United States

National Affairs

AMERICANS,ISRAELIS, and Palestinians held elections during 2006, leaving a dramatically different cast of leaders by year's end. When all the ballots were counted in the U.S., a record number of Jews were among the winners. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict influenced all aspects of the Ameri- can Jewish public-affairs agenda. Internationally, it impacted Jewish attitudes toward the war in Iraq, the prospect of a nuclear Iran, and even Jewish advocacy to end the genocide in Darfur. Domestically, ad hominem attacks on "the Israel lobby" had the ring of anti-Jewish spiracy charges, and much of the Jewish interfaith encounter re- ived around the positions of evangelical and mainline Protestants on ael.

THE POLITICAL ARENA

"term Elections Election Day 2006, Democrats swept into power in both houses of ress, returning to full control after 12 years in political exile. In the Democrats gained 30 seats, sending 22 incumbent Republicans to defeat. They would have a 17-vote majority in the 110th Con- In the Senate, Democrats defeated six incumbent Republicans, in- ng their own strength from 44 to 49. With the benefit of two 'dents opting to caucus with the Democrats, they would hold a 51- enate majority. olls showed that the war in Iraq and the condition of the economy the list of issues motivating voters, displacing appeals to "values" iad spelled success for Republican candidates in recent elections. ndments and referenda restricting marriage to heterosexual couples

63 64 I AMERICAN JEWISHYEAR1300K,2007 were on the ballot in several states, but the issue seemed to be losing steam, going down to defeat in one state and passing in others by closer margins than in previous years. Pundits also suggested that swing voters and even part of the Republican base were turned off by an unpopular war and a series of scandals involving administration officials, congressional leaders, well-placed lobbyists, and an outspoken evangelical leader (see below). Every Jewish member of Congress who sought reelection was success- ful. In all, 43 Jews were elected to the new Congress, all Democrats with the exception of the two independents in the Senate and three Republi- cans, one in the House and two in the Senate. A record 13 senators would be Jewish, including two newcomers, Ben Cardin (D., Md.) and Bernard Sanders (I., Vt.). Two incumbent senators, Dianne Feinstein (D., Calif.) and Herb Kohl (D., Wis.), were handily reelected. In the House, newly elected Jews came not just from areas with high Jewish populations but also from states with few Jews, including Ten- nessee, Kentucky, and New Hampshire. Another Jew, Gary Trauner, nar- rowly lost his bid to replace Barbara Cubin (R., Wyo.) for Wyoming's at-large seat. The six new Jewish House members were Steve Cohen (D. Tenn.), Gabrielle Giffords (D., Ariz.), Paul Hodes (D., N.H.), Stevi Kagen (D., Wis.), Ron Klein (D., Fla.), and John Yarmuth (D., Ky.). Two Jewish Democrats were widely credited with doing much to their party's return to power. Charles Schumer (D., N.Y.) and Rah: Emanuel (D., Ill.) chaired, respectively, the Senate and House Democr tic campaign committees. Meanwhile, the ranks of Jewish governors gr to three with Elliott Spitzer (D., N.Y.) joining the reelected Linda Lin (R., Hawaii) and Ed Rendell (D., Pa.). The new Congress included the first Muslim and the first two Bi dhists. It would also witness the highest political rank ever achieved a Mormon and a woman, with Harry Reid expected to become Sen majority leader and Nancy Pelosi speaker of the House. And for the time, Congress would include more Jews than Episcopalians. Jews, j percent of the population, would hold 7percentof House seats and percent of Senate seats. To be sure, Episcopalians, Methodists, and Presbyterians together tinued to hold a larger share of seats in Congress than pews in Amer Albert Menendez, a researcher and writer who biennially tracked th ligions of members of Congress, noted that those mainline Protestant nominations would account for 20 percent of the new Congress, times their share of the general population—but down from the 43-i U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS/65 cent share the three denominationsrepresented in the 1972 Congress. Among religious groups, the most notable electoralshift, according to John Green of the Pew Center for Religion and PublicLife, was that De- mocrats garnered a majority of Catholicvoters for the first time in years. many The Jewish electorate remained unresponsive toa concerted campaign to get it to vote Republican, givingas much as 87 percent of Jewish to Democratic candidates. The votes 12 percent of Jews votingfor Republicans was half the level of support givento President Bush in 2004, buke to the Republican Jewish and a re- Coalition, which had takenout numerous ads painting the Democratic Party as anti-Israel, weakon terrorism, and beholden to critics of Israelsuch as Jimmy Carter and Cindy Sheehan. antiwar activist The largest segment ofJews to vote againsta Democratic candidate lived in Connecticut, where Joseph Lieberman garneredjust 60 percent of the Jewish vote in winning reelection. The three-termsenator ran suc- cessfully as an Independent, having lost the Democraticprimary to antiwar candidate Ned Lamont. Pro-Israel campaign contributions bolstered severalsuccessful incumbent candidates including Lieberman, and aided challengerssuch as Shel- don Whitehouse (D., R.I.), who ousted RepublicanLincoln Chaffee, considered cool towards Israel. However, significant pro-Israelcampaign dollars did not stave off defeat for four Republicansenators: Rick San- torum of Pennsylvania, Mike DeWjne of Ohio, ConradBurns of Mon- tana, and James Talent of Missouri. In the House,one race that was closely watched and later celebrated by friends of Israelwas in southwest Indiana, where six-term incumbentJohn Hostettler,a Republican, went down to a crushing 20-point defeat at the hands ofa local sheriff, De- mocrat Brad Ellsworth. On Election Day, the residentsof Somerville, Massachusetts, defeated a hard-fought, handily multiyear, pro-Palestinian effortto pass two non- binding resolutions. The first,affirming the so-called Palestinian of return," was defeated "right by 55 to 45 percent. Thesecond, calling for divestment from Israel, failed by 70to 30 percent. A broad coalition the Boston Jewish Community led by Relations Council and theJewish Labor Committee was instrumental in defeating themeasures. Speaking out in various forums against them and in support of Israelwere Congressman Mike Capuano, Massachusetts governor-elect Deval Patrick,Lieutenant Governor Kerry Healey, and Somerville mayor Joe Curtatone,as well as the Boston Globe and theBoston Herald. 66/AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK,2007

Election Controversies Republicans in Congress seemed unable to recoverfrom a series of political scandals during the year. On January3, lobbyist Jack Abramoff entered a guilty plea on felony countsof conspiracy, fraud, and tax evasion related to his lobbying work for NativeAmerican tribes. He also agreed to pay a $1.7-million fine tothe Internal Revenue Service. Still unproven was the accusation madein 2005 that the pro-Israel Abramoffhad di- verted money from an urban charity toIsraeli settlers. The Abramoff scandal was but one of a chain that hadbrought down such powerful fig- ures as House MajorityLeader Tom DeLay (R., Tex.), whoended his reelection bid after being indicted oncampaign-finance charges. His former colleague Randy "Duke" Cunningham(R., Calif.) was sentenced on March 3 to more than eight years inprison and fined $1.8 million for bribery, fraud, and tax evasion. Two of the most salaciousscandals of the year, each with broader electoral implications, involved ironic twists on anissue that had helped Republicans in recent years, opposition tohomosexuality. Mark Foley (R., Fla.), a six-term congressmanknown for his initiatives to protectchil- dren from exploitation, resigned onSeptember 29 after it was revealed that he had sent sexually suggestivetelephone "instant messages" to teenage boys who were serving asCongressional pages. Conservative candidates who wished the Foleyscandal would disappear from the headlines were hardly happywhen it was replaced by revelations that Ted Haggard, a giant in theevangelical Christian world, was impli cated in a sex-for-hire scandal with amale prostitute, from whom he hau allegedly purchased the drugmethamphetamine. Haggard, head of the National Association of Evangelicals(NAE), at first denied the charges, but his accuser produced voicemailrecordings. On November 3—j four days before the midtermelections——Haggard resigned his NAt post. Jewish leaders, whoremembered Haggard's veiled threat that Jew ish criticism of Mel Gibson's filmThe Passion of the Christ could je ardize evangelical support for Israel,had little sympathy. Former Florida secretary of stateKathleen Harris's unsuccessful c paign for a Senate seat from that state was nothelped by her prayer, tered on a conference call, that Godwould "bring the hearts and of our Jewish brothers and sistersinto alignment." When confi about it, Harris said the prayer wasintended to request that Jews h Republicans, not Christians, but manydoubted her sincerity, as she made similar comments in the past. U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS I 67 Conservative columnist DennisPrager, who was Jewish,set off a firestorm with a scathing piecehe wrote assailing the patriotismof Min- nesota's Keith Ellison, the first Muslim elected to Congress, whohad announced that he would take theoath of office on a Qur'an, theIslamic holy book. Prager charged that Ellison's oath would do"more damage to the unity of America and to the value system that has formedthis country than the terrorists of 9/11." Prager'scolumn was rife witherrors, perhaps the most significant being that in fact, memberswere sworn in en masse, and could opt, as Ellison did, for private ceremonies later.Rep. Virgil Goode (R., Va.) echoedPrager and wrote a letter to hisconstituents asserting that swearing an oath on the Qur'an poseda threat to "the values and beliefs traditional to the UnitedStates of America." The major Jewish organizations stronglydefended Ellison.

Judicial Appointments

With the confirmation of JudgeSamuel Auto Jr. to fill theseat of As- sociate Justice Sandra DayO'Connor, who had announcedher retire- ment, President Bush succeeded inplacing a second justiceon the Supreme Court. Auto was actually Bush's third choice for theseat. He withdrew his first choice, White House counsel Harriet Miers,and then, upon the death of Chief Justice William Rehnquist, nominated hissec- ond choice, John Roberts, to succeed him as chief justice.Alito's 58-42 Senate confirmation markedthe first time thata majority on the Supreme Court would be Catholic. Ehere was no consensus in the Jewish community about Alito.A let- from the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America(OU) :he Senate Judiciary Committee expressed the agency's policynot to ',h in on judicial nominations, but offered praise for JudgeAlito's rd on religious liberties. The National Council of JewishWomen JW) opposed the nomination, calling Auto an "ideologuewith a onstrated commitment to pullingthe court to the far right."The )n for Reform Judaism (URJ) agreed,asserting that adding Alito to ourt "would threaten protection of themost fundamental rights." -LieAmerican Jewish Committeemaintained its traditional policy 'r supporting nor opposing of judicial nominees. Instead, AJCsent a to the Judiciary Committee urgingit to examine closely thenomi- s record and judicial philosophy, focusing in particular on issuesre- to religious liberty and the separationof church and state, civil and civil liberties, and separationof powers. The Anti-Defamation BOOK, 2007 68/AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR such concerns. Morethan two League (ADL) sent asimilar letter raising signed a letter to theJudiciary Committee that dozen religious groups the Establishment Clausequestions for Alito. Among posed a range of Public Affairs (JCPA), signatories were the NCJW,Jewish Council for URJ, and United Synagogueof Conservative Judaism. by placing the Senateunder Democratic con- The midterm elections, the so-called "gangof trol, would apparentlydiminish the influence of had played a key rolein confirming judgesduring 14" senators, which the table Republicans in the grouphad agreed to take off 2005. The seven judicial nominations, therequire- the "nuclear option"of revoking, for group's seven Democrats,in ex- ment of 60 votes toend a filibuster; the filibuster nominationsonly in "extraordinary change, agreed to confirmation of three circumstances." Together, the14 had allowed the and blocked two controversial nominees to thefederal bench in 2005 others (see AJYB 2006, pp.34—35). agencies closely watchedthe actions of the three The Jewish defense positions and state- confirmed judges during 2006because their previous who faced criticism ments raised concerns.They were William Haynes, interrogation methods atGuantánamO Bay, Cuba, for his approval of William G. Myers, whose while he was thePentagon's general counsel; issues aroused controversy;and Terrence W. record on environmental In keeping with Senate Boyle, who wasopposed by civil rights groups. unconfirmed nominations werereturned to the White rules, several of the in September, House before the August recess.They were renominated the midterm elections. only to have the clock runout on them before

THE INTERNATIONALPOLICY ARENA

US. -Israel Relations

A NEW ISRAELI GOVERNMENT great uncertainty inthe U.S.-Israelrelationship. The year started with Knesset prime minister ArielSharon dissolved the Late in 2005, Israeli announced his intention to run and called for newelections. Sharon also centrist party, Kadima, on aplatform that included at the head of a new withdrawal that had re- continuing the policy ofunilateral territorial in the northern West sulted in Israel leaving Gazaand several settlements U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS /69 Bank. Sharon suffered a mild stroke in mid-December 2005,but returned to work soon after. Four days into the New Year hewas felled by a mas- sive and debilitating stroke. Doctors announced thathe was in a coma from which he was not likely toemerge. Statements of support and concern for the ailing prime ministerpoured in from many quarters, a remarkable turn ofevents considering how unpopular he had been among "dovish"groups prior to his disengagement plan. Television evangelist Pat Robertson, however, tooka different approach on his 700 Club cable broadcast, suggesting that thestroke might be divine retribution. "He was dividing God's land,and I would say, 'Woe unto any prime minister of Israel who takesa similar course to ap- pease the [European Union], United Nations, or the United States of America," Robertson said, adding, "Godsays, this land belongs to me, and you better leave it alone." These comments evoked a stinging reaction from liberalsand conser- vatives alike, revealing a telling faultline within the evangelicalChristian world. The public policy director of the Southern BaptistConvention, Rev. Richard Laid, scored the televangelist who had oftenupstaged him and other more mainstream evangelical powerhouses, sayinghe was "ap-

palled" by Robertson's "spiritual ignorance and . . . arrogance." Sharon's deputy, Ehud Olmert, assumed the post of actingprime minister. Kadima finished first in the March 28 election with29 of 120 Knes- set seats, most of them at the expense of Likud, which had beenhome to both Sharon and Olmert. Less than two months later,Olmert paid his first visit to Washington as prime minister, meeting withPresident Bush and addressing the U.S. Congress. Warm welcomes androunds of applause masked divisions over the prime minister's planto move unilaterally, something the administration supported only in the absenceof a Pales- partner. The president stressed, and Jerusalem seemed toagree, that entual permanent borders between Israel anda Palestinian state I need to come from a negotiated settlement.

IINIAN ELECTIONS esunian elections were scheduled for January 25, 2006. Waryof the tial for a strong Hamas showing, the U.S. and the EUthreatened u recognize a Palestinian government led by a party whose charter J for the destruction of Israel. In this theywent a significant step than their partners in the "Quartet," Russia and theUN, which [led on Palestinian groups participating in the electionto renounce YEAR BOOK,2007 70 / AMERICAN JEWISH and disarm immediately,but did violence, recognizeIsrael's right to exist, possibly of withholdingrecognition. not raise the researchers said thatFatah, Even so, as Palestiniansheaded to the p oIls, successor,Mahmoud Abbas, the party of the lateYasir Arafat and his than 40 percent ofthe vote; Hamas was ex- continued to lead, with more actual result was fardifferent: pected to win around25 percent. The setting off a flurryof surprised reactions. Hamas drew 60 percent, quickly lined up to Congressional leaders and theBush administration Palestinian Authority, inthe hope financial aid to a Hamas-led oppose U.S. and other less overtlyviolent fac- of driving thePalestinians back to Fatah Rice said, "TheUnited States is not tions, Secretary ofState CondoleezZa Israel, organization that advocatesthe destruction of prepared to fund an EU fol- and that refuses itsobligations... ."The that advocates violencenonhumanitariar assistance tothe PA. lowed, boycotting all income plummet- With unemploymentskyrocketing and household areas. AmericanJewish leaders ing, a crisisloomed in the Palestinian idea "starve the beast"approach, as the boycott wrestled with whether a IsraeliPalestin1an peace. Inthe was called, wasthe best way to advance that had beenoutspoken aboutPalestinian end, even the URJ, a group assistance Senate resolutionthat "no United States suffering, supported a Authority if any represen- should be provideddirectly to the Palestinian the holding a majority ofparliamentary seats within tative political party destruction of maintains a positioncalling for the Palestinian Authority Action Center (RAC),Rabbi Israel." The directorof the URJ Religious "While we support thedemocratic process car- David Saperstein, wrote: Hamas has Palestinians, we cannotignore the fact that ried out by the attacks against Israel,de- for many years been atthe forefront of terror process and harminnocent Israelis." signed to thwart the peace head not universal,though. Arthur Waskow, Support for a boycott was electoral sup- Center, emphasizedthat much of the of the dovish Shalom declared: "In- due to its charitableactivities. Waskow port for Hamas was recognize Israel'slegitimacy is a sisting that thePalestinian government of get- praiseworthy goal, but this is aperverse and unjust way just and Pales- likelier to cause even moreintense misery for the ting there. It is far of a party that has tinians, throwing them evendeeper into the arms elected not for itshostility to shown greathumanitarian success and was humanitarian success." Hewent on to likenthe pro- Israel but for that World War I, posed boycott toAllied punishmentof Germans after "produced a demonicGermany." which, he said, aid to Palestinianswhile World leaders sought,and found, ways to get U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS / 71 bypassing Hamas. According to the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, aid to the PA totaled $900 million in 2006,up from $349 million a year earlier. Total aid to Palestinians, including that distributed throuh nongovernmental organizations such as the World Food Program, increased to more than $300 per capita, and rose overall by more than 20 percent to $1.2 billion, the UN and the International Mon- etary Fund reported.

A CONTROVERSIAL WAR Israel's unilateral withdrawal from Gaza in 2005 was met with an in- creasing barrage of rocket fire into Israel, and Israel returned fire into the newly evacuated territory. As the summer of 2006 approached, tensions escalated. In June, Hamas, now the governing party in the PA,was among the militant groups claiming responsibility for kidnapping an Is- raeli soldier at a Gaza crossing. The Iranian-sponsored Hezballah (Party of God) fired rockets from Lebanon into northern Israel, and kidnapped 'wo more Israeli soldiers. After a failed rescue attempt, Israel responded with artillery and airstrikes, destroying Hezballah rocket caches along with significant parts of the southern Lebanon civilian infrastructure— including roads, bridges, and broadcast stations—which Hezballah used support its operations. resident Bush attended a mid-July meeting of the leaders of the G8 lustrialized nations in St. Petersburg. The group issued a statement at- uting the origins of the conflict to the actions of Hamas and Hezbal- It called for an end to attacks on Israel and the release of the captured 'is, to be followed by a withdrawal of Israeli forces from Gaza and lease of detained Palestinian legislators belonging to Hamas. The ent, while critical of the scope and impact of Israel's response, did all for a cease-fire. American leaders expressed the view that Israel a right to defend itself, but the president admonished the Jewish to be "mindful of the consequences." nerican Jewish groups quickly organized large pro-Israel rallies in il cities, including Boston, Chicago, Denver, New York, Philadel- San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. In New York, Senator Hillary )n said, "We will stand with Israel because Israel is standing for ican values as well as Israeli ones." Jewish organizations also hed fund-raising campaigns to help Israelis—Jewish, Christian, nuslimaffected by the rocket attacks. The families of the kid- I soldiers became symbols of the grief of all Israelis, and made fre- YEAR BOOK,2007 72/AMERICAN JEWISH of their loved ones,Gilad quent appearancespleading for the safe return and Eldad Regev. Shalit, Ehud Goldwasser, highly the war was mixed.Some groups were American Opifliofl about Council of July 14 statementfrom the National critical of Israel. A the time- Church World Service,for example, started Churches USA and mis- conflict with the Israeli"occupation" and "Israel's line of the current innocent Palestinians."According sile strike on Gazaand the death of fire and thekidnapping of an Is- to the statement,the Palestinian rocket for Is- "retributive." There werealso voices of support raeli soldier was resolution Federation of Teachers(AFT) passed a rael. The American precipitating the crisis withtheir condemning Hezballah andHamas for kidnappings, andrecognizing Israel's responsi bombings, killings, and union defeateC borders and citizensfrom attack. The bility to defend its immediate cease-fire andplacec a competingresolution that called for an blame on both sides. mediate a solution tothe crisis but heldfirm ii u.s. diplomats tried to Lebanon without guar opposing any Israeliwithdrawal from southern A compromise wasreached 01 antees of security onthe northern border. larger U UN adopted aresolution that specified a August 11, when the patrolling that nation peacekeeping force as well asLebanese troops southern region.

Darfur entered its fourth year asgoverflmefl Thecrisis in Darfur, Sudan, and rebel groupscontinued to wreck havoc on v backed Arab militias dead throu troubled region. Estimatesof the number of lagers in the 450,000. violence and diseaseranged from 200,000 to community added its voice tothe chorus callil The American Jewish level, Jewish groups werei for an end to thegenocide. On the local rallies in Austin;Boulder; Chicago; NewYe strumental in organizing Somerville, New Jersey; Se City; Portland, Oregon;Rutland, Vermont; Francisco, South PalmBeach; and Tucson. tie; St. Paul; San the 150 orga Nationally, three dozenJewish agencies were among That group launched acampail zations in theSaveDarfur coalition. and el Darfur," to have onemillion handwritten "Million Voices for calling for a stronger mu tronic postcardsdelivered to the White House and protect Darfuris.By April 30, moreti national force to intervene they were delivered toPr 760,000 postcards hadbeen collected, and of thousands held anational r; dent Bush inWashington while tens U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS /73 there for an end to the genocide. Speakers includedrepresentatives of the three Jewish agencies serving among the 15 organizations thatcomprised the SaveDarfur executive committee: American JewishWorld Service president Ruth Messinger; JCPA executive director Rabbi SteveGutow; and Rabbi David Saperstein, director of Reform Judaism'sRAC. In addition, Elie Wiesel was among the celebrities who spoke.The coalition reached its goal of a million postcards during thesummer. A peace agreement for Darfur was signed May 5bythe Sudanese government and the Sudan Liberation Movement, the region's largest rebel group. It ostensibly required the government to disarm and demobilize the Janjaweed militia and restrict movements of othermilitant forces. When the UN General Assembly opened in New Yorkon September 19, Sudanese president Omar Hassan al-Bashir said that Jewishorganizations were the source of media "fictions" regarding the atrocities in Darfur. Eighty-eight members of the House of Representativessent a letter to al- Bashir condemning the remarks and praising the AmericanJewish com- unity for its efforts to bring an end to the killings. )n October 13, President Bush signed the Darfur Peaceand Ac- intability Act. The law bolstered the African Union Missionin AMIS); directed the U.S. government to assist efforts bythe national Criminal Court to bring to justice those guilty ofwar s; and called on the president to freeze the assets of, and imposea travel ban on, those committing atrocities in Darfur. Theact also urged a greater NATO role in support of the AMIS and called for the administration to impose other sanctions, including denyingentry to U.S. ports, hips containing Sudanese oil. The bill had passed the Houseon 12, and the Senate, by unanimous consent,on September 21. The ay the president signed the bill he also issuedan executive order :ing property of and prohibiting transactions with thegovernment ,udan." t year's end, several more Darfur-related billswere pending, includ- one sponsored by Sen. Harry Reid (D., Nev.) requiring the Depart- )f Defense to report to Congress onways the U.S. could assist the and another sponsored by Sen. Joseph Biden (D., Del.) calling for ation of a "no-fly zone" in Darfur.

'ish community continued its delicate dance around the issue in Iraq. Polls, including the annualsurvey of Jewish opinion BOOK, 2007 74/AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR indicated that Jews op- conducted by the AmericanJewish Committee, margin. And yet the URJand the Re- posed the war by a three-to-one alone among constructionist RabbinicalAssociation stood virtually Most Jewish groups major Jewish organizationsin voicing this dissent. about the war. One, theRepublican Jewish avoided issuing statements of the war efforts. Coalition, took strongexception to Jewish criticism Matt Brooks told theJewish Telegraphic Agency, RJC executive director risk and what's at "This is a time for peoplewho should know what's at winds, it sends the wrong stake and not give in tothe prevailing political flag to our friends andallies message to men inuniform. It sends a white around the world." bipartisan panel The long-awaited reportof the Iraq Study Group—a Iraq, led by former sec- charged with researchingand proposing policy for Baker and former Houseleader Lee Hamilton— retary of state James The report, in fact, included 79 recommendationsto President Bush. immediate Iraq war, endorsing acomprehensive re- went well beyond the controversial call view of U.S. policy in theMiddle East. This included a the IsraeliPalestiflian con- for a more robustAmerican role in mediating report's call for considerationof the Pales- flict. The Baker-Hamilton in the pro-Israel tinians' "right of return" wasnot appreciated by many the Golan Heights community, nor was itssuggestion that Israel return in return for peace withSyria.

Refugees from ArabCountries spearheaded by An "International Rightsand Redress Campaign" was Countries; its American arm, the World Organizationof Jews from Arab Countries; and local groups,such as the San Justice for Jews from Arab North Africa. Francisco-based Jews Indigenous tothe Middle East and May 23 to Resolutions were introducedin both houses of Congress on representatives at internationalforums to match any instruct American of Jewish and other reference to Palestinianrefugees with mention East, North Africa, andthe Persian Gulf. Pro- refugees from the Middle who were expelled or ponents of the measuresaid the plight of Jews East and North Africanhomelands had been forced to flee their Middle Greater at- overshadowed in the debateabout Israeli-Palestinian peace. they felt, wouldcounterbalance the "right of tention to their narrative, the 1948 and return" that Palestinian groupssought for refugees from 1967 wars. Israel resettled thos Among the points theywished to stress was that U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS /75 Jews who were forced out of countries like Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Iran, Morocco, and Libya, while Palestinian refugees, under instructions from the Arab League, were not integrated, but rather kept in refugee camps. The bill was sponsored in the House by Tom Lantos (D., Calif.), along with Jerrold Nadler (D., N.Y.), Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R., Fla.), and Michael Ferguson (R., N.J.). A companion bill was introduced in the Sen- ate by Rick Santorum (R., Pa.), Norman Coleman (R., Minn.), Richard Durbin (D., Ill.), and Frank Lautenberg (D., N.J.).

Iran Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who had already shocked world leaders in 2005 by calling for Israel to be "wiped off the map" and supporting Holocaust denial, started off 2006 by welcoming Ariel Sharon's ill health and hoping for his death. More statements proposing the elimination of Israel and questioning the historicity of the Holocaust continued throughout the year. In addition, Iran held a contest for best Holocaust caricatures, in retaliation for cartoons published in Denmark that allegedly depicted the Muslim prophet Mohammed in a negative light (see below, p. 000). Iranian threats against Israel were gravely exacerbated by Tehran's continuing nuclear program, which posed an existential threat to Israel and to others. But the debacle over the apparently nonexistent weapons of mass destruction in neighboring Iraq cast a long shadow over the response to Iran's nuclear quest, making it seem like "boy cries wolf." It was only when the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) announced that its inspections were unable to remove lingering doubts about Iran's program that the charges gained international credibility. The American Jewish community found itself in an all-too-familiar position, worrying about Israel's security but assiduously avoiding public expression of these concerns lest it be seen as a warmonger. Such anxieties were quelled nei- ther by a UN Security Council resolution on July 31 demanding that Iran abandon its nuclear ambition nor by a December 23 resolution impos- ing sanctions. Both houses of Congress unanimously adopted the Iran Freedom Sup- port Act (IFSA), "to hold the current regime in Iran accountable for its threatening behavior and to support a transition to democracy in Iran." The IFSA codified sanctions preventing U.S. companies from conducting business with or in Iran that had previously been barred underexec- utive order. The act urged support for democratic forces in Iran, endorsed 76/AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK,2007 American divestment from foreigncompanies that invested in Iran's pe- troleum sector, and extended parts ofthe Iran-Libya Sanctions Act. The Senate bill was sponsored by RickSantorum (R., Pa.), Bill Frist (R., Tenn.), John Cornyn (R., Tex.), andBill Nelson (D., Fla.), and the House version was proposed by IleanaRos-Lehtinen (R., Fla.), joined by Henry Hyde (R., Ill.), Tom Lantos (D., Calif.),and Gary Ackerman (D., N.Y.). House action, followed by asame-day presidential signature, came on September 30. Tehran hosted a Holocaust-denialconference in December. Among the participants were several anti-ZionistOrthodox Jews—including some from the U.S.—as well as otherAmericans and Europeans who disputed the facts of the Nazi era, amongthem former Ku Klux Klan leaderand would-be politician David Duke.Ahmadinejad said at the conference, "Just as the Soviet Union was wiped outand today does not exist, so will the Zionist regime soon be wipedout." President Bush called thegath- ering "an affront to the entire civilizedworld." The House of Represen- tatives unanimously approved aresolution, sponsored by Rep. Alcee Hastings (D., Fla.), condemning theconference.

The "Israel Lobby," Imagined andReal

WALT-MEARSHEIMER Alarms went off in the Jewishcommunity with the publication of an ostensibly academic article, "The IsraelLobby and U.S. Foreign Policy," by Stephen M. Walt of the JohnF. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard and John J. Mearsheimer of theUniversity of Chicago. Touch- ing on themes of great sensitivity forJews, the paper suggested conspiracy and dualloyalty—perhaps even disloyalty. Its target wasthe pro-Israel community, a "Lobby" thatallegedly harmed American interests by manipulating U.S.foreign policy in favor of Israel. Amongthe results of such manipulation, chargedthe authors, was the war in Iraq. What they meant by the term "IsraelLobby" was those arms of the Jew- ish and evangelical Christiancommunities that advocated for Israel, as well as political neoconservatives, a termthat many considered code language for influential Jews. The authors were both well-regardedacademics, and their article was posted on the Web site of Harvard'sKennedy School. Shortly after its publication, however, the school distanceditself from the piece by re- U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS I 77 moving its logo from the cover and addinga disclaimer indicating that the opinions expressed were those of the authors, not necessarily those of Harvard or the University of Chicago. The paper presented the Jewish community witha Catch-22. Since part of the authors' indictment was that the "Israel Lobby" silenced those who differed with it, criticism would feed into thatvery charge. Such criticism was voiced in Jewish quarters nonetheless. It pointedout histori- cal inaccuracies—such as giving short shrift to Israeli offers of territorial compromise—noted a double standard that seemed to justify Arab terrorism, and pointed to the fallacy of attributing all Middle Eastern prob- lems to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The ADL concluded that the paper "has elements of classic anti-Jewish conspiracy theories." Ironi- cally, even MIT professor Noam Chomsky, one of Israel's most vocal critics, charged that the article exaggerated the role of the "Israel Lobby" and overlooked the role of special interests such as oil companies and thearms industry in devising American policy in thearea.

JIMMY CARTER

Adding fuel to the fire was former president Jimmy Carter. Nevercon- sidered a close friend of the Jewish state, Carter launcheda missile of his own at Israel with a controversial book, Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid. The Nobel laureate and one-term president inflamed passions, first, with the title's analogy to the old South African system of racial separation I discrimination. The content of the book did little toassuage the worst s of the pro-Israel community. Carter accused Israel of the "cob- tion of Palestinian land" and placed blame for the conflict foursquare ;rael's court. The book's lack of balance and significant factualer- ed to the resignation of 15 board members from the Carter Center, y Professor Kenneth Stein of Emory University. ter responded to the criticism through a "Letter to Jewish Citizens kmericain which he explained that his use of the term "apartheid" ed only to conditions in the Palestinian territories, not within Israel C. The issue was not racism, he wrote, but the "desire ofa minority telis for Palestinian land." He condemned terrorism and said he did urn that Jews controlled the American media. Rather, he objected pro-Israel sentiments of fellow evangelical Christians, who, he iiad been raised to support "God's chosen people." As for the charge he book contained errors, the president said it had been fact-checked perts. This letter did not mollify the book's critics. BOOK, 2007 78 I AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR

AIPAc's WOES the actual Is- With accusations flying aboutthe putative "Israel lobby," Rosen and Keith rael lobby was dealing with acrisis of its own. Steven Affairs Com- Weissman, former staffers atthe American Israel Public indicted under the mittee (AIPAC), were awaitingtrial. The two had been information" (pre- Espionage Act of 1917 forgiving "national security receive it" (presumably about Iran) to partieswho were "not entitled to Franklin, the sumably the israeli government).Early in the year, Larry information with Defense Department analystwho shared the classified and fined $10,000. In them, was sentenced toalmost 13 years in prison of the law under August, Judge T.S. Ellis IIIupheld the constitutionality proceeding, but ruled that towin its case the which the prosecution was result of the government would have toshow it had suffered harm as a unauthorized sharing of information. well-funded AIPAC's angst was surelyincreased by talk of a new and Rabbi David Jewish "pro-peace" lobby. Supportersof the idea, including ef- Saperstein, the head of the Reformmovement's RAC, denied that the provide an alternative to AIPAC,the venerable and fort was intended to believed unflinching pro-Israel lobby,which more dovish Jewish groups wing. Powerhouse hewed too closely to thepositions of the Israeli right philanthropists involved in talks aboutthe new initiative includedGeorge remained lit- Soros and Charles Bronfman.As the year ended the project tle more than a trial balloon.

THE DOMESTICPOLICY ARENA

Homeland Security Critical provisions of the USAPATRIOT Act, the antiterroriSmlaw of September 11 passed in the aftermath ofthe attacks on America the law sought tc 2001, were to expire at theend of 2005. Supporters of tools permanent, while civilrights groups an make its law-enforcement individual pro many of the Jewishorganizations pressed for enhanced temporarily extende tections and judicial oversight.In 2005, Congress agreement the homeland security measurewhile it sought to work out an included several safeguards forcivi A Senate reauthorization measure Th liberties, but the House version wassimilar to the original legislation. U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS /79 conference committee that reconciled the two removed many of the new protections, and President Bush signed the bill into law on March 9. The administration suffered two setbacks in its attempts to apprehend and try alleged terrorists. On July 29, the Supreme Court ruled in Ham- dan v. Rumsfeld that the executive order setting up military commissions to try terror Suspects Ofl Guantánamo Bay violated both the Uniform Code of Military Justice and the Geneva Conventions. Then, on August 17, a federal judge in Michigan ordered the National Security Agency to stop its Terrorist Surveillance Program. The court held unconstitutional the program's practice of eavesdropping on conversations without get- ting warrants from the special courts designated to hear classified matters under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA). Congress had already been conducting hearings about the once-secret program. On March 12, Senator Russell Feingold (D., Wis.) went so far as to introduce a resolution censuring the president for initiating the plan, which, the senator argued, was in violation of the FISA's requirement of court approval for wiretaps of U.S. citizens. Feingold, who was being men- tinned as a possible presidential contender, was joined by Senators Bar- a Boxer (D., Calif.), Tom Harkin (D., Iowa), and John Kerry (D., tss.). Sen. Patrick Leahy (D., Vt.) also expressed support for the censure. n the aftermath of the Hamdan case, Congress passed the Military mmissions Act to establish a structure for trying "enemy combatants." .aw was adopted over the objections of many in the civil rights corn- y and signed on October 17. RAC director Rabbi David Saperstein i that the legislation's broad definition of "enemy combatant" could indefinite detention of individuals who posed no threat to the na- risked exposing those in U.S. custody to mistreatment, lacked ap- iate judicial oversight, and "would put our nation on a collision e with the generally accepted, longstanding interpretation of the va Conventions' prohibition on cruel and inhuman treatment of ners." Those conventions, he noted, were adopted in their present in response to World War li-era atrocities. igress acted to improve security at nonprofit institutions that were Ligh risk for international terrorism. United Jewish Communities C), the umbrella organization for the Jewish federation system, se- 25 million in federal grants to help such institutions. A House- agreement reached in September, eagerly sought by Jewish tunal organizations, set the conditions for release of the funds. The came just two months after Pam Waechter, an employee of the Seat- YEAR BOOK,2007 80 / AMERICANJEWISH killed and five othersinjured after a man who tie Jewish Federation, was through the building's se- claimed to be "angry atIsrael" forced his way girl's head. The suspect, curity door by holding ahandgun to a teenage million. Naveed Afzal Haq, wasarrested and his bail set at $50

Immigration million undocumented Experts estimated thatbetween 200,000 and a in 2006. The total pop- migrants illegally crossedthe U.S.-Mexican border 2003 by Tom Ridge, ulation of illegal aliens,placed at 8—12 million in of homeland security,had grown to as many as who was then secretary Dobbs made the situa- 20 million by the endof 2006. CNN anchor Lou nightly newscast, becoming apart of the story him- tion the mantra of his agreed, self while drawing attention to animmigration system that, most repair. Suggested solutionsranged from amnesty for those was in need of American already in the U.S. and temporaryworker programs to allow usjnesses_eSpecially agricultural—tobenefit from the cheaperlabor of a fence supply, to increased bordersecurity and the construction stretching all across the2,000-mile length of the border. Jewish groups, especially The issue was a priorityfor several American Reform Judaism's RAC,all of which devoted re- HIAS, AJC, JCPA, and from Web sites to thecomplicated issue. Although far sources on their Jewish groups unchallenged, the consensus inWashington and among the of such an ap- favored "comprehensive"immigration reform. Elements legal status, enhanced bordersecurity and en- proach included "earned" protections, forcement, cross-bordercooperation, increased worker knowingly hiring undocumentedworkers, and ex- penalties for employers President Bush pediting the backlog offamilyreunificati0n cases. Even supporting an ostensi- broke ranks with hardlinersin his own party by illegally. ble path to citizenshipfor those in the country for a comprehensivesolution were dashed. In the end, though, hopes anything about im- Congress, fearful offacing voters without doing migration, settled on a fixthat was heavy on lawenforcement and the fence, and weak onthose provisionsendorsed measures such as president signed by pro-immigrant groups.Congress passed and the authorizing construction of up to700 miles of, the Secure Fence Act, much as fencing across the southernborder. The project could cost as $9 billion. On July 1, a new The immigration debatealso took other forms. U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS I 81 rule went into effect requiring American citizens applying for or receiving Medicaid to show proof of citizenship. Critics said the regula- tion could harm eligible beneficiaries who, for various reasons, might be unable to produce the necessary documentation. Also, several states tightened procedures at polling stations to prevent those who were not citizens from voting. Liberal groups decried these moves as voter intimidation.

The Environment The House passed the U.S-Israel Energy Cooperation Act. Champi- oned by the American Jewish Congress, this bill would create a grant program to foster joint research between U.S. and Israeli scientists to develop renewable and sustainable sources of energy. The grants would total $140 million dollars over the next seven years. The Coalition on the Environment and Jewish Life (COEJL) launched a nationwide campaign to address the global warming crisis. The campaign, called "A Light among the Nations," combined education, awareness, advocacy, and action to conserve energy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The centerpiece of the program was to get Jews to install energy-efficient, cost-effective, compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs during Hanukkah 2006. COEJL noted that if every U.S. household re- [aced one bulb with a CFL, it would have the same impact as removing million cars from the road.

CIVIL RIGHTS AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTIES

ing Rights e Jewish community enthusiastically supported extension of the Rights Act, the 1965 law that removed many obstacles to the fran- uch as literacy tests, and required federal approval (pre-clearance) 1e voting rules in certain jurisdictions. Congress rejected amend- the bill that would have weakened its provisions, such as the re- ent that translators or multilingual ballots be provided for lish-speaking voters. On July 27, President Bush signed a 25-year n of the act. of voter fraud, often unsubstantiated, were a rallying cry 82/AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK,2007 behind a handful of state legislative efforts to enact morestringent requirements for voting. In Georgia, a billrequiring photographic identification for voting in person was challenged onthe grounds that it could infringe on the rights of citizens lacking suchidentification. More than two dozen civil rights groups sent aletter urging the Department of Jus- tice to block the law. Among those signing werethe Atlanta chapters of AJC, ADL, and NCJW, as well as the AtlantaBlack-Jewish Coalition and the JCPA. In Arizona, a federal courtremoved an injunction and allowed enforcement of an identification law forvoting that had been approved in a referendum. The U.S. House of Representatives considered asimilar measure for federal elections. The proposed bill would force states toenact proof-of- citizenship requirements for voter registration.Critics said the measure would disenfranchise American citizens,particularly poor, elderly, dis- abled, minority, and rural voters. The Supreme Court upheld the controversial2003 redistricting of several congressional districts in Texas, permittingformer U.S. House majority leader Tom DeLay's unusual move toredraw district lines a second time within the same ten-year census period.The court held that one of the districts, however, had to be reconfiguredbecause its new composi- tion constituted racial gerrymandering. TheDeLay plan had shifted six seats to the Republican column in2004, ousting longtime Jewish congressman Martin Frost. In the2006 election, two of the seats Re- publicans gained then moved back intoDemocratic hands.

Church-State Issues

FREE-EXERCISE AND ESTABLISHMENT MATTERS The U.S. Supreme Court upheld a portionof the 1993 Religious Free- dom Restoration Act (RFRA), ruling inGonzales v. 0 Centro that Con- gress had the constitutionalauthority to require that if actions of the federal government burdened free exercise ofreligion they were only per- missible if they served a compelling governmentinterest. The case involved a church's use of a tea containing asubstance barred under federal law. In 1990, in a case involving ritual useof peyote, another controlled substance, the Supreme Court had struck downthe "compelling interest" test. In response, Congress passedRFRA in 1993 to prevent federal or U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS/ 83 stategovernments from enacting laws placing substantial burdenson individual religious practice unless the lawsserved a compelling government interest and were drawn in the leastrestrictive manner possible. The Supreme Court struck down thepart of RFRA that applied to the states in 1997, but had left until thisyear the question of whether the law still applied to federal legislation. In September, the House approved bya vote of 244-172 the Veterans' Memorials, Boy Scouts, Public Seals, andOther Public Expressions of Religion Protection Act of 2006. The billwould prevent plaintiffs in Es- tablishment Clause cases from recoupingattorneys' fees. The Senate, however, did not consider the proposalbefore the recess. The legislation was part the "American Values Agenda,"a Republican package of legislation dealing with a number ofmatters, including the Pledge of Alle- giance, same-sex marriage, and similarissues designed to energize the party's conservative base. The two largest Jewish defense agencies,ADL and AJC, filed briefs in a closely watched case that might becomea pivotal test of so-called "faith-based initiatives." Ostensiblyto reduce recidivism, Iowa funded on Fellowship Ministries to conducta Christian program in which oners were granted special benefits for participating,including the nce for early parole. This evangelical Christianprogram was founded former Nixon White House counselCharles Colson, who had served en months in prison himself for obstruction of justiceduring Water.. federal district court fOund that the Iowaprogram violated the [ishment Clause, a position in line withthe arguments of the Jew- anizations. At year's endan appeal was pending.

RESEARCH

iciEpeuticstem-cell research was one of therare items of domestic pol- hat united Jewish agencies, including boththe Reform and Orthodox ams. Jewish groups lined up to support research intowhether embry- stem cells —derived from the inner cellmass of developing embryos— hold the key to treatinga wide range of life-threatening conditions, their potential to develop into healthyorgan tissue. There seemed similar consensus in the countryas a whole, as both houses of Con- y comfortable margins, voted to negate President Bush'sexecutive )f August 9, 2001, that limited federal fundingto stem-cell lines de- uefore that date. Those margins, though,were not enough to over- 2007 84 I AMERICAN JEWISHYEAR BOOK, ride the president's first use of his veto power,which occurred on July 19, one day after the Senateapproved the legislation 63-37, just four votes short of the two-thirds thresholdneeded to override the veto.

PROSELYTIZATION IN THE MILITARY Early in the year, Mikey Weinstein, analumnus of the U.S. Air Force Academy, announced the formationof the Military Religious Freedom Foundation to draw attention to thepervasive proselytization that he said had transformed the academy into aninstitution where religious minorities were harassed andintimidated (see AJYB 2006, pp. 61—63). A lawsuit filed by Weinstein against theacademy for violating the rights of religious minorities was dismissed by afederal court in October 2006 on a technicality. With elements of the religiousright complaining that guidelines adopted in August 2005 preventedchaplains from invoking the name of Jesus in their prayers, the Air Forceissued new "interim guidelines" in February 2006 on the place of religionin the military. The new rules re- asserted the need for religious neutralityand the right of free religious expression, but also affirmed thatsuperior officers could discuss their faith with subordinates and thatchaplains could not be coerced into reciting prayers that went againsttheir conscience (i.e., nonsectarian prayers). Jewish groups were divided overthe guidelines, some praising them and others characterizing them asmarking a retreat from previous efforts to restrain proselytization.After receiving a request from theAir Force in June for their input,four Jewish organizations—AJC,ADL, American Jewish Congress, and ReformJudaism's RAC—jointly presented recommendations for implementingthe guidelines. The issue was also debated in the Houseof Representatives. An amendment to the 2007 DefenseAppropriation Act stated that "eachchaplain shall have the prerogative to prayaccording to the dictates of the chap- lain's own conscience." Rep. SteveIsrael (D., N.Y.), a member of the House Armed Services Committee,argued that such language virtually guaranteed the use of prayers forproselytization, and therefore proposed adding that chaplains should "demonstratesensitivity, respect and tol erance for all faithspresent" at the prayer service. On May4, the corn mittee voted his suggestion down,leaving intact the original amendment The Senate bill did not contain thislanguage, and the discrepancy be tween the two versionsdelayed passage of the appropriationsbill unti late September, when a conferencecommittee reached a compromise: th U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS I 85 amendmentin the House version would be removed; the guidelinesissued in February would not be implemented; and thematter would be reviewed in 2007.

INTERRELIGIOUS RELATIONS

Catholics and Jews Jewish groups downplayed their disappointment thatPope Benedict XVI did not clearly condemn anti-Semitism when hevisited the site of the Auschwitz-Birkenau camp in June (see below,p. 000). Jewish leaders instead emphasized positive statements from thepontiff, including that the death camp was "particularly difficult andtroubling for a Christian, for a pope from Germany." He also said that theNazis, by seeking to elim- inate the Jews, "ultimately wanted totear up the taproot of the Christ- ian faith . . . Anothermatter that strained relations was Vatican reactionto Israel's war against Hezballah in southern Lebanon a month later. Vaticansec- retary of state Angelo Cardinal Sodano issueda statement saying: "A state's right to self-defense does not exempt it fromrespecting the norms Df international law, especiallyas regards the protection of civilian pop- Lilations. In particular, the Holy See deplores theattack on Lebanon, a and sovereign nation, and givesassurances of its closeness to those )le who have suffered so much in the defense of theirown indepen- "Eventhough Pope Benedict said that "terroristacts or reprisals, ally when they have such tragicconsequences on the civilian pop- n, cannot be justified," American Jewish leaders believed that the ch's response was, in the words of ADL national directorAbraham ian, "terribly one-sided and shortsighted."

time Protestants and Jews nsions between the mainline Protestant churches andthe Jewish munity had been exacerbated in recentyears over Middle East poli- ts considerable support emerged in some churchgroups for divest- from Israel and companies that did business withit. These tensions med in 2006, although there were also glimpses ofreconciliation nproved understanding. pril, leaders of the Episcopal Church, PresbyterianChurch (USA), 2007 86 / AMERICANJEWISH YEARBOOK, and United Church of Christ (UCC)issued statements condemning a terrorist attack outside a Tel Aviv restaurant.Clifton Kirkpatrick, the stated clerk of the Presbyterians, alsocalled on 1-lamas leaders in the Palestin- ian government to "renouncetactics of terrorism." The UCC statement, however, sought to balance thecondemnation with criticism of Israel as well, stating: "The killing or woundingof innocent people, whether they . we pray are Israelis orPalestinians can never be called legitimate .. . As for those who grieve the loss ofloved ones from this recent attack, we also pray for all who suffer fromthe impact of the occupation andthe

separation barrier .. . InJune, a two-year drama reached itsclimax as the commissioners of the Presbyterian Church (USA)gathered in Birmingham, Alabama, for the organization's GeneralAssembly. Over the preceding year,Presbyte- rians and Jews had met in more than100 communities to discuss actions taken by the Presbyterians in 2004deemed harmful to Jews: continued support for conversionaryactivities aimed at Jews; a call forremoval of Israel's security barrier; a verbal attack onChristian Zionism; and an ini- tiation of "phased, selectivedivestment" from "companies operatingin Israel." The divestment resolutionhad laid all the blame on Israel, not- ing that the occupation ofPalestinian territory is "at the root ofevil acts committed against innocent people onboth sides of the conflict." Since 2004, more than two dozen resolutions onthe matter had been adopted by local Presbyterian groups, mostcalling for rescission or significant modification of the divestment action andfor greater balance in the Pres- byterian approach to Middle Eastpeacemaking. A broad coalition of nationalJewish agencies wrote to the Presbyter- ian General Assembly saying, in part:"Our collective voices can play an instrumental role, working with the Americangovernment and others, to help Israeli, Palestinian, and otherMiddle Eastern leaders to pave a path toward the cessation of violence and aresumption of negotiations . . envision collectively. Our prayer Divestmentis a stumbling-block to all we is that you permanently remove thisobstacle to peace." Signing the let- B'rith ter were leaders from AJC,American Jewish Congress, ADL, B'nai International, Hadassah, JCPA, JewishLabor Committee, Jewish Re- constructionist Federation, Jewish War Veterans,NCJW, OU, URJ, and United Synagogue of ConservativeJudaism. The General Assembly, by anoverwhelming 483-28 vote, "replaced"the divestment language adopted in 2004.Instead, there was a new resolution stating that church holdings in theregion would be subject only to "cus- tomary" practices of corporate engagement.While those practices did U.S. NATIONALAFFAIRS I 87 not rule out the sale of stock, the resolution directed that policy be implemented with an eye toward "practical realities," a "commitment to positive outcomes," and an awareness of the potential impact of strate- gies on "both the Israeli and Palestinian economies." The General As- sembly also recognized Israel's right to defend its pre-1967 boundaries with a security barrier and lamented the pain caused by the 2004 statement. A separate resolution called suicide bombings a "crime against humanity." Immediately after the General Assembly, however, a new crisis developed. A "Frequently Asked Questions" (FAQ) sheet was distributed regarding the divestment vote that contained several inaccurate statements seeming to suggest that the vote had not really reversed the 2004 pro- Palestinian position. When this was pointed out, yet another FAQ was produced without the objectionable language, and those presentwere told that either document could be used, presumably depending on the audience. The General Assembly did officially retract two statements originally included in another just-released document, "Assembly in Brief." One was a section on the divestment action that had been removed from the resolution by the drafting committee because it implied that divestment was a likely scenario, and the other was an assertion that the final vote had been taken to calm "volatile relations with the Jewish community," ignoring the strong internal opposition that had developed o the 2004 divestment action. Controversy continued about the way the organization described its ac- is. Although the General Assembly had voted to "replace" the earlier stment resolution, the Presbyterian body later said it had only "re- ied" its previous position, implying that divestment had not been en- iy rejected, and subsequently claimed that church policy had merely "clarified." Even later, the Presbyterian News Service announced he vote had been "to continue its efforts to 'engage' those multina- 1 corporations whose business in Israel/Palestine, the church be- promotes violence." Another element that surprised the Jewish Liunity throughout the process was the Presbyterian insistence on Lng only with Jewish denominational bodies, excluding the defense ther agencies that had been actively involved in direct dialogue with vterian leaders around the country.

licals and Jews result of cooling relations between Jewish and mainline Protestant was the lowering of barriers that had previously kept Jewish agen- 88/AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK,2007 cies from exploring closer ties with Christianevangelicals. One evangelical leader who called himself a Christian Zionist, Rev.John Hagee, announced in February the creation of a nationalorigination, Christians United for Israel (CU Fl), which would network andmobilize pro-Israel churches and their members by, among otheractivities, sponsoring "A Night to Honor Israel" events in American cities and anannual national lobbying conference. David Brog, former chief ofstaff to Senator Arlen Specter (R., Pa.), was chosen to head the group. Whereas in years past the formation of such anorganization would have elicited considerable distrust in the Jewishcommunity, the reaction now was generally positive. LeeWunsch, director of the Houston Jewish Federation, offered strong praise for Hagee, who wasbased in Houston. Wunsch noted that the minister strictly prohibitedproselytizing Jews, and had raised large sums of money for Jewish causesin America as well as many millions for humanitarianaid to Israel. In some communities, top Jewish leaders attended the pro-Israel events run by CUFl, in others they stayed away. In all, CUFI programs run in 40 citiesraised more than $10 million. One event alone, in San Antonio, made morethan $7 million in one night. A national consultation hosted by JCPA in NewYork on Jewish relations with evangelicals brought together AJC,American Jewish Con- gress, ADL, the Israeli embassyand consulate, the New York Jewish Community Relations Council, URJ, OU, and UnitedSynagogue of Con- servative Judaism. The participants reviewed empiricaldata, examined the theological and political positions of the Americanevangelical community, and discussed the major points of cooperationand divergence between evangelicals and Jews.

Muslims and Jews Judea Pearl, father of murdered journalist DanielPearl, used the foundation he had created in his son's memory to promotedialogue and understanding between Muslims and Jews. Such programsnotwithstanding, American Jewish groups continued to take a very cautiousapproach to relations with Muslims. Counterterrorism experts,including Daniel Pipes and Steven Emerson, delivered a continuing streamof warnings, under- lining the ties between American Muslim groups andleaders with those responsible for violence against Israelis. In their searchfor moderate voices with which to dialogue and forge coalitions,American Jews U.S. NATIONAL AFFAIRS/ 89 avoidedsuch national Muslim groupsas the Council on American Islamic Relations (CAIR). A controversy erupted in Chicago afterNation of Islam (NOL) leader Louis Farrakhan, in his Saviors' Day Speech,condemned Israel and wove conspiracy theories about alleged Jewishcontrol of America. Jewish groups put pressure on Governor Rod Blagojevich to dismissClaudette Marie Johnson—not only a NOl activist butalso Farrakhan's director of protocol—from her positionon the Illinois Commission on Discrim- ination and Hate Crimes when she refusedto condemn Farakhan's remarks. When the governor did not dismiss her,four Jewish members of the commission resigned rather than sitalongside Johnson: local ADL director Lonnie Nasatir; Illinois HolocaustMuseum director Richard Hirschhaut; Jewish federation and JCRCleader Howard Kaplan; and Lou Lang, a Democratic member of thestate legislature representing Skokie.

ETHAN FELSON