Index

A small bowel obstruction, Acute hematogenous Abdomen, blunt trauma 469–471, 474 osteomyelitis imaging bowel/mesentery imaging, See also specific disorders case studies (images), 303– 306 445–446 Acute abdomen. See Abdominal and diabetic foot, 302 case studies (images), 159, pain, acute diagnostic accuracy, 300–301 448–449 Acute afebrile symptomatic future directions, 306 costs, 442–443 seizures goals of, 299 CT, 448–450, 463 incidence, 247 imaging protocols, 303 Doppler ultrasound, 446 See also Seizures neuroimaging literature search, 299 epidemiology, 442 Acute aortic dissection MRI, 300 future directions, 450 CT angiography, 420 radionuclide bone imaging protocol, 367 imaging cost-effectiveness, 417 scintigraphy, 300 literature search, 443 imaging goals, 416–417 repeat imaging, 301–302 pathophysiology, 442 pathophysiology, 416 ultrasound, 301 retroperitonal injuries Acute appendicitis. See Acute limb ischemia, 416 imaging, 446–448 Appendicitis, acute Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis, spleen/liver imaging, 445 Acute calculous cholecystitis 371–372, 374–376 types of injuries, 441–450 case studies (images), 564–565 Adrenal gland ultrasound, 450 cholescintigraphy, 506–507 blunt trauma, imaging, Abdominal aortic aneurysms costs, 505 363–364 (AAA) CT, 507 metastasis, and lung cancer, endovascular vs. surgical, epidemiology, 505 95, 96 418–419 imaging goals, 505 Alzheimer’s disease treatment, 418–419 imaging strategy, 506–507 clinical criteria, accuracy of, imaging cost-effectiveness, 417 MR 169–170 mortality and screening, cholangiopancreatography, costs, 168 417–418 507 epidemiology, 168 pathophysiology, 416 MRI, 507 genetic susceptibility, 172 stent-graft endoleaks, pathophysiology, 504–505 Alzheimer’s disease 420–421 ultrasound, 506 neuroimaging Abdominal pain, acute Acute hematogenous at-risk persons, identifying, 168 appendicitis, 468 osteomyelitis cost effectiveness, 173–174 colonic diverticulitis, 471–473 clinical signs, 301 CT, 190–191 common causes, 468 costs, 299 for disease progression, 170 costs, 469 epidemiology, 298–299 functional imaging, 171 epidemiology, 468–469 long-term effects, 298, 299, 301 goals of, 168 imaging goals, 469 medical therapy versus literature search, 169 literature search, 469 surgery, 301 MRI, 171–172 small bowel ischemia, pathogens, 300 PET, 171, 175–176 470–471, 474 pathophysiology, 298 PET FDG, 175

L.S. Medina et al. (eds.), Evidence-Based Imaging: Improving the Quality of Imaging in Patient Care, Revised Edition, 669 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-7777-9, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 670 Index

Alzheimer’s disease Bayes’ theorem, 12, 13, 15–16 costs, 505, 515 neuroimaging (cont.) Bias, 7, 11, 19–26, 66, 68, 92, 98, epidemiology, 505 proton MR spectroscopy 119, 219, 264, 313, 314, future directions, 524 (1HMRS), 190 338–340, 342–344, 364, 374, imaging goals, 505 SPECT, 171 405, 419, 422, 431, 432, 459, literature search, 507, 512 structural neuroimaging, 460, 470–472, 618 pathophysiology, 504–505 170–172 lead-time, 23 See also specific disorders for therapeutic efficacy, length-time, 23 Bladder 174–175 observer, 7, 22, 24 blunt trauma, imaging, 445 Analytical studies, 6 reference standard, 22, 24, disorders. See Urinary tract Aneurysms. See Abdominal aortic 340, 459 disorders aneurysms; Intercranial screening selection, 23 Blinding aneurysms selection, 11, 22–25, 66, 219, clinical studies, 6–7 Angiography 264, 342, 405, 419, 460 vs. not blinding, 22 pulmonary, 403 slippery linkage, 23 Blunt trauma See also Computed sticky diagnosis, 23 aortic rupture, 416 tomography angiography Bile duct obstruction, 503–524 thoracolumbar spine imaging, (CTA); Coronary computed tomography (CT), 363–367 angiography; Magnetic 507–517, 520, 523 See also Abdomen, blunt resonance angiography endoscopic ultrasonography, trauma; Chest, blunt (MRA) 511, 512, 514–515, 517 trauma Angioplasty and stenting, carotid epidemiology, 505 Bone metastasis stenosis, 430, 433–434 magnetic resonance from lung cancer, 95–97 Ankylosing spondylitis, cholangiopancreatography from prostate cancer, 156–159 MRI, 344 (MRCP), 507, 509–516, Bone scan. See Radionuclide bone radionuclide bone 521–524 scintigraphy scintigraphy, 303 magnetic resonance imaging Bowel SPECT, 344 (MRI), 507, 513–515, 523 blunt trauma, imaging, X-rays, 347 pathophysiology, 504–505 445–446 Anterior spinal meningocele, 370 ultrasound, 506 invagination. See Aorta Bile duct stricture, 503–524 Intussusception abdominal aortic aneurysms computed tomography (CT), ischemia. See Small bowel (AAA), 417–418 507–517, 520, 523 ischemia acute aortic dissection, 417 endoscopic retrograde obstruction. See Small bowel aortic rupture, 416 cholangiopancreatography obstruction See also specific disorders (ERCP), 509–515, 521, 523 Brain Aortic dissection. See Acute aortic endoscopic ultrasonography, atropy, 170, 172–174, 178, 201, dissection 511, 512, 514–515, 517 225, 234, 249, 251, 256 Appendicitis, acute, imaging strategy, 506–523 imaging. See Neuroimaging case studies (images), 462–464 Klatskin tumor, 515–516, 522 Brain cancer costs, 458 magnetic resonance clinical signs, 128, 130–133, CT, 458–459 cholangiopancreatography 135–138, 140, 141, 145 defined, 458 (MRCP), 507, 509–516, costs, 130, 137, 145 diagnostic accuracy, 459 521–524 epidemiology, 128–130, 132 future directions, 465 percutaneous transhepatic forms of, 128 graded compression cholangiography (PTC), pediatric cases, 129–130, 132, ultrasound, 458–460 514, 522 133, 136, 145 imaging protocol, 460 ultrasonography, 506–517, unique nature of, 128 literature search, 460 519–521, 523 Brain cancer neuroimaging pathophysiology, 458 Biliary disorders case studies (images), 129, 131, pediatric cases, 458 acute calculous cholecystitis 134–135 ultrasound, 458–460 (ACC), 505–508, 517, 519 cost effectiveness, 130, 132, Arthritis, septic. See Septic bile duct obstruction, 505, 506, 133, 136–138, 145 arthritis 508, 510–511, 515, 516, 523 CT, 130, 132–134, 137–142 bile duct stricture, 505, decision-making flowchart, 513–524 140 B choledocholithiasis, 505, diffusion-weighted imaging Back pain. See Low back pain 511–513, 517, 521, 523 (DWI), 135, 139, 142, 145 Barium, negative aspects of use, chronic calculous cholecystitis, goals of, 130 482, 485 508–509, 521 indications for, 136 Index 671

literature review, 131, 135 CT calcium scoring, 389 in high-risk patients, 360–362 MRI, 130, 132–139, 144, 145 future directions, 399 indications for, 367 PET FDG, 133, 134, 136–138 goals of, 388–389 literature search, 359 proton MR spectroscopy, literature search, 388 NEXUS prediction rule, 359 134–136, 139 MRI, 394 and unconscious patient, 365 SPECT, 133, 134, 136–138, 145 PET, 391 Cervical spine injury symptomatology criteria, 131 SPECT, 393, 394 costs, 358 tumors vs. tumor-mimicking stress echocardiography, 388 epidemiology, 358 lesions, 135 stress electrocardiography, 392 Chest, blunt trauma Brain ischemia, imaging methods, Carotid imaging chest wall imaging, 102 187–189 of asymptomatic patients, costs, 442–443 Brain metastasis 432–433 CT, 443 and headache, 265 catheter angiography (CA), CT angiography, 443 from lung cancer, 129, 137 432 definition, 442 Brain swelling, traumatic brain cost-effectiveness, 433, 436 diaphragm imaging, 444 injury imaging, 223 CT angiography, 428, 437 epidemiology, 442 Breast cancer Doppler ultrasound (DUS), goals, 443 at-risk persons, 32, 37, 63, 65, 432, 438 literature search, 443 67–69, 85, 375 goals of, 429 MRI, 444 costs, 64, 68 literature review, 431 pathophysiology, 442 epidemiology, 63 MR angiography, 431 pleura/lung imaging, 443–444 grades, 63, 69 multiple overlapping thinslab X-rays, 443 scoliosis imaging as cause, acquisition (MOTSA), 431 Children 32, 375 transcranial Doppler appendicitis, acute, 459–461 Breast cancer imaging (TCD), 434 brain cancer, 131–132 and BIRADS category 3 Carotid stenosis cervical spine imaging, 360 lesions, 71 and stroke risk, 435–436 gastrointestinal tract case studies (images), 63, 64, angioplasty and stenting, obstruction. See 66–68, 71–73 433–434 Intussusception future directions, 85 carotid endarterectomy, headache/headache goals of, 64 effectiveness, 433 neuroimaging, 268 image-guided percutaneous cerebral blood flow Ottawa knee rule, 328, 332 biopsy, 64, 71, 80 assessment, 435 seizures/seizures literature review, 64 cerebral blood volume neuroimaging, 248–250 literature search, 64 assessment, 233 sinusitis imaging, 279–281 magnetic resonance imaging complete occlusion, 431 spinal disorders. See Occult (MRI), 69, 70, 73 costs, 433, 436 spinal dysraphism; mammographic screening, 47, epidemiology, 429 Scoliosis 63–66, 68, 85 pathophysiology, 428 and stroke, 206–207 and nipple discharge, 70 Case-control studies, 111 thoracolumbar spine and radial scars, 71, 78, 80 Catheter angiography (CA), imaging, 363 ultrasound, 64, 68–69, 76 carotid imaging, 432 traumatic brain injury Cauda equina syndrome, 338 imaging, 225–229 Caudal regression syndrome, Cholecystitis. See Acute calculous C 370, 372 cholecystitis; Chronic Calcification scoring, coronary CBTRUS database, 131 calculous cholecystitis artery, 389–390 Cerebral blood flow assessment, Choledocholithiasis Calculous cholecystitis. See Acute carotid stenosis, 435 CT, 511–512 calculous cholecystitis; Cerebral blood volume endoscopic retrograde Chronic calculous assessment, carotid cholangiopancreatography cholecystitis stenosis, 233 (ERCP), 514 Canadian C-spine rule, 359, 360, Cervical spine imaging endoscopic ultrasonography, 364, 365 Canadian C-spine rule, 514–515 Cancer risk, scoliosis 359, 364 epidemiology, 495 imaging, 375 children, 360, 362 imaging strategy, 511–513, 516 Cardiac imaging cost-effectiveness, 360–362 magnetic resonance coronary angiography, CT, 360–362, 366, 367 cholangiopancreatography 390–392 goals of, 358 (MRCP), 512 cost-effectiveness, 394 Harborview high-risk cervical pathophysiology, 505 CT, 394 spine criteria, 362, 365 ultrasound, 513 672 Index

Cholescintigraphy fecal occult blood testing colonic diverticulitis, 471, acute calculous cholecystitis, (FOBT), 111, 112 472, 475 506–507, 509–510 after first occurrence, 116 headache, 35, 137–138, chronic calculous cholecystitis, hypothesis, 110 227, 264–270 509–510 and inflammatory bowel hepatocellular carcinoma, Chronic calculous cholecystitis disease, 116 540, 542 cholescintigraphy, 509–510 and liver metastases, 539 herniated disk, 338, 339 costs, 505 Lynch syndrome, 116 intracranial hemorrhage, 132, endoscopic retrograde sigmoidoscopy, 111–117 185–186, 248 cholangiopancreatography, Colorectal cancer imaging knee injury, 312 510 asymptomatic patient imaging liver metastases, 96, 532, 534, epidemiology, 505 protocol, 120 535, 537, 538 imaging goals, 508 asymptomatic patients, lung cancer, 92–95, 97 imaging strategy, 509, 510 screening protocol, 98 prostate cancer, 151–153, 159 magnetic resonance colonoscopy, 122, 124 seizures, 220, 248–250 cholangiopancreatography comparison of methods, sinusitis, 280–288 (MRCP), 509 113–117 small bowel ischemia, pathophysiology, 505 computer-assisted detection 470, 471 ultrasound, 509 (CAD) algorithms, 119 small bowel obstruction, Cirrhosis cost-effectiveness, 118–119 469–470 costs, 530 CT colonography (CTC), spinal stenosis, 344–345 epidemiology, 531 113–114 temporal lobe epilepsy, 250 pathophysiology, 530 double contrast barium enema thoracolumbar spine, 364 See also Hepatocellular (DCBE), 113 traumatic brain injury, carcinoma false-negative (image), 121 220–224, 226–229, 239 Clinical prediction rules, 12, 220, false-positive (image), 122 urolithiasis, 575, 576 324, 363, 367, 461 future directions, 124 Computed tomography Clinical question, formulation for goals of, 110 angiography (CTA) EBI, 5 literature review, 114 acute aortic dissection, 417 Clinical studies prepless colonography, 119 aneurysm, intercranial, analytical, 6 protocol, 120 267–268 bias, 21–22 staging, 117–118 carotid imaging, 429 case-control, 6 true-positive (image), 120 chest, blunt trauma, 443 clinical trials, 5 Compression fractures headache, 267–268 cohort, 6 bone scanning, 344 peripheral vascular disease, cross-sectional, 5 computed tomography, 343 420, 424 descriptive, 6 magnetic resonance, 343–344 pulmonary embolism experimental, 5 osteoporotic type, 346 evaluation, 404, 413 prospective, 6 plain radiographs, 343 subarachnoid hemorrhage, 267 randomized, blinded, 7 SPECT, 344 Computed tomography arterial retrospective, 6 vertebroplasty, 346 portography (CTAP) Cohort studies, 6 Computed tomography (CT) hepatocellular carcinoma, 537 Colonic diverticulitis abdomen, blunt trauma, liver metastases, 534 case studies (images), 472–473 444–447 Computed tomography hepatic costs, 469 acute calculous cholecystitis, arteriography (CTHA) CT, 472–473 507, 508 hepatocellular carcinoma, diagnostic accuracy, 471 Alzheimer’s disease, 170, 175 535–536 literature search, 469 appendicitis, acute, Computer-assisted detection pathophysiology, 468 459–461, 463 (CAD) algorithms, ultrasound, 472 bile duct obstruction, 511 colorectal cancer Colonoscopy, 111–124, 269, bile duct stricture, 513–514 imaging, 119 549–551, 554, 555 brain cancer, 132–134, Confidence intervals (CI) Colorectal cancer 137–138 construction of, 20–21 adenoma-carcinoma calcium scoring, 389–390 Confounding factors, 7, 36, 566 sequence, 110 cardiac, 393–394 Congenital scoliosis. See Scoliosis at-risk populations, 110, 113, cervical spine, 5, 187, 360–362, CONSORT initiative, 19 114, 118 365, 366 Coronary angiography costs, 110 chest, blunt trauma, 443–444 cost-effectiveness, 391 epidemiology, 110 choledocholithiasis, decision tree, 391 familial factors, 115 511–512, 523 initial use, factors in, 392 Index 673

Coronary artery calcification Direct costs, 10, 50, 64, 219, 253, Enema, intussusception. See scoring, 389–390, 399 279, 360, 549, 628 Intussusception Coronary artery disease Disability Score (DS), 218 Errors, 19, 25, 152 costs, 397 Diverticulitis. See Colonic and bias, 19–20 epidemiology, 388 diverticulitis random, 19–21, 24, 25 pathophysiology, 388 Doppler ultrasound (DUS) systematic, 19, 20, 24, 25 See also Cardiac imaging abdomen, blunt trauma, 446 Type I, 20, 21, 24 Cortical rim sign, 447 carotid imaging, 21, 432, 437 Type II, 20, 21, 24 Cost-benefit analysis (CBA), 9 Dorsal dermal sinus, 370, 372, Evidence-based imaging (EBI) Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), 373, 377 clinical question in, 5 9, 12, 47, 48, 137, 145, 173, Double contrast barium enema defined, 3–5 174, 203, 269, 274, 284, 312, (DCBE), 113, 121 evidence, application of, 314–315, 342, 360–362, 373, Dysraphism. See Occult spinal 11–14 374, 417–419, 421–422, 433, dysraphism guiding principles, 8–16 436, 461, 485 imaging effectiveness Cost-minimization analysis, 9 hierarchy, 11 Costs, types of, 10, 11 E literature review. See Medical Cost-utility analysis Echocardiography literature quality-adjusted life pulmonary embolism Experimental studies, 6, 638 year(QALY), 10 evaluation, 406 quantification of health in, 10 stress, 388, 391–394, 397 Crescent sign, Economic evaluations, 9–10 F intussusception, 480 cost-benefit analysis (CBA), 9 False-negatives, elimination of, 21 Cross-sectional studies, 6, 480 cost-effectiveness analysis False-positives, elimination of, 21 Cryoablation, 531 (CEA), 9, 12, 269 Febrile seizures. See Seizures cost-minimization analysis, 9 neuroimaging costs, types of, 9–10 Fecal occult blood testing (FOBT), D cost-utility analysis, 9–10 111, 121 Data analysis Electron beam computed Fixed costs, 10 meta-analysis, 11 tomography (EBCT), Fluid-attenuated inversion qualitative and quantitative, pulmonary embolism recovery (FLAIR) 11 evaluation, 405 and intracranial Deep venous thrombosis, clinical Embolism. See Pulmonary hemorrhage, 186 signs, 409 embolism; Pulmonary and temporal lobe Descriptive studies, 6, 24, 481 embolism imaging epilepsy, 188 Diabetic foot, osteomyelitis in, 302 evaluation traumatic brain injury, 219, Diagnostic tests Endoleaks, abdominal aortic 229–233 evaluation of, 7, 22 aneurysm (AAA) graft, Fluoroscopy, intussusceptions receiver operating 418, 420–421 enema reduction, 483, 484 characteristics (ROC) Endoscopic retrograde Flurodeoxyglucose PET. See curve, 7–9, 281 cholangiopancreatography Positron emission sensitivity of, 7–9, 373 (ERCP) tomography with specificity of, 7–9, 373 bile duct stricture, 510, flurodeoxyglucose Diaphragm, blunt trauma, 512, 514 (PETFDG) imaging, 442 choledocholithiasis, 511–513 Functional endoscopic sinus Diastematomyelia, 370, 376 chronic calculous cholecystitis, surgery, before/after Differential Outcome Scale 508–509 imaging, 286 (DOS), 218 Endoscopic ultrasonography Functional magnetic resonance Diffusion-tensor imaging, (EUS) imaging (fMRI) traumatic brain injury bile duct obstruction, 511, 512, Alzheimer’s disease, 171 imaging, 219, 222 514–515 seizures, 247, 252, 253 Diffusion-weighted imaging bile duct stricture, 511, 512, traumatic brain injury, 219, 235 brain cancer, 139 514–515 Functional Status Examination traumatic brain injury choledocholithiasis, 511, (FSE), 219, 288, 347, 377, imaging, 222 512, 517 518, 580, 632 Digital rectal exam (DRE), -guided fine-needle aspiration, prostate cancer, 149 513, 515 Digital subtraction angiography, Endovascular repair, abdominal G peripheral vascular aortic aneurysms (AAA), Gadobenate dimeglumine disease, 205 418, 419, 422 (Gd-BOPTA), 535 674 Index

Gadolinium enhancement hepatocellular carcinoma, and fluid-attenuated inversion herniated disk, 338 530–531 recovery (FLAIR), 186 liver metastases, 531 literature search, 531 future directions, 196 osteomyelitis, 306 liver metastases, 530 goals of, 168 Gallbladder disease. See Biliary See also specific disorders literature review, 162 disorders Hepatitis, and hepatocellular MR angiography, 175–176 Gastrointestinal tract obstruction. carcinoma, 529–543 MRI, 173–174, 177 See Intussusception Hepatocellular carcinoma MRI spectroscopy, 169 Glasgow Coma Scale, 218, 448 case studies (images), 537 noninvasive vascular Glasgow Outcome Scale, 218 cost-effectiveness, 538–542 imaging, 192 Gleason score, 153, 154, 156–159 costs, 532, 549 and pediatric patients, 210 Graded compression ultrasound, CT, 535–536 perfusion-weighted MRI, appendicitis, acute, 459, CT arterial portography 188–189 460, 468, 471 (CTAP), 534 PET, 192–193 Gradient echo sequences, CT hepatic arteriography SPECT, 193 traumatic brain injury, 207, (CTHA), 536, 537, 539 stroke mimics, exclusion of, 208, 222 diagnostic accuracy, 553 174–175 epidemiology, 531–532 xenon gas in, 190 hematologic testing, 531 Intradural lipoma, 370, 377 H imaging goals, 571 Intraoperative ultrasound (IOUS), Harborview high-risk cervical MRI, 543 liver metastases, 534 spine criteria, 362, 365 prognosis, 530 Intussusception, 479–482 Headache ultrasound, 555–556 alternative treatments, 483–484 and children, 182 whole-body PET, 535 bowel necrosis, predictors of, epidemiology, 182 Herniated disk, 338–340 479–480 primary/secondary etiologies, bulge vs. herniation, 302–303 case study (images), 481 181, 183 CT, 302, 312 clinical predictors of, 479–480 Headache neuroimaging gadolinium enhancement, 341 cost-effectiveness, 485–486 for brain metastases, 265 MRI, 341–342 costs, 479–480 case studies (images), 270 MR myelography (MRM), crescent sign, 480 cost effectiveness, 269 338, 340 delayed repeat enema, 478, CT, 266–267 protrusions and extrusions, 483, 484, 489 CT angiography, 267–268 339–340 diagnostic accuracy, 508 goals of, 203 X-rays, 330, 333 enema, air vs. liquid, 482–483, indications for, 208 Hierarchical framework, imaging 486–488 literature review, 265 effectiveness, 12–13 enema reduction effectiveness, for migraine/chronic 485–486 headache, 265 enema reduction procedure, MR angiography, 204 I 483, 484 MRI, 271 Image-guided biopsy. See enema rule of threes, 483, 487 for new-onset headache, 271 Percutaneous image- enema therapy complications, pediatric imaging, 266, 269, 271 guided breast biopsy 484–485 sensitivity/specificity of Indirect costs, 11 epidemiology, 492 methods, 266–268 Inflammatory bowel disease, and fluoroscopy and enema and subarachnoid colorectal cancer, 88–89 reduction, 488 hemorrhage, 267–268 Intercranial aneurysms future directions, 489 suspected intracranial CT angiography, 185 imaging goals, 479 aneurysm, 272 MR angiography, 204–205 imaging protocol, 487–489 Head injury Intracranial hemorrhage. See linear transducer types of, 235 Intracranial hemorrhage sonography, 481 See also Traumatic brain injury; imaging; Stroke literature search, 479 Traumatic brain injury Intracranial hemorrhage imaging pathologic lead points, imaging and bolus nonionic 478, 482 Health status, quantification of, 10 contrast, 186 pathophysiology, 496 Helical CT, nephrolithiasis, 572 brain ischemia, identifying, radiation dose, 483–484 Hematogenous osteomyelitis. 187–189 recurrent, management of, 497 See Acute hematogenous case studies (images), 157–159 rotavirus vaccine, relationship osteomyelitis CT, 162–163, 165–167, 171–172 to, 479 Hepatic disorders CT angiography, 175 small bowel cirrhosis, 530–531 diffusion-weighted MRI, 172 intussusception, 486 Index 675

surgical complications, 484 image-guided therapies, 531 staging, 99 treatment setting, 483 intraoperative ultrasound, 533 video-assisted thoracotomy ultrasound, 480, 482 MRI, 534–535 (VATS), 93 Klatskin tumor, 515–516 multirow detector helical CT, 534 Lynch syndrome organ-specific contrast, 535 diagnostic criteria, 117 pathophysiology, 530 colorectal cancer imaging, K PET, 532–533 109–124 Kidney staging, 532 See also Colorectal cancer blunt trauma, imaging, 442–444 ultrasound, 536 cortical rim sign, 447 whole-body PET, 535, 537–538 renal artery stenosis, 422–425 Low back pain M transplant donor, evaluation costs, 338 Magnetic resonance angiography of, 403–407 differential diagnosis, 337 (MRA) Klatskin tumor, 515–516 epidemiology, 337 carotid imaging, 429–432, Knee injury Low back pain imaging 437, 439 costs, 314–315 ankylosing spondylitis, 344 headache, 267, 270, 272 epidemiology, 278 cauda equina syndrome, 337, 338 peripheral vascular disease, Ottowa knee rule, 311 compression fractures, 416, 417, 419–423, 425 Knee injury imaging 343–344, 346–347 pulmonary embolism children, 311–313 diagnostic accuracy, 336, evaluation, 405, 413 cost effectiveness, 314–316, 318 345, 346 knee injury imaging, 317–320, CT, 280–281 future directions, 353 322, 324 decision rules, 320 goals of, 338 Magnetic resonance diagnostic accuracy, 282, 284 herniated disk, 338–341 cholangiopancreatography future directions, 324 imaging protocols, 347 (MRCP) goals of, 328 infection, 342–343 acute calculous cholecystitis imaging protocols, 330 literature review, 338 (ACC), 507 literature review, 299 metastatic disease, 341–342 bile duct obstruction, 507, meniscal/ligamentous osteoporotic vertebral, 346 509–516, 521–524 injuries, 330, 337 compression fractures, bile duct stricture, 507, MRI, 313–314 343–344 509–516, 521–524 osteoarthritic knee, 315 and outcome, 340, 345, 346, 349 choledocholithiasis, 511–513, of prosthesis, 315–316 patient expectations/ 521, 523 X-rays, 336, 338 satisfaction, 346 chronic calculous cholecystitis spinal stenosis, 344–345 (CCC), 521 L vertebroplasty, 346 Magnetic resonance imaging Laser photocoagulation, 531 See also individual conditions (MRI) Lead-time bias, 23 Lung cancer acute calculous cholecystitis Length-time bias, 23 categories of, 89–90 (ACC), 507 Ligament tears. See Knee injury costs, 90 acute hematogenous imaging epidemiology, 90 osteomyelitis (AHO) Likelihood ratios (LR) occupational causes, 90 imaging, 298–304, 306 positive and negative, 460 radiologic follow-up, 97–99 Alzheimer’s disease, Limb ischemia, acute, 416 Lung cancer imaging 169–177, 180 Linear transducer sonography for adrenal metastasis, 96 ankylosing spondylitis, 344 intussusception, 481 for bone metastasis, , 96–97 bile duct obstruction, 507, Lipomyelocele, 370 for brain metastasis, 97 513–515, 523 Lipomyelomeningocele, 370 chest X-ray, 91–92 brain cancer, 130, 132–139, Literature review. See Medical cost effectiveness, 94–95 144, 145 literature search CT, 92–94 breast cancer, 69, 70, 73, 85 Liver literature search, 90 cardiac, 388, 393–395, 399 blunt trauma, imaging, 445 for liver metastasis, 96 chest, blunt trauma, 444 See also Hepatic disorders mediastinum evaluation, diffusion-weighted, 135, 139, Liver metastases 95–96 142, 172, 184, 187, 196, 200, and colorectal cancer, 529–543 MRI, 90, 95, 97 222, 638 CT, 533–534 PET, 90 fluid-attenuated inversion CT arterial portography, 534, 539 PET FDG, 96 recovery (FLAIR), 139, epidemiology, 531 primary tumor evaluation, 95 141–144, 175, 186, 193, 194, gadolinium enhancement, small cell lung cancer 219, 222, 229, 233–235, 239, 535, 537 (SCLC), 97 250, 251, 257, 270, 288 676 Index

Magnetic resonance imaging age factors, 65–68, 70, 84, Meningocele, 370 (MRI) (cont.) 110, 118 Meniscal injuries. See Knee injury functional. See Functional in community setting, 65 imaging magnetic resonance cost effectiveness, 47–48, 68 Mesentery, blunt trauma, imaging effectiveness, 64–66 imaging, 445–446 headache, 35, 132, 202, 224, frequency of, 74, 75 MESH headings, 359, 458, 265–269, 271–273 Mangafodipir trisodium 469, 479 hepatocellular carcinoma, (MnDPDP), 535 Meta-analysis, 11, 14, 24, 65, 66, 531–537, 539–541, 543 Marfan syndrome, 371 95, 113, 115, 118, 252, 282, herniated disk, 338–341, 348 Medical literature, 5, 9, 11, 19, 22, 311, 344, 345, 389, 432, intracranial hemorrhage 130, 299, 402 459, 460, 472, 506, 511, imaging, 132, 185–187 clinical studies, types of, 6–7 512, 532, 535, 538, 558, 559, knee injury, 313–315, 321, 324 cost-effectiveness analysis 592, 618 liver metastases, 96, 532, 533, (CEA), 9, 130, 299 Metastatic disease 535, 537, 539 data-analysis, 11 adrenal, 96, 102 lung cancer, 90, 95, 97, 101 diagnostic tests, evaluation of, bone, 96–97 magnetization transfer 6–9, 12–14 brain, 97, 129, 133–135, 137, MRI, 172 National Guideline 138, 265 occult spinal dysraphism Clearinghouse, 220, 506, liver, 96, 513, 530–535, 537, 539 (OSD) imaging, 372–374, 532, 629, 637 spinal, 341 377–379 See also Clinical studies Microwave ablation, 531 osteomyelitis, 298–304, 306 Medical literature search Midline shift, traumatic brain perfusion-weighted, 188, 196 Central Brain Tumor Registry injury imaging, prostate cancer, 148, 151–155, of the United States 221–223, 225 157–160 (CBTRUS) data, 131 Migraine. See Headache scoliosis, 372–379, 382 Medline/PubMed, 4, 5, 11, 31, neuroimaging seizures, 132, 188, 224, 64, 90, 110, 130, 148, 169, Multidetector computed 247–258, 265, 185, 203, 219, 247, 263, 280, tomography (MDCT) shoulder injury, 310–319, 299, 311, 328, 338, 359, 372, peripheral vascular disease, 321–324 389, 402, 417, 429, 458, 469, 420, 422 sinusitis, 281, 284, 288 479, 493, 506, 532, 549, 550, pulmonary embolism small bowel ischemia, 571, 588, 614, 629, 637 evaluation, 404–405, 413 470, 471 MESH headings, 359, 458, 469, Multiplanar imaging (MPI), renal single photon emission 479 artery stenosis, 422 computed tomography National Cancer Data Base Multiple overlapping thinslab (SPECT), 133, 134, 136–138, (NCDB), 131 acquisition (MOTSA), 145, 160, 169, 172–174, 180, National Guideline carotid imaging, 431 185, 189, 203–205, 209, Clearinghouse, 220, 506, Multirow detector helical CT, 229–233, 235, 247, 252, 388, 532, 629, 637 liver metastases, 534 389, 393, 394, 434 on-line sources, 5 Multivoxel resonance spinal metastasis, 341–342 Ovid search engine, 148, 185, spectroscopy, traumatic spinal stenosis, 338, 340, 345 263, 372 brain injury, 231 temporal lobe epilepsy, Surveillance, epidemiology, Myelodysplasia, 370 250–253, 256–258 and end results (SEER) Myelomeningocele, 370 traumatic brain injury, 219, program, 129, 131, 613 221–225, 229–235, 239 See also specific medical Magnetic resonance myelography conditions N (MRM), herniated disk, 340 Medicine National Cancer Data Base Magnetic resonance spectroscopy economic evaluations, 9, 513 (NCDB), 131 (MRS) literature. See Medical National Guideline prostate cancer, 155, 160 literature Clearinghouse, 220, 506, seizures, 231, 247, 252, 253 Medline/PubMed, 4, 5, 11, 31, 64, 532, 629, 637 single-voxel proton. See 90, 110, 130, 148, 169, 185, Negative likelihood ratio (NLR), Single-voxel spectroscopy 203, 219, 247, 263, 280, 299, 12, 321, 322, 445, 459, 460, traumatic brain injury, 230, 311, 328, 338, 359, 372, 389, 619, 620 231, 234, 235 402, 417, 429, 458, 469, 479, Negative predictive value (NPV), Mammographic screening, 47, 493, 506, 532, 549, 550, 571, 15, 16, 72, 76, 135, 137, 138, 63–66, 68 588, 614, 629, 637 149, 188, 220, 226, 232, 267, age and benefits, 63, 65–68, 70, Meningitis, and occult spinal 363, 402–406, 408, 409, 419, 84, 110, 118, 269 dysraphism, 373 420, 422, 445, 459, 460, 463, Index 677

470–472, 474, 475, 495, 550, Osteoarthritis, knee imaging, 315 cardiac imaging, 389, 391–393 554, 555, 560, 575, 637 Osteomyelitis hepatocellular carcinoma, Nephrolithiasis in diabetic foot, 302 531–533, 535, 537, 538 case studies (images), 579 MRI, 300 intracranial hemorrhage, 191 costs, 571 radionuclide bone liver metastases, 535 diagnostic accuracy, 574–576 scintigraphy, 300, 303 lung cancer, 90, 95, 96, 98 epidemiology, 570–571 SPECT, 303 prostate cancer, 155–156 helical CT, 572 X-rays, 300 seizures, 252, 253 imaging goals, 571 See also Acute hematogenous traumatic brain injury, 232–233 and pregnancy, 573 osteomyelitis whole-body, 101, 535, 537–538 X-rays, 574 Osteoporotic vertebral Positron emission tomography Neural tube defects. See Occult compression fractures, 346 with flurodeoxyglucose spinal dysraphism Ottowa knee rule, 311, 320, 324 (PET FDG) Neurofibromatosis, 129, 371, 377 Overhead costs, 10 Alzheimer’s disease, 175 Neurogenic bladder Ovid search engine, 148 brain cancer, 136–138 pathophysiology, 586–587 lung cancer, 96, 97 urologic workup, 587 prostate cancer, 155, 156 Neuroimaging. See Alzheimer’s P traumatic brain injury disease neuroimaging; Pancreas, blunt injury, imaging, imaging, 232 Headache neuroimaging; 446–447 Power analysis, and sample Seizure neuroimaging; Pathologic lead points, size, 21 Traumatic brain injury intussusception, 478, 482 Predictive values imaging Patient outcome efficacy, 12 negative, 15, 16, 72, 76, 135, Newborn evaluation, occult Percutaneous image-guided 137, 138, 149, 188, 210, spinal dysraphism breast biopsy 226, 232, 267, 363, 402–406, imaging, 377 benefits of, 71–72 408, 409, 419, 420, 422, 445, NEXUS prediction rule, 359 cost-effectiveness, 68 459, 460, 463, 470–472, 474, Nipple discharge, imaging, 70 imaging guidance, type of, 72 475, 495, 550, 554, 555, 561, Noninvasive vascular imaging, Percutaneous transhepatic 565, 637 intracranial hemorrhage, cholangiography (PTC), positive, 12, 15, 16, 35, 63, 71, 192–193 bile duct stricture, 514 135, 149, 188, 223, 267, 363, Perfect test, 8 403, 404, 409, 420, 459, 460, Perfusion studies, traumatic brain 470, 472, 474, 475, 495, 506, O injury, 221–225 515, 534, 555, 556, 561, 627 Observer bias, 7, 22, 24 Peripheral vascular disease Pregnancy Occult spinal dysraphism CT angiography, 420 and nephrolithiasis, 573 closed spina bifida digital subtraction and urinary tract infection, entities, 370 angiography, 422, 423 587, 592, 593, 604 conus medullaris position future directions, 425 Prepless colonography, 119 issue, 371 imaging goals, 416–417 Prospective studies, 6, 7, 185, 186, early intervention benefits, 373 literature search, 420, 421 192, 220, 241, 274, 346, 403, epidemiology, 371–372 MR angiography, 419–420 460, 469, 484, 572, 592 open spina bifida entities, 370 multidetector CT, 422 Prostate cancer pathophysiology, 370–371 pathophysiology, 416 costs, 148 spectrum of Pleura, blunt trauma, digital rectal exam (DRE), 149, manifestations, 372 imaging, 406 150 surgical intervention, 373 Positive likelihood ratio epidemiology, 148 Occult spinal dysraphism (PLR), 12–14, 321, 322, 459, Gleason score, 153, 154, imaging 619, 620 156–159 at-risk groups, 372 Positive predictive value (PPV), prostate-specific antigen (PSA) cost-effectiveness, 373–374 12, 15, 16, 35, 63, 71, 135, testing, 149–151, 153–159 diagnostic accuracy, 372 149, 188, 223, 267, 363, 403, treatment flow chart, 158 goals of, 372 404, 409, 420, 459, 460, 470, Prostate cancer imaging literature search, 389 472, 474, 475, 495, 506, 515, for bone metastases, 156–157 MRI, 375–376 534, 555, 556, 561, 627 case studies (images), newborn evaluation, 372–373 Positron emission tomography 157–159 ultrasound, 377 (PET) CT, 152–153, 159 On-line sources, medical Alzheimer’s disease, 169, 171, future directions, 160 literature. See Medical 173, 174 goals of, 148 literature search brain cancer, 133, 134 image-guided biopsy, 150–151 678 Index

Prostate cancer imaging (cont.) Radio frequency ablation, 530 children, 247, 249, 250, 256, imaging evaluation Radionuclide bone scintigraphy 248–251 flowchart, 158 acute hematogenous decision-making literature review, 151, 152 osteomyelitis, 300–301 algorithm, 253 MRI, 153–154, 159 osteomyelitis, 298–306 and febrile seizures, 247 MR spectroscopy (MRS), septic arthritis, 298–306 for first unprovoked seizures, 154–155 Random error, 19–21, 24, 25 248–250 PET-FDG, 155, 156, 160 Randomized controlled trial functional MRI, 247 radionuclide bone scan, bias related to, 21–22 goals of, 247 159–160 blinded clinical trial, 22 literature review, 247 staging, 151–156 Rappaport Disability Rating Scale MRI, 247–252 transrectal ultrasound (DRS), 218 MR spectroscopy (MRS), 252 (TRUS), 159 Receiver operating characteristics PET, 252 ultrasound, 151–152 (ROC) curve, 281 SPECT, 252 Prosthesis, knee, imaging of, 315 Recurrence rate, pulmonary for temporal lobe epilepsy, Proton magnetic resonance embolism, 402 250–252 spectroscopy (1H MRS) Reference standards, and bias, 22 Selection bias, 22–24, 66, 219, 264, brain cancer, 135–136 Renal artery stenosis, multiplanar 405, 419, 460 PubMed. See Medline/PubMed imaging, 422 Sensitivity of tests, 7–9 Pulmonary embolism Retroperitonal injuries, blunt Septic arthritis costs, 402 trauma, imaging, 445–447 clinical signs, 301 epidemiology, 402 Retrospective studies, 6, 24, 99, costs, 299 pathophysiology, 402 221, 265, 461, 462 epidemiology, 298–299 Pulmonary embolism imaging Rotator cuff tears, 317, 322 future directions, 306 evaluation Rotavirus vaccine, and long-term effects, 301 case studies (images), 411–412 intussusception, 479 medical therapy versus CT pulmonary Rule of threes, liquid enema, surgery, 301 angiography, 404 482–484 pathogens, 300 and diagnosis, 407 pathophysiology, 298 diagnostic accuracy, 407 predictors of, 300 echocardiography, 406 S ultrasound, 300–303, 306 electron beam CT, 405 Sample size Septic arthritis imaging future directions, 413 confidence intervals (CI), 20–21 and diabetic foot, 302 goals of, 402 and power analysis, 21 diagnostic accuracy, 299 limitations of studies of, 402 Scoliosis future directions, 306 literature review, 413 classification of, 370 imaging protocols, 303 MR angiography, 405 epidemiology, 371–372 and IV drug users, 302 multidetector computed pathophysiology, 370–371 MRI, 298–303 tomography (MDCT), Scoliosis imaging radionuclide bone 404–405 adverse reproductive outcome scintigraphy, 300, pulmonary angiography, 404 risk, 375 302–304, 306 recurrence rate, 402–407 cancer risk, 375 repeat imaging, 301–302 ultrasound, 406 CIs, degrees of, 374 Shoulder injury ventilation-perfusion imaging goals of, 372 costs, 310 (VQ), 403–404 literature search, 370 differential diagnosis, 317 P value, 20, 21, 94, 337, 488 MRI, 377–381 epidemiology, 310 Pyleonephritis, future severe idopathic scoliosis, Shoulder injury imaging directions, 606 375–376 dislocations, 316–317 Screening selection bias, 23 future directions, 324 SEER program, 129, 131 goals of, 311 Q Seizures high-risk patients, 311 Qualitative analysis, 11 categories of, 246, 248 imaging protocols, 319–320 Quality-adjusted life year children, 247 indications for, 284–285 (QALY), 10, 12, 362, 374, costs, 247 literature review, 311 397, 418, 433, 531 epidemiology, 246–247 MR arthrography febrile, 247 (MRA), 317 Wada test, 252–253 MRI, 311–319 R Seizures neuroimaging rotator cuff tears, 317 Radial scars, breast cancer for acute symptomatic soft tissue diagnosis, 317–319 imaging, 71 seizures, 246 ultrasound, 322 Index 679

Sickle cell anemia, stroke Sonography, intussusception, 481 and fluid-attenuated inversion prevention, 193 Specificity of tests, 7–9 recovery (FLAIR), 250, 251 Sigmoidoscopy, 111–113, 117, 119 Spina bifida. See Occult spinal magnetic resonance Single photon emission computed dysraphism imaging(MRI), 257, 258 tomography (SPECT) Spinal metastasis, 341 Therapeutic efficacy, 174–175 Alzheimer’s disease, 169, 173, MRI, 341–342 Thoracolumbar spine imaging 174 radionuclide bone blunt trauma patients, 363–364 ankylosing spondylitis, 344 scintigraphy, 342 children, 363 brain cancer, 133–134 SPECT, 341 clinical prediction rules, cardiac imaging, 391 Spinal stenosis, 337, 338, 340, 359–360 intracranial hemorrhage, 191 344–345 CT, 359 osteomyelitis, 303 CT, 338 diagnostic accuracy, 364–366 seizures, 252 MRI, 338 future directions, 367 spinal metastasis, 341 X-rays, 338 imaging protocols, 367 thallium, 392 Spinal trauma. See Cervical spine indications for, 76 traumatic brain injury, 229–233 imaging; Thoracolumbar Thoracolumbar spine injury Single-voxel spectroscopy (SVS) spine imaging costs, 358 seizures, 253 Spine disorders, children. See epidemiology, 358 traumatic brain injury, 233 Occult spinal dysraphism; goals of, 358 Sinusitis Scoliosis literature review, 359 antibiotic treatment, 280, 284 Spleen, blunt trauma, Transcranial Doppler (TCD), at-risk persons, 278 imaging, 445 carotid imaging, 432–436 costs, 279 STARD initiative, 19 Transient ischemic attacks (TIA). defined, 278, 283 Stenting and angioplasty, carotid See Carotid imaging; epidemiology, 278–279 stenosis, 433–434 Carotid stenosis Sinusitis imaging Sticky diagnosis bias, 23 Transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) case studies (images), 288 Stress echocardiography, 388, color Doppler imaging, 149 children, 279 391–394 prostate cancer, 148–150 chronic, diagnosis of, 279–280, Stress electrocardiography, 392 Trauma Coma Databank 282, 284–286 Stroke (TCDB), 222 cost-effectiveness, 284–285 and carotid stenosis, 190 Traumatic brain injury CT, 280–288 classification of, 218 causes of, 219 diagnostic accuracy, 282, 285 costs, 184 costs, 219 before/after functional defined, 184 epidemiology, 219 endoscopic sinus epidemiology, 184 Glasgow Coma Scale, 218, surgery, 286 pediatric, 193 236, 237 goals of, 279–280 treatment, 184 Glasgow Outcome Scale, 218 imaging findings, 288–289, 302 See also Carotid imaging; outcome scales, 218 indications for, 286 Carotid stenosis; Traumatic brain injury imaging MRI, 281, 284, 288 Intracranial hemorrhage in acute care setting, 220 to predict clinical imaging atrophy, quantification of, 225 outcome, 280 Structural neuroimaging, brain swelling, 223 Slippery linkage bias, 23 Alzheimer’s case studies (images), 233 Small bowel ischemia, 470–471 disease, 170 children, 225–229 CT, 470 Subarachnoid hemorrhage, CT CT, 231–233 MRI, 470 angiography, 267 diffuse axonal injury, 238, 239 Small bowel obstruction, 468–475, Superparamagnetic iron oxide diffusion-tensor imaging, 478, 480, 485, 553–560, 563 (SPIO), 535–537, 539 219, 222 case studies (images), 472–473 Supervision Rating Scale diffusion-weighted costs, 469 (SRS), 219 imaging, 222 CT, 468–470 Susceptibility-weighted imaging FLAIR, 219, 222 diagnostic accuracy, 471 (SWI), traumatic brain functional MRI, 229–233 imaging protocol, 487 injury, 222, 229 future directions, 241 literature search, 469 Systematic error, 19–20, 24, 25. goals of, 219 pathophysiology, 468 See also Bias gradient echo sequences, ultrasound, 468 219, 222 Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) hemorrhage, 223 metastatic disease, 96 T image classification, 222–223 staging, 97 Temporal lobe epilepsy and immediate, 221–222 whole-body MRI, 97 CT, 247, 254 treatment/surgery, 220 680 Index

Traumatic brain injury intussusception, 467, 480, Urolithiasis imaging (cont.) 482, 487 CT, 570, 573–578, 581 lesions, number/size/depth, liver metastases, 535–536 pathophysiology, 570 223–224 occult spinal dysraphism types of stones, 571, 577 literature review, 219–220 imaging, 369, 372–374, See also Nephrolithiasis methods, summary of, 377–379 234–235 prostate cancer, 147–152, midline shift, 221 157, 159 V MRI, 224, 229 pulmonary embolism Variable costs, 10 MR spectroscopy, 230–231 evaluation, 401, 402, Ventilation-perfusion imaging multivoxel resonance 406–409 (VQ), pulmonary embolism spectroscopy, 231 septic arthritis, 297, 299–303, evaluation, 401, 403–404, normal scans, 221 305, 306 408, 410, 411 and outcome prediction, 222 shoulder injury, 319 Vertebroplasty, 336, 338, 346 perfusion studies, 229–230 small bowel obstruction, Video-assisted thoracotomy PET, 232–233 469–471, 474, 480, (VATS), lung cancer, 92 PET FDG, 232 485, 555 sensitivity/specificity of, 221 See also Doppler ultrasound single-voxel spectroscopy Ultrasound, breast cancer, 68–69 W (SVS), 233, 240 interpretation issue, 534 Wada test, 9, 252, 253 SPECT, 231–232 local extent, detection of, 70, Whole-body MRI, small cell lung susceptibility-weighted 77, 151, 515 cancer (SCLC), 97 imaging (SWI), 239 as supplemental screening, 62 Whole-body PET Type I error, 20 Unconscious patient, cervical hepatocellular Type II error, 21 spine imaging, 362–363 carcinoma, 535 Urinary tract disorders liver metastases, 535 literature search, 338 William’s criteria, 280 U nephrolithiasis, 570–577, Ultrasound 579, 580 abdomen, blunt trauma, 441, neurogenic bladder, 573, X 443, 445 574, 576 X-rays acute calculous urinary tract infection, 10, ankylosing spondylitis, 350 cholecystitis, 504, 498, 573, 574, 577, 579, 580, cancer risk and radiation, 32 506–507, 519 585–606 chest, blunt trauma, 443 acute hematogenous urolithiasis, 570, 571, hematopoietic cancer risks, osteomyelitis imaging, 297, 573–577 33, 38 299–303, 305, 306 Urinary tract infection, 10, 498, herniated disk, 336, 338, bile duct obstruction, 504, 506 573, 574, 577, 579, 580, 348, 350 bile duct stricture, 504 584–606 inherited human syndromes, choledocholithiasis, 504 case studies (images), 498, 28, 37 chronic calculous 579, 580 lung cancer screening, cholecystitis, 506 costs, 10, 574, 587 90–92 colonic diverticulitis, 471, 475 epidemiology, 587, 589 radiation terminology, 28 endoscopic. See Endoscopic pathophysiology, 586 radiation mechanisms, 28 ultrasonography and pregnancy, 587, 593, 604 scoliosis, 32 hepatocellular carcinoma treatment, 587–589, 591, 593 spinal stenosis, 338