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Corruption and Integrity Programme Anti-Corruption and Integrity Programme A Study on the Link between Corruption and the Causes of Migration and Forced Displacement Human CorruptionSecurity Published by: A Study on the Link between Corruption and the Causes of Migration and Forced Displacement March 29, 2017 Authors: Ortrun Merkle* Julia Reinold* Melissa Siegel* *Maastricht Graduate School of Governance The publication “A Study on the Link between Corruption and the Causes of Migration and Forced Displacement” was commissioned by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Anti-Corruption and Integrity Programme, on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). The contents of this publication do not represent the official position of neither BMZ nor GIZ. Table of Content 3 Table of Content List of Figures ..........................................................5 List of Tables...........................................................6 List of Boxes ...........................................................7 Acknowledgments .......................................................7 Abbreviations ...........................................................7 Executive Summary ......................................................9 1. Introduction ........................................................10 2. Mapping the Conceptual Terrain: Corruption and Migration .....................13 2.1. Corruption - what do we mean? 13 2.2. The concept of human security 16 2.3. Migration – the background 18 3. Methodology 22 3.1. Part I – Theoretical framework 22 3.2. Part II – Case studies 22 4. Human Insecurity as Cause of Migration and Forced Displacement ..............24 4.1. Economic security and migration 25 4.2. Political security, forced displacement and migration 26 4.3. Personal security, forced displacement and migration 26 4.4. Community security, forced displacement and migration 27 4.5. Environment security, forced displacement and migration 27 4.6. Food security, forced displacement and migration 28 4.7. Health security and migration 29 4.8. Summary 29 5. Is Corruption an Underestimated Driver of Migration and Forced Displacement? ....30 5.1. Corruption and migration – what do we know? 30 5.2. Corruption as a push-factor for migration and driver of forced displacement: developing a conceptual framework 33 5.2.1. Corruption and migration – direct links 33 5.2.2. Corruption and migration – indirect links 34 5.2.2.1. Corruption and economic security 34 5.2.2.2. Corruption and political security 40 5.2.2.3. Corruption and personal security 44 5.2.2.4. Corruption and community security 48 5.2.2.5. Corruption and environmental security 50 5.2.2.6. Corruption and food security 52 5.2.2.7. Corruption and health security54 6. Theoretical Framework Explaining Corruption as Cause of Migration and Forced Displacement – Summary and Research Hypotheses .........................27 Table of Content 4 7. Case Study: Mali.....................................................60 7.1 Introduction 61 7.2 Background information 63 7.3 Corruption in Mali 63 7.3.1 History 63 7.3.2 Current situation and trends 66 7.4 Migration and forced displacement in Mali 66 7.4.1 History 67 7.4.2 Current situation and trends 71 7.5 Corruption, human security, migration and displacement in Mali – Applying the theoretical framework 71 7.5.1 Corruption as direct cause of migration and displacement 71 7.5.2 Corruption as Indirect cause of digration and displacement 71 7.5.2.1 Economic security 71 7.5.2.2 Personal security 77 7.5.2.3 Political security 78 7.5.2.4 Community security 80 7.5.2.5 Environment security 82 7.5.2.6 Food security 82 7.5.2.7 Health security 82 7.6 Summary 83 8. Case Study: Ukraine . 84 8.1. Introduction 84 8.2. Background information 85 8.3. Corruption in Ukraine 86 8.3.1. History 86 8.3.2. Current situation and trends 87 8.4. Migration in Ukraine 90 8.4.1. History 90 8.4.2. Current situation and trends 91 8.4.2.1. Ukrainians abroad 91 8.4.2.2. Migrants in Ukraine 96 8.5. Relationship between corruption and migration in Ukraine 99 8.5.1. Corruption as a direct cause of migration and displacement 99 8.5.2. Corruption as indirect cause of migration and displacement 100 8.5.2.1. Economic security 101 8.5.2.2. Personal security 103 8.5.2.3. Political security 104 8.5.2.4. Community security 107 8.5.2.5. Environment security 107 8.5.2.6. Food security 108 8.5.2.7. Health security 109 8.6. Internally displaced persons in Ukraine 110 8.7. Summary 111 9. Conclusion and Policy Recommendations ................................. 112 Bibliography.......................................................... 119 Table of Content 5 Annexes Annex I Search Terms Used to Guide the Structured Literature Review by Thematic Area 147 Annex II Glossary of Migration Key Terms 148 Annex III List of Interviewed Experts 150 Annex IV Interview Questionnaire 151 Annex V Key Studies on Corruption and Migration 153 Annex VI Corruption and Economic Growth 178 Annex VII Key Facts Mali 179 Annex VIII Key Facts Ukraine 181 Annex IX Corruption Indicators Mali 183 Annex X Corruption Indicators Ukraine 184 List of Figures Figure 1 The Human Security Concept 16 Figure 2 Mechanisms Leading to Migration 21 Figure 3 Indirect Links between Corruption and Economic Security 38 Figure 4 Indirect Links between Corruption and Political Security 43 Figure 5 Indirect Links between Corruption and Personal Security 47 Figure 6 Indirect Links between Corruption and Community Security 49 Figure 7 Indirect Links between Corruption and Environmental Security 51 Figure 8 Indirect Links between Corruption and Food Security 53 Figure 9 Indirect Links between Corruption and Health Security 56 Figure 10 Framework: The Indirect Effect of Corruption on Migration and Displacement 57 Figure 11 Map of Mali 61 Figure 12 Trans-Sahara Trafficking 69 Figure 13 Refugees, Returnees and IDPs in Mali (as of September 30, 2016 ) 70 Figure 14 Developments of GDP and GDP per Capita 73 Figure 15 Enrolment Rates in Primary and Secondary Education, 1990-2014 75 Figure 16 Government Expenditure on Education 76 Figure 17 Map of Ukraine including Crimea 85 Figure 18 Vicious Cycle of Corruption in Ukraine 89 Figure 19 Estimates of Ukrainian Migrant Workers (2014-2015) 92 Figure 20 Destinations of Ukrainian Labour Migrants (2014-2015) 93 Figure 21 Sectors of Employment of the Ukrainian Migrant Workers Abroad (2014-2015) 94 Figure 22 Sector of Employment in Destination Country by Gender (2014-2015) 95 Figure 23 Internally Displaced People in Ukraine, June 2015 99 Figure 24 GDP per Capita and Annual Growth Rate 102 Table of Content 6 List of Tables Table 1 Top 10 Migrant Countries of Origin 10 Table 2 Types of Corruption 15 Table 3 The Seven Components of Human Security and its Threats as Defined by UNDP (1994) 17 Table 4 Most Frequent Types of Corruption Affecting Economic Security 39 Table 5 Most Frequent Types of Corruption Affecting Political Security 44 Table 6 Most Frequent Types of Corruption Affecting Personal Security 48 Table 7 Most Frequent Types of Corruption Affecting Community Security 50 Table 8 Most Frequent Types of Corruption Affecting Environmental Security 52 Table 9 Most Frequent Types of Corruption Affecting Food Security 54 Table 10 Most Frequent Types of Corruption Affecting Health Security 56 Table 11 Development Indicators for Mali 62 Table 12 Global Corruption Barometer 2015 Mali 64 Table 13 Corruption in Various Institutions, Global Corruption Barometer 2015 Mali 64 Table 14 Top 10 Destinations of Malians in 2015 67 Table 15 Indicators of Economic Security 72 Table 16 Tertiary Students by Destination (2013) 76 Table 17 Social Institutions and Gender Index Mali 80 Table 18 Health Security Factors 83 Table 19 Developent Indicators for Ukraine 86 Table 20 Low-level Corruption in Ukraine per Sector (2015) 88 Table 21 Top 10 Destinations of Ukrainians by Highest Migrant Stock in 2015 92 Table 22 Education Level of Ukrainian Labour Migrants Compared to the Employed Ukrainian Population, 2007-2008 94 Table 23 Country of Destination, by Gender and Level of Education 95 Table 24 Ukrainian Refugees and Asylum Seekers 96 Table 25 Top 10 Origin Countries of Migrants in Ukraine by Highest Migrant Stock in 2015 97 Table 26 Refugees and IDPs in Ukraine 97 Table 27 Indicators of Economic Security 101 Table 28 Social Institutions and Gender Index Ukraine 106 Table 29 Environmental Factors 108 Table 30 Food Insecurity by Region, April-May 2016 108 Table 31 Health Security Factors 109 Table of Content | Acknowledgments | Abbreviations 7 List of Boxes Spotlight 1 The Cost of Corruption 13 Spotlight 2 Economic Migration 24 Spotlight 3 Personal Security and Migration 26 Spotlight 4 Environment Security and Migration 27 Spotlight 5 Food Security 28 Spotlight 6 Corruption and Minorities 48 Spotlight 7 Corruption, Ebola and Migration 54 Spotlight 8 Tuareg Rebellions - A Sum of Human Insecurity, Corruption and Migration 81 Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to Laura Rahmeier and Sjors Joosten for valuable research assistance in preparation of this report and to GIZ staff for their thorough review of the drafts. Finally, we extend our gratitude to all the experts who took time to speak with us and shared their knowledge and to Howard Hudson for proofreading the report. Abbreviations AQIM Al Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb CIA Central Intelligence Agency DFID Department For International Development DIIS Danish Institute for International Studies ECOWAS Economic Community of West African
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