Historic England Research

Discovery, Innovation and Science in the Historic Environment RESEARCH

ISSUE 11 . WINTER 2018-19 ...to this winter issue of Research magazine.

This issue presents another wide-ranging review of our recent research. We explore efforts to gain a much better understanding of how the historic environment helps to improve quality of life and wellbeing. This understanding is fundamental to persuading policy-makers of the social (as well as economic) value of our shared heritage.

Keeping that heritage in good condition is often best achieved by finding new uses for historic structures. We report on research to understand the condition of the amazing group of historic textile mills in the north-west of the country, of which we have lost more than 500 in the last 30 years. Working in partnership with local authorities we hope to create a strategy to help preserve and repurpose these powerhouses of the industrial revolution.

Catastrophic loss is the subject of another article, but this time as a catalyst for renewed public interest in their heritage. A major fire at St Martin’s Island in Exeter in 2016 destroyed two originally medieval buildings and damaged several more, receiving significant international media coverage, but prompting Welcome... local interest and a book on one of Exeter’s best collection of houses. Fire features again, in ‘Waking the Birdoswald Dead’. Here we explore how heritage science disciplines are brought to bear on investigating Roman cremations from the vicinity of Birdoswald Roman fort on Hadrian’s Wall, with some surprising and intriguing results.

The discovery is only one part of research and investigation: we also need to consider what to keep, where and for how long. A research partnership between the University of Reading and Historic England showcases the use of palaeoenvironmental archive resources to produce fresh interpretations of past environments and ancient ways of life, and exposes the challenges that these archives face.

Barney Sloane National Specialist Services Director.

Front cover image: Birdoswald vessel SF33516 as reconstructed with the contents visible. © Historic England, James O. Davies, DP219758

2 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 3 We are the public body that helps people England’s spectacular historic environment care for, enjoy and celebrate Contents ...... Winter issue

RESEARCH magazine

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Wellbeing and the historic Reviewing the condition of Archaeological Paleo- Waking the Birdoswald dead Exeter’s Cathedral Yard fire Textphone: 01793 015 0174 environment... why bother? historic textile mills in the NW environmental archiving Analysing five funerary vessels and surrounding buildings Email: customers@Historic Exploring the relationships between Textile mill surveys in Lancashire Raising awareness of England’s from the Roman cemetery. Destruction and a reawakening. England.org.uk wellbeing and historic places. and Greater Manchester. archived paleoenvironmental resource.

4 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 5 Wellbeing and ...why bother?

Exploring the relationship between the historic wellbeing and historic places.

Historic England has produced an assessment, Wellbeing and the historic environment, that sets out environment... the available evidence for the role of the historic environment in promoting health and wellbeing and explores the ways in which that relationship could be explored further, both by Historic England and more widely. >>

Visitors at Avebury Henge, Wiltshire. © University of Reading

6 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 7 What is wellbeing? to learn and ultimately is about enabling A framework for considering wellbeing and volunteer projects tend to capture a limited Wellbeing Research by the What Works Centre for everyone to fulfil their own potential. heritage, designed to help Historic England demographic of (self-selecting) employed, ‘is quality Wellbeing defines wellbeing as ‘about develop a contribution to the agenda; educated and higher socio-economic people, and creating the conditions for Wellbeing evaluation can directly groups. Examples such as Operation of life and us all to thrive. It is quality of life and feed into and respond to more recent Strategic objectives for wellbeing and Nightingale and Homeless Heritage provide prosperity, prosperity, positive physical and mental Government calls for wellbeing, the historic environment formulated models for creating opportunities with non- positive health, sustainable thriving communities’. integration and cohesion (for example, through the Five Ways to Wellbeing heritage or more vulnerable groups. There physical It recognises that humans are emotional Culture White paper, the emerging Civil (Give, Be Active, Keep Learning, Take is potential to do more along these lines. and that they value non-financial benefits, Society Strategy, and the Integrated Notice and Connect) and mental so how you feel and your quality of life as Communities Strategy Green Paper). Heritage as participation. This is A large body health, you experience it matter too. Government has recognised that A framework for considering about visiting sites of cultural interest. of research sustainable Gross Domestic Product is no longer wellbeing and heritage The subject is supported by a large body indicates thriving In 2008 the Government Office of Science an acceptable indicator of a nation’s The framework demonstrates the of research which indicates that cultural published a report on Mental Capital wellbeing because, while it is rising, relationship between wellbeing and heritage engagement is linked to wellbeing. Surveys that cultural communities’ and Wellbeing, in which it promoted social inequality is increasing. Wellbeing in six ways. are useful but limited because the degree engagement the five ways to wellbeing developed by therefore is now a policy issue, politically of improvement can be too slight to be is linked to the New Economics Foundation (NEF). and conceptually linked with addressing Heritage as a process. This is about statistically significant; bias capture of These were created as suggestions for health inequality and social cohesion doing, most commonly in heritage circles higher socio-economic groups and causality wellbeing individual action to promote the process as long-term government priorities. In through volunteering as an active and are difficult to determine without greater of wellbeing. Wellbeing and mental capital our assessment we provide evidence for committed relationship over time, a process contextual understanding of a person’s life. affects people’s life satisfaction and ability creating the following: that yields wellbeing outcomes. Many It relates best to curatorial practices. >>

Far left: Five ways to wellbeing. © Historic England

Left centre: Soldier from 3 Rifles at Barrow Clump Wiltshire. © Crown Copyright Give Near left: People enjoying the peace and tranquility at K g St Peter’s Cathedral, Be e eep nin Activ Lear The Close, Exeter, Devon. © Historic England Archive, James O. Davies, DP196557

T ake Notice Connect

8 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 9 Heritage as mechanism. This is about forces and police, the mayor and local Above left: The Chattri, Above right: Handling Heritage as healing. This is about disadvantaged young people, including using cultural assets to bring people people, maintains the unique and fittingly Patcham, Brighton, museum objects can therapy through the properties of cultural those with poor mental health, found that East Sussex. © Historic help wellbeing. together for therapeutic or social purposes dignified memorial service to the Indian heritage. Qualitative and experiential connectedness was the major outcome of England, Steven Baker, © Historic England to provide a common point of interest soldiers that died in the First World War. DP184442 assessment of patients on wards handling project work, but also that they experienced or experience. Multiple examples exist, museum objects revealed a number of an increase in their self-awareness, self- including, at a large scale, the British The benefits of social interaction, creative transactional benefits such as thinking expression, sense of belonging and ability Museum Reminiscences programme opportunities and sharing memories may and meaning-making, self-esteem and to relate to others by seeing things from and, at a local level, projects such as the contribute towards social cohesion through positive interactions. Other projects on different perspectives. >> memorialisation at the Chattri Indian sharing experiences and developing new Memorial, Sussex. This collaboration connections. This has significant potential between the Undivided Indian Ex-Service for the historic environment, especially in Association, the Brighton and Hove Hindu community and place-based initiatives. Elders Group, members of the armed Assessment of patients handling museum objects revealed a number of benefits such as thinking and meaning-making, self-esteem and positive interactions

10 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 11 Heritage as place. This is about of a place have the potential to support Heritage as environment. The beneficial ‘place-shaping’ – ensuring reclaiming a sense of place, which can new-found expressions of community link between nature and wellbeing has been that local people have a positively contribute to countering social and shape an existing sense of belonging extensively researched and some findings isolation and environmental degradation. into a shared experience? Developing this can be usefully applied to the historic voice, feel empowered and There has been a wealth of research on this further, the idea of ‘place-shaping’ naturally environment yet the gaps in our evidence feel a sense of belonging subject (see Heritage Counts for aspects of emerges; ensuring that local people have need to be filled, primarily in the area of this) and specific studies have articulated a voice, feel empowered and thereby feel understanding what historic characteristics the character of place to the feelings of a sense of belonging. Culture and heritage of a place (building or landscape) best its inhabitants (for example, 20 Years in generally are understood as key methods of promote wellbeing. >> 12 Places). Does the historic character generating belonging.

Above right: Model showing how the historic environment relates to wellbeing indicators. © Historic England

Above left: Water Street, Castle Combe, Wiltshire. © Historic England Archive, James O. Davies, DP195136

12 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 13 Strategic objectives Strategically addressing this as an What next? The role of heritage in improving wellbeing utilising and developing skills and organisation could involve three distinct Wellbeing relates most closely to the can therefore take many forms. Given our feeling meaningful through contributing approaches. neighbourhood, whether through local role in supporting successful place making productively to something action, connecting with local people and and providing local historic environment Working with existing and, especially, groups or our local environment. By advice, we are especially interested in the providing social interaction and creativity new partners to consider the historic extension, therefore, wellbeing can be best role of place to a community’s sense of that relates to links with the past environment’s potential to support linked with the heritage of the everyday. identity and belonging. wellbeing and life satisfaction, and creating a long-lasting benefit through ensuring evaluation methods are consistent Next we will be initiating projects and Some of the ways this relationship may work increased self-awareness and social and comparable with approaches being further research with new stakeholders and for individuals and communities are by: networks developed by strategic partners such as partners within the structure of Historic the What Works for Wellbeing Centre. England’s Research Agenda in order to test combining physical activity with developing a wider collective sense of our conclusions and trial methodologies for outdoors and cultural heritage community, belonging and equality of Using the Five Ways to Wellbeing evaluating impact. inclusion through place-based initiatives. (Give, Be Active, Take Notice, Connect forming a new relationship with the past and Keep Learning), to articulate the Based on our research we believe planning that creates new perspectives historic environment’s potential to for wellbeing outcomes can be a mechanism support it. An example of this might for diversity and inclusion by breaking be a simple model setting out how the down barriers of access. We aim to Five Ways could act as drivers for a work with local authorities to promote strategic organisational approach. wellbeing and engagement with the historic environment through social prescribing; As an organisation Historic England is by developing wellbeing through the working to ensure the wellbeing of its staff, historic environment, by achieving local and has various iniatives on mental health sustainability in new ways, and by building and staff support. There is clear evidence on the relationship between people and from a recent staff questionnaire that place to empower local voices. Might this the wellbeing of staff would be improved mean that we achieve the aspiration, as further by our work having a demonstrable stated by a staff participant at a wellbeing and intentional impact on society as event, that “Wellbeing has the potential well as on the historic environment. to properly fulfil our remit of being for Clearly the public value of what we do everyone by engaging marginalised and is an integral part of our motivation to overlooked communities”? n work in this sector, so social impact and staff wellbeing are explicitly linked.

Above: Diagram showing strategic objectives for wellbeing and the historic environment. © Historic England Wellbeing can be best linked with the heritage of the everyday

14 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 15 The authors Further reading Dr Linda Monckton, FSA Sarah Reilly Ashley, S L T 2016 ‘Acts of heritage, acts of Heritage Counts, Historic England Architectural Historian with Communities Analyst with value: memorialising at the Chattri Indian https://content.historicengland.org. Historic England. Historic England. Memorial, UK’. International Journal of uk/content/heritage-counts/pub/ Heritage Studies 22(7), 554-567 HC09_England_Acc.pdf and https:// Linda joined English Sarah is an content.historicengland.org.uk/content/ Heritage, now Historic archaeologist who BritainThinks 2015 20 Years in 12 Places: heritage-counts/pub/2017/heritage-and- England, in 2003, first joined English Heritage 20 years of Lottery funding for Heritage, society-2017.pdf as a Senior Investigator in 1996. Working out of A report prepared by BritainThinks for the and then later as Head Fort Cumberland she Heritage Lottery Fund Ministry of housing, communities and of Research Policy for carried out a range of local government 2018 Places of Worship. She is currently Head of excavations and building fabric recording Department for Culture Media and Sport Communities Research. Her publications projects. In 2006 she joined a new ‘Local 2016 The Culture White Paper New Economics Foundation 2005 Well- include works on religious buildings from Government Liaison’ team, managing our being and the environment achieving the middle ages to the present day, post- relationships with local government Finnegan, A 2016 Nimenko, W. and ‘One Planet Living’ and maintaining excavation architectural fragments, heritage agencies, primarily IHBC and ALGAO, and Simpson, R G 2013 ‘Rear Operations Group quality of life law and policy, and secular architecture leading on a range of programmes medicine: a pilot study of psychological from the sixteenth to the twentieth associated with Heritage Protection Reform, decompression in a Rear Operations Group University College London Healing centuries. local government service delivery, and during Operation HERRICK 14’. Journal Heritage: the impact of museums on Historic Environment Reviews. Now of Royal Army Medical Corps 2014, 160: health and wellbeing Communities Analyst in the Historic 295-297 England’s Strategic Research and What works centre for wellbeing Partnerships Team, she is currently Government Office for Science 2008 Mental concerned with heritage, communities, Capital and Wellbeing. Making the most wellbeing and measuring impact. of ourselves in the 21st Century

16 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 17 Mills and Boom In response, Historic England show that 90% of people believe Reviewing the condition of Charles Smith has worked collaboratively with that mills are an important part Assistant NW Planning Director, property consultants Cushman of England’s heritage, story and Historic England. and Wakefield to produce Engines character and 85% are against of Prosperity: new uses for their demolition and replacement. Textile mills are fundamental to the old mills. This document sets This is no surprise as there are history, culture and landscape of out how mill buildings can be many examples of repurposes mills historic much of the North of England. They powerhouses for growth in the which are playing a positive role in were the powerhouses behind the 21st century. It cites evidence of forging local community identity, industrial revolution, triggering their capacity to accommodate providing inspiring places in which technological innovation, stimulating new and exciting uses, attracting people can live, work and relax. new trade and transforming the investment in area-wide textile mills transport network. Yet the regeneration. For example, if you Having generated a public debate University of Salford’s research took all the vacant space in textile about the plight of textile mills, tells us that nearly 500 of Greater mills across Greater Manchester Historic England is now working in the North West Manchester’s textile mills have and Lancashire, you could closely at regional and local been lost in the last 30 years. accommodate 25,000 new homes authority levels to develop effective Many of those that survive stand or host 133,000 new jobs. mill investment strategies, which Textile mill surveys in Lancashire and Greater Manchester. underused or vacant. The same we hope will result in a brighter story rings true for the mills of We know that people care about mills. future for these important Lancashire and West Yorkshire. Results from a recent YouGov poll emblems of northern identity.

Vacant commercial floor space in the impressive Tulketh Mill in Preston in 2008. © Ian Miller

18 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 19 Britannia Mill at New Line near Bacup in The urgency for an assessment of the region’s former textile-manufacturing 2009, prior to Grade II listing in 2016. buildings has been recognised for some time, reflecting a growing © Oxford Archaeology Ltd concern at the rate of loss of this iconic industrial monument type

Recent strategic surveys in Lancashire Textile Mill Survey Further funding from English Lancashire and Greater Manchester In 2008, English Heritage funded Heritage in 2011 enabled a have provided a heritage audit an initial quantitative assessment second stage to the project to be of historic textile mills in the of the textile-manufacturing sites in implemented, which aimed to North West, providing a much- the modern county of Lancashire, provide a qualitative assessment needed understanding of their where the number of surviving of the surviving textile-mill sites current number, distribution, (and demolished) textile mills in the county. This entailed a stock condition and use. was unknown, and the relative rapid external examination of significance of individual sites was each surviving mill site to enable a The commanding utilitarian in many cases poorly understood. ‘Buildings at risk’-type assessment architecture of historic textile mills This comprehensive desk-based to be completed. This was intended has become a key characteristic study identified a total of 1661 sites to provide information on the size, of numerous industrial towns in the county that had been built for condition, occupancy, completeness and rural river valleys across the spinning, weaving or finishing and relative significance of each north-west England, imparting a of textile goods, including cotton, site. This was coupled with a powerful sense of place, although wool, silk, flax, jute and oilcloth, rough calculation of available floor the number of mills that survive in together with ancillary works that space within each site to inform an the region had not been quantified had been established primarily to understanding of their economic until recently. The urgency for produce machinery for the textile potential for re-use. This concluded an assessment of the region’s industry. Of the total number of sites that the total floor space in historic former textile-manufacturing identified, 619 were found to survive textile mills across Lancashire buildings, particularly the stock in some built form, and included in 2012-13 was approximately condition and erosion of historic examples from all branches of the 4,295,307 square metres mills through redevelopment, has textile-manufacturing industry, (46,234,300 square feet), of which been recognised for some time, although in some cases, such as some 77% lay within the Pennine reflecting a growing concern textile-finishing works and flax Lancashire boroughs. Several mills at the rate of loss of this iconic mills, very few buildings survive. were identified during the site industrial monument type due to The majority of the sites were visits as being of special historic economic pressures. Highlighting concentrated in the southern and and architectural interest, and were the economic and social benefits of eastern parts of the county, within put forward for assessment for repurposing redundant mills is an the boroughs of Blackburn with statutory designation. Examples increasingly important aspect of Darwen, Hyndburn, Rossendale, included the early nineteenth- developing management strategies Burnley and Pendle, corresponding century Holmes Mill in Clitheroe, for historic industrial townscapes, essentially to Pennine Lancashire, mid nineteenth-century integrated yet much of the baseline data although important concentrations spinning and weaving mills near available to gain an informed of mills persist in Preston, Chorley, Bacup and Chorley, and the late understanding of the significance Clitheroe and Lancaster, with nineteenth-century Queen Street Aerial view of the recently designated of individual sites have for some notable rural examples existing on Mill and King’s Mill in Harle Syke, Grade I listed Queen Street Mill and the Grade II listed King’s Mill in Harle Syke, time been inadequate. the periphery of these centres. Burnley. >> Burnley. © Historic England, Dave MacLeod

20 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 21 The study concluded that just over 10% of the total stock in Lancashire was ‘At Risk’ in 2012-13, with a further 17% deemed to be ‘Vulnerable’

Left: Facit Ring Mill, near Whitworth in The study also concluded that Blackburn with Darwen, Burnley mills that have been adapted 2009, shortly before its demolition. just over 10% of the total stock and Rossendale. The majority of sympathetically for new uses. © Oxford Archaeology Ltd of historic textile mills in the mills in the county at that date Hollins Bank Mill in Brierfield, county were ‘At Risk’ in 2012- were considered to be at ‘Low for instance, has been repurposed 13, with a further 17% deemed Risk’ / ‘No Risk’, although this successfully as the Pendle Village to be ‘Vulnerable’ in view of their did not take into account the Mill Outlet, whilst Centenary deteriorating condition and low increasing economic pressures for Mill in Preston provides a level of occupancy. These figures redevelopment, and several large fine example of adaptation for varied between Lancashire’s mill complexes in this category residential use, and the eighteenth- component boroughs, with higher have been cleared subsequently. century Kirk Mill in Chipping is proportions of mills ‘At Risk’ or Conversely, there are some being repaired and refurbished as ‘Vulnerable’ being recorded in impressive examples of redundant a boutique hotel. >>

Above: Holmes Mill, Clitheroe. Above right: The former Hollins Bank Mill, © University of Salford Brierfield, now repurposed as the Pendle Village Mill Outlet © Historic England Archive, James O. Davies, DP196334

22 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 23 Approximately 28% of the total stock in Greater Manchester was considered to be ‘Vulnerable’ to change or loss, whilst another 20% were assessed as ‘At Risk’

Greater Manchester Textile in the late 1980s, although a completeness. This was achieved elements of their steam-power condition and levels of occupancy Approximately 28% of the total Mill Survey Review, 2015-18 review was urgently required in by employing a similar ‘Buildings system, comprising engine and and commercial use. This large stock was considered to be Following on from the Lancashire response to nearly three decades at risk’ methodology to that used boiler houses and a chimney. A very group included some significant ‘Vulnerable’ to change or loss, Textile Mill Survey, Historic of change and erosion to the during the Lancashire survey. small number of these mills also examples of historic mills in whilst another 20%, equating to one England funded the Greater county’s textile mills. Taking the retain their steam engine intact, urban areas that are currently in five mills in Greater Manchester, Manchester Archaeological 972 extant mills recorded in the Whilst it was concluded that 432 with fine examples at Trencherfield in sustainable use, including the were assessed as ‘At Risk’. Many of Advisory Service within the 1980s survey, the review aimed to textile mills in Greater Manchester Mill in Wigan and Leigh Spinners celebrated group of late eighteenth the mills in the more concerning University of Salford to undertake provide an understanding of the have been demolished since Mill in Leigh. and early nineteenth-century categories lie in the urban centres a similar assessment of textile loss rates of historic textile mills the 1980s, 540 survive extant cotton spinning mills that flank of Bolton, Salford, Stockport, mills in Greater Manchester. These across Greater Manchester and (representing an average loss rate Just over half of the former the Rochdale Canal in Ancoats, Dukinfield and Oldham, although had been surveyed previously provide an up-to-date audit of the of 44%). Of the total number of textile mills in the county were and the tastefully repurposed small clusters also exist in the during a comprehensive study that number of surviving mills, noting surviving mill complexes, however, considered to be at ‘Low Risk’ / mills in Chorlton-upon-Medlock. Pennine valleys in the boroughs of was carried out by the RCHME their location, condition, and only 6% retain all the structural ‘No Risk’, based on their current Rochdale and Tameside. >>

Above left: The horizontal cross- Above right: The derelict Hartford Mill in compound steam engine that survives Oldham, a Grade II listed building beyond in-situ at Leigh Spinners Mill within the economic repair after being subject to a recently repaired engine house. series of fires and vandalism. © University © University of Salford of Salford

24 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 25 The repurposing of historic mills in the Ancoats area provides a model for the regeneration of Manchester’s satellite towns

The total floor space in the The author Further reading county’s mills was calculated to be Ian Miller, FSA Miller, I , 2018 ‘Lancashire Textile approximately 3,759,800 square Assistant Director of Salford Mills Stage 2 Survey: Buildings metres (40,473,164 square feet), Archaeology within the At Risk Assessment’ Survey Final of which nearly a third appeared University of Salford. Report’ Oxford Archaeology North to be vacant or under-used. The https://historicengland.org. occupancy rates varied between Ian has uk/images-books/publications/ boroughs, with approximately specialist lancashire-textile-mills-stage2- 82% of the floor space in mills in knowledge of survey/ Oldham in economic use, compared the historic with 47% in the borough of Wigan. textile industry Phelps, A & Gregory, R & Miller, I However, several empty mills with and its & Wild, C 2017, The Textile Mills large floor plates are in the process buildings in north-west England. of Lancashire: The Legacy, Oxford of refurbishment for residential use, He led the Lancashire Textile Mills Archaeology North, with a particular focus in Central Survey in 2008-15, and was closely https://historicengland.org. Manchester. The repurposing of involved in the subsequent county- uk/images-books/publications/ historic mills in the Ancoats area of wide review of the historic textile textile-mills-lancashire-legacy/ the city, as an example, has enabled mills in Greater Manchester. He is a thriving new community of currently leading a similar review of University of Salford Greater residents to become established in textile mills in West Yorkshire on Manchester Archaeological this depopulated district, providing behalf of Historic England. Advisory Service 2017: Historic a model for the regeneration of Textile Mills of Greater Manchester’s satellite towns. Manchester: Survey Review and Heritage Audit Informing the future of the region’s mills University of Salford Greater It is hoped that the dataset Manchester Archaeological generated from the studies in Advisory Service 2017: Historic Lancashire and Greater Manchester Textile Mills of Lancashire has provided an invaluable baseline for the creation of a mills strategy Above: The Grade II* listed cotton mill for the North West, which has in Miles Platting, Manchester, aptly considerable potential to inform described as ‘a building of great presence and support spatial and economic and a landmark in the area’, which has been successfully repurposed for mixed planning frameworks n use. © University of Salford

26 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 27 Archaeological palaeoenvironmental archiving: the challenges and opportunities

Raising awareness of England’s archived palaeoenvironmental resource.

The increase in the quantities of finds and samples has not been matched by a commensurate growth in capacity for museums and other repository services

England’s museums and repository services An on-going research project – Archaeological Archaeological archives to be understaffed and reliant on volunteers, and have accrued a considerable collection of Palaeoenvironmental Archiving: the Challenges and A profusion of materials collected from almost all too frequently do not have an archaeologist on palaeoenvironmental materials. Samples from these Opportunities – is part of a Historic England supervised three decades of developer-funded archaeology has staff to deal with archaeological collections. collections have recently been analysed as part of Collaborative Doctoral Partnership. The project endowed the archaeological sector with a rich and synthetic research projects using bioarchaeological intends to explore what the often undervalued archived varied archived resource. The growth in the quantity In response to the challenges experienced by the techniques which were not available at the time archaeological palaeoenvironmental resource can offer of formal archaeological investigations and the museum and archives services, artefact specific of excavation. But are current attitudes towards in its ability to enhance academic research and public proportionate increase in the quantities of finds and guidance documents, intended for an audience of the collection, retention, selection and curation science engagement. Although at an early stage, the samples have not been matched by a commensurate specialists and contractors, have been drafted. A of palaeoenvironmental materials changing research has identified a combination of practical and growth in capacity for museums and other repository leading example is ‘A Standard for Pottery Studies with the times and allowing for a satisfactory theoretical requirements. These can be exemplified services. Many museum stores are now crowded in Archaeology’, produced by a group of ceramicists archive for future scientific research? as skills and awareness limitations on a sectoral level and often unable to receive any more archaeological covering prehistoric, Roman and medieval fabrics. and recognising what theoretical and practice-based archives. Furthermore, cuts to public services since Guidance of this nature is expected to prove to frameworks are required to articulate the importance the 2008 financial crisis have resulted in redundancies be extremely valuable as it allows depositors the of palaeoenvironmental materials and archaeological across the sector and funding for museums still opportunity to improve the quality and size of an science more widely. remains desperately low. Many museums continue archive prior to deposition. >>

Opposite page top right: Fishbourne and Chichester District Council Archaeology Store. A typical crowded storage facility. (Image taken by Professor Martin Bell and used with permission)

28 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 29 Archaeological palaeoenvironmental archives The second and perhaps more damaging reason could might not have been available or were not well- The varied storage conditions which excavated Procedures which support how archaeological be the falsely held perception that these remains offer developed at the time of the original excavations are palaeoenvironmental materials demand can present palaeoenvironmental remains are archived have, by little research value once the initial analyses have being applied to archive materials more and more. For curatorial challenges, especially when compared to contrast, received less attention. There are two possible been completed. This notion underestimates the role example the Feeding Anglo-Saxon England project, more robust materials such as ceramics or lithics which reasons for this. Firstly, the diversity of materials. which palaeoenvironmental materials can offer for re- co-ordinated by the universities of Oxford and Leicester, are regarded as being resistant. For example, intact Archaeological palaeoenvironmental materials can analysing published excavations and further enhancing is using weed seeds and crop evidence (including the sediment cores can require cold storage, insect remains include remains as disparate as seeds, insects, molluscs, our understanding of past climates, environments application of isotope analyses and radiocarbon dating) can require storage in an ethanol solution, and charred mounted microscope slides which contain pollen, and and economies. It is conceivable that the failure to from the archived assemblages of long-since completed or mineral-replaced materials must be stored in dry, intact sediment samples, to name a few. The associated appreciate the value of the resource persists due to excavations to further the understanding of agricultural cool conditions or risk degradation. >> difficulties in dealing with some of these materials a limited understanding across the sector of what techniques, such as crop rotation and productivity. (particularly those which are waterlogged, and need can be achieved with the recent developments in to be refrigerated or preserved in vials with flammable bioarchaeological techniques. liquid) make them potentially awkward to conserve and curate. Identifying a comprehensive solution for The perception that the palaeoenvironmental archive the curation of such a diverse collection of materials is has little sustained value is increasingly being Scientific techniques that might not have been available at the time of the therefore, understandably, complicated. challenged, particularly as scientific techniques that original excavations are being applied to archive materials

Left: Charred seeds recovered from archive. Feeding Anglo-Saxon Right: Organic material currently being analysed by the Feeding England. (Image taken by Mark McKarracher, Oxford University, Saxon England project. (Image taken by Mark McKarracher, Oxford and used with permission) University, and used with permission)

30 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 31 Unfortunately, some museums may struggle to provide The next stage Conclusion The author appropriate controlled storage conditions. With many As a first step, the research project dispatched two short Projects such as Feeding Anglo-Saxon England are Paul Flintoft stores refusing to accept waterlogged materials and survey questionnaires to 350 of England’s museums. using bioarchaeological applications on material Doctoral Researcher with the University of Reading dry organic remains being maintained in sub-optimal This was crucial in identifying a sample of museums from published excavations and are demonstrating and Historic England. conditions, the need to identify correct methods of with appropriate collections. From this initial long list, the current, and perhaps increasing, value which storage and implement them is vital if we expect to 15 museums with palaeoenvironmental collections, palaeoenvironmental archives possess. As new The theme of research follows on have a functional archived resource in the future. from across five regions of England, have been selected scientific techniques are developed and existing from interests which Paul Recent excavations at Must Farm and Star Carr, for the next stage of qualitative data collection. In procedures become more affordable, access to the developed during an MSc in which recovered an abundance of well-preserved order to adequately assess the working practices of palaeoenvironmental resource is expected to become Palaeoeconomy and Environmental palaeoenvironmental remains, demonstrate the demand museums and the condition of the palaeoenvironmental more prevalent. It is therefore important that Archaeology undertaken at the for facilities which can receive organic materials collections themselves, visits to collecting institutions consideration is given to methods of preservation and University of Sheffield in 2013- and prepared samples for both short and long-term and interviews with museums professionals will storage capacity if we expect to provide researchers with 2015. Prior to the appointment to the doctoral research durations. Available space within museums in which constitute a key element of the project. Interviews and access to high quality archives in the future n post, Paul worked as a project manager for a to install specialist equipment such as cold stores and visits will take place throughout the autumn of 2018. commercial archaeology organisation and witnessed flammable liquid cabinets is something which has first hand many of the challenges which face the seldom been seen as a priority and something most Additionally, the project aims to raise the level of perception of palaeoenvironmental materials. facilities cannot currently financially afford. awareness concerning the value of palaeoenvironmental materials across England’s museums and archaeological contracting companies. This can be achieved by the publication of guidance, directed at specialists, The project aims to raise awareness contractors, researchers and museum professionals, of the value of palaeoenvironmental designed to demonstrate how the archived palaeoenvironmental resource can be used to greater materials across England’s museums effect and to set out best practice regarding its curation. and archaeological contracting Guidance needs to be applied holistically to the entire companies life of a project rather than simply treating the archive as an entity which exclusively exists at its end. The aim is to develop an approach which can both answer today’s research questions and provide tomorrow’s research material.

32 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 33 Waking the Birdoswald dead

Analysing five funerary vessels from the Roman cemetery.

Funerary Roman vessels feature at the newly opened Birdoswald Fort visitor centre on Hadrian’s Wall. They originate from the cemetery associated with the fort, situated at the top edge of the cliff overlooking the River Irthing. Rapid erosion threatened the site. To mitigate the loss of archaeology, the Historic England (HE) Excavation and Analysis team excavated part of the cemetery in 2009. This represents the only large-scale investigation of any military cemetery on Hadrian’s Wall and allowed us to explore cremation practice at the northern edge of the Roman Empire. >>

Fig 1 (left): Vessel SF33516: loss of rim to ploughing. X-rays show bone and objects at base. © Historic England, Karla Graham

34 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 35 Analysis of the contents by our team of archaeological scientists has built our understanding of each individual and the practice of cremation

Burial Investigating the vessels Number Vessels in-situ After conservation Burial type Vessel type Individual buried The five vessels range in size and (small find) decoration. Four are cremation vessels in a type of black burnished 33516 Cremation vessel Black Burnished Female, young ware, Hadrianic- adult ware and one is a Nene Valley ware Antonine beaker accompanying a cremation in a wooden box (Table 1). They all date to the mid-late second century.

Table 1 (left) Table 5 Four vessels broke into many pieces

33517 Cremation vessel Black Burnished Child (c 5yrs) whilst in the ground, with one losing ware its entire rim due to ploughing (Fig 1). The fifth vessel survived intact, protected by the stone-lined cist it lay in. All were block lifted and X-rayed prior to excavation under Table 1 (right) Table 6 controlled conditions. Analysis of the contents by our team of 33711 Cremation vessel Black Burnished Young adult archaeological scientists has ware built our understanding of each individual and the practice of cremation. This work has, in turn, informed the English Heritage Trust Table 7 Table 2 displays in the new visitor centre.

33723 Cremation vessel in Black Burnished Adult Examination revealed information stone lined cist ware, Hadrianic- about the vessels’ treatment prior Antonine to burial. The largest had a hole repaired with lead (Fig 2). The one intact vessel appears to have Table 3 been ‘ritually killed’ before placing Table 8 in the cist; a small hole had been 33762 Beaker Nene Valley ware Male, young adult deliberately cut out of the base (Fig accompanying 3). Evidence suggests that the four cremation in a cremation vessels might have been wooden box placed near to the funeral pyre before the cremated remains were placed inside; warming, possibly by the Table 4 Table 9 pyre, has slightly eroded the surfaces and left soot on one (Fig 3). >>

36 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 37 Computed radiography and micro-computed tomography (CT) scanning led to surprising results

Vessel SF33516 X-radiography was a key tool for recording and examining the condition of the contents before micro-excavation. Surprisingly, for one vessel, the X-rays showed a collection of objects underneath the cremated remains (Fig 1). Once the bone was removed, it became apparent that the objects were fused together by iron corrosion. Unable to disentangle them, we turned to a variety of imaging tools to investigate what was present.

Computed radiography and micro- computed tomography (CT) scanning led to surprising results. It appears that the base of the vessel had been lined with a piece of chain mail armour into which nine other objects had been placed (Figs 4 and 5). The cremated bone was then placed on top. The presence of chain mail may commemorate a soldier but the amount is small and can only represent a portion of armour. This suggests a male, but dress accessories usually associated with a female are present: a bracelet or armlet (Fig 6), rings and beads (Fig 7) and pendants. Part of a glass vessel rim was on top of the bracelet and may be from a vessel containing liquids used in the cremation ceremony. >>

Fig 3 (left): Intact vessel SF33723: Fig 4 (top): Vessel SF33516: X-ray of the Fig 5 (bottom): Vessel SF33516 excavated evidence of sooting and ‘ritual killing’. chain mail and construction of the links. showing objects alongside the X-ray © Historic England, James O. Davies © Historic England, Karla Graham and reconstruction drawing. © Historic England, James O. Davies, Karla Graham, Judith Dobie

38 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 39 Fig 6 (above): Objects inside Vessel SF33516: bracelet with glass vessel rim lying on top. © Historic England, Karla Graham

Fig 7 (right): Object inside Vessel One of the more challenging objects and silicon oxides were detected. Fig 8 (above): Object inside Vessel SF33516: Dress accessory (bead and wire to identify was a large circular Crystalline grains resembling mica SF33516: horse harness fitting. rings) discovered through X-ray and CT. © Historic England, Karla Graham ring (Fig 8). A multidisciplinary could be seen under microscopy © Historic England, Judith Dobie/ University of Cranfield approach was required to determine suggesting a fine-grained what it was made from. It was sedimentary stone such as shale. not metal as it was nearly X-ray This was confirmed using Fourier transparent and therefore barely Transformed Infra-Red Attenuated visible in the images. Using portable Total Reflectance Spectroscopy X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) the (FTIR). The material and size elements potassium, aluminium suggests it is from a horse harness. >>

40 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 41 The human remains male, one female, two of unknown Upon cremation, bones shatter into sex) and one was a five-year fragments, and in all five burials old child (Table 1). Each burial most fragments were less than 2cm contained only about 10-35% of long. Furthermore, the burning the amount of the bone one would process destroys or degrades the expect from a whole skeleton. In organic component precluding DNA part this may reflect losses due to and most stable isotope analyses. disturbance or poor survival, but it This severely limits the information seems inescapable that much less that can be obtained, but by using than the full amount was buried. a combination of tried and trusted This is not unusual for cremations techniques, and new methods, we in Roman Britain: similar quantities were able to extract some useful data. of bone were found in burials at nearby Brougham, Cumbria. In Each of the five vessels seemed to Roman times, it seems that it was contain the remains of only one not thought important to bury all individual. Four were adults (one the remains. >>

Each of the five vessels seemed to contain the remains of only one individual

Fig 9 (above): Vessel SF33516: bone fragment from the pelvis, alongside female pelvic bone. The curvature of the greater sciatic notch (dotted line) in the cremated fragment matches that expected of a female pelvic bone. © Historic England, Simon Mays

42 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 43 Conclusion on the pyre. The human remains view the CT scans alongside the The study of the objects and human analysis provides new possibilities vessel (Fig 10). The vessel with the remains from these vessels has of unlocking information hidden lead repair was so distorted from been illuminating. Vessel SF33516 within archaeological remains and the weight of the lead and soil that containing the collection of objects enables us to describe past practices it was reconstructed in two halves has revealed an unparalleled level in new ways. and a special mount made n of information. Micro-CT enabled us to both identify what is present Working with our curatorial Acknowledgements and the process of deposition. colleagues in the English Heritage Rob Collins (University of Newcastle) and Sophie Beckett (University of Cranfield) More intriguing is that the human Trust we reconstructed the vessels for their work on the vessel SF33516. remains analysis and the objects for display (Fig 9). In the case of Emily Carrol (University of Reading) for her suggest a female and that this burial the vessel containing objects, we FTIR work on the cremated bones. To our was in close proximity to that of a felt it was important for the public colleagues in the English Heritage Trust, Frances McIntosh and Leesa Vera-Stevens; child. Further analysis of the soil to see the contents as well as the and HE specialists working on this project. from the vessels revealed charcoal external lattice work decoration. We fragments indicating hardwoods used an ‘open book’ reconstruction native to the British Isles were used allowing visitors to look inside and

When subject to heat, bone to temperatures in excess of 600 be less well fired than exterior The authors undergoes a sequence of degrees Centigrade. There was surfaces, for example the inside Karla Graham, ACR Simon Mays, PhD Angela Middleton, MSc microstructural changes which an evenness of firing of remains surface of skull fragments were Senior Archaeological Conservator Human Skeletal Biologist Archaeological Conservator can be detected by spectroscopic from front and back parts of the often less well fired than the outer with Historic England. with Historic England. with Historic England. methods. We used FTIR to assess body, consistent with placement of surfaces. Because bones shatter the intensity of firing of the bone corpses on top of the pyre. into fragments during combustion, Karla is an Icon Simon is Angela joined to help elucidate the practice of this pattern is consistent with a Accredited Visiting Historic cremation at Birdoswald. Results The other two burials (the adult shorter duration of firing. In the Senior Lecturer in the England as an revealed a diversity of cremation female and the child) showed more adult female, upper parts of the Archaeological Department of Archaeological practices. In three of the burials varied firing with some elements body were also less well fired Conservator for Archaeology at Conservator in (the male and the two unsexed exposed to lower temperatures than the lower parts, suggesting Historic the University 2007. She has a adults) there was a uniformly (c.300-500 degrees Centigrade). insufficient fuel for uniform England and an Accreditation of Southampton, and an Honorary special interest in the conservation high intensity of burning, with There was a tendency for the combustion or that the pyre may Assessor for the Icon PACR scheme. Fellow in the School of History, of waterlogged organic materials prolonged exposure of remains internal surfaces of bones to have been poorly managed. She is leading on the revision of the Classics and Archaeology, and has responsibility for providing HE Guidelines on the X-radiography University of Edinburgh. He has advice, undertaking research and of archaeological metalwork to responsibility for developing and investigative conservation on include guidance on the use of implementing policy regarding material retrieved from land and The human remains analysis provides new possibilities of unlocking computed radiography. human skeletons excavated from marine sites. information and enables us to describe past practices in new ways archaeological sites. Further reading Birdsowald conservation project

Birdoswald Fort, English Heritage Trust

44 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 45 Exeter’s

The destruction immediately The Island is particularly appropriate to study for a provoked a fierce reawakening number of reasons other than the outbreak of the fire. Cathedral Yard fire of popular interest in the city’s Firstly, Exeter has nearly two dozen ancient parishes and that of St Martin is one of the best documented. remaining historic buildings An extensive range of deeds, leases and other papers survive in the city’s two main archives and other relevant ones were identified and used for the first time and surrounding in Somerset. Moreover, Exeter has the largest collection The fire in Exeter’s Cathedral Yard on 28 October of historic images in Devon and many drawings, 2016 has had one unexpected legacy: there has been sketches, maps, building plans and photographs have an unprecedented revival of public interest in the survived for the 42 buildings in the study. These have city’s historic built environment. Two buildings were been used to show the development of individual buildings destroyed and many more had severe or incidental building plots over four hundred years. damage. The fire developed into an international news story because it concerned `England’s oldest hotel’. Secondly, the Island was untouched by the Blitz of 1942. Destruction and a reawakening. No single event in Exeter has had such extensive media In April and May of that year the city centre was targeted coverage since the Second World War. In Devon, and in three nights of bombing during which some twenty particularly in Exeter, the main building (the Royal per cent of the buildings were destroyed. The bombs fell Clarence Hotel) was an iconic structure and its loss is to the immediate west and east of the Island, leaving keenly felt. Because of this the destruction immediately it undamaged. Further losses in the city in the 1950s, provoked a fierce reawakening of popular interest in 1960s and 1970s dramatically reduced the number of the city’s remaining historic buildings. This curiosity Exeter’s historic structures. Four historic buildings, had evolved into a palpable desire to engage with the including two which were listed, were destroyed in the future of Exeter’s built heritage. 1960s and an arson attack in the 1970s was responsible for the loss of three eighteenth-century buildings. The The research response Island now has four twentieth-century buildings with A considerable number of arts projects have taken two of them being particularly distinguished. >> place since the fire but the St Martin’s Island Project, supported by Historic England, preceded them and culminated with the publication of a lengthy book in November 2017. The research focused on the five structures which were mainly affected along with Further losses in the city in the another thirty-seven which are situated alongside them. 1950s, 1960s and 1970s dramatically These form a block of buildings which encompasses nearly the entirety of the ancient parish of St Martin. reduced the number of Exeter’s The project rebranded this block `St Martin’s Island’. historic structures Their position between the cathedral and High Street has made them highly familiar to the public although little was generally known about their history.

46 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 47 New discoveries Other less assuming buildings have been studied. The Island is one of the oldest sites in Exeter. The One has been revealed as having been built in 1907 buildings rest on Roman remains, and Anglo-Saxon by John Boot for his national chain of chemist shops. graves have been found under the Royal Clarence Hotel. The elaborate timber carving on the front was the Archaeological work in summer 2018 should start work of Harry Hems & Son, a national carving firm to reveal additional artefacts. The St Martin’s Island which was located in Exeter. These grotesques Project has uncovered the earliest date known in the had, until now, been ignored by Exonians. country for the rebranding of an inn as a ‘hotel’: this was in the summer of 1769. Research has also shown The fire originated in The Mansion House, a building that two neighbouring buildings, now known as The which was erected in 1870 by an eccentric dentist. Well House, were rebuilt and enlarged throughout the He appears to have claimed that the design, derided seventeenth century. at the time, was `in a sort of French chateau style’. The elaborate interiors were lost in the fire. >>

48 historic england research winter 2018-19 winter 2018-19 historic england research 49 Some of the Island buildings The continuing prosperity of were built in the sixteenth and Exeter rests partly on the pleasing early-seventeenth centuries, and environment which is provided by its they survive substantially behind built heritage unremarkable later fronts

An unexpected feature of the Island is the survival of a Appreciating our built heritage number of early buildings facing onto High Street. Some The study of the Island has brought into focus the had already been studied by building archaeologists and sharp differences between the built environments of the further work is now being undertaken. Exeter largely centres of Devon’s two cities. In Plymouth much of the fell asleep in the late-eighteenth century after three main central area is post-1945 while in Exeter there is hundred years of considerable prosperity, achieved a cluster of historic buildings within the ancient walls. through what had been a booming woollen cloth The continuing prosperity of Exeter rests partly on the industry. By 1800 the High Street as a whole, including pleasing environment which is provided by its built the buildings on the Island frontage, looked unfashionable. heritage. The study has revealed architectural surprises Some of the Island buildings were built as pairs in the and treasures which demand not just lasting protection sixteenth and early-seventeenth centuries, and they but genuine appreciation. survive substantially behind unremarkable later fronts. The most obviously Elizabethan building has been The public response to the project has been overwhelming shown to have been occupied by a series of apothecaries and it is now a common sight to see Exonians and for at least three hundred years. It is tempting to think visitors stopping in the main street to point out features that one room, with a shallow warming dish and toilet, of the buildings which were previously unsuspected. It could be an early medical treatment room. A very is not so much a testament to the ability of academic early toilet seat survives. Another structure retains work to reach all strands of society in a compelling its medieval hall roof and internal Gothic panelling. manner but evidence of the public’s genuine interest A rear block has two chimney stacks over which rest in and support for its historic buildings n seventeenth-century roofs. Each of these buildings is situated in the very heart of the city centre. The author Dr Todd Gray, MBE One of the features of the project has been the Honorary Research Fellow at Exeter University. compilation of lists of occupiers for at least two hundred years for each building. These have proved to be a focus Todd is a historian and author of of attention for local people and have also generated a several books on Exeter including, wealth of original recent and Victorian material from with Sue Jackson, St Martin’s the homes of Exonians. The lists have provided insights Island; An introductory history of into the development of buildings. For example, in the forty-two Exeter buildings. His early 1800s a preponderance of the first floors in the other books include Exeter High Street buildings were used to sell bonnets and Unveiled and Exeter Engraved (in two volumes) and other items of women’s clothing. A row of buildings Devon’s Ancient Bench Ends. in Martin’s Lane were rebranded in the early 1800s as `Luxury Lane’: these small retail spaces were ideal for Further reading offering delicacies. Likewise, smaller buildings facing Gray, T and Jackson, S 2017 St Martin’s Island; An the cathedral were used in the nineteenth century for introductory history of forty-two Exeter buildings. the sale of Honiton lace. Exeter, The Mint Press

Above: Painting of 45 to 47 High Street, by Sidney Gray, T, Jackson, S and Allan, J, forthcoming 2019 Endacott, late 1800s. © Todd Gray Exeter’s Lost Buildings. Exeter, The Mint Press

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