Old Dominion University ODU Digital Commons Engineering Management & Systems Engineering Management & Systems Engineering Theses & Dissertations Engineering Fall 2015 An Approach for the Development of Complex Systems Archetypes Walter Lee Akers Old Dominion University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/emse_etds Part of the Dynamics and Dynamical Systems Commons, Operational Research Commons, and the Systems Engineering Commons Recommended Citation Akers, Walter L.. "An Approach for the Development of Complex Systems Archetypes" (2015). Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Dissertation, Engineering Management & Systems Engineering, Old Dominion University, DOI: 10.25777/6xmx-r674 https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/emse_etds/18 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Engineering Management & Systems Engineering at ODU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Engineering Management & Systems Engineering Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ODU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. AN APPROACH FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS ARCHETYPES By Walt Akers B.S.C.S., May 2007, Park University M.P.M., December 2010, Western Carolina University A Dissertation Presented to the Academic Faculty in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY SYSTEMS ENGINEERING OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY December 2015 Approved by: Charles B. Keating (Director) Adrian Gheorghe (Member) Andres Sousa-Poza (Member) Andrew Hutton (Member) ii Abstract AN APPROACH FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS ARCHETYPES Walt Akers Old Dominion University, 2015 Director: Dr. Charles B. Keating The purpose of this research is to explore the principles and concepts of systems theory in pursuit of a collection of complex systems archetypes that can be used for system exploration and diagnostics. The study begins with an examination of the archetypes and classification systems that already exist in the domain of systems theory. This review includes a critique of their purpose, structure, and general applicability. The research then develops and employs a new approach to grounded theory, using a visual coding model to explore the origins, relationships, and meanings of the principles of systems theory. The goal of the visual grounded theory approach is to identity underlying, recurrent imagery in the systems literature that will form the basis for the archetypes. Using coding models derived from the literature, the study then examines the interrelationships between system principles. These relationships are used to clearly define the environment where the archetypes are found in terms of energy, entropy and time. A collection of complex system archetypes is then derived which are firmly rooted in the literature, as well as being demonstrably manifested in the real world. The definitions of the emerging complex systems archetypes are consistent with the environmental definition and are governed by the system’s behavior related to energy collection, entropy displacement, and the pursuit of viability. Once the archetypes have been identified, this study examines the similarities and differences that distinguish them. The individual system principles that either define or differentiate each of the archetypes are described, and real-world manifestations of the iii archetypes are discussed. The collection of archetypes is then examined as a continuum, where they are related to one another in terms of energy use, entropy accumulation, self- modification and external-modification. To illustrate the applicability of these archetypes, a case study is undertaken which examines a medium-sized organization with multiple departments in an industrial setting. The individual departments are discussed in detail, and their archetypical forms are identified and described. Finally, the study examines future applications for the archetypes and other research that might enhance their utility for complex systems governance. iv Copyright, 2015, by Walt Akers, All Rights Reserved v For my wife, Evelyn, and my children, Madelaine and Daniel. vi Acknowledgments First, I wish to extend my thanks to my committee members for the time, effort, and diligence that they have shown in helping me to prepare this manuscript, and in ensuring that this research product reflected credit on the university and on our discipline. Many, many thanks are owed to my advisor, Professor Chuck Keating, who has spent long hours reviewing and guiding my work as it transformed from a loose confederation of ideas to a cohesive, final product. I also want to express my appreciation to the Complex Systems Governance study group at Old Dominion University where a multitude of new ideas have emerged, developed and grown to contribute to this research. Further, I wish to express my gratitude to my employer, Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, which has supported my pursuit of this degree and has provided me with the opportunity to apply what I have learned in a tangible way. Beyond the academic front, there are a number of individuals whose support and care have made this effort possible. To my grandparents, Walter and Mattie Akers, who took me in as a child; to Father James Healy who taught me the importance of caring for my fellow man; and to Superintendent Dan Smith who provided me with never ending opportunities to serve my community – I am truly grateful. Finally, none of this could have been accomplished without the seemingly endless patience of my wife, Evelyn, who has been instrumental in helping me to make the time for this endeavor. vii Glossary Adaptation Modification of an organism or its parts that makes it more fit for existence under the conditions of its environment. (Merriam-Webster, 2015) Algedonodes A system or component that receives information and then rapidly passes it forward or wholly suppresses it, depending on its importance. (Beer, 1981) Allomorphosis The activities and effects that a system achieves by making modifications to things outside of itself. (Akers, 2015) Allopoiesis The process of producing material entities other than those required for maintaining the system itself. (Krippendorff, 1981) Allostasis The process of maintaining system stability by actively adapt to predicted changes in their environment. (Wingfield, 2005) Attractors A set of points or states within some volume of state-space to which a system's trajectory will converge over time. (Kauffman S. , 1993) Autonomy The ability of an entity to independently perform the purpose, goal or function for which it was created. (Hester & Adams, 2014) Automorphosis The activities and effects that a system achieves by making modifications to itself or its own configuration. (Akers, 2015) Autopoiesis A system that is capable of producing or regenerating the functional elements within its system boundaries. (Luhmann, 1990) Bandwidth The channel capacity that limits the volume of information that can be sent or received over a communications channel. (Shannon, 1948) viii Basins of Attraction An arrangement of attractors within a volume of space, creating regional basins to which systems will be attracted over time. (Kauffman S. , 1993) Basins of Stability Regions of stability within a volume of space that are physically bounded by regions of instability. (Clemson, 1984) Black Box Entities whose internal functions and mechanisms are encapsulated and cannot be observed during operation. (Ashby, 1956) Boundary Location The process by which the organizational or systemic boundaries are drawn to distinguish between different socio- technical systems. (Cherns, 1976) Canalization The process by which systems "flow" along a path or basin of attraction. (Waddington, 1942) Channel Coding The process of correcting errors or reducing noise in a communication channel. (Anderson & Mohan, 1991) Circular Causality The presence of causal loops that perpetually create emergence within a system through there simultaneous top-down and bottom-up interactions. (Witherington, 2011) Communications The process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior. (Merriam-Webster, 2015) Complementarity Viewing a system from different perspectives will reveal information that is neither entirely independent nor entirely compatible. (Bohr, 1928) Conant-Ashby Theorem Every good regulator of a system must be a model of a system. (Conant & Ashby, 1970) Control The mechanisms that are used to move a system between two equilibrium states or into a non-equilibrium state. (Benson, 2002) ix Dissectibility The capacity of a hierarchy to be dissected into its constituent branches along the channels of communications and control. (Koestler, 1967) Downward Causation All processes at the lower levels of a hierarchy are restrained by and act in conformity to the laws of the higher levels. (Campbell, 1974) Dynamic Equilibrium Maintenance of stability in complex systems is achieved through adjustments to internally or externally generated disturbances that impact system performance. (Skyttner, 2005) Emergence Qualities or characteristics that arise in the higher levels of a system which are dependent upon, but not present in, the lower levels. (Alexander, 1922) Engineering Redundancy The use or inclusion of multiple elements capable of performing the same function in order to improve safety or integrity of the system. (Downer, 2009) Entropy