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Archive and Manuscript Collections AGA: Archivo General de la Administración (Alcalá de Henares, ) – Sección 3 (Cultura), Fondo 51.19, 39 & 82 (SF de Sáhara, Ifni, Región Ecuatorial; Delegación Nacional de la Sección Femenina; Fotografías). – Sección 15 (África), Fondo 23, 24 & 40 (Ifni, Sáhara, Fotos Guinea). AGMAV: Archivo General Militar de Ávila (Spain) – Sección África, Campaña de Ifni Sáhara (fles accessed on microflm in Archivo General Militar de Madrid, Spain). AHU: Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino (, ) – Ministério do Ultramar (MU), Direcção-Geral de Economia (DGE), Repartição do Povoamento e dos Assuntos Demográfcos (RPAD). – Ministério do Ultramar (MU), Direcção-Geral de Educação (DGEDU), Repartição da Cultura e das Missões (RCM). – Ministério do Ultramar (MU), Direcção-Geral de Educação (DGEDU), Repartição do Ensino (RE). – Ministério do Ultramar (MU), Gabinete do Ministro (GM), Gabinete dos Negócios Políticos (GNP). ANTT: Arquivo Nacional Torre do Tombo (Lisbon, Portugal) – Arquivo Salazar. – Mocidade Portuguesa (MP), Mocidade Portuguesa Feminina, Ultramar (MPF).

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A African Encounters with Domesticity Aaiún (Hansen), 216 Club General Agullato in, 240 African languages, 277 Easter celebrations in, 221 African Party for the Independence of schools in, 42, 188 Guinea and (PAIGC), Spanish withdrawal from, 294, 266, 279 295–296 African women suburbs of, 81–82, 81, 230 and acculturation, 182–183, 241 tourism to, 239 cooperative networks for, 177–179, urbanization in, 80, 83 186 Aargub, 227, 242 and domesticity. See domesticity Abrigo dos Pequeninos, 211 education of. See education acculturation, 182–183, 241 and participation with colonial Adoratrices Handmaids of the Blessed regime, 174–175 Sacrament and of Charity, 226 political agency of, 39 Advice to the Soldiers in Africa and prostitution, 145, 147–148, (manual), 139 149–150 Africa role of. See roles as continent with no history, 136 in rural areas, 231, 233 exoticism of, 95, 239–241 sexual attitudes of, 226 map of, 5. See also Iberian Africa and SF/MPF career opportunities, “Africa is calling” (MP campaign), 176 25–26 views on; of colonial regimes, 10–11, 103; in Colonial

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence 341 to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 A. Stucki, Violence and Gender in Africa’s Iberian Colonies, Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17230-5 342 Index

Review, 10; of Iberian youth MPF in; in general, 36–37; in and women organizations, 33; Angola. See Angola; lack of of SF, 39, 40, 224 local interest in, 43–44; Perfect “African Women” (supplement to Girl competition of, 211–212; Colonial Review), 10 presence of, 30; and urbaniza- agency, of SF overseas students, 39, tion, 84 194–195 nationalism in, 280–281 Albania, 264 Portuguese language in, 277 aldeamentos (fortifed villages), 74, racism in, 125–127, 139 87–90, 101 rural women in, 231, 233 Alene, Marina, 167–169 tribalism in, 278 Algeria, 68, 75, 174, 295, 298 white settlers in, 176 All-African Women’s Conference Annobón, 8 (now Pan-African Women’s anti-guerrilla warfare, 73–76. See also Organization), 263, 265 counterinsurgency practices Almeida, Ana Paula, 214, 215 Antunes, Maria Teresa, 25, 219 Almeida, Jorge Magalhães Reis, 230 aportuguesamento (Portugueseness), Almeida, Maria Suzana, 126, 127 97, 231, 233, 277–278 Altozano Moraleda, Hermenegildo, 99 Aranjuez, 143, 188, 192 Amado Vázquez, Francisca, 146 architecture, and urbanization, 83 Anaiva, Teresa António Chaibo, , 25–26 255–257 assimilation. See integration/ Angola assimilation colonial regime in; armed resistance atrocities, in Mozambique, 74 against, 12, 28, 45; counter- insurgency practices of, 71, 74; educational programs of, B 96–98; healthcare programs of, Bairros indígenas, 81 98; and miscegenation, 151; Bakongo people, 260 nation-building of, 273–274; Balandier, Georges, 94 and resettlements, 87–88, 90; Basilica del Pilar, 143, 222 and rural development pro- Bauleth, Maria Celmira (Riquita), 213, grams, 85–88 214–215 colonization of, impact of beauty contests Europeans on, 8–9 in general, 212–214 decolonization of; in general, 4, 6, and Catholic values, 215 150, 197; independence move- feminist protest against, 215 ments in, 7–8 race and class in, 214–215 geography and economy of, 8 regional attire in, 215 independence movements in, 7–8, and women’s roles, 218 260–261 , 36, 226, 228 independence of, 5 Bethencourt, Francisco, 135 Index 343

Bhabha, Hohmi, 224 Casa de Trabalhos (Moçâmedes), 232 Bié, 71, 86, 90 Casa dos Estudantes do Império (formerly Fernando Po), 8, 95, (Lisbon), 181 98, 131, 177–178, 243 Casa lenocinio (bordello), 146 Biyang, Bonifacio, 41 Cassinello Pérez, Andrés, 73 boarding schools, 224–225, 226 Castiella, Fernando, 168 booklets, military, 139–140 Castro, Fidel, 263 Borges, António Gaspar, 125, 127 Cathedral-Basilica of Nuestra Señora Borrás, Tomás, 26 del Pilar, 143, 222 Brazil, 87, 129–130, 300 Brigada nº 11, 175 and colonialism, 266 Brigadas Móveis (mobile brigades), 69 in Portugal, 48 British colonies, 68 role of; in African transformation, British Commonwealth, 301 102; in MPF, 46–47; in SF, 46 “The Broom” operation, 81–82 in Spain, 221–222 Buettner, Elizabeth, 298 and women’s roles, 212–213, 215 Bureau of Political Affairs of the Ceboleiro, Maria Celeste Patrício, 189 Overseas Ministry (GNP), Centro de Educação Doméstica 133–134 (Luanda), 228 Bush, Barbara, 4 Centro Extra Escolares (extracurricular centers), 36, 43, 217, 230 Centro Social do Bairro do Tchioco (Sá C da Bandeira), 229 Cabral, Amílcar, 266 centros femininos (feminine centers), Caetano, Marcelo, 4, 6, 196, 218, 292 69–70, 190 Cahora Bassa Dam, 93 Chicago Committee for the Liberation Camões, Luís Vaz de, 238 of Angola, Mozambique, and Canary Islands Guinea, 268 deportations to, 77 childcare, 211, 228 detention facilities on, 77–78, 89 Chissinga, Evenia Seven, 262 and Spanish withdrawal from choirs, 47 Western Sahara, 293 Círculos Medina (of SF), 25 Cape Verde Islands, 5, 78 citizenship laws, 297–298 Capelo, Hermenegildo Carlos de Clarence-Smith, William G., 9 Brito, 234 class, and racism, 126–127 career opportunities, for women, 176, Cláudio, Lídia Maria de Albuquerque 255–257 Azevedo, 175 , 5, 31, 190, clothing, European style, 228 261, 266, 291–292, 293 Club General Agullato (Aaiún), 240 Carrero Blanco, Luis, 173, 294–295 Coelho, João Paulo Borges, 89 A casa de Pedrinho (school text), Coelho, Milda, 126 218–219 Colaço, Maria Ivete Filomena, 31, 44 344 Index

Cold War, 7–8 colonized peoples/populations Colegio Mayor Nuestra Señora de classifcation of, 137–138 África (Madrid), 181 and colonial regimes; cooperation/ Colegio Menor (Santa Isabel), 224–225 collaboration with; in general, Colegio Menor (Valencia), 138 169–172, 175, 179, 191; collaboration. See cooperation/ after independence, 197; and collaboration elites/notables. See elites/ colonial regimes notables; participation in; in in Angola. See Angola general, 169, 172; and women, and cooperation/collaboration; in 174–175 general, 169–172, 175, 179, and forced labor regimes, 149–150 191; after independence, 197 integration/assimilation of, 25–26, and elites/notables. See elites/ 83–84, 135 notables “mental level” of, 141 in Equatorial Guinea. See Equatorial otherness/othering of, 135–136, Guinea 145. See also specifc peoples in Mozambique. See Mozambique Comité Revolucionário de and participation; in general, 169, Moçambique (COREMO), 258 172; and women, 174–175 community development, 83, 85–87 views of African women on, 10–11, competitions 103 beauty contests; in general, 212– in Western Sahara. See Western 214; and Catholic values, 215; Sahara feminist protest against, 215; colonial rhetoric race and class in, 214–215; of Portugal, 6–7, 9, 104, 127–128, regional attire in, 215; and 129, 134 women’s roles, 218 of Spain, 9, 32, 104, 128, 129, 131 in education, 35 colonialism Perfect Girl; in general, 211–213, feminization of; in general, 144–145; 214; and devout domesticity, in Iberian Africa, 3–4, 12, 71 216, 218 of France, 10 Comunidad Iberoamericana (Ibero- and gender dynamics, 3 American Community of in Iberian Africa; armed resistance Nations), 300 against, 12, 28, 45; feminiza- Comunidade dos Países da Língua tion of, 3–4, 12, 71; map of, 5; Portuguesa (CPLP), 301 as a mild form, 9; and misce- concentration camps, 77–78, 89 genation, 151; and status of Conchita, M., 188 women, 10; and Western colo- Conference of Nationalist nialism, 10. See also Portuguese Organizations of the Portuguese colonies; Spanish colonies; Colonies, 279 under specifc countries Congress of American Women, ; of , 10, 75 263 Index 345

Conselho de Acção de Orientação of Spain; and deportations/ Psicológica (Council for detentions, 77–78; military Psychological Action and in, 72–73, 74–76, 78; reset- Orientation), 84, 94 tlements in, 82–83; social aid Conselho de Coordenação Agraria de policies, 78–79; urbanization Angola, 86 schemes, 80–83 Consuelo, E., 177–178 and transfer of knowledge between convent schools, 225–227 Spain and Portugal, 72–73. See cooking classes, 230, 242–243, 243 also anti-guerrilla warfare Cooperation and Empire: Local CPLP (Comunidade dos Países da Realities of Global Processes (ed. Língua Portuguesa), 301 Tanja Bührer et al), 168 Cruz González, Julio, 146 cooperation contracts, 190 Cuba, 130–131 cooperation/collaboration cultural identities, and national cohe- with colonial powers; in general, sion, 133–134 169–172, 175, 179, 191; after Cunene 73, 234–236 independence, 197. See also Cunene 73: Conhecer para integrar, participation 236 cooperative networks, 177–179, 186 Cunene area, 234 Coordination Council for Educational project, 234 Activities Overseas, 43 Cunha, Joaquim da Silva, 30, 43, 44, COREMO (Comité Revolucionário de 222 Moçambique), 258 Cursos de Portugalidade (patriotic Coros y danzas (dance troupe), 25 course), 233 The Cosmic Race (Vasconcelos), 131 Cyfer-Diderich, Germaine, 2 Council for Psychological Action and Orientation (Conselho de Acção de Orientação Psicológica), 84, 94 D counterinsurgency practices Dalmases, Pablo-Ignacio, 189 in general, 90–91 Daora (Dora), 39 character of, 73, 74 decolonization dehumanizing opponents in, 76–77 of Iberian Africa; in general, 197; destruction/construction in, 91 infuence of Cold War on, 7–8; and education of African women, period of, 4 227–228 of Portuguese colonies; in general, of Portugal; in general, 68–71; and 3–4, 7–8, 12, 28, 45, 296, 299, deportations/detentions, 78; 301; Angola, 4, 6, 7–8, 150, military in, 72, 74, 78; resettle- 197; Guinea-Bissau, 4; in India, ments in, 82–83, 87–90; and 4; Mozambique, 4, 7–8, 269; rural development programs, Timor, 5–6 85–90; urbanization schemes, of Spanish colonies; in general, 80, 82–84 4, 6, 7–8, 12, 41, 292–295; 346 Index

Equatorial Guinea, 6, 191–193, promotion of; and boarding 197; Western Sahara, 6, 8, schools, 224–225, 226; and 194–195, 268–269, 292–296 cooking classes, 230, 242–243, Decolonization of Portuguese Africa 243; and Cunene 73 event, (MacQueen), 261 234–236; and domestic train- dehumanization, 76–77 ing programs, 83–84, 228–233, Delegacia Salazar, 228 229, 230, 232; and folklore Depage, Henri, 1–2 and sports, 236–241, 237; and deportations, 77–78 Juventude 73, 242; and Perfect detention facilities, 77–78, 89 Girl competitions, 216, 218; development and summer camps/trips, 224 and modernity, 93–94 dormitories, 181 new name for peace, 92 dressmaking, 228 of Portuguese colonies; in general, Dyombe Dyangani, Cristina, 175 92–96; educational schemes, 96–98, 99; healthcare schemes, 98; repressiveness of, 101–103 E Portuguese views on, 92–93 École des Otages (French School of of Spanish colonies; in general, Hostages), 172 99–100; educational schemes, education 98–99, 98; repressiveness of, of African women; advantages of, 102–103 2–3, 13; in boarding schools, Spanish views on, 93 224–225, 226; during decolo- DGS (Directorate-General of nization process, 268–271; and Security), 74, 88, 94 domesticity, 83–84, 228–233, Dia da Raça, 238 229, 230, 232, 242–243, 243; Diário de Luanda (newspaper), 83 by Iberian youth and women Dias (Mozambique), 88 organizations; in general, Díaz de Villegas, José, 72–73 33–40; and Iberian gender Direcção Provincial dos Serviços de roles, 50; impact of, 226–227; Educação, 125 and Islamic studies, 49; in Dirección General de Promoción del , 179–180; and Sahara, 174 summer camps/trips, 142–144, Directorate-General of Security 179–180, 182–183, 224; lack (DGS), 74, 88, 94 of access to, 275; in mission Dixon, Paul, 74 schools, 225; in rural areas, domestic training programs, 83–84, 231, 233 228–233, 229, 230, 232 of elites/notables, 172–173 domesticity indoctrination through; by colonial Iberian/Catholic; in general, 33–35, regimes, 13, 180, 233, 273– 216; genderedness of, 217; in 274, 279; by independence Muslim territories, 221–222; movements, 258, 272, 279 Index 347

and nation-building, 272. See also mission schools in, 225 schools; students prostitution in, 147–148 educational schemes SF in; in general, 32, 41; benefts of of FRELIMO, 268, 269–271 participating in, 177–179; and in Portuguese colonies, 96–98, 99 continuity after independence, in Spanish colonies, 98–99, 98 168, 196; disputes within, Ejército de Liberación (Liberation 142–143; infuence of religion Army), 74–76 on, 46; reasons for participating Elena, N., 192 in, 175; and schooling in Spain, elites/notables 141–142, 167–168 of colonized peoples; in general, white settlers in, 141. See also 102; in Equatorial Guinea, 172; Fernando Po in Mozambique, 172, 175; in Escuela Hogar (of SF), 37–39, 40, 42, Portuguese colonies, 93–94; 188, 227, 243 in Senegal, 172; in Western Escuela Nacional de Instructoras Sahara; daughters of, 179; Rurales(Aranjuez), 188 education of, 172–173; new Escuela nómada nº 1, 98 powers of, 79, 170–171; and Escuela Superior de Economía POLISARIO, 179 Doméstica Rural “Onésimo white, 189 Redondo” (Aranjuez), 192 Elobey (Islands), 8 Escuela Superior Indígena (Guinea- embroidery, 231, 232 Bisau), 172 equality/equal rights. See gender Estado Novo (New State), 6 equality ethnic relations, 130–131. See also Equatorial Guinea Hispanotropicalism; integration/ anti-Spanish protests in, 168 assimilation; Lusotropicalism; race boarding schools in, 224–225, 226 relations colonial regime in; and develop- Europe, 132–133 ment, 99–100; and elites/ Europe After Empire (Buettner), 298 notables, 172; and miscegena- European Community, 300 tion, 151; nation-building of, European Economic Community, 92 274–275 European women decolonization of; in general, 6, and colonial endeavour, 22 197; and overseas students, and youth and women’s organiza- 191–193 tions. See youth and women’s dictatorships of, 7 organizations; under specifc education for women in, 275 organizations geography and economy of, 8 evacuations, from Western Sahara, independence of, 6, 75 293, 294 member of; Comunidad exoticism, 95, 239–241 Iberoamericana, 300; Expósito Alamo, Julio, 146 Comunidade dos Países da extracurricular centers (Centros Extra Língua Portuguesa, 301 Escolares), 36, 43, 217, 230 348 Index

F Franco, Francisco families death of, 6, 31, 173, 295 Iberian views on, 23–24, 218–219, dictatorship of, 4, 6, 7, 9, 75, 104, 282 131–132, 218, 222, 238 one family, one house-principle, 244 on relationship with Portugal, 291 pilot, 101 Freitas, Romeu Ivens-Ferraz de, 101 Fanon, Frantz, 21 FRELIMO (Mozambique Liberation Fátima, T., 188–189, 297 Front) feminine centers (centros femininos), anti-racial stance of, 278–279 69–70, 190 educational schemes of, 268, feminism, 215, 258–260 269–271 feminization, of colonialism, 3–4, 12, feminist agenda of, 258–260 71, 144–145 and First Conference of Fernandes Costa, Manuel, 36 Mozambican Women, 149– Fernandes Marques, José Maria, 150, 257–259 277–278 founding of OMM by, 257 Fernando Po (now Bioko), 8, 95, 98, history of, 258 131, 177–178, 243 and modernization, 267–268 Ferreira, Jacinto, 22 smallpox vaccination campaigns of, 270 First Conference of Mozambican struggles within, 278 Women, 149–150, 257–259 use of Portuguese language by, fags, 273–274 279–280 Florentina, N., 148–149 women within; career opportunities FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of, 255–257; Chaibo Anaiva, of Angola), 260–261, 278 Teresa, 255–257; Chissinga, folk dancing. See folklore/folk dancing Evenia Seven, 262; education folklore/folk dancing of, 256–257; joining of, 255; African, 239, 240, 241 tasks of, 258 hierarchies within, 241 Women’s Section of, 257 Portuguese, 236–238, 237, 241 mention of, 74, 244, 266 Spanish, 238, 241 French colonies, 68–69 food, 230, 242–244, 243 French School of Hostages (École des forced labor regimes, 149–150 Otages), 172 Ford Foundation, 269 Freyre, Gilberto, 48, 104, 129–130, Formação Portuguesa (patriotic 131–132, 133, 243, 274 course), 233 Friedrich- Ebert-Stiftung, 271 fortifed villages (aldeamentos), 74, Fuerteventura, 77–78 87–90, 101 FPLM (Popular Forces for the Liberation of Mozambique), 279 G Fradera, Josep M., 273 Gabinete do Secretário Provincial, 233 France, 10. See also French colonies Gálvez, María Jesús, 40 Index 349

García y Fernández Castañón, César, H 12 Hansen, Karen Tranberg, 216 Garin, Vasco Vieira, 276 Hasan (teacher), 49 gender equality healthcare schemes, 98 in general, 2 Heimer, Franz-Wilhelm, 274 and independence movements, Henriques, Georgina Ventura, 212, 281–282 213 at Mozambique Institute, 270 Hispanicization, 50, 183, 222, 242, and socialist revolution, 263–264 274 gender relations Hispanidad africana, 130–131 among Sahrawi people, 144–145, Hispanotropicalism, 9, 129–131, 134, 170–171 151, 301 and labor division, 231 “Historicising Agency” (Thomas), 194 gender roles Hodge, Joseph M., 267 Iberian, 50, 282 Hospital Provincial de El Aaiún, 189 and OMM, 259–260 houses, prefabricated, 244 General Saharan Assembly (Yemáa), hygiene, training programs in, 228, 179 228 Gibraltar, 75 Gimeno Martín, Juan Carlos, 78 The Girl from the Zambesi (Makosch), I 262 Ibarrola, Ricardo, 141 GNP (Bureau of Political Affairs of the Iberian Africa Overseas Ministry), 133–134 colonialism in; armed resistance , 4, 129 against, 12, 28, 45; feminiza- Gomes, Maria do Céu de Sousa, 214 tion of, 3–4, 12, 71; map of, 5; Gomes do Amaral, Antonio Pedro, 90 as a mild form, 9; and misce- Gómez de Zamalloa, Mariano, 77 genation, 151; and status of Gonçalve, Carlos da Silva, 92 women, 10; and Western colo- Gonçalves, José Júlio, 79 nialism, 10. See also Portuguese Gori Molubela, Enrique, 41, 177 colonies; Spanish colonies; Gran Canaria, 77–78 under specifc countries Green March, 41, 295 Ibero-American Community Guardiola, Maria Baptista dos Santos, of Nations (Comunidad 27, 176 Iberoamericana), 300 guerrilla women, 262 Ifni, 6, 74–76, 145–147, 238 Guinea-Bissau, 4, 5, 12 Ifni-Sahara War (1957-1958), 77–79, Guinean women 170 marginalization of, 148 IFO Institute for Economic Research, prostitution among, 147–148 86 Gumane, Paulo José, 258 illiteracy, 140, 230–231, 268 , 236 immigration laws, 297–298 350 Index imperialism, defnition of, 14 Intermediaries, Interpreters, and INCIDI (International Institute of Clerks: African Employees in the Differing Civilizations), 1, 10–12, Making of Colonial Africa (ed. 133 Benjamin N. Lawrance et al.), independence movements 174 in Iberian Africa; in general, 7–8; International Institute of Differing armed resistance of, 12, 28, 45; Civilizations (Institut and gender equality, 281–282; International des Civilisations and global appeal of guerrilla Différentes; INCIDI), 1, 10–12, women, 262; and nationalism, 133 280–281; nation-building of, International Women’s Year, 263 272; role of women in, 13, Internationales Afrika Forum (jour- 181, 182, 255–258, 261–262; nal), 134 use of European languages by, Isaacman, Allen, 170 279–280; and women’s educa- Isaacman, Barbara, 170 tion, 268–269. See also counter- Islam, 45–46, 102 insurgency practices; insurgents; Ivens, Roberto, 234 under specifc movements India, 4, 129 indigenous population. See colonized J peoples/populations Jerónimo, Miguel Bandeira, 301 indoctrination Jornal da Mocidade Portuguesa de by colonial regimes, 13, 180, 233, Moçambique (journal of MP), 25 273–274, 279 Juan Carlos I, King of Spain, 295, 300 by independence movements, 258, Junta Provincial de Povoamento de 272, 279 Angola, 90 Institut International des Civilisations Juventude 73, 242 Différentes (International Institute of Differing Cilivizations; INCIDI), 1, 10–12, K 133 Kenya, 68 Institute for Education and Social Klobucka, Anna M., 3 Work Pio XII, 125 Instituto de Sanata Isabel, 178 insurgencies/armed resistance, 12, L 28, 45. See also counterinsur- La Güera, 38 gency practices; independence labor division movements in Cunene 73 event, 235 insurgents, dehumanizing of, 76–77 and gender relations, 231 integration/assimilation, 25–26, in Mozambique, 260 83–84, 135 landmarks, of Spain, 114, 222, 223 Index 351

Latin America, 298 Malabo (formerly Santa Isabel), Leal, Maria Joana Mendes, 22 142–143, 224–225, 242 Lefaucheux, Marie-Hélène, 1–2 Malawi (Nyasaland), 100 Leopold III, King of the Belgians, 1, Mallada González, María Ángeles, 2 142–143 leprosy, 98 MANU (Makonde National Union), lesbian women, 149 258 Liberata, S., 142 map, of Iberian Africa, 5 Liberation Army (Ejército de Maputo (former Lourenço Marques), Liberación), 74–76 268. See also Lourenço Marques liberation movements. See independ- Margarita, I., 177, 178 ence movements marginalization, of women, 148 Liçeu D. Ana da Costa Portugal María, A., 192 (Lourenço Marques), 238 marriage, and motherhood, 226 Loring, Teresa, 32–33 Martínez, Adelina, 37 Lourenço Marques (later Maputo) Martínez, Eufemia, 38 Centro Extra Escolar in, 217, 230 Martin-Márquez, Susan, 3 growth of, 80 Marxism, 263 Liçeu D. Ana da Costa Portugal in, Mateo Merino, María Concepción 238 (Concha), 40, 84, 145, 174, 194, suburbs of, 244 195, 280 teachers in, 42–43 Mauritania, 75, 294–295 training programs in, 228. See also media, 134 Maputo medical examinations, 143–144 Luanda, 36, 80, 137, 139, 228 men, white lower-class, 140 (formerly Sá da Bandeira), Menina e Moça (youth magazine), 22, 36, 229, 234 242 Luca, Ana Maria, 212–213 MFA (Movement of the Armed Lusofonia, 301 Forces), 291 Lusotropicalism, 9, 129–130, 133, military booklets, 139–140 134, 151, 214, 235–236, 301 Military Democrat Union (UMD), 292 mineral assets, 95 M Miranda, Maria Judite Fernandes de, Machel, Josina, 12 211 Machel, Samora, 256, 257, 258–259 miscegenation, 133, 136, 151 Macías Nguema, Francisco, 32, 168 mission schools, 225 MacQueen, Norrie, 261, 262, 299 MNF (Movimento Nacional Madrid Agreement, 294–295 Feminino), 229 Makonde National Union (MANU), mobile brigades (Brigadas Móveis), 69 258 Moçâmedes (now Namibe), 36, 43, Makosch, Ulrich, 261 232 352 Index

Mocidade Portuguesa Feminina colonial regime in; armed resistance (Portuguese Female Youth; against, 12, 28, 45; counterin- MPF). See Portuguese Female surgency practices of, 74; Youth distrust toward, 100; and Mocidade Portuguesa (Portuguese elites/notables, 172, 175; Youth; MP), 25–26 and miscegenation, 151; modernity nation-building of, 274; and and development, 93–95 resettlements, 88, 89; trade makers of, 267–268, 270 monopoly of, 100 Mondlane, Eduardo, 269 colonization of, 8–9 Mondlane, Janet, 269, 270 decolonization of; in general, 4; Moral, José María del, 136 liberation movements in, 7–8; Morcillo, Aurora G., 218 and women’s education, 269 Moreira, Adriano, 80, 92, 104, geography and economy of, 8 133–134, 135–136, 280 independence movements in. See Morgades, Trinidad, 142–143, FRELIMO 178–179 independence of, 5, 256 , 41, 75, 294–295 labor division in, 260 Mossuril, 232 MPF in; in general, 35–36; events motherhood of, 25; lack of local interest in, glorifcation of, 219, 220 43–44; Muslim-Christian activ- and marriage, 226 ities of, 48; problems within, spiritual, 219 42; staging domesticity, 217 Mother’s Days, 219–220, 221 Portuguese language in, 277 Movement of the Armed Forces white settlers in, 140, 176, 189 (MFA), 291 Mozambique Information Movimento Nacional Feminino Centralization and Coordination (MNF), 229 Services (SCCIM), 71 Movimento Popular de Libertação de Mozambique Institute, 269–271 Angola (People’s Movement for Mozambique Liberation Front the Liberation of Angola; MPLA). (FRELIMO). See FRELIMO See MPLA MPF (Mocidade Portuguesa Feminina; Movimiento Unifcado Nacional de Portuguese Female Youth). See Guinea Ecuatorial (MUNGE), Portuguese Female Youth 186 MPLA (People’s Movement for the Mozambican Revolution (issued by Liberation of Angola) Frelimo), 135 anti-racial stance of, 278 Mozambican Revolutionary and competition of other move- Committee, 134 ments, 278 Mozambican Service for Psycho-Social history of, 260–261 Action, 100 and modernization, 268 Mozambique and nationalism, 280–281 Index 353

and OMA, 260 Neto, Ruth, 264 use of Portuguese language by, networks 279–280 for independence, transnational, 181 mention of, 134, 150, 266 for women, 177–179, 186, 263, MUNGE (Movimiento Unifcado 266 Nacional de Guinea Ecuatorial), New State (Estado Novo), 6 186 O Ninho dos Pequeninos (school/kin- Muslim territories, 221–222 dergarten), 125–128 Nkrumah, Kwame, 258 Nyasaland (Malawi), 100 N Nyerere, Julius, 258 Naimark, Norman M., 13 Namibe (formerly Moçâmedes), 36, 43, 232 O National African Union of Oblatas (Catholic order), 226 Independent Mozambique Obón, Carmen, 169, 182 (UNAMI), 258 obstruction, power of, 42 National Democratic Union of Oliveira, Hermes de Araújo, 68–69 Mozambique (UDENAMO), 258 d’ Oliveira, Maria José, 236–237 National Front for the Liberation of Oliveira, Mário de, 83 Angola (FNLA), 260–261, 278 OMA (Organization of Angolan national insignia/regalia, 273–274 Women). See Organization of , 197 Angolan Women National Union for the Total OMM (Organization of Mozambican Independence of Angola Women). See Organization of (UNITA), 260–261, 278 Mozambican Women National Union of Sahrawi Women, Ondó, Luís María, 193 264 Ondó, Magdalena, 193 nationalism, 280–281 one family, one house-principle, 244 nationality, 297–298 Operación Alondra (Operation Lark), nation-building 293 and language, 276–278 Operación Golondrina (Operation in Portuguese colonies, 273–274, Swallow), 292–293 276–278 Operation Cunene, 234–236 in Spanish colonies, 273, 274–275 Operation Lark (Operación Alondra), Native Statute (1954), 126 293 Navascués y Ruiz de Velasco, Emilio, Operation Swallow (Operación 291 Golondrina), 292–293 Ndowe people, 175 Organization of Angolan Women Nerín, Gustau, 131, 187, 192, 225, (OMA) 275 achievements of, 264 Neto, António Agostinho, 260, 266 connectedness of, 264, 266 354 Index

feminist agenda of, 260 The Perfect Girl competition (A and WIDF, 263 Rapariga Ideal) women within, 261–262 in general, 211–213, 214 mention of, 150, 281 and devout domesticity, 216, 217 Organization of Mozambican Women Pescatello, Ann M., 68 (OMM) Philip II, King of Spain, 143, 222 connectedness of, 266 Philippines, 130, 298, 300 founding of, 257 phosphates, 194–195 and gender roles, 259–260 La Piazza d’Italia (newspaper), 134 and PIDE, 265 PIDE (Portuguese political police), and WIDF, 263 74, 88, 94, 260, 265 mention of, 281 El Pilar, 143, 222 orphanages, 186 pilot families, 101 otherness/othering, of colonized Pinto, Alexandre de Serpa, 234 peoples, 135–136, 145 Pinto, António Costa, 301 Ovimbundu people, 86, 261 Plano do Cunene, 234 Owen, Hilary, 3 POLISARIO (Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguía el-Hamra and Río de Oro) P founding of, 76, 173 PAIGC (African Party for the incarceration of activists of, 294 Independence of Guinea and propaganda of, 194 Cape Verde), 266, 279 symbolic authority of, 179 Paim, Maria Simão, 150, 261, and women’s education, 268–269 280–281 Popular Forces for the Liberation of Pan-African Women’s Organization Mozambique (FPLM), 279 (formerly All-African Women’s Popular Front for the Liberation of Conference), 263, 265 Saguía el-Hamra and Río de Oro Panzer, Michael G., 271, 272 (POLISARIO). See POLISARIO participation, in colonial rule, 169, Portugal 172, 174–175 Carnation Revolution in, 5, 31, Patrício, Maria Celeste Lopes, 126, 190, 261, 266, 291–292, 293 127 Catholic Church in, 48 patriotic courses, 233 citizenship laws, 298 Paul VI, Pope, 92, 266 colonial rhetoric of, 6–7, 9, 104, Paulina, S., 192 127–128, 129, 134 Penvenne, Jeanne Marie, 175 colonialism of; and counterinsur- People’s Movement for the Liberation gency practices. See counterin- of Angola (Movimento Popular surgency practices; feminization de Libertação de Angola; MPLA), of, 3–4, 12, 71; impact of 134, 150 Europeans on, 8–9; loss of Peralta, Elsa, 301 support for, 272; as a mild Index 355

form, 9; and miscegenation, and Iberian style domesticity, 151; and religion, 48–49; and 83–84; resettlements in, 82–83. Western colonialism, 10. See See also Angola; Guinea-Bissau; also Portuguese colonies Mozambique colonies as provinces of, 8–9, 26, illiteracy in, 268 272–273 in India, 4, 129 commerce of, 92 in Latin America, 87, 129–130, 300 dictatorships of; Caetano, 4, 6, 196, Timor, 5–6 218, 292; Salazar, 4, 6–7, 9, Portuguese Cultural Communities 129, 132, 218, 242, 276 congress, 132 emigration from, 272 Portuguese Female Youth (Mocidade member of; Comunidad Portuguesa Feminina, MPF) Iberoamericana, 300; EC, 300 career opportunities within, 176 multiraciality of, 133–134 colonial branch of; in general, 11, and Spain, 6, 72–73, 291–292, 14, 22, 23–25; and armed 300–301 resistance, 28–29, 45; begin- portugalidade (Portugueseness), 97, ning of, 26–27; benefts of 231, 233, 277–278 participating in, 179–180; and Portugalization, 183 continuity, 189–190, 196–197; Portuguese colonies and counterinsurgency prac- in Africa; decolonization of; in tices, 69–71; divide between general, 3–4; armed resistance metropolitan and, 29–30; in, 12, 28, 45; infuence of education of girls/women; in Cold War on, 7–8; period of, 4; general, 33–35, 35–36; and special relationships after, 299, acculturation, 182–183; and 301; withdrawal from, 296. See Iberian gender roles, 50; in also insurgents metropoles, 179–180; summer ; development of; in general, 92–96; camps/trips of, 179–180, 224; educational schemes, 96–98, expansion of, 29; goal of, 32; 99; healthcare schemes, 98; and Iberian style domesticity. repressiveness of, 101–103; See domesticity; impetus for, geography and economy of, 8; 26; infuence of religion on, nation-building in, 273–274, 45–46; mass events, 25; prob- 276–278; as Portuguese lems within, 35–36, 42–43; provinces, 8–9, 26, 272–273; racism within, 25, 33, 150; rhetoric in Portugal about, trips to Africa organized by, 22; 6–7, 9; role of women in, and white elite, 189 12–14, 21–22, 67–71; rural cooperation with SF, 24 development programs in; decline of, 265–266 in general, 85–88; resettle- dissolvement of, 23, 31 ments in, 87–90; urbanization founding of, 23 schemes in; in general, 80; funding of, 30–31 356 Index

ideology of, 46 R leaders of, 24 race organizational structure of, concepts of, 128 176–177 Freyre on, 133 political character of, 275 UNESCO on, 133 problems within, 27, 29 in women’s competitions, 214. See tasks of, 23–24 also race relations; racism Portuguese Integration in the Tropics race relations (Freyre), 48 in general, 132–133 Portuguese language, 100, 276–280 images advertising harmonious, Portuguese military, 139 136–137, 137, 138. See also Portuguese political police (PIDE), ethnic relations 74, 88, 94, 260, 265 racism Portuguese women, send to Africa, in Angola, 125–127, 139 22–23 black, 143 Portuguese Youth (Mocidade and class, 126–127 Portuguesa, MP), 25–26 of inclusion, 136 Portugueseness (aportuguesamen- in military booklets, 139–140 to/portugalidade), 97, 231, 233, and miscegenation, 133, 136 277–278 in Spain, 137–139 Pössinger, Hermann, 85–87, 90, 132, within women’s organisations, 25, 231 33, 150, 167 primary schools/education, 42–43, Ramón Álvarez, Heriberto, 172 231, 233, 268, 279 A Rapariga Ideal (The Perfect Girl Primo de Rivera, Pilar, 39, 169, 187, competition), 211–213, 214, 189 216, 218 prostitution regedor tradicional (traditional rulers). in Equatorial Guinea, 147–148 See elites/notables and forced labor regimes, 149–150 Rego, António da Silva, 238 state-monitored, 146–147 religion(s) in Western Sahara, 145–147 coexistence of, 45–46 A Província de Angola (newspaper), staging of, 47–48. See also Catholic 103 Church; Islam provincialization, 8–9, 26, 272–273, Resende, Sebastião, 226 297 resettlements/displacements PUNS (Sahrawi National Union in Angola, 87–88, 90 Party), 293 in Mozambique, 88, 89 pupils. See students in rural development programs, 87–90 in Western Sahara, 82–83 Q Rey-Stolle, Alejandro, 147–148 Quarterly Issue (of OMA), 262, 264 Rey-Stolle, Alejandro (Adro Xavier), 225, 226 Index 357 rhetoric, colonial. See colonial rhetoric Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), 100 (SADR), 295, 298 Río Muni, 178–179, 184 Sahrawi National Union Party Riquita (Bauleth, Maria Celmira), 213, (PUNS), 293 214–215 Sahrawi people Roberto, Holden, 260 description of, 140 Robinson, Ronald, 170, 176 and economic development, 95 Robles Picón, Ignacio, 78 elites/notables, and colonial regime, Rodrigues, Manuel Sarmento, 2 79, 170–171, 172–173, 179 Rodrigues, Maria, 125–128 gender relation among, 144–145, Rodríguez de Viguri, Luis, 280 170–171 roles and natural resources, 194–195 of African women; as cultural media- representatives of, 223 tors, 2, 12, 282; in independ- social aid to, 78–79 ence movements, 13, 181, 182, Spanish nationality of, 297, 255–258, 261–262; in stabiliz- 298–299 ing empire; in general, 12–14, and Spanish withdrawal, 293–294, 21–22; submissively, 67–71. See 295 also domesticity views of, on Spain of, 195 of women (in general); and beauty views on; of Mateo Merino, María contests, 218; Catholic views Concepción, 145, 194–195; of on, 212–213, 215; in families, SF, 144–145 23–24, 218–219, 282. See also Sahrawi women domesticity ‘dirtiness’ of, 145 , 34, 34 education of, 38, 142 Rubio Marín, Ruth, 298 faith of, 45 rural areas intelligence of, 141–142 and Cunene 73 event, 234–236 political agency of, 39, 194 teacher shortages in, 231, 233 prostitution among, 145 women in, 231, 233 sexual abuse of, 147 rural development programs social status of educated, 41 in Angola, 85–88 use of religion by, 49 resettlements in, 87–90 views on, of SF, 39, 40, 224 Salazar, António, 4, 6–7, 9, 129, 132, 218, 242, 276 S Salema, Maria José, 10–11, 24, 176, Sá da Bandeira (now Lubango), 36, 296 229, 234 Samuels, Michael A., 268 SADR (Sahrawi Arab Democratic San Lorenzo de El Escorial, 143, 222 Republic), 295, 298 Sánchez Cervelló, Josep, 292 Sáez de Govantes, Luis, 131 Santa Isabel (now Malabo), 142–143, 224–225, 242 358 Index

Santana Brito, Doña Pino, 146 O Século Ilustrado (magazine), 215 Santana Morales, Encarnación, 146 sedentarization, 79–80 Santiago, Soledad de, 177, 178, 184, segregation, 81 187, 191, 193, 195 Selcer, Perrin, 133 Santos, Íris Maria Rosário dos, 213, selection criteria, 185–186 215–216 Semana do Ultramar, 276 Santos, Manuel Alambre dos, 212 sewing, 229, 232 Santos, Marcelino dos, 266 sex economy, 145–147 Santos, Maria Regina Alambre dos, sexual abuse, 147 212 sexual attitudes, 226 Savimbi, Jonas, 260–261 SF (Sección Femenina/Nueva SCCIM (Mozambique Information Andadura; Spanish Women’s Centralization and Coordination Section). See Spanish Women’s Services), 71 Section schools shantytowns. See slums/shantytowns boarding schools, 224–225, 226 Sheldon, Kathleen, 260 in Luanda, 139, 228 shrines, dedication of, 47 mission schools, 225 Sidi-Ifni, 32, 75, 145–147 Mozambique Institute, 269–271 sigsgas, 225 of MPF; cooking classes at, 230, Silva, António Burity da, 48, 134, 240 242; extracurricular centers of, Silva, Maria Ana de Almeida da Luz, 36, 43; inadequate premises of, 176 36; mandatory attendance of, Silva, Maria Carla de Fátima Guerra 44; and students obstruction, Brito da, 211 44 Simango, Uria Timoteo, 258 primary, 42–43, 231, 233, 268, 279 slums/shantytowns secondary, 36, 44, 142, 178, 269– reorganization of, 81–82 270, 271, 279 training programs for women in, of SF 229. See also suburbs cooking classes of, 242–243, 243 smallpox, 98 inadequate premises of, 37–38 smallpox vaccination campaigns, 270 in Spain, totalitarian character of, Smara, 37–38, 230, 243 193. See also teachers Soares, Amadeu Castilho, 81 Sección Femenina Africana, 169 social aid policies, 78–79 Sección Femenina/Nueva Andadura Social Democratic Party (SPD; West (Spanish Women’s Section; SF). ), 271 See Spanish Women’s Section soldiers Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), perfect/ideal, 91–92 266 as teachers, 97–98 secondary schools/education, 36, 44, Sousa, Baltasar Rebelo de, 27, 276 142, 178, 269–270, 271, 279 Sousa, Maria das Neves Rebelo de, secret police (PIDE/DGS), 74, 88, 216 94, 260, 265 Index 359

Spain 274–275; relationship between Catholic/imperial landmarks in, religions in, 45; role of women 143, 222, 223 in, 12–14, 21–22, 67–71; as citizenship laws of, 297–298 Spanish provinces, 9, 26, 272– colonial rhetoric of, 9, 32, 104, 128, 273, 297; urbanization schemes 129 in, 80–82. See also Canary colonialism of; after Carnation Islands; Equatorial Guinea; Revolution, 291–292; and Fernando Po; Ifni; Spanish counterinsurgency practices. Morocco; Western Sahara See counterinsurgency prac- in Latin America, 298 tices; feminization of, 3–4, 12; Philippines, 130, 298, 300 impact of Europeans on, 8–9; Spanish language, 46, 276, 280 as a mild form, 9; and misce- Spanish military, 139–140 genation, 151; and Western Spanish Morocco, 6 colonialism, 10. See also Spanish Spanish soldiers, and Sahrawi women, colonies 145, 147 colonies as provinces of, 9, 26, Spanish women 272–273, 297 prostitution among, 146–147 dictatorship of, Franco, 4, 6, 7, 9, and SF career opportunities, 176 22–23, 75, 104, 131–132, 218, Spanish Women’s Section (Sección 238 Femenina/Nueva Andadura; SF) culture in, 23 career opportunities within, 176 immigration laws of, 297–298 Círculos Medina of, 25 member of; Comunidad colonial branch of; in general, 14, Iberoamericana, 300; EC, 300 23–25; beginning of, 27–28; and Portugal, 6, 72–73, 291–292, benefts of participating in, 300–301 177–180; and continuity, 188– racism in, 137–139 189, 196; during decoloniza- Spanish Civil Code, 298 tion process, 296; education Spanish colonies of girls/women; in general, in Africa; decolonization of; in 33–34, 175; and acculturation, general, 4, 6, 8; armed resist- 182–183; and domesticity. See ance in, 12, 41; infuence of domesticity; and Iberian gender Cold War on, 7–8; period roles, 50; in Islamic studies, of, 4; special relationships 49; in metropoles, 179–180; after, 300; withdrawal from, numbers of pupils, 37; and 292–295; development of; racism, 142; recruitment for in general, 93–96, 99–100; overseas, 185–186; in Spain, educational schemes, 98–99, 141–142; and summer camps/ 98; repressiveness of, 102–103; trips, 142–144, 182–183, 224; geography and economy of, teacher training schools, 167; 8; nation-building in, 273, exit strategy of, 41; expansion 360 Index

of, 32; goal of, 32; infuence of 182–185; numbers of pupils, religion on, 45–47; leaders of, 37; overseas; agency of, 39, 32; male opposition against, 194–195; assertiveness of, 192, 41; problems within, 37–40; 195; cooperation contracts of, racism within, 33, 150, 167; 190; and decolonization, 191– self-centeredness in, 39–40; and 193; dormitories for, 181; from women’s networks, 177–178; Equatorial Guinea, 137–139, and women’s sexuality, 226 191–194; hosted by Spanish cooperation with MPF, 24 families, 184; lifestyle of, 181– decline of, 265–266 182; numbers of, 183–184; dissolvement of, 23 role in liberation movements, founding of, 23 181, 182; selection criteria for, funding of, 31 185–186; summer camps/trips, goal of, 50 142–144, 182–183, 222, 224; leaders of, 24 unknown whereabouts of, 193; lesbian women within, 149 from Western Sahara, 194–195 name change of, 23, 31 suburbs organizational structure of, prefabricated houses in, 244 176–177 reorganization of, 81–82 political character of, 275 training programs for women tasks of, 23–24 in, 229. See also slums/ teachers of. See teachers shantytowns views of, on Sahrawi gender rela- summer camps/trips, 142–144, tions, 144–145 179–180, 182–183, 222, 224 Special Operations Center for Instruction in Counter-subversive Warfare and Psycho-social Action T and Policies, 69 Tarfaya, 6, 75 sports, 236, 241 teachers Stehrenberger, Cécile S., 238 of MPF, 30, 42 students patriotic courses for, 233 of MPF; fear of uprooting, 182– at primary schools, 42–43, 231, 233 185; overseas; and decoloniza- of SF; and decolonization, 49; tion, 191; lifestyle of, 181–182; non-members, 37; quality of, numbers of, 183–184; role in 42; racial prejudices of, 142 liberation movements, 181, shortage of, in rural areas, 231, 233. 182; summer camps/trips, See also schools 179–180, 222, 224; from Tempo (Mozambican magazine), 213, schools of Luanda, 137 239 of SF; Alene, Marina, 167–169; Tentor, Concepción, 177, 178, 185 communication with SF con- “The Lusiads” (de Camões), 238 tacts, 187, 191; Falangist spirit Thomas, Lynn M., 194 of, 186–187; fear of uprooting, Timor, 5–6 Index 361

Toledo, 222 Valencia, 138 Tom, Delfna, 191, 193 Valle de los Caídos (Valley of the Tom Asong, Florencio, 191, 193 Fallen), 143, 222, 223 Torres, Sinclética, 125 Vasconcelos, José, 131–132 tourism, 95, 239–241 Vaz, Camilo Augusto de Miranda traditional rulers (regedor tradicional). Rebocho, 278 See elites/notables Vicente, Dominga, 265 training programs Villa Cisneros, 40–41, 45, 99, 227, domestic, 83–84, 228–233, 229, 230 230, 232 villagization, 87–90, 103 for rural women, 231, 233 tribalism, 278 W Western Sahara U colonial regime in; armed resistance UDENAMO (National Democratic against, 12, 41; and Christian Union of Mozambique), 258 holiday celebrations, 221–222; UMD (Military Democrat Union), 292 counterinsurgency practices UNAMI (National African Union of of; deportations/detentions, Independent Mozambique), 258 77–78; military approach to, Unango (Mozambique), 88 74–76; resettlements, 82–83; UNESCO, 96 social aid policies, 78–79; UNITA (National Union for the urbanization schemes, 80–83; Total Independence of Angola), educational schemes of, 98–99, 260–261, 278 98; and elites/notables, 79, United Kingdom, 10, 75 170–171, 172–173, 179; United Nations, 96, 263 nation-building of, 273; and United Nations Commission on the prostitution, 146–147; protest Status of Women, 10 against, 39 United States of America (USA), decolonization of; in general, 6, 8; 132–133, 258 and Morocco and Mauritania, University of Granada, 188, 189 40–41, 173–174; and overseas urbanization schemes students, 194–195; Spanish in general, 80–84 withdrawal from, 292–295; and and one family, one house-principle, women’s education, 268–269 244 economy of, 8, 95 geography of, 8 impact of Europeans on, 8–9 V prostitution in, 145–147 vaccinations, 144 sedentarization in, 79 Valdueza Ayala, Saturnino, 171, SF in; in general, 37–38; benefts 172–173, 174 of participating in, 175; and 362 Index

continuity after independence, women’s organizations 196; during decolonization African socialist; connectedness process, 296; fnancial resources of, 264, 266; and traditional of, 31; impact of, 226–227; customs, 266–267. See also infuence of religion on, 45; Organization of Mozambican and urbanization, 84 Women UN delegation visit to, 39, 40 global status of, 265 white settlers imperial. See Portuguese Female in Angola, 176 Youth; Spanish Women’s in Equatorial Guinea, 141 Section illiteracy of, 140 Women’s Section (Sección Femenina, in Mozambique, 140, 176, 189 SF). See Spanish Women’s Section WIDF (Women’s International Working Group for Psychological Democratic Federation), 263 Action, 98 Wigny, Pierre, 2–3 World Fair (Brussel; 1958), 1 Wiriyamu massacre, 74 “The Woman in the Portuguese Provinces in Africa” (Salema), Y 10–11 Yanguas Miravete, José, 95 women Yemáa (General Saharan Assembly), African. See African women 179 education of. See education youth and women’s organizations European, 22 Iberian.See Portuguese Female Guinean, 147–148 Youth; Spanish Women’s lesbian, 149 Section marginalization of, 148 youth magazines, 22 Portuguese, 22–23 prostitution of. See prostitution sexual abuse of, 147 Z Spanish, 176 Zaragoza, 143, 222 Women’s International Democratic Zimbabwe (Rhodesia), 100 Federation (WIDF), 263