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International Journal of Innovative Social & Science Education Research 7(1):80-87, Jan.-Mar., 2019

© SEAHI PUBLICATIONS, 2019 www.seahipaj.org ISSN: 2360-8978

Science and Technology in Africa: A Historical Perspective

ELUOZO Collins

Department of Curriculum and Instructional Technology (Science Education Option) Faculty of Education Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, , [email protected] [email protected] 08111312517 ABSTRACT The place of Science and Technology in Africa has remained very disheartening since the late 50s. Several factors have been figured out as reasons behind this under-development in Africa. The researcher took a historical perspective in tracing the factors behind this problem. It was discovered that the Ancient Africans were very notable in Science and Technology till the late 40s. It was equally unveiled that most of the modern Western technologies was adopted and learnt from the Ancient African scientists. The paper revealed that Africa hosted the first humans on planet earth and that basic science and technology originated in Africa before the invasion of African nations by the Europeans. The paper equally discovered that the Westerners purposefully brained-drained the Africans with exchange of culture, force and deceit for religion and resource control. The paper concluded with some key points that pervade the Westerners overriding Africans, such as unstable government, poor leadership qualities, lack of respect for African scientists and inferiority complex. Recommendations that can address this menace were highlighted. Keywords: Africa, Continent, Antiquate, Humans, Archaeology, History, Europe, aleontologists, Westerners, Science, Technology, Species, War, Weapons, Genetics.

INTRODUCTION Although it is difficult to document Africa's pre-colonial history due to extreme lack of documentation and structural design that the western continents of Europe and Asia are opulently dense in, such as recording of verbal history, language history, archaeology and genetics which are fundamental for cultural transfer. Nevertheless, the is tied to the veneer of hominids, antiquate humans about 400,000 years ago. Some of the ancient societies in Africa consists of Ajuran Empire, D'mt, Adal Sultanate, War-sangali Sultanate, , Nok culture, , , Empire, , Ashanti Empire, Empire, , Mutapa Empire, Kingdom of Mapungubwe, Kingdom of Sine, Kingdom of Sennar, Kingdom of , Kingdom of , Kingdom of , Kingdom of Zimbabwe, Kingdom of Kongo, Empire of , Kingdom of Ile , Ancient Carthage, Numidia, Mauretania, and the Aksumite Empire etc. Prior to the European religion invasion and colonialism, there were some estimates that Africa had almost 14,000 different states and sovereign groups with distinctive languages and mores. According to paleontologists, the early hominids' cranium anatomy was analogous to that of the gorilla, chimpanzee, and apes which was believed to have firstly originated in Africa. However, it was also believed that the hominids adopted a two ankle movement which untied their legs and hands. The movement enabled them to live in both forest and open savanna areas. This controversial claims is said to have taken place about 6 to 15 million years ago, against the opinion of biologists and hereditists who stated that human appearance could be traced to the last 60,000 to 300,000 years ago. The paleontologists believed that major human body transformation surfaced within the last 4 million years ago, as several australopithecine hominid species had developed all over the Southern, Eastern and Central Africa, and 80

Eluozo.….. Int. J. Innovative Soc. & Sci. Educ. Res. 7(1): 80-87, 2019 by this period the hominids have become tool users, and manufacturer of paraphernalia which enabled them to forage for smaller creatures (animals and plants) that qualified humans as omnivores. Within the last 2 million years ago, some other human species have emanated in the vestige documentation of Africa, such as Homo habilis, Homo ergaster, Homo erectus, Homo floresiensis and Homo georgicus which was believed to be the first human species that lived outside the territory of Africa. This era witnessed rapid growth in science and technology with reference to the primordial pebble apparatus amongst others. If these historical assertions are truth, it therefore means that human existence and technology originated in the African continents and that other continents are biological children of Africans. Africa been the setting for the sunrise of human history, developed an expertise based on sharp tools of flint, otherwise known as stone age. At the later part of the Old Stone Age, humans in Africa produced some of the earliest and most significant prehistory arts in form of stone base arts, astound and crevice as well other artifacts that aided their living. Prior to the invasion of the African territories by the Westerners mainly the European powers that divided almost all the African states in the 1880s except Ethiopia and Liberia that already had independence before the first and second world war, Africans were independent in science and technology that sustained the continent. Religion exchange, slave trade and deceit for resource control by the westerners played an ostentatious role in siphoning the Africans of their science and technological intellects, which have placed the continent as the most underdeveloped continent of the world, at what point did we got it wrong shall be of focal interest in this paper.

Early Science and Technology in African Societies Africans made the most primitive and the principal significant scientific inventions till the Middle Ages. Right from the initial production of tools, the first discovery of fire, and the early use of numbers were all initiated in Africa. The Africans discovered the production and use of baskets and string about 600- 800,000 years ago and within the last100, 000 BC, the Africans invented boats for marine transport. Through the use of boats, the great Africans explored through the African seas to India, Australia, West Asia, Central Asia, Europe, China and America. As early as 35,000 BC the Africans invented fish-hooks for fishing and tally sticks to keep track of numbers. At about 25,000 years BC, the Africans invented bows and arrows to hunt animals for food as well defense against external aggressions. Approximately 6000 BC, African Sudanese built circles of standing stones that enabled them to measure astronomical events in terms of seasonal change, while the Egyptians diverse means of brewing beer from grain. The Sudanese tamed donkeys as well discovered the cropping of millet and sorghum at about 3000 BC while the Egyptians invented glass beads and the production of yeast bread within the same period. African Women discovered and initiated terracotta industry and smelt iron about 400 BC. The Carthaginian metal-smiths of North Africa outlined how to blend contemptible tin with copper to coat iron surface to enable it look polished inform of silver and gold. The Africans were the foremost to establish a world renowned institution of higher education, founded by Ptolemies in Alexandria in Egypt about 300 BC where ancient Egyptian medical tradition was practiced by Herophilus and Erasistratos as pioneer doctors, including the teaching of astronomy and mathematics. At about 200 years BC, Aristarchus discovered that earth moves around the sun, while Erastothenes a Libya born gem, calculated the circumference of the earth in Alexandria, and its distance to the moon. Juba II and his wife Cleopatra Selene both from Morocco, developed a psychological science theory of Elephants care behavior, they noted that Elephants were of immense help to an injured colleague, forming defense as well rendering outstanding measures to emendate the endangered colleague. They made very enduring observations of the animal species, as the Elephant applies the fluids of aloe plant on the wounds of injured Elephant and they stood behind the injured Elephant like healthcare officers till the wounds are healed. The duos equally made efforts by sending explorers to the Canary Atoll. During the Roman Empire, the Africans dominated the science community; Ptolemy an Egyptian geographer was the first to 81

Eluozo.….. Int. J. Innovative Soc. & Sci. Educ. Res. 7(1): 80-87, 2019 portray the world atlas and he tried to explain the movement of the planets. Within the same era, Hypatia the great mathematician developed the geometry of cones and the effects of a cone when been traversed by a plane. The Africans developed the three major world accepted types of , in the order of: astral, cosmological, and astrophysical. Although most states of Africa combined the three calendars and other native calendars to form peculiar calendars like: Akan , , Berber calendar, , , , Shona calendar, Swahili calendar, Xhosa calendar, Borana calendar, and Luba calendar. In addition, the Egyptians were the first to detect the location of the star, which they later transformed and structured as the 24 hour per day, 7 days per week, 28, 29, 30 and 31 days per month, and 365-days, 12 month, per year calendar.

Africans and Early Mathematicians As early as 75,000 BCE, South Africa and other African countries like Congo DR manufactured a mathematical artifact with Lacombe bone, within 18,000 to 20,000 BCE, Congo improved on the tool, by adding stick tally and marks. The product was encrypted with engraving and writing buttons. The machine made it possible for multiplication, addition, division, and subtractions, the machine made all forms of calculations faster and possible, it was suggested that the machine could be the brainchild of African women who kept track of their menstrual orb; this could mark the beginning of calculators and computer technology. The ancient Egyptians also showed great performance in the four fundamental arithmetic procedures being addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division and the use of fractions, by devising the formula of computing the volume of a frustum, and the techniques of calculating the surface areas of triangles, circles and hemispheres. They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry, and were able to solve simple sets of simultaneous and algebraic equations. Metallurgy Between 1500 to 2500 BCE, Sub-Saharan Africans moved from Stone age to Iron age, although the Iron age was instantaneous with the Bronze era. However the bronze technology was mimicked from the Near Eastern know-how. The Africans used Iron to produce coins as money, war-weapons, blast smiths, ore and wax were all byproducts of the Iron and Bronze Age. The Africans discovered two types of iron furnaces used in Sub-Saharan Africa: the trench beneath earth and spherical clay structures built over soil. Iron ores were crushed and placed in furnaces encrusted with the right portion of hardwood. A flux such as emerald sometimes from seashells was supplementary to aid in smelting. They used bellows by the side to add oxygen, while clay pipes were placed by the sides to direct the oxygen surge. Medicine Mostly the West Africans were very notable in traditional medicine, their knowledge of inoculating oneself against measles more specifically the Igbo, Ogba and Yoruba tribes have also been acknowledged with a high level skill of bone setting. Beriberi and torrent ailments were traced to have originated in Africa, with reasonable skills of treatment. The ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient days within the East for their healing skills; most Egyptians instituted professionalization in medical field; such as head, abdomen, sight and teeth doctors. The Egyptians showed significant empirical knowledge of anatomy and practical treatment of injuries. Some of the medical apparatus were improvised during treatment, as raw animal protein was used in place of bandage, sutures, nets, white linen, pads and swabs drenched with honey was used in place of antiseptics and antibiotics to prevent infection, while opium was used to lessen ache. Bitter cola, onions and garlic were used regularly to prop up good health; they equally believed that the features also help in relieving bronchial symptoms. The ancient Egyptian medical doctors’ suture wounds, set broken bones, and sever diseased limbs; however they acknowledged that some injuries was very somber that they could only make the patient contented until death. Within 800 BC, the first psychiatric infirmary and insane sanctuary was established in Cairo, Egypt and about 1100 BC ventilator was also invented in the same Egypt.

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The Nubians produced tetracycline drug from the remains of bone between 350 AD and 550 AD. They equally made another antibiotic known as streptomycin from beer that contains bacterium. Max Theiler, a South African physician developed a vaccine that immune humans against yellow fever in 1936 -37, within the same period Allan McLeod Cormack of the same South Africa developed a scanning machine. It will be notable to state that the first inter human heart transplant was performed successful in Africa by a South African cardiac surgeon Christiaan Barnard at Groote Schuur Hospital in 1967, Aaron Klug also developed crystallographic electron microscopy that produces three dimensional images in the 60s.

Agriculture The debate among archaeologists whether or not the free domestication of cattle firstly occurred in Africa as well as the Near East and Indus Valley is still ongoing. Although remains of domesticated cattle have been found in the Western Desert of Egypt at the farm yards of Nabta Playa and Bir Kiseiba traceable to 1700–9000 BP, however this assertion remains controversial since hereditary proof suggests that cattle were most likely to have been brought-in from Southwest Asia, postulating that some cattle breed with wild aurochs in northern Africa. In contrary, hereditary proof also specify that donkeys were tamed from the African wild ass. Sudan equally tamed Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum Linnaeus) near Nile Basin region around 5000 BCE. Oromo people of Ethiopia were the first to discover the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant, the Ethiopians also domesticated other plants like Teff, E. pilosa , Noog (Guizotia abyssinica) and ensete (E. ventricosum), they tinkered a means of erosion control through terraced tor cultivation and dampening. The history of West Africa being the first to tame agriculture has remained undisputed since 5000 BCE, when sorghum and African rice (Oryza glaberrima) were cultivated in Sahel region while guinea fowl, oil palm, raffia palm, black-eyed peas, groundnuts, and kola nuts were tamed in other parts of African countries. Around 5000 to 8000 BCE in West Africa , Yams, pearl, millet, gourds, watermelons, sorghum, castor beans, beans, black-eyed peas, and cocoa also spread across the southern Sahara. The Tanzania ethnic nationality was known for complex damping system, they used stone channels to form embankment, dam, and level surrounding river waters. The people of Nyanga in Zimbabwe and Algeria were very notable in weir and trough edifice that can equal the modern day technology. Clothing The Egyptians made clothes from plant wax to form linen and looms as early as 4000 BCE, while the Nubians made clothes from beaded leather. In Ethiopia, cottons were used to produce kuta clothes, Madagascar, and North Africa also wore linens made from the same materials. Mostly in where fur or fine animal curls in a smooth plain weave pattern is been used as clothes, thus wreckage of textile also survived from the tenth century in Benin City of Nigeria. An archetypal yarn fabric known as Bògòlanfini (mud clothes) tinted with fermented marsh of tree sap and teas are manually made by the Bambara people of the Beledougou caliphate in Mali. Within the same time Moroccan leather, which shares its origin from the Hausa tribe of northern Nigeria was exported to Mediterranean markets and Europe. The great people of Akan, Ashante, Fante, Enzema and Ewe in Togo, Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire produced Kente clothes from joists. The Kuba ethnic group found in Democratic Republic of Congo, used raffia, raffia palm tree and fibers leafs to weave clothes. Baganda in Uganda, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia and Zambia produced dark clothes from Mutuba tree (Ficus natalensis).The Ndau people in central Mozambique and the Shona combined wood tiles with dark-clothes to form light cotton clothes. Animal skins such as hyena, lion and tiger were used as symbol of royalty, while skin of lower animals such as sheep, goat and ram were used to produce clothes especially the Venda, Swazi, Basotho, Zulu, Ndebele, and Xhosa nationalities of South Africa. African Maritime Technology Historically, it is believed that Africans made huge technological advancement in maritime, a documentary showed that a ship was discovered in Dufuna River in northern Nigeria, and archeological report preempts that the canoe might have existed over 7000 years ago. 83

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The North Africans manufactured warships having over five lines of paddles, the African ships dominated the Mediterranean Sea. The Carthaginian warship is example of such ships in Africa, according to history; the Romans used the African warship as a prototype in manufacturing her first naval ship. Within the 14th century, the Mali empire built an Armanda warship positioned at the West African seaboard. The Malians used drum sound to communicate each other during war. All the utensils used in digging the trunk of woods and sawing materials were all locally made. The Egyptians as early as 3000 BC to 5000 BCE used timber planks to amass ship hull. These kinds of vessels were weaved, strapped and sewn magically with reeds or grass stuffed amid the planks to helped in sealing the ridge, most of such yacht seems belonging to the early Pharaohs of Egypt . A Somali dock was one of the famous havens where these liners anchored after sailing through various continents for trade. The routes were Axum to India, Nubia to Persia, Himyar and Rome, Greeks to Yemen, Periplus Red Sea to Zeila and Berbera, down to Arabian Peninsula, Roman and back to Egypt. African Architectures The Africans scientifically, have architectural skills, they started having shelter under tree, later grew to building thatch houses, mud houses, plank upstairs, bricks to block buildings. The Benin ancient city is notable with human oldest form of artifact structures although most of it was massively destroyed by the British forces far before 1889. Most of the buildings were much larger than the Great Wall of China, even more solid than the Great Pyramid of Cheops. This type of buildings are estimated to have consumed thousands of years before completion, and might be the most and extravagant structure in the history of archaeological episode on the planet earth. Africans knew how to remember icons with monumental sculptures, molded with mud and clays; most of it abounds in Benin, Zimbabwe and Ijabu-Ode in State of Nigeria. Due to the love of God and worship, the Africans built the world greatest Mosque known as Dienne Mosque in Ghana by the Sudano-Sahelian architects. This building was solely constructed with mud and other local materials. It is believed that the mosque is the highest of its kind in the world. The stair pyramid of Egypt built at Saqqara remains the world oldest major stone building and the tallest human artifact structure over 4200 years ago. The Nubians also carved out speos structure from astound within 2700–4250 BCE. The Ethiopians made a giant strive in pebble building, while South Africans maintained the stone buildings till date. African Science of Communication The first African encrypted communication was the Egyptian alphabet of hieroglyphs 500–200 BCE. Thereafter, the Proto-Sinaitic script and the Meroitic alphabet became viral followed by the Arabian alphabet and Phoenician alphabet, Aramaic alphabet, and the Brāhmī script. Due to the religion invasions, the Arabic alphabets of the strong Islam dominated the Sahel, this alphabet was also used in writing some indigenous languages of Africa known as Ajami, some of the written languages include; Fulani, Igbo, Yoruba, Kanuri, Edo, Hausa, Mandinka, Songhai, Wolofal, Nubian and Ashanti. Some other West African countries developed her own written language early before 1920, like Mali, Côte d'Ivoire, and Guinea have an inscription known as Manding language, while the Ekpe ethnic group of Edo in Nigeria used signal and icon language known as Nsibidi (Ideographic Symbols) for secret communications. Akan people of Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire developed Adinkra (concepts and aphorisms) cipher, while the Mɔmɔlu Duwalu Bukɛlɛ group of Liberia who speaks Vai language developed Vai syllabic cryptogram around 1790s. The eastern Ashanti group in Ghana developed Adamorobe Sign Language to aid the hearing deficiency persons in the zone. The Niger and Congo groups discovered and developed talking drums in accordance to their various languages. The drums signal both individual and groups, on community issues, rituals and war communication. The Zambians and Angolans developed ideographs known as sona to mnemonic and record information since the 1600s. African Warfare The Africans were very courageous and defendant to the African territories with the use of obeisance and projectile as weapons. The central Africa manufactured knives, pierce inculcated with poison slant. They 84

Eluozo.….. Int. J. Innovative Soc. & Sci. Educ. Res. 7(1): 80-87, 2019 also constructed plunge, cutting weapons, rapiers, break bones, battle blade, and guards. The Africans equally developed flintlock, Wheelock, matchlock, cannons, and den guns. Although, the armaments and tackles were of very poor quality that might give way to ease slave trade due to inability to resist aggression.

African Magical Science The Africans in conjunction with substance weaponry, believes in African magic of fortification during war. The Africans were the first to build tunnels and bunkers an underground structures that protected them against enemies, example are: Sungbo's Eredo and wall of Benin. They used biological plants to form poisons, powder and air poisons. The people of Ogba kingdom used bees and tsetse flies as a scepter of war to defeat her enemies in 1791. In 1264 the ancient Egyptians manufactured arsenals like duck and projectiles, rod, beat, scimitars, steel, defenders, knives, body armor, stone, wood, and copper, bronze, and iron artillery to protect their-selves. As early as 1800s, the Ethiopians were able to manufacture artilleries that enabled them to defeat the Italians at the Adwa war in Tigray town. Due to constant research on weapons of mass destruction, the South Africans were able to defeat the British militia as early as 1878. After the war, the South Africans intensified action and completed the best world fearful combined nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons of mass destruction in the late 1980s which was dismantled after the treaty of nuclear weapons in the early 1990s.

Early Commerce in Africa The main trade pattern in Africa was trade by barter, around 1200s the Africans devised the use of various kinds of metal objects, cowry shell, brackish, gold, copper, lumps, iron cuffs, tips of iron spears, iron knives, and clothe as currency. The Africans were major exporters of gold, copper, ivory, and human slaves. Some of the African nations exported Ivory, ambergris, gold, leopard skins, snail shell, periwinkle shell and shell of tortoise. In return they imported incense, ebony, iron/iron weapons, olive oil, wine; ostrich feather, canon powder, fishing nets, traps and clothes from Europe, China, Persia, and India. Major Areas of African deficiency in Science and Technology The Africans tried its best at the early age, but was deficient in the science and technology relating to land and air transportations. Although, they tried in converting animals like donkey to aid long distance movement but never did any attempt to invent car. On air transport no single move was made rather, they were involved in spiritual journey such as soul travel and witchcrafts that enabled them to travel far but not in physical mode. However the later assertion cannot be proved scientifically. It is worrisome to state that of all the efforts by our ancestors, the present day African nations have remain retrogressive rather than progressive in science and technology, over depending on the western world for survival. The root causes, the point at which we derailed and the possible remedy shall be buttressed in this paper.

Why Africans are Poor in Science and Technology Several researchers are curious in finding the reasons why African nations are backward in developing science and technological skills since the early 40s, various factors has been identified but no solution has been proffered. Some of the issues raised are: Love for Western Tourism. In so many western countries, African scholars win Nobel Prize virtually in all fields of science and technological studies. Nevertheless, Africans staying abroad are been used in British and American military departments, nuclear, computer, automobile, space and other sectors of science and technology. This class of citizens are deprived the opportunities of returning to Africa, as such maintaining brain-drain of African scientists. Poor Funding of Science and Technological Research No African country has invested up to 10% of her GDP in science and technological research like the Western countries. The continent lags behind in scientific innovations and its policies in recent time on science and technology is always dependent on equipment purchase rather than manufacture. 85

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Military Dictatorship Due to undemocratic rules and military autocracy in African countries, no proper planning of science and technological structures were in place. Regular overthrow of governments hampered technological growth in Africa coupled with illiterates installed as military head of states. War In the world history, African nations have been the most vulnerable of war. During the civil and gulf wars in Africa, the little infrastructures that already existed were all destroyed, leaving the poor continent empty of scientific scaffolds. Adulteration of African Cultures Culture is said to be the peoples’ specific ways of lifestyle and Africans had their peculiar ways of living before the invasion by the Westerners. The invasion was a selfish ingression that subverted our traditional culture of worship, respect for social norms, love among kinsmen and traditional skills for science and technology with the Western cultures that we have no base neither be exposed to the rudiments. Borrowed Curriculum Efforts mar the other in the bid to improve on science and technology through our educational system. The efforts are slow or in futility over decades due to the influence of western cultures. Instead of Africans to develop her own designs in science and technology, they go out to borrow and adopt existing technologies for practice without the enabling resources and research environs. Purchase of Obsolete Equipments A major area of concern in Africa is the purchase of outdated machines, Africans buy old model machines for war, agriculture, power, construction and space technology whereas the Westerners are advancing on daily basis while the Africans struggles to learn from the outdated equipment.. Lack of Science and Technology Teachers Another factor militating against the growth of science and technology in Africa is lack of science teachers. Since we are not making headway in the field of science and technology, students and other stakeholders show apathy in studying science related courses, more also lack of skillful teachers as well lack of training and retraining impedes science in Africa.

CONCLUSION Since the early 1920s, the intending African scientists are been confronted with incessant barricades that causes them to abandon their nation and academia. The implication remains that African continent loses high profiled people who are essential and hopeful for science and technological innovation, as well socioeconomic growth. Research has it that over 50,000 vastly educated experts depart the continent per annum, with an estimate of about 40% of them as potential African scientists. According to reports, the reason for the exodus is due to no regard for African scientists, poor wage and late payment of salaries, lack of good research environment and desire for greener pastures.

RECOMMENDATION Based on the integrity of African history and the extent of inputs made by our ancestors in science and technology which have drifted to this alarming stage; the following recommendations are made: 1. There is need to introduce African science and technological history in our schools system. 2. Archeological research on the artifacts of the ancestors should be intensified. 3. Our governments should vote more funds to Science and Technology. 4. Students should be encouraged and motivated to study science and technological courses. 5. African science and technologists should be encouraged by patronizing their goods and services rather than under-placement. 6. The continent should be kept calm devoid of war and focus on development to reduce oversea studies and exodus movement. 7. Our schools curriculum should be indigenous devoid of adaptation of foreign cultures. 86

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8. African scientists should be invited for regional conferences on the developmental strategies on science and technology. 9. African technologists should be given their due place with respect and jumbo pay to retain them in the continent. 10. Locally produced good should be internalized and prioritized than foreign goods.

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