Brill Research Perspectives in Biblical Interpretation 2.2 (2017) 1–75 brill.com/brp Reading the Bible as a Feminist Jennifer L. Koosed Albright College, USA [email protected] Abstract This work provides a brief introduction to feminist interpretation of scripture. Feminist interpretation is first grounded in feminism as an intellectual and political movement. Next, this introduction briefly recounts the origins of feminist readings of the Bible with attention to both early readings and the beginnings of feminist biblical scholarship in the academy. Feminist biblical scholarship is not a single methodology, but rather an approach that can shape any reading method. As a discipline, it began with literary-critical readings (especially of the Hebrew Bible) but soon also broached questions of women’s history (especially in the New Testament and Christian origins). Since these first forays, feminist interpretation has influenced almost every type of biblical scholarship. The third section of this essay, then, looks at gender archaeology, feminist poststructuralism and postcolonial readings, and newer approaches informed by gender and queer theory. Finally, it ends by examining feminist readings of Eve. Keywords feminist biblical interpretation – womanism – intersectionality – gender archaeol- ogy – postcolonialism – poststructuralism – gender theory – queer theory – masculin- ity – Eve Preface: The Bible in the Hands of an Angry Man In 2002, Warren Jeffs became the spiritual leader of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS), a polygamist Mormon sect. Although the FLDS has been disavowed by the mainstream Mormon Church, it remains a large community with about 10,000 members inhabiting insular compounds primarily in Utah, Arizona, Texas, and Colorado. Beginning in © Jennifer L. Koosed, ���7 | doi �0.��63/�4057657-��340008 Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 02:26:37AM via free access 2 Koosed 2005, Jeffs was subject to a number of sexual assault charges in Arizona, Utah, and Texas, including accomplice to rape for forcing a 14-year-old girl into mar- riage with her older cousin. He was also charged with the rape of several girls, the youngest of whom was 12 years old at the time of the assault. In addition to the criminal charges, Jeffs faced civil suits for the expulsion of young men and boys from FLDS communities and for the sexual abuse of his nephew. He escaped to Canada to avoid arrest but was later apprehended; in 2011 he was sentenced to life in prison plus 20 years on two felony sexual assault charges. During his trial, Warren Jeffs waived his right to have a lawyer and then later fired his entire defense team. He submitted only two items as evidence: the Book of Mormon and the Bible. He called only one witness who read passag- es from the religious texts. Jeffs did not deny arranging marriages and having sexual contact with young girls; his only defense was that he was simply following scripture. The government, therefore, was infringing upon his Constitutional right to freedom of religion. He also testified on his own be- half—a testimony that consisted primarily of a sermon on polygamy and religious freedom. While the prosecutor was presenting the state’s case, Jeffs repeatedly interrupted the proceedings with objections about how his free- dom of religion was being violated (Bennion 2012: 27–34). Although few outside of the FDLS would condone his behavior, the case does bring the problems of biblical sexual ethics and religious freedom into sharp relief. Was Jeffs simply following scripture in his marital and sexual prac- tices? Or, at least, was he following his religious community’s understanding of scripture, a community that was established in the early twentieth century? Is the community’s interpretation reasonable and grounded in the text? If he was following scripture, is that an adequate defense of the ethics of his acts? Is that an adequate defense of the legality of his acts? Are there limits to religious freedom in a democracy that enshrines that freedom in its Constitution? Can the state intervene in the sincere practice of someone’s faith? Are there times when we most certainly do not want to follow scripture? Are there times when the state needs to limit religious freedom? How do we decide, both as individu- als and as citizens? Warren Jeffs is not the only person who has cried “religious freedom” when morality and practice run afoul of either law or custom; he is not the only person to use the Bible to defend beliefs and actions. There has been in- creasing attention in the United States and worldwide to freedom of religious practice and many of the controversies about religious freedom pertain to is- sues that have also been a concern to feminists: birth control, abortion, child marriage, same sex marriage, LGBTQ civil rights, violence against women and children, violence against LGBTQ peoples, sexually transmitted diseases and Brill Research Perspectives in Biblical InterpretationDownloaded from Brill.com09/29/20212.2 (2017) 1–75 02:26:37AM via free access Reading the Bible as a Feminist 3 their prevention, codes of modesty, the education of girls, female genital mu- tilation, women in leadership positions. Religion can be a powerful force for change, but it is an equally powerful vehicle for conservative attitudes, espe- cially around issues of gender and sexuality. In most cases, those arguing on the side of religious freedom are advocating conservative, traditional “family values” and sexual ethics. For example, The Liberty Council, associated with Liberty University Law School, founded by the evangelical leader Jerry Falwell, is a nonprofit organization in the United States that does pro bono legal work for the cause of religious freedom. It focuses primarily on abortion and LGBTQ issues—specifically seeking to limit birth control, outlaw abortion and same- sex marriage, and block any expansion of civil rights as they pertain to LGBTQ people (www.lc.org). In short, they have a decidedly anti-feminist agenda clothed in the language of religious freedom. Recently, they have championed the cause of Kim Davis, the Kentucky county clerk who refused to allow any- one in her office to issue marriage licenses after the Supreme Court ruled in favor of marriage equality. How can we understand the ways in which the Bible intersects with feminism, religious freedom, and legal rights? What does femi- nist interpretation have to offer to these increasingly polarized and vitriolic controversies not only in the United States but also around the world? Feminist interpretation of scripture is not just an academic exercise but is deeply committed to both the personal and the political. As we explore the richly textured landscape of feminist interpretation, we will also see the ways in which our biblical interpretations are shaped by and in turn shape our cul- ture, our politics, and our lives even in the most intimate ways. This research guide begins with a brief history of feminism in the United States—the place out of which feminist biblical criticism as an academic discipline first arose. The second part or section will, then, chronicle the development of feminist approaches to the scripture. As the discipline matures, it expands outward, reshaping other methodologies. In particular, Part 3 will explore the effect feminist approaches have had on historical investigation, poststructuralist and postcolonial interpretations, and the related developments of gender and queer criticisms. Finally, the last part or section will look at interpretations of Eve. For millennia, biblical arguments for the subjection of women have been grounded in the Adam and Eve story. Consequently, feminist readers have often turned first to Eve and the creation stories to subject them to their own analysis. Attention to Eve thus provides exegetical examples of feminist reading in action. How does one read the Bible as a feminist? There is not a single way, but a commitment to gender justice opens up the text to a myriad of understandings and insights. Under the feminist gaze, the Bible blossoms in ways both familiar and strange. Brill Research Perspectives in Biblical InterpretationDownloaded 2.2 from (2017) Brill.com09/29/2021 1–75 02:26:37AM via free access 4 Koosed Part 1. What is Feminism? Feminism is a philosophy, a political movement, a field of intellectual inquiry, and a worldview. In its essence, feminism is the belief that women and men are equal, and feminism is the movement to create a world of equal treatment and equal opportunity. As bell hooks opens her book on the subject, “Simply put, feminism is a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression” (hooks 2000: 1). However, there is no single definition of feminism that has a wide consensus because people have different views about what constitutes sexist oppression, the origins of sexism, and the best methods of dismantling that sexism. As a movement that is rooted in women’s experience, it neces- sarily encompasses as many definitions as there are women’s experiences. Feminism, then, is an umbrella term that covers a range of perspectives about gender justice for women and men. Sexism is prejudice and discrimination based upon a person’s sex. Distinguishing between sex and gender was central to feminism as it devel- oped in the mid-twentieth century, even though those definitions and dis- tinctions became increasingly more contested by the end of that century. As biologist and feminist theorist Anne Fausto-Sterling notes, “The more we look for a simple physical basis for ‘sex,’ the more it becomes clear that ‘sex’ is not a pure physical category. What bodily signals and functions we define as male or female come already entangled in our ideas about gender” (Fausto-Sterling 2000: 4). With that caveat, it is helpful to begin with a basic definition of sex and gender, even though as we proceed, those definitions will change and the distinctions between the two will get murkier.