1. Johnston, D. (2017). Untitled. Beaufort, N.C.: de Toulouse. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2z- Duke University Marine Lab. Under permit by s3yTa. the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin- istration.

5. sonofabike. (2012). Elephant Seal Skull. Flickr. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/ oyj/6887721405. 2. Trumbull, J. (1818). Declaration of Indepen- dence. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved from https://www.aoc.gov/ art/historic-rotunda-paintings/declaration-in- dependence.

6. Senex, J. (1723). Skull from anatomical atlas. Liverpool, U.K: University of Liverpool Facul- ty of Health & Life Sciences, Flickr. Retrieved 3. Stephan, B. (2007). Elephant Seal Nursing. from https://www.flickr.com/photos/liverpool- Flickr. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2j9sZVq. hls/10818428766.

60 References for Non-Public Domain Images Belonging Neither to the Author Nor Illustrator

9. Geslin, L. (2009). Grey seal (Halichoerus gry- pus) males fighting, Donna Nook, Lincolnshire, UK, November 2008. Nature Picture Library. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2yFk4lu.

7. Bozena, J. (2006). “Two seal families.” In: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. New Zealand: Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved from https://teara.govt.nz/en/artwork/6171/ two-seal-families.

8. Ward, I. (2014). Grey seal pup. Flickr. Re- trieved from https://www.flickr.com/pho- tos/63513200@N05/15745386659/. 10. (1963). Flipper Luke Halpin. Metro-Gold- wyn-Mayer. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2zl- ZI0i.

61 References for Non-Public Domain Images Belonging Neither to the Author Nor Illustrator

13. (2017). Blair Perkins: Portrait. Shearwater 11. AVampire Tear. (2008) “Daan Close Up”. Wi- Excursions. kimedia Commons. Retrieved from https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Daan_ Close_Up.PNG

12. Allen, J. (2016). Cape Cod National Seashore. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved from https:// visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=89171.

62 ADDENDUM: A literature review of sealing and gray seal conservation in New England

by

Nathan Miller

Dr. David Johnston, Adviser Dr. Grant Murray, Adviser

December 2017

Masters Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Master of Environmental Management degree in

the Nicholas School of the Environment of

Duke University

ABSTRACT

The gray seal recovery in New England is an unequivocal success story of marine mammal conservation. Almost nonexistent in the region when the U.S. Congress ratified the

Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, between 30,000-50,000 gray seals now reside in Cape

Cod alone. Many New Englanders however, especially fishers, view gray seals as an invasive species, believing that gray seals detract from their revenue by foraging for commercially viable fish. What’s more, no one in living memory can recall a time when so many gray seals swam in

New England’s waters. This paper reviews the current literature that explores the history of gray seals in New England, including their historical ecology as well as the history of human/seal interactions. Literature on this topic is extremely limited, but what literature does exist makes explicitly clear that not only were gray seals much more abundant in New England 400 years ago, but that a population of an estimated 1,000,000 individuals was spread along the coasts between Labrador, Canada and as far south as Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. This population was decimated as European settlers slaughtered entire haul outs of gray seals for their blubber, and reduced again in New England thanks to a string of bounty programs in Maine and

Massachusetts between 1888 and 1962. While further historical research would help corroborate these results, this literature review hopes to highlight that gray seals are not invasive and that our reasoning behind such an idea is the result of a societal shifting baseline that pertains to New

England’s marine environment.

INTRODUCTION

Since the ratification of the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which outlawed the harassment and killing of all marine mammals in American waters, the population of gray seals (a large pinniped found across the Northern Atlantic) in and around New England has grown substantially; whereas they were once nearly extirpated from the region after centuries of commercial exploitation and systematic culling, 30,000-50,000 gray seals now reside in Cape

Cod alone because of their federal protection status [37; 45]. Despite how those in the field of marine biology view this as remarkable conservation success, other communities with stake in the condition of New England’s marine resources view the gray seal recovery with concern, if not outright contempt.

Members of the regional fishing industry complain that animals as large as gray seals consume such large quantities of commercially viable fish that their recovery not only hurts the size of fishermen’s catch – and their subsequent revenue – but that the rate of depredation, where a seal takes from a fisher’s haul, also lowers catch size in addition to damaging fishing gear [10].

Other non-fishing New Englanders complain that the rising number of gray seals has led to an increasing concentration of seal waste, which is compromising coastal water quality. Despite empirical evidence that contradicts accusations that fishers are competing with seals or that seals are polluting beach water [38; 52], many New Englanders still perceive gray seals as either a nuisance or an invasive species whose presence to the region is unnatural and detrimental to the local marine ecosystem [8].

This paper seeks to analyze the literature that currently exists on the history of gray seals in New England in order to address the question of whether gray seals are invasive – or if there is any historical precedent for their current population size. If there is a record of gray seals having once been present in the region, this literature review will also attempt to address why gray seals numbers remained so low, or nonexistent, for a period of time so long that their current presence would appear unnatural to some. This literature review represents the synthesis of an aggregation of peer-reviewed literature and popular nonfiction/historical literature, with primary resources from government reports and newspaper articles occasionally referenced for further support. The results of this literature review include a brief description of gray seal behavior and biology before exploring the history of sealing and seal conservation in New England from the colonial era up until 2017.

RESULTS

1.) GRAY SEAL BEHAVIOR & BIOLOGY a. Biology

Gray seals (Halicoerus grypus) are a large, species of pinnipeda distributed along the coastal waters on both sides of the Northern Atlantic. Large gray seal stocks are concentrated in

New England and Nova Scotia in the Western Atlantic, and in the Eastern Atlantic, gray seals can be found on the shores of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and Scandinavia [25].

i. Description

Gray seals are a sexually dimorphic species. Adult females can be up to 2.3 meters in length (7.5 feet) and weigh up to 250 kg (550 pounds). Female coats are multi-colored, with a dark gray hue covering most of their backs and face, white coating on their underbellies, and black spots dotting their whole pelage. Adult males are much larger, reaching up to 3 meters (10 feet) in length and almost 400 kg (~880 pounds). Male coats are generally a single shade of dark gray. Extra folds of blubber cover their throats, and male snouts are more pronounced than females as well, giving them a facial profile that resembles a horse (hence the nickname for the species: “horseheads”) [4; 25].

ii. Phocidae Gray seals are phocid seals, a collection of pinnipeds that includes elephant seals,

Leopard Seals, and Weddell Seals. Phocids are one of three families of pinniped, the others being otariidae (sea lions and fur seals), and odobenidae (walrus) [54]. Several anatomical features distinguish phocid seals from their otariid and walrus counterparts. Phocids generally have a torpedo-like shape to reduce draft in the water [13]. Phocids are more limited in their movement on land than otariids. Whereas their skeletal system allows otariids to stand on their fore and hind flippers and ambulate, the phocid skeleton, with smaller bones in particularly in the fore flippers, prohibits more rapid movement on land [13; 29]. All phocid seals lack external pinnae

(ears), and male phocids have internal testes (otariid testes are external, or scrotal) [29; 54].

Phocid seals are also capital breeders, meaning that both male and female individuals within any one phocid species (i.e.: gray seals) will fast while giving birth, nursing, competing for mating rights, and mating [6].

iii. Diet

Gray seals are carnivorous, opportunistic feeders, meaning there is no specific set of fish, squid, or mollusk they require in order to maintain optimal fitness. One adult gray seal can consume as much as 6% of its body weight in prey each day [25]. Gray seals are also excellent divers, capable of reaching depths of up to 70 meters (~230 feet) to forage in the benthic zone for prey [50]. Scat samples reveal that Sand Lance (53%) and Winter Flounder (19%) make up the majority of gray seal diets in New England, while skate, cod, sculpin, and herring make up another 6%, 6%, 4%, and 4% respectively [2; 5]. b. Life Cycle

i. Birth and Development In the Western Atlantic, pregnant gray seals will come ashore during January and

February of each winter to give birth to their pups (gray seals in the Eastern Atlantic give birth and mate in the autumn/early winter) [9; 11]. At birth, gray seal pups weigh about 17 kg (or ~35-

37 pounds), and their coats are white. Pups will shed this coat around the time mothers begin weaning them to make room for a new coat akin that of either an adult [15; 27]. On average, mothers will nurse for 18 days before weaning their pups and leaving them to mate with another male. However, because gray seal milk is incredibly nutrient rich, consisting of almost 61% fat and 9% protein, pups can triple their weight on a diet of their mother’s milk, despite the short nursing window [7; 27]. Such intensive lactation comes at a high energetic cost to gray seal mothers, especially considering that they are also fasting while nursing. The metabolic rate of nursing phocids can skyrocket to five times what their rate should be for their body mass; nursing demands so much energy that gray seal mothers can lose up to one third of their body mass in the 18 days between giving birth and weaning [16].

Once weaned and abandoned by their mothers, gray seal pups will wait on the shore for approximately three weeks before taking their first swim. This period is known as the post- weaning fast (PWF), given that the pups won’t have access to food during this time. Pups can lose anywhere between 21.2 and 27.7% of their body mass during the PWF, relying solely on their fat reserves for energy [40]. However, this isn’t just a case of tepid pups waiting until absolute starvation to finally begin foraging for themselves; in fact, the pups undergo significant physiological developments during the PWF. In this window, a pup’s hemoglobin count, blood volume, and myoglobin count all increase on average by 28%, 13%, and 29% respectively.

Hemoglobin, blood volume, and myoglobin are all critical oxygen stores for pinnipeds, and the more abundant each blood store is in a gray seal pup before entering the water, the faster the pup will be able to learn how to dive to and forage in the benthic zone [41]. Also, the fatter a pup is at the beginning of its PWF, the longer it can wait on shore to better develop it oxygen stores, making the pup better prepared to dive once it finally to gets into the water [40].

The average age at which both male and female gray seals are sexually mature is about

5.5 years. However, females can reach maturity as early as three years and males as late as 7 years [26]. Twice every year in New England, gray seals aggregate on shore in large numbers, once in the late spring/early summer to molt and again in January/February to birth, nurse, and breed [9; 42].

ii. Mating

Gray seals have a polygynous system of mating, where one male tries to mate with multiple females throughout the breeding season. During the January/February months in New

England and Sable Island (off the coast of Nova Scotia), pregnant females come ashore to give birth to their pups; male bulls will come ashore shortly after realizing that females are aggregating on land [3]. Rather than establish geographical territories, a male gray seal will try to maintain exclusive access to a harem of females, keeping watch over who comes near his harem instead of patrolling physical boundaries [51]. Bulls won’t attempt to mate with females while they are nursing their pups; in fact, nursing females might demonstrate outright hostility towards any male that gets too close to her or her pup [15].

Male gray seals will also fast during the mating season, though the energetic cost is not as high for males as females. Males can lose up to 14% of their body mass during the mating season

[16]. The fasting behavior among males is strategic; if a male leaves the beach to forage, he risks losing his harem to another bull. Also, the less time a male spends at sea, the more time he has to mate with females once they are in estrus [11]. In order to conserve energy while fasting, males are inactive for approximately 90% of the mating season, meaning that they are either resting, grooming, or watching over their harem without any sign of social interaction [51]. When females are nursing, most of social behaviors among males concerns rivalries with other males and disputes over access to harems. Males will deploy several agonistic tactics to ward off rivals, including vocalizations and body slaps, charging at their rivals, and even physical altercation, where males try to bite their neck of their rival [9; 51; 53]. Once females are ready to mate, events of aggressive male rivalry drops as bulls begin devoting more time towards copulation

[11]. After a female has mated, she returns to the sea. It will be another three months after the initial copulation before her egg is inseminated [3; 15]

2.) HISTORICAL ECOLOGY & SEALING IN NEW ENGLAND

i. Pre-Bounty (1600’s-1880)

Archeological evidence collected during the 1960’s, including the carbon-dating of a gray seal skull recovered near Martha’s Vineyard, indicates that gray seals were endemic to New

England as far back as 4,000 years ago [55]. What’s more, the historical distribution of gray seals may have been more expansive in the Western Atlantic than their current extent. Based on his research, the late writer and environmentalist Farley Mowat describes in the 1984 book Sea of Slaughter how gray seals, “…used to gather in January and February in enormous numbers on

[a] myriad [of] islands and even mainland beaches from Labrador [Canada] to Cape Hatteras

[North Carolina], there to whelp and breed. Some of these colonies were so large that, as late as the mid 1600’s, the lupine howling from them could be heard from several miles away”.

According to Mowat, whenever gray seals congregated on land in the early days of European colonialism, their numbers could easily reach into the thousands at any one location [36]. Gray seals weren’t the only large pinniped with a year-round residence in New England; walruses were present as well, forming large colonies every year as far south as Cape Cod to pup. Harbor seals also were present year-round in New England, and harp and hooded seals roamed the Western Atlantic. However, European colonists saw the most economic potential in walruses and gray seals as their blubber could be turned into valuable oil. The predictable movements of walruses and gray seals during their respective mating seasons made hunting both species remarkably easier than tracking and killing harp and hooded seals. Harbor seals were not large enough to be considered economically viable [30]. The exploitation of walruses and gray seals was swift and unsustainable. The last New England walrus was killed in 1754 [30], and while the sheer abundance of gray seals permitted their continued exploitation, stocks all along the eastern seaboard had already been significantly reduced by the mid-18th century – with sealers clubbing as many adult and pup gray seals as possible each pupping season. Whereas

Mowat very loosely estimates that the gray seal population from Cape Hatteras to Labrador could have been as large as 750,000 to 1,000,000 individuals prior to European colonization, gray seals were nearly extirpated in New England by the mid-19th century [30; 36].

By the 1880’s, any memory of the abundance of gray seals in American waters had vanished. In his 1880 publication for the U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the

Territories – titled History of North American Pinnipeds: A Monograph of the Walruses, Sea- lions, Sea-bears and Seals of North America – Joel Asaph Allen writes of the gray seal, “The

Gray Seal appears to be not only one of the least abundant of the northern Phocids, but also to be restricted to a rather narrow range. It is wholly confined to the North Atlantic, and even here is found only within comparatively narrow limits. On the American coast it occurs as far southward as Sable Island, Nova Scotia, where its presence is attested by specimens in the National Museum, collected there by Mr. P.S. Dodd. This, however, is the southernmost point at which it is known to occur.” [1].

Nowhere else in his summary of gray seal biology, taxonomy, or distribution does Allen reference the intensive hunting practices that made gray seals virtually nonexistent in New

England. Furthermore, in his first sentence describing gray seal habitats, Allen writes,

“Respecting the Gray Seal as an American animal little or nothing seems to have been written.

As an inhabitant of Ireland, the Heindes, the Orkneys, the North and Baltic Seas, and Iceland, its history is better known.” [1]. The ‘little to nothing’ literature on gray seals is most likely a reference Allen is making to an absence of scientific research conducted on any potential gray seal stock in American waters. However, the point of mentioning Allen’s summary is not to criticize his survey of gray seals. Rather, his writing highlights how quickly the ecological baseline pertaining to gray seals had shifted in the U.S. Whereas an entire industry in New

England depended on gray seal blubber throughout the 17th and 18th centuries (albeit with diminishing returns), not only had their absence become normalized to Americans by the 19th century, but surveys sponsored by the Department of Interior seemed to either ignore or remain oblivious to the fact that gray seals were once pervasive along the eastern seaboard at all.

ii. Bounty Programs in Maine and New England (1888-1962)

By the mid-1800’s, New England’s fishing and whaling industries were beginning to suffer. Whalers were hit on two fronts. For one, with whales becoming increasingly scarce along the coast, whalers had to sail farther out and for longer periods to turn a profit. What’s more, demand for petroleum oil began to replace the need for whale oil in consumer markets [19]. For fishers, cod stocks were on the decline, with substantial catches becoming less reliable in the latter half of the century, and fishers’ substitute for cod, mackerel, was struggling to win over consumers in an increasingly competitive market. In his book Cape Cod: An Environmental

History of a Fragile Ecosystem, John T. Cumbler writes, “Dependence on mackerel fisheries to make up for the slack in the cod catch proved to be an unfortunate bet. The railroad may have made it easier for Cape oystermen and cranberry farmer to get their goods to market, but the railroad also integrated the larger national economy. Among many other effects, Great Lakes’ white fish could now be offered to East Coast fish eaters, dampening demand for the more oily mackerel,” [19].

Over the course of two papers, one published in 2006 (Lelli and Harris) and the other in

2009 (Lelli, Harris, and Aboueissa), Barbara Lelli, David Harris, and Abou El-Makarim

Abouseissa – from here on referred to as Lelli et al. – provide a thorough timeline and assessment of the New England seal bounties that were enacted in response to shrinking regional fisheries in the late 19th century. Massachusetts enacted its first seal bounty in 1888. When legislation for the 1888 bounty was being drafted, The Boston Globe (then The Boston Daily

Globe) wrote, “…arrangements for the extermination [of the seals] are now already being made.

The business will be a profitable one, as $2 is to be paid for every tail, if the bill passes; and the skins are sold at $1.50 to $2 each. The fishermen generally complain of the seals, as either killing or scaring fish and lobster away,” [12; 33]. When the bounty went into effect, the state at first only offered a $1 reward per seal tail as opposed to the $2 reward mentioned in The Globe article. However, between 1892 and 1908 (when the first Massachusetts bounty ended), the state increased the reward per tail to $3 [33].

Maine enacted a seal bounty as well after persistent pressure from fishers, who were accusing seals for both declining fish stocks and damaged gear. Beginning in 1891, Mainers were only permitted to kill seals in Penobscot River and Penobscot Bay, but the state legislature modified the bounty in 1895 to expand the bounty to all state coastal waters. Maine also increased the reward for each seal nose that year, from 50 cents to $1 [32]. While neither Maine nor Massachusetts kept record of the species killed whenever a hunter collected his bounty, Lelli et al. speculate that sealers and fishers alike were targeting harbor seals. This wasn’t because harbor seals were inherently more of a nuisance than gray seals; instead, harbor seals were most likely targeted because they were the most abundant seal species in New England by the end of the 19th century [32]. Sealing had long since been defunct with gray seals numbers too scant to sustain a regional industry and walrus having been extirpated over a century before 1888 [30].

Harbor seals were too small to be an economically viable source of oil like the much larger gray seal and walrus, and while hunters could earn cash killing harbor seals, the primary benefit of hunting harbor seals was the removal of a perceived competitor in a fishery [32].

Lelli et al. don’t provide much political context for either of the two Massachusetts bounties – the second of which lasted from 1919 to 1962 – only an economic one (i.e.: fishers wanted to keep seals away for valuable fisheries) [33]. They do, however, provide a vivid description of the various stakeholders who lobbied to have their interests represented in whatever seal management policy would be enforced in Maine. Seal hunting was a common activity in Maine before the state enacted their first bounty in 1891, but the practice started receiving criticism from the burgeoning tourism industry that depended on a growing number visitors to the state’s shoreline [32]. Because state locales with heavy tourism traffic were worried that beach goers might get accidentally shot by a hunter aiming for a seal, or that the stench of a dead seal – abandoned after being shot – might discourage tourist from visiting the coast, the first two laws that address seal management actually restricted seal hunting in certain areas. The first law, which was short-lived (1872-1880), banned seal hunting within two miles of the popular Fort Point destination in Stockton. The second law, ratified in 1877, banned year- round seal hunting near Casco Bay – though fishers in the nearby town of Harpswell were exempted. Under both laws, violations carried a $10 fine [32]. Those who lobbied on behalf of

Maine’s fishers tried to have the Casco Bay law repealed, but they failed because non-fishing residents actually enjoyed the presence of seals on their shores. While Lelli et al. make it clear that both these laws were born out of a desire to protect the interests of the tourism industry, they also argue that a side-effect of these laws was that for the first time in Maine’s history, seals were granted some form of sanctuary. What’s more, pushback from the tourism industry help end Maine’s first bounty in 1905 [32].

These conflicting interests between fishers on one side and the tourism industry on the other – combined with growing numbers of Maine residents and environmentalists over time – were persistent throughout marine policy debates during the late 19th and early to mid-20th century of Maine’s history. Legislators tried to reinstate Maine’s seal bounty twice before 1937, first in 1919 and again in 1929; both attempts fell short in part because of strong public opinion against the bills [32]. Yet political favor began to fall in the direction of the pro-bounty coalition in the 1930’s, as seen in a 1934 report from Maine’s Department of Sea and Shore Fisheries, which recommends that, “There should be a bounty on seals because they destroy the salmon, lobsters and many other edible fish. It is claimed that a seal will destroy three times its weight in fish every 24 hours,” [21]. Three years later, in 1937, Maine passed a law enacting a second seal bounty, a bounty which ultimately ended up being short lived, ending in 1945. By mid-century, calls for ending the bounty on grounds of animal cruelty had become much more full-throated.

Lelli et al. describe an account from a 1945 session of the Maine Legislature where one representative shared a constituent letter with the governing body. The letter espouses “the wounded creature’s agony” and further reads that, “the Bounty method is antiquated, impracticable, inefficient and destructive,” [32].

In their 2009 paper, Lelli et al. try to assess the impact each state’s bounty programs had on New England’s seal population. By combing through state and local treasury records in both

Maine and Massachusetts, Lelli et al. confirm payment for a combined total of 15,690 seal kills between the two bounty periods in Massachusetts (1888-1908; 1919-1962), and a total of 24,831 seal kills between Maine’s two bounty periods (1891-1905; 1937-1945) [33]. However, Lelli et al. note that hunters did not harvest the carcass of every seal they shot. Most fishers were more concerned with culling their perceived competition than collecting a fee, and many of those who were hunting seals were not trained sealers, increasing the likelihood that not every seal that was shot was also caught. Assuming that hunters collected one bounty for every three seals killed,

Lelli et al estimate that the Massachusetts and Maine bounty programs were responsible for anywhere from 72,000 to 135,000 seal kills in New England between 1888 and 1962 [33].

Lelli et al. emphasize that their estimation of the seal kill tally is based off of incomplete data, and caveats within the data they do have further constrain the level of accuracy they can assign to their estimation. Lelli et al. were not able to recover any record of collected seal bounties between 1941 and 1945 in Maine, nor could they find similar records in Massachusetts for the period between 1960 and 1962. Had they been able to recover bounty records for these years, it is possible that the number of seals killed as a result of the bounties could be higher than estimated [33]. Considering that Lelli et al. admit that the one out of three statistic they use to factor in seals killed but not collected is predicated on anecdotal information instead of hard data, while also noting the limited experience of fishers as sealers, it is possible that Lelli et al. actually overestimate the success rate of seal bounty hunters, potentially raising the total number of seal killed above their estimation. Conversely, Lelli et al. also mention how widespread fraudulent bounty claims were in both Maine and Massachusetts, even citing one instance where a man was able to fabricate 150 fake seal tails out of one carcass. Lelli et al. don’t provide a record of every fraudulent bounty claim, and while it would be impossible to quantify the extent to which fraudulent collections impacted their tally of seal kills, Lelli et al. acknowledge that claims for falsified seal kills could bring the real number of seals killed during the bounties down below their estimation [33].

3.) LEGAL PROTECTIONS FOR GRAY SEALS AND THEIR RECOVERY

Centuries of commercial exploitation, followed by decades of institutionalized culling, had taken a significant toll on the number of gray seals in New England by 1962. While not entirely extirpated, spotting a gray seal was extremely rare in the years after Massachusetts ended its final bounty. In their 1967 paper, Andrews and Mott highlight anecdotal evidence of gray seals in Nantucket, citing reports that hunters had killed approximately 40 individuals between the 1940’s and 1950’s. Andrews and Mott also provide more empirical information in the same paper; they argue that the recovery and identification of a gray seal skull in 1958 – which had come from a recently deceased specimen – offers some proof that gray seals may still be swimming around Cape Cod [4]. Andrews and Mott do not provide an estimation for the gray seal stock in Cape Cod in this paper. Richardson writes in a 1973 report for the Maine

Department of Sea and Shore Fisheries that only 30 gray seals were left in Maine’s coastal waters. While report isn’t exactly an ideal proxy to estimate the number of gray seals in New

England, it still emphasizes how diminished gray seals had become from their historical extent along the eastern seaboard 300 years ago [36; 44]. Yet even before 1962, the general public’s interest in marine life was already starting to grow, and this growing interest was shifting American perceptions of both gray seals and marine mammals overall. This evolution of public opinion would eventually provide the political capital necessary to enact strong conservation laws in the 1970’s. Lavigne et al. note that as the

American whaling industry was dying in the first half of the 20th century, Americans en masse began to appreciate their natural resources and surrounding environments, including marine life, for their aesthetic value as much as their commercial value. Zoo and aquarium attendance began to rise, and the first whale watching cruises began chauffeuring tourists to view whale pods just off the California coast [31]. Viewing marine mammals in captivity, despite the practice’s current controversy, was a particularly powerful channel through which many members of the public began to develop strong emotional connections to these animals [35]. Rose et al. also note how public salience for marine issues such as dolphin mortality in the Pacific tuna fisheries was stirring calls for political action to protect marine mammals [47].

Lavigne et al. argue that mass media – with the advent of television and its rapid ascent to ubiquity – was an especially powerful influence on shifting public opinions towards marine mammals. By the 1960’s, millions of viewers could tune in every week as Jacques Cousteau introduced the world to a new wonder of the marine world, and many young viewers became enthralled by the antics of a boy and his friend, an anthropomorphized dolphin, on the scripted show Flipper. Television also exposed Americans to the gruesome nature of marine mammal exploitation; public furor exploded overnight in 1963 when footage shot by Canadian filmmakers hit the airwaves, depicting a harp seal pup being skinned alive [31]. The more Americans learned about the lives and biology of marine mammals, and the more they came to sympathize with them, the more they advocated for their conservation through the formation of and donations to a slew of environmental NGO’s [47].

Public support for marine conservation began to benefit gray seals on the American east coast. In 1965, three years after they discontinued the state bounty, the Massachusetts Legislature outlawed any act that would “willfully detain, hunt, kill or injure a gray seal (halichoerus gryphus), also called a Nantucket horsehead.” The law carries with it a fine of up to $500 for a single violation [49]. This state law became obsolete in 1972, however, as gray seal protection fell under federal jurisdiction following the ratification of the Marine Mammal Protection Act

(MMPA).

The MMPA, a landmark law in the history of American conservation, banned the intentional “taking” of cetaceans, seals, sireniens, sea otters, and polar bears without permit or prior consent from the U.S. Government, where “taking” is defined as any action meant to hunt,

“harass”, capture, or kill a marine mammal. Furthermore, the MMPA defines “harassment” as any action that might not only cause physical harm, but might also disturb regular marine mammal behaviors such as feeding, resting, breeding, and nursing [34]. The MMPA establishes punitive measures for “incidental take”, where human activity may inadvertently maim or kill a marine mammal. For any one event of incidental take, perpetrators can become subject to potentially heavy fines. American fishers, at inherently high risk for incidental take, are given the option to purchase a permit under the MMPA, which protects the permit holder from excessive penalties should they experience incidental take up to a certain limit [34]. Congress made major amendments to the MMPA in 1994, one of which requires the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to conduct annual stock surveys of marine mammals in North America [17]. In New England, NOAA’s Northeast Fisheries Science Center (NEFSC) became responsible for annually surveying gray seals in the Western Atlantic [23].

Because no federal mandate existed prior to 1994 that required routine gray seal stock assessments, it is hard to quantify just how many gray seals were present in New England between the first ratification of the MMPA in 1972 and its renewal in 1994. However, as early as the 1980’s, bits of evidence began to emerge that suggested gray seals might be resettling in New

England. Based on her observations during the 1980’s, naturalist Valerie Rough hypothesized that gray seals were migrating from Sable Island to Monomoy and Muskeget Islands in Cape

Cod [43] (Wood et al. verified Rough’s theory in their 2011 paper, which looked for and found identical genetic markers in gray seals from Sable Island and gray seals in Cape Cod) [56]. In their first stock assessment published in 1995, the NEFSC estimated a population of 2,035 gray seals in Cape Cod and the Gulf of Maine, already much higher than the approximated 30 individuals from Richardson’s survey in 1973 [23; 44]. In 2011, the NEFSC approximated that the New England gray seal population had grown to 15,700 individuals, with large concentrations aggregating on and around Monomoy and Muskeget in Cape Cod [24]. In May

2017, new surveys based off Google Maps imagery estimated that Cape Cod alone had anywhere between 30,000 to 50,000 individual gray seals [37].

DISCUSSION

1.) LIMITS OF THIS LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review relies heavily on the work of Lelli et al. to describe the history of seal bounties in New England. While those who follow seal conservation in the northeast are aware that these bounties occurred in the late 19th and first half of the 20th century [18], Lelli et al. are seemingly the only team of researchers who not only recount how Maine and Massachusetts developed and executed these bounties, but also try to empirically quantify the impact these bounties had on seal numbers on the U.S. eastern seaboard. This literature review is the result of an extensive search through peer-reviewed journals and non-fiction/historical literature that might supplement Lelli et al.’s work and provide further detail pertaining to any aspects of these bounties, yet such supplemental information remains scant. Simply put, more research is needed to both build off the work Lelli et al. have already accomplished as well as fill in information gaps that still exist in the story of Maine and Massachusetts’ seal bounties. This would require further research into government documents – treasury reports, legislative records, and scientific assessments – newspaper articles, fishers’ logs, whalers’ logs, and commercial trade files [20], a massive aggregation of primary research which is beyond the scope of this literature review.

The same can be said for the history of New England’s sealing industry even prior to the bounty programs. Virtually no peer-reviewed literature exists that tracks the rise and fall of New

England’s sealing industry from the time of European colonialism to the mid 19th century. There are some non-fiction/historical accounts that exist in popular literature such as Mowat’s Sea of

Slaughter and Kovacs & Lavigne’s Harps & Hoods, but even within this field of literature, New

England sealing is overshadowed by the history of sealing in Quebec, Nova Scotia, and

Newfoundland. This is most likely because Canada’s current seal culling practices remain an internationally salient – and highly controversial – issue, providing a motivation for historical research that doesn’t apply to New England sealing [14; 36]. Generating a vivid recollection of the rise and decline of the New England sealing industry would require extensive archival research which, again, is beyond the scope of this literature review.

2.) USEUFUL APPLICATIONS OF THIS LITERATURE REVIEW

Gray seals remain a controversial animal in New England. While preliminary evidence indicates that some Massachusetts voters living in coastal communities have favorable opinions of nearby seal herds, New England fishers remains divided on the impact gray seals have on the health of local fisheries, and by extension, their revenue [28]. Some fishers are outspoken about their emphatically unfavorable opinions of gray seals, viewing them as an invasive species that is damaging fishing gear and consuming fish in fisheries still recovering from collapse. Local organizations such as the Seal Abatement Coalition have even advocated for a new culling program, despite the fact that such activity would be illegal under the MMPA [8; 18]

Fishers’ grievances about the sizes of their catch and damage to their gear are neither trivial nor unfounded. During a 2011 stakeholder meeting at the Center for Coastal Studies in

Provincetown, MA, where ecologists and representatives from government agencies met with commercial and recreational fisher associations, fishers presented evidence detailing the damage of seal depredation to both the local gillnet and weir fisheries. Fishers also noted that the range in which seal depredation occurred was expanding, as was the depth at which seals were diving to pick off individual fish from their catch. Recreational fishers also expressed concern over depredation as well as worry that the increasing presence of seals in New England was making the distribution of finfish less predictable [39]. While there is no evidence to suggest that fishers are competing with gray seals for the same species of fish, the animosity many fishers’ express towards gray seals in part stems from economic anxieties of an industry still struggling from the collapse of the cod fishery in the 1990’s, and where the average annual individual income

$24,630 a year [22; 52]. While this literature review most likely won’t deter fishers from believing that gray seals are literally eating away at their income, it can at least provide historical context that might help influence how fishers and conservationists discuss the current state of the gray seal recovery. It would be counterproductive to accuse fishermen of continuing to use seals as “a centuries-old scapegoat for low fish stocks”; however, we could reframe the argument against scapegoating seals by saying, “New England fishers have been worried about declining fish stocks since the moment European settlers arrived on Plymouth, yet history has shown that overfishing continues to prevent fisheries from recovering, even after we have systematically culled whole seal herds.”

Even though evidence is limited in this literature review, there are still enough accounts of the gray seal’s historical distribution to debunk the suggestion that this animal is invasive to

New England. It is possible that the perception of gray seals as an invasive species is predicated on the Shifting Baselines concept, which states that we base our idea of what a “healthy state” is for any one ecosystem off our initial observations of and interactions within that ecosystem. This becomes our “baseline” for that ecosystem. We then use that baseline to assess how that ecosystem changes over time. If the state of the ecosystem remains similar to our baseline, then we perceive that ecosystem to be healthy; however, if that ecosystem becomes unrecognizable when compared to our baseline, then we deem the ecosystem to be “unhealthy”. Because ecosystems change over time, regardless of the extent to which humans engage with or within it, each successive generation develops a different baseline for that ecosystem, meaning that from generation to generation, our baseline of what we believe to be a healthy ecosystem will “shift”.

Hence the term “shifting baseline” [48]. Further research to corroborate that gray seals once hauled out as south as Cape Hatteras, or that perhaps as many as 1,000,000 gray seals once lived up and down the eastern seaboard, would only serve to bolster the argument that gray seals have never been invasive to New England. The idea that gray seals are invasive only exists because the last generation of New Englander whose baseline would include gray seals in such abundance have been deceased for over 200 years. Gray seals serve as an ideal opportunity not only to dispel the idea that a recovering species is invasive, but to also “lift” the current baseline that pertains to the public’s perception of a healthy coastal environment [46].

REFERENCES

1. Allen, J. A. (1880). History of North American Pinnipeds: A Monograph of the Walruses, Sea-lions, Sea-bears and Seals of North America. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2. Ampela, A. (2009). The diet and foraging ecology of gray seals (Halichoerus grypus) in United States waters. City University of New York, New York, NY. Retrieved from https://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/program_review/2015 Review/BACKGROUND/B2C6Waring diet and foraging.pdf 3. Anderson, S. S., Burton, R.W., & Summers, C.F. (1975). “Behaviour of grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) during a breeding season at North Rona”. Journal of Zoology, 177(2), pp. 179-195. 4. Andrews, J. C., & Mott, P. R. (1967). “Gray seals at Nantucket, Massachusetts”. Journal of Mammalogy, 48(4), 657-658. 5. Baraff, L. S., & Loughlin, T. R. (2000). “Trends and potential interactions between pinnipeds and fisheries of New England and the US West Coast”. Marine Fisheries Review, 62(4), 1-39. 6. Beck, C. A., Iverson, S.J., Bowen, W.D., & Blanchard, W. (2007). “Sex differences in grey seal diet reflect seasonal variation in foraging behavior and reproductive expenditure: Evidence from quantitative fatty acid signature analysis”. Journal of Animal Ecology, 76, 490-502. 7. Bennett, K. A., McConnell, B.J., Moss, S.E., Speakman, J.R., Pomeroy, P.P., & Fedak, M.A. (2010). “Effects of age and body mass on development of diving capabilities of gray seal pups: costs and benefits of the post-weaning fast”. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, 83(6), pp.911-923. 8. Bidgood, J. (2013, August 16). “Thriving in Cape Cod’s waters, gray seals draw fans and foes”. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/17/us/thriving-in-cape-cods-waters-gray-seals-draw- fans-and-foes.html 9. Bishop, A. M., Lidstone, Scott, R., Pomeroy, P., & Twiss, S.D. (2014). “Body slap: An innovative aggressive display by breeding male gray seals (Halichoerus grypus)”. Marine Mammal Science, 30(2), pp.579-593. 10. Bogomolni, A., Early, G., Matassa, K., Nichols, O, & Sette, L. (2010). Gulf of Maine Seals - populations, problems and priorities. Woods Hole, MA: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 11. Boness, D. J. (1984). “Activity budget of male gray seals, Halichoerus grypus”. Journal of Mammalogy, 65(2), pp.291-297. 12. “Bounty on Dog Seal”. (1888, March 23). Boston Daily Globe, p. 2. 13. Bozena, J. (2006). “Two seal families”. The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved from https://teara.govt.nz/en/artwork/6171/two-seal-families 14. Busch, B. C. (1985). The War Against the Seals: A History of the North American Seal Fishery. Kingston, Ont., Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press. 15. Cameron, A. W. (1967). “Breeding behavior in a colony of western Atlantic gray seals”. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 45(2), pp.161-173. 16. Champagne, C. D., Crocker, D.E., Fowler, M.A., & Houser, D.S. (2012). “Fasting physiology of the pinnipeds: the challenges of fasting while maintaining high energy expenditure and nutrient delivery for lactation”. In M.D. McCue (Ed.), Comparative Physiology of Fasting, Starvation, and Food Limitation (pp. 309-336). New York: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 17. Chmael II, G. A., Ainsworth, K. R., & Kramer, R. P. (1994). “The 1994 Amendments to the Marine Mammal Protection Act”. Natural Resources & Environment, 9(4), 18-20; 65- 66. 18. Conniff, R. (2014, October 12). “Gray seals: The most controversial animal in New England”. Yankee Magazine. Retrieved from https://newengland.com/yankee- magazine/living/new-england-environment/g-seals/. 19. Cumbler, J. T. (2014). Cape Cod: An Environmental History of a Fragile Ecosystem. Boston, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. 20. Drew, J., López, E.H., Gill, L., McKeon, M., Miller, N., Steinberg, M., ... & McClenachan, L. (2016). “Collateral damage to marine and terrestrial ecosystems from Yankee whaling in the 19th century”. Ecology and Evolution, 6(22), pp. 8181-8192. 21. Eighth Biennial Report of the Commissioner of Sea and Shore Fisheries. (1934). Augusta, ME: Department of Sea and Shore Fisheries. 22. Fisheries Economics of the United States, 2014: Economics and Sociocultural Status and Trends Series. (2016). Silver Spring, MD: National Marine Fisheries Service. 23. Gray seal (Halichoerus grypus): Western North Atlantic Stock. (1995). National Marine Fisheries Service. Retrieved from http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/sars/ao1995segr- wn.pdf. 24. Gray seal (Halichoerus grypus): Western North Atlantic Stock. (2016). National Marine Fisheries Service. Retrieved from http://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pr/sars/pdf/stocks/atlantic/2015/f2015_grayseal.pdf. 25. “Gray seal (Halichoerus grypus)”. (2016). NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved from http://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/seals/g-seal.html. 26. Hammill, M. O., & Gosselin, J.F. (1995). “Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) from the Northwest Atlantic: Female reproductive rates, age at first birth, and age of maturity in males”. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 52(12), pp. 2757-2761. 27. Iverson, S. J., Bowen, W. D., Boness, D. J., & Oftedal, O. T. (1993). “The effect of maternal size and milk energy output on pup growth in grey seals (Halichoerus grypus)”. Physiological Zoology, 66(1), pp. 61-88. 28. Jackman, J. (2017). Stakeholder Views of Seals, Conflicts and Public Policy: Preliminary Findings from a Pilot Survey of Attitudes Toward Seals Among Voters, Anglers and Tourists on Nantucket Island, MA. Paper presented at the Marine Mammal Commission Annual Meeting, North Falmouth, MA. 29. King, J. (1989). “Otariidae and Phocidae”. In D.W. Walton, & B.J. Richardson (Eds.), Fauna of Australia - Volume 1B Mammalia. Canberra: AGPS Canberra. 30. Kovacs, K. M., & Lavigne, D.M. (1988). Harps & Hoods: Ice-breeding Seals of the Northwest Atlantic. Waterloo, Canada: University of Waterloo Press. 31. Lavigne, D. M., Scheffer, V.B., & Kellert, S.R. (1999). “The Evolution of North American attitudes toward marine mammals”. In J.R. Twiss, & R.R. Reeves (Eds.), Conservation and Management of Marine Mammals (pp. 10-47). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. 32. Lelli, B., & Harris, D.E. (2006). “Seal bounty and seal protection laws in Maine, 1872 to 1972: Historic perspectives on a current controversy.”. Natural Resources Journal, 46, pp. 881-924. 33. Lelli, B., Harris, D. E., & Aboueissa, A. M. (2009). “Seal bounties in Maine and Massachusetts, 1888 to 1962”. Northeastern Naturalist, 16(2), 239-254. 34. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972: As Amended 2007. (2007). NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service. Retrieved from http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/laws/mmpa.pdf. 35. Milstein, T. (2008). “When whales ‘speak for themselves’: Communication as a mediating force in wildlife tourism”. Environmental Communication, 2(2), pp. 173-192. 36. Mowat, F. (1984). Sea of Slaugter. New York, NY: The Atlantic Monthly Press. 37. Moxley, J. H., Bogomolni, A., Hammill, M.O., Moore, K.M., Polito, M.J., Sette, L., & Johnston, D.W. (2017). “Google haul out: Earth observation imagery and digital aerial surveys in coastal wildlife management and abundance estimation”. BioScience, 67(8), pp.760-768. 38. Murray, K. (2017). Gray seals (Halichoerus grypus) in the Northwest Atlantic. Paper presented at the Marine Mammal Commission Annual Meeting, North Falmouth, MA. 39. Nichols, O. C., Bogomolni, O., Bradfield, E. C., Early, G., Sette, L., Wood, S. (2011). Gulf of Maine Seals: Fisheries Interactions and Integrated Research - Final Report. Woods Hole, MA: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 40. Noren, S. R., Boness, D.J., Iverson, S.J., McMillan, J., & Bowen, W.D. (2008). “Body condition at weaning affects the duration of the post-weaning fast in gray seal pups (Halichoerus grypus)”. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, 81(3), pp.269-277. 41. Noren, S. R., Iverson, S.J., & Boness, D.J. (2005). “Development of the blood and muscle oxygen stores in gray seals (Halichoerus grypus): Implications for juvenile diving capacity and the necessity of a terrestrial post-weaning fast”. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, 78(4), pp.482-490. 42. Northeast Fisheries Science Center. “Cape gray seal molting season ending, seals disperse for summer and fall”. (2016, June 1). [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/press_release/pr2016/scispot/ss1609/. 43. Northeast Fisheries Science Center. “Surveys show increasing populations of Gray and Harbor Seals in New England”. (2009, February 23). [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/press_release/2009/SciSpot/SS0901/. 44. Richardson, D. T. (1973). Feeding Habits and Population Studies of Maine's Harbor and Gray Seals April 15, 1973 to November 1, 1973. Augusta, ME: National Geographic Society & Maine Department of Sea and Shore Fisheries. 45. Roman, J., Altman, I., Dunphy‐Daly, M.M., Campbell, C., Jasny, M., & Read, A.J. (2013). “The Marine Mammal Protection Act at 40: Status, recovery, and future of US marine mammals”. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1286(1), pp. 29-49. 46. Roman, J., Dunphy-Daly, M.M., Johnston, D.W., Read, A.J. (2015). “Lifting baselines to address the consequences of conservation success.”. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 30(6), 299-302. 47. Rose, N. A., Forkan, P.A., Block, K., Unti, B., & Parsons, E.C.M. (2013). “Whales and the USA” Whales and Dolphins: Cognition, Culture, Conservation and Human Perceptions, 37. In P. Brakes, & M.P. Simmonds (Eds.), Whales and Dolphins: Cognition, Culture, Conservation and Human Perceptions (pp. 36-46). Washington, D.C.: Earthscan. 48. Sáenz-Arroyo, A., Roberts, C.M., Torre, J., Cariño-Olvera, M., Enriquez-Andrade, R.R. (2005). “Rapidly shifting environmental baselines among fishers in the Gulf of California”. Proceedings of the Royal Society, 272, 1957-1962. 49. Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (1965). “An Act Providing Protection For The Gray Seal.” Massachusetts Acts of 1965, ch. 129, section 1. 50. Thompson, D., & Fedak, M.A. (1993). “Cardiac responses of grey seals during diving at sea”. Journal of Experimental Biology, 174(1), pp.139-154. 51. Tinker, M. T., Kovacs, K.M., & Hammill, M.O. (1995). “The reproductive behavior and energetics of male gray seals (Halichoerus grypus) breeding on a land-fast ice substrate”. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 36(3), pp.159-170. 52. Trzcinski, M. K., Mohn, R., & Bowen, W. D. (2006). “Continued decline of an Atlantic cod population: how important is gray seal predation?”. Ecological Applications, 16(6), 2276-2292. 53. Twiss, S. D., Anderson, S.S., & Monaghan, P. (1998). “Limited intra-specific variation in male grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) dominance relationships in relation to variation in male mating success and female availability.”. Journal of Zoology, 246(3), pp. 259-267. 54. Vaughan, T. A., Ryan, J.M., & Czaplewski. N.J. (2015). Mammology, 6th Edition. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. 55. Waters, J. H. (1967). “Gray seal remains from southern new england archeological sites”. Journal of Mammalogy, 48(1), pp. 139-141. 56. Wood, S. A., Frasier, T. R., McLeod, B. A., Gilbert, J. R., White, B. N., Bowen, W. D., ... & Brault, S. (2011). “The genetics of recolonization: An analysis of the stock structure of grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) in the northwest Atlantic”. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 89(6), pp. 490-497.