Introduction to Oceanography Lecture 7: Marine sediment 2 Genetic Classification of Sediments 1st Midterm, 12:30pm, Thursday April 27 in class Midterm review session, Tuesday April 25, 3:30p - 4:20p • Terrigenous: from continents Young CS 24 • Biogenous: from biological sources •Extra Credit video, Friday April 28, 3:30p - 4:30p Moore 100 • Hydrogenous: seawater precipitates • Sometimes referred to as “authigenic” -- means formed in place • Cosmogenous: extraterrestrial sources

Vancouver, Canada, E. Schauble, UCLA

Fluvial Terrigenous Sediments Most sediment accumulates near continents…

Figure from Milliman JD and Meade RH (1983) World-wide delivery Divins, D.L., NGDC Total Sediment Thickness of the World's Oceans & Marginal Seas, http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/ of river sediment to the oceans. J. Geology 91:1-21. mgg/sedthick/sedthick.html, Public Domain

Terrigenous sediment accumulates near sources An interlude: Grain Size Sediment Classification Mouths of Ganges/ Bengal Fan – Brahmaputra River • Typical Particle Sizes: World’s largest Particle Name Particle Diameter pile of mud? Gravel, Granules 2 -64 mm & Pebbles Sand 0.062 - 2 mm Silt 0.004 - 0.062 mm Clay < 0.004 mm Peas: Renee Comet, Natl. Cancer Inst., Public Domain, http://visualsonline.cancer.gov/ details.cfm?imageid=2612; Sugar, Fritzs, Wikimedia Commons, CC A S-A 3.0, http:// visualsonline.cancer.gov/details.cfm? imageid=2612; Powdered sugar, Wikimedia Commons, JonathanLamb, Public Domain, http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Confectioners-sugar.jpg; Bathymetry from GEBCO world map, Printer, Wikimedia Commons, Pierre Bauduin, CC http://www.gebco.net, education use A S-A 3.0, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ explicitly allowed. File:HP_LaserJet_4000n.jpg

1 Grain Size Dependent Transport Biogenous Sediments High energy • Mostly skeletal • Pebbles: Hard to transport material produced by (storms, big surf, fast rivers & steep streams) dominant species of • Sand: in the middle plankton (small surf, most rivers & streams) – floating ocean • Clays: Easy to transport organisms die, shells (tides, slow streams & rivers, long range settle to the sea floor transport by wind) & lithify Low energy • Calcareous: skeletal materials of CaCO3 • Siliceous: skeletal materials of opal

From Sediment Transport Movie (SiO2•nH2O) archive, Paul Heller, U. Wyoming, http:// geofaculty.uwyo.edu/heller/ Hannes Grobe, Alfred Wegener Institute, Wikimedia Commons, Creative Commons A sed_video_downloads.htm S-A 3.0, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:41-366A-18-2_2101_73183.jpg

Siliceous (SiO2) Plankton Calcareous (CaCO3) Plankton Radiolaria Foraminifera Coccolithophores Diatoms

~ 1x10–5 meters

Coccolithus pelagicus, Richard Lampitt, Jeremy Young, –4 Hannes Grobe, Alfred Wegener Institute, Wikimedia The Natural History Museum, London, Creative ~ 2.5x10 meters Commons, Creative Commons A S-A 2.5, http:// P. Worstell, UCSD, http://gc.ucsd.edu/Proc/ Commons A S-A 2.5, http://commons.wikimedia.org/ commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diatom_hg.jpg fossilsPROC2htm.html Globigerina bulloides, NOAA image, Public Domain wiki/File:Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg

Biogenous Sediments Biogenic Oozes • Most plankton live near the • Oozes contain > 30% biogenic material ocean surface – Production: Shells &Skeletons • Calcareous shells and skeletons – Destruction: Dissolves before burial produced fastest in surface waters – Dilution: Mixing • Calcareous shells & skeletons tend with terrigenous to dissolve sediments quickly in the deep ocean. • Oozes uncommon • Siliceous shells dissolve fast near near continents: surface, slowly in deep ocean. diluted by copious • Found in areas with lots of nutrients terrigenous (few nutrients: ~little biology --> little sediments sediment). • Oozes also • Shallow - Calcareous ~ 1x10–5 meters uncommon where there are few • Deep - Siliceous nutrients Coccolith (phytoplankton) Electron micrograph of radiolarian ooze, image by Coccolithus pelagicus, Richard Lampitt, Jeremy Young, Yasuhiro Hata, Creative The Natural History Museum, London, Creative Commons BY-NC-SA 2.0 Commons A S-A 2.5, http://commons.wikimedia.org/ http://www.flickr.com/photos/ wiki/File:Coccolithus_pelagicus.jpg hatash/6195181070/in/ pool-765680@N20/lightbox/,

2 Carbonate Compensation Depth, CCD “Calcite” Compensation Depth, CCD

• CCD: Depth below which calcium • CCD: Depth below which calcium carbonate carbonate sediments don’t accumulate sediments can’t accumulate – CCD depth: high acidity, cold bottom waters dissolve

CaCO3 below CCD – Average Depth of CCD: 4,500 m • Deeper in the Atlantic; Shallower in the Pacific

Cropped from http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/Fundamentals/OceanSolutes18IIIa.jpg, L. Bruce Railsback, U. % Carbonate in seafloor sediments, created with GeoMapApp using Archer (2003) interpolated data. Georgia,

Calcite Compensation Depth, CCD Siliceous Oozes Siliceous oozes found underneath regions of high productivity and – Below CCD – Far from continents Cropped from http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/Fundamentals/OceanSolutes18IIIa.jpg, L. Bruce Railsback, U. – Mainly in Georgia, nutrient rich CO2 mixed with water makes carbonic acid (H2CO3): zones

CO +H O <--> H CO <--> H+ + HCO – <--> 2H+ + CO 2– Areas of upwelling 2 2 2 3 3 3 flows around Antarctica & More CO2 can dissolve in cold water. equator Calcium carbonate dissolves in acid. Diatomaceous earth from pool filter, In today’s ocean deep waters are very cold, CO2-rich. Wikimedia Commons, Curtis Clark, Therefore, calcium carbonate tends to dissolve fastest in Creative Commons A S-A 2.5, http:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ deeper water because it tends to be more acidic. File:Diatomaceous_earth_2001-10-1 8.jpg

NASA image, Abyssal Clays Public Domain Found where no other sediments accumulate rapidly Dominated by wind-blown dusts Common in deep basins Below CCD Regions of low bioproductivity Far from continents

Dust storm, Al Asad, Iraq, Photo by Cpl. Alicia M. Garcia – USMC, Public Domain, http://www.defenselink.mil/ Clay Source: Terrigenous Dusts photos/newsphoto.aspx?newsphotoidhttp://www.geo.wvu.edu/~kite/Geo321Lect16_fALL2002Aeolian_files/=6469

3 IntroductionHydrogenous to Oceanography Sediments Hydrogenous Sedimentary Deposits Hughes Glomar Explorer. This ship wasn’t built for • Chemical deposits formed by precipitation oceanography research. US Government photo, Public Domain http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/index.htm – Grow at water-sediment interface – Manganese nodules

Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, http:// www.jamstec.go.jp/ jamstec-e/30th/ part6/image/ p86_1.jpg

Attribution uncertain, appears to be widely disseminated, (e.g., http:// www.aerospaceweb.org/ question/weapons/ USGS/NOAA, Public Domain, http:// q0268.shtml) and thus www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/ may be Public Domain nodule.gif “Hughes” Glomar Explorer

Cosmogenic Sediments K-T boundary in sediment Sediments from space Cosmic dust or meteorite impact Younger Sample Painting by Don Davis, NASA, Public location Domain

Impact crater Older

Figure based on GEBCO bathymetric map, educational use explicitly allowed

K-T Boundary layer, Gulf of Mexico sediment core, Figure from Norris et al. (1997) Ocean Drilling Program MARUM Research Center Ocean Margins, Preliminary Report, http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/ Bremen University , Bremen – Germany, prelim/171B_prel/171Bprel.pdf http://www.imaggeo.net/view/45

Rate of sediment addition: BIG PICTURE ON SEDIMENTS Sediment Type Rate (m/Myr) • Terrigenous near continents Continental Margins ~ > 50 = 0.05 mm/yr fast Deep Sea • High Bioproductivity: – Calcareous oozes above CCD Calcareous 10 - 30 – Siliceous oozes below CCD Siliceous 2 - 10 • Abyssal clays where nothing else is Clay 0.5 - 2 getting deposited Manganese Nodules 0.001 slow • Give recent (~200 Myr) historical record

4 Sediment, biology and seafloor age Global Distribution of Sediments Few nutrients, less More nutrients, more biological debris biological debris

CCD CCD Abyssal clay Calcareous Siliceousooze ooze

Calcareous ooze

Once buried, biogenous sediments tend not to dissolve (or do so slowly and incompletely). Thus sediment profiles record variation in sediment sources over time and space.

Image attribution unknown Figure by E. Schauble, UCLA, created with Inkscape

Photo by Gleam, Wikimedia Commons, Map of seafloor sediment distribution from the Creative Commons A S-A 3.0, How Do We http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Challenger expedition (1872-1876), by John Murray (1896). File:Chikyu_2.jpg Out of Copyright, Public Domain Know All This? Drilling ships operated by international science coops, e.g., JOIDES

JAMSTEC Ship Chikyu

Questions

Physical and chemical properties of Seawater

Periodic Table figure, NASA Science Education Playa del Rey & LAX, CA, Calcareous ooze particles, Paula Worstell, SIO, BOSCORF - http://www.boscorf.org/curatorial/ccd.html Resource Center, Public Domain E. Schauble, UCLA

5 Atoms Ions • Ions are atoms with net electrical charge • Atom: cannot be broken down into – Anion: negative charge (Cl–) -- extra electrons – Cation: positive charge (Na+) -- electrons removed simpler parts by chemical means • Nucleus: – – – – Na+: 11p+, 10e– – Protons (+) & Neutrons (uncharged) – – 11+ Elements on the left side of the periodic table of – Massive elements tend to become positive (H, Na, Mg). – – –15 Elements near the right side of the periodic table – Small (~10 m) – – tend to become negative (O, F, Cl)

• Electrons (–) E. Schauble, UCLA – Little mass Molecules – Most of the volume • Substances made up of chemically bonded (~10–10 m = 1 Å) atoms

Svdmolen/Jeanot, Wikimedia Commons, Creative Commons A S-A 3.0, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atom.svg Helium

What kind of ions will an element form? Chemical Bonds – e – + – e – e e– Tend to form • Covalent: e shared between e– Tend to form anions (–) atoms (i.e., H O) 8+ 2 e– cations (+) – e– e e– • Ionic: Charges borrowed by e– anions + – Like Na+Cl– Na+ Cl–

• Hydrogen Bonding: in water, H has slightly + charge, which attracts negatively charged O. H in water molecules also attracts anions like Cl– O in water molecules also attracts cations like Na+ Bond Strength: Covalent > Ionic > H-bond

NASA image, Science Education Resource Center, All images E. Schauble, UCLA http://serc.carleton.edu/images/usingdata/nasaimages/periodic-table.gif, Public Domain

Water Molecule: H2O Liquid Water • Hydrogen Bonding Covalent bond between O and H H – Each H2O: 4 possible • Polar Molecule O – e – + o – e H-bonds – Positive “ears”-105 e– + e– e e– e– – Mickey Mouse e– – Makes liquid water e– e– “clump” together – Polar structure 8+ 8+ e– – – Accounts for many – e H – e– • Hydrogen Bonding e e– e e– e– peculiarities – Effect of polarization e– + + e– • Great solvent power – ~5% as strong as covalent – Saline ocean bonds water – tends to make molecules • Thermal and density clump together – properties i.e., condense

E. Schauble, UCLA Figure by Qwerter/Michal Maňas, Wikimedia Commons, Creative Commons A S-A 3.0, ball & stick model rendered using MacMolPlt http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3D_model_hydrogen_bonds_in_water.jpg

6 Heat Capacity Heat Capacity Substance Heat Capacity (cal/gram/oC) Examples: Granite 0.20 The only common TV dinner: Aluminum liquid with Foil vs. Gravy. Gasoline 0.50 higher heat Both are at the same temperature, Water 1.00 capacity than water is but gravy has much higher heat Ammonia 1.13 ammonia! capacity – it hurts!

At the beach: Sand vs.water

Photo by ..its.magic.., Flickr, Creative Commons 2.0, http:// www.flickr.com/ photos/rizielde/ 3373257326/ Photo by A. Lau, “are you gonna eat that”, http://www.flickr.com/photos/andreelau/186536202, Creative Commons sizes/l/ Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic

Climate Comparison Physical States of Matter LAX -- on coast. Solid: molecules bonded in a fixed lattice Strong ocean – Add energy (i.e., latent heat of fusion)… influence. Little daily/seasonal Liquid: bonded molecules but in variation in Temp. no fixed lattice – Add energy (i.e., latent heat of vaporization)…

Zeitraffer, Wikimedia Commons, CC A S-A 3.0, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Timelapse.GIF Omaha, NE – Gas: middle of continent. Free molecules Weaker ocean influence. Variable Temp.

Pidwirny, M. (2006). "Climate Classification and Climatic Regions of the World". Fundamentals of NASA, Public Domain, Physical Geography, 2nd Edition. http:// http://ksnn.larc.nasa.gov/videos/ www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7v.html poolboil.mov

Relationship between Heat and Temperature for H O 2 Questions? 140

120 liquid boiling to steam 100 steam Latent heat of vaporization 80 Temp. 60 Boiling water on the stove (ºC) 40 liquid stays at 100ºC even though

20 ice the burner is continuously melting to liquid adding heat to it. The energy 0 Latent goes to make steam. -20 heat of ice ice melting -40 E. Schauble, UCLA 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Heat (Joules/gram)

Sensible Heat: measurable change in temperature when heat is added or subtracted (sloping lines). Latent Heat: no temperature change with added/subtracted heat (flat lines). Vancouver, Canada, E. Schauble, UCLA

7