DOCSLIB.ORG

Downloaded 4.0 License

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Downloaded 4.0 License Journal of the History of International Law 21 (2019) 299–329 JHIL brill.com/jhil Crimes against the People – a Sui Generis Socialist International Crime? Tamás Hoffmann Centre for Social Sciences Institute for Legal Studies, Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia, Budapest [email protected] Received: 16 March 2018; Revised: 20 July 2018; Accepted: 28 September 2018; published online: 01 July 2019 Abstract Crimes against humanity is one of the core crimes in international criminal law, whose existence is treated as a natural reaction to mass atrocities. This idea of linear prog- ress is challenged by this article, which demonstrates that in post-Second World War Hungary an alternative approach was developed to prosecute human rights violation committed against civilian populations. Even though this concept was eventually used as a political weapon by the Communist Party, it had long-lasting effects on the pros- ecution of international crimes in Hungary. Keywords international criminal law – crimes against humanity – international crimes – Hungary 1 Introduction – Enforcement of Humanity as a Cosmopolitan Value The history of international law is often presented as a linear story of progress where international catastrophes inevitably lead to eventual breakthroughs in © Tamás Hoffmann, 2019 | doi:10.1163/15718050-12340113 This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY-NC-NDDownloaded 4.0 License. from Brill.com10/03/2021 04:46:28AM via free access 300 Hoffmann legal regulation.1 In this vein, the creation of the category of crimes against humanity is repeatedly portrayed as a natural result of the effort to criminalize crimes committed against civilian populations during World War II. Humanity as the normative idea of the moral unity of mankind has a long pedigree, whose origins can be traced back to the Stoic philosophy of Cicero, and later endorsed by Christian philosophers, such as St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. The concept later played a pivotal role in the natural law philosophies of Vitoria, Suarez and Wolff2 and gained prominence in the eighteenth century as a normative-legal idea endorsed by the Enlightenment philosophers.3 By the nineteenth century, the concept of humanity surfaced in internation- al documents usually intertwined with the notion of civilization.4 In 1815, the Congress of Vienna Final Act on the Prohibition of Slave Trade condemned the slave trade as ‘repugnant to the principles of humanity and universal morality’ and declared that ‘the public voice in all civilized countries calls aloud for its prompt suppression’.5 The concept of humanity later became an integral component of the dis- course of the laws of war. The adoption of the 1899 Hague Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land entrenched the notion in jus in bello. The preamble of the Convention that was designed ‘to serve … the interests of humanity and the ever increasing requirements of civilization’ 1 Simpson, Gerry. ‘Linear Law: The History of International Criminal Law’, in Critical Approaches to International Criminal Law: An Introduction, ed. Christine Schwöbel (Oxon: Routledge, 2014), 159–179. 2 See Simma, Bruno. ‘The Contribution of Alfred Verdross to the Theory of International Law’. European Journal of International Law 6 (1995), 33–54, 38–43. 3 Denis Diderot even referred to humanity as ‘the only truly inalienable right’. See Zagor, Matthew. ‘Elementary Considerations of Humanity’, in The ICJ and the Evolution of International Law: The Enduring Impact of the “Corfu Channel” Case, eds. Karine Bannelier, Theodore Christakis and Sarah Heathcote (Oxon: Routledge, 2011), 269. 4 On the ‘civilizing mission’ of international law and its ties to the European imperial project see Koskenniemi, Martti. The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law 1870–1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). As late as 1950, Graven still emphasized the necessity of a state of civilization for the recognition of laws of humanity. See Graven, Jean. ‘Les crimes contre l’humanité’. Receuil des Cours 76 (1950), 433–607, 463. 5 Final Act of the Congress of Vienna of 8 February 1815, Resolution No. 15, Déclaration du Congrès de Vienne en date du 8 fevrier 1815 au sujet de l’abolition de la traité des nègres d’Afrique ou du commerce des esclaves. http://www.le-prince-de-talleyrand.fr/traitenoirs.html. Zagor, however, points out that the universalistic language actually conceals parochial motives since ‘The world society whose normative voice can be heard in the 1815 Declaration was essentially that of Britain, the emerging hegemon after the Napoleonic wars, where an or- ganized and politicized public had demanded international action’. Zagor, ‘Elementary Considerations’ 2011 (n. 3), 270. Journal of the History of InternationalDownloaded Law 21 from (2019) Brill.com10/03/2021 299–329 04:46:28AM via free access Crimes against the People 301 introduced the so-called Martens clause (named after the head of the Russian delegation),6 which pronounced that: the inhabitants and the belligerents remain under the protection and the rule of the principles of the law of nations, as they result from the usages established among civilized peoples, from the laws of humanity and the dictates of public conscience. The repeated inclusion of this clause with essentially the same wording in international conventions has anchored the idea that the laws of war have moralistic foundations,7 but these conventions failed to establish individual criminal responsibility for breaches of the laws of humanity. In 1915, the British, French and Russian governments issued a joint declara- tion, publicly denouncing the massive and widespread deportation and exter- mination of hundreds of thousands of Armenians by the Ottoman government as ‘crimes against humanity and civilisation’.8 The Allied Powers endeavoured to give effect to the declaration through the Sèvres Peace Treaty concluded be- tween Turkey and the Allied Powers but it was eventually not ratified, and the final Lausanne Peace Treaty omitted any reference to criminal prosecution.9 In similar vein, the 1919 Final Report of the Commission on the Responsibil­ ity of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties asserted that Germany and its Allies had committed numerous acts in violation of 6 On the Martens Clause see Giladi, Rotem. ‘The Enactment of Irony: Reflections on the Origins of the Martens Clause’. European Journal of International Law 25 (2014), 847–869. 7 Inter alia, it was included in the 1907 Hague Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907; 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. The Hague, 14 May 1954; 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977. 8 ‘In view of these new crimes of Turkey against humanity and civilisation, the Allied gov- ernments announce publicly to the Sublime Porte that they will hold personally responsi- ble [for] these crimes all members of the Ottoman Government and those of their agents who are implicated in such massacres.’ Quoted in United Nations War Crimes Commission. History of the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Development of the Laws of War (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1948) 35. 9 Nevertheless, an Ottoman State Special Military Tribunal did initiate criminal proceedings against some of the perpetrators. See Balint, Jennifer. ‘The Ottoman State Special Military Tribunal for the Genocide of the Armenians: “Doing Government Business”’, in The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials, eds. Kevin Jon Heller and Gerry Simpson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 77–100. Journal of the History of International Law 21 Downloaded(2019) 299–329 from Brill.com10/03/2021 04:46:28AM via free access 302 Hoffmann established laws and customs of war and ‘the elementary laws of humanity’10 – raising the prospect of potential prosecution of crimes committed against the Central Power’s own citizens.11 However, both the United States and Japan held the view that ‘laws of humanity’ are not part of positive international law but natural law therefore any attempted prosecution based on that jus- tification would be tantamount to ex post facto law-making.12 Consequently, the Versailles Treaty failed to include any reference to criminal proceedings for crimes committed against a country’s own civilian population. The unprecedented atrocities of the Second World War resurrected the no- tion of legal accountability for crimes committed against the civilian popu- lation. On 20 October 1943, seventeen Allied nations established the United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC), an organization specially tasked with the mandate of establishing the legal framework of prosecuting war criminals.13 From the beginning, most of the representatives of the UNWCC have sup- ported the extension of punishment beyond war crimes.14 The Czechoslovakian delegate, Bohuslav Ečer, argued that the concept of war crimes should en- compass crimes committed on the grounds of race, nationality, religion, or political beliefs invoking the Martens clause15 and was supported by the in- fluential secretary of the UNWCC, Egon Schwelb.16 Criminalization of crimes committed against the civilian population was also endorsed by the American representative, Herbert C. Pell, who repeatedly referred to these atrocities as ‘crimes against humanity’17 even though the idea was very controversial within 10 Commission on the Responsibilities of the Authors of War and on Enforcement of Penalties. ‘Report Presented to the Preliminary Peace Conference’. American Journal of International Law 14 (1920), 95–154, 121–125. 11 See Boot, Machteld. Genocide, Crimes against Humanity, War Crimes: Nullum Crimen Sine Lege and the Subject Matter Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (Antwerp: Intersentia, 2002), 458. 12 Bassiouni, Cherif M.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • PLEASE NOTE: This Book Contains Graphic Description of Inhuman Acts
    PLEASE NOTE: This book contains graphic description of inhuman acts committed by a small but unfortunately significant segment of the Serb nation. It is published for the information of politicians, diplomats, historians, soldiers, reporters and other professionals. Not recommended to the general public. To keep one's sanity it should be read with total professional detachment. Please read POSTSCRIPTUM on page 162 before you start reading the book. It will give you basic knowledge and better understanding of the true nature of the Partisan Warfare. The Publisher TITOIST ATROCITIES in VOJVODINA 1944-1945 SERBIAN VENDETTA IN BACSKA TIBOR CSERES HUNYADI PUBLISHING Copyright © Tibor Cseres 1993 All rights reserved First edition in the English Language Hunyadi Publishing Buffalo, NY - Toronto, Ont. Hungarian title: VERBOSSZU BACSKABAN Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 92-76218 ISBN 1-882785-01-0 Manufactured in the United States of America 9 AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION At the end of World War I, the southern part of the thousand year old historical Hungary was occupied by Serbian troops. Under the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty in 1921 it was annexed to the Serbo-Croat-Slovenian Kingdom, that later became Yugoslavia. The new name of this territory, situated to the east of present Croatia, was VOJVODINA (also spelled Voivodina or Voyvodina). Its former Hungarian name had been Bacska and Banat. During World War II, in 1941, Germany occupied Yugoslavia. At the same time, Hungary took possession of and re-annexed VOJVODINA from divided Yugoslavia. At the end of 1944, the Serbs reoccupied Bacska, which has belonged to Serbia ever since.
    [Show full text]
  • THE POST-CONFERENCE PUBLICATION Authors: Michal Dubovan Peter Munkasi Matej Gera Petra Pejšová Anikó Grad-Gyenge Dániel G
    Future of Copyright in Europe THE POST-CONFERENCE PUBLICATION Authors: Michal Dubovan Peter Munkasi Matej Gera Petra Pejšová Anikó Grad-Gyenge Dániel G. Szabó Péter Lábody Jan Vobořil Proofreading: Alan Lockwood THE BOOK IS A PART OF THE COPYCAMP 2016 PROJECT FINANCED BY THE INTERNATIONAL VISEGRAD FUND Graphic design and layout: KONTRABANDA Fonts used: Crimson Text, Bungee The book was published under the CC BY-SA 3.0 PL license. Publisher: Modern Poland Foundation, Warsaw 2016 ISBN 978-83-61730-42-2 COPYCAMP 2016: POST-CONFERENCE PUBLICATION 2 Future of Copyright in Europe INTERNATIONAL COPYCAMP CONFERENCE 2016 THE POST-CONFERENCE PUBLICATION Introduction 3 Michal Dubovan 6 Matej Gera 9 Anikó Grad-Gyenge 13 Péter Lábody 16 Peter Munkasi 19 Petra Pejšová 23 Dániel G. Szabó 28 Jan Vobořil 31 Introduction It is 2016 and it’s already the fifth time that we’ve met in Warsaw at CopyCamp. As usual, we invited authors, artists, members of the European Parliament, pirates, collecting societies, librarians, lawyers, scientists, teachers and many others who are interested in the impact of copyright and the information society. For CopyCamp 2016, we managed to gather the largest number of international guests to date, representing diverse points of view from many different parts of the world. By far the most speakers came from the Visegrad Group (V4) countries, and we’d like to make their perspectives even more visible by releasing this post-conference publication. And theirs are interesting perspectives, in particular due to the region’s specific history, which unavoidably affects the letter of copyright law and the practice of its application.
    [Show full text]
  • A Millennium of Migrations: Proto-Historic Mobile Pastoralism in Hungary
    Bull. Fla. Mus. Nat. Hist. (2003) 44(1) 101-130 101 A MILLENNIUM OF MIGRATIONS: PROTO-HISTORIC MOBILE PASTORALISM IN HUNGARY Ldsz16 Bartosiewiczl During the A.D. 1st millennium, numerous waves of mobile pastoral communities of Eurasian origins reached the area of modern- day Hungary in the Carpathian Basin. This paper reviews animal exploitation as reconstructed from animal remains found at the settlements of Sarmatian, Avar/Slavic, and Early ("Conquering") Hungarian populations. According to the historical record, most of these communities turned to sedentism. Archaeological assemblages also manifest evidence of animal keeping, such as sheep and/or goat herding, as well as pig, cattle, and horse. Such functional similarities, however, should not be mistaken for de facto cultural continuity among the zooarchaeological data discussed here within the contexts of environment and cultural history. Following a critical assessment of assemblages available for study, analysis of species frequencies shed light on ancient li feways of pastoral communities intransition. Spatial limitations (both geographical and political), as well as a climate, more temperate than in the Eurasian Steppe Belt, altered animal-keeping practices and encouraged sedentism. Key words: Central European Migration, environmental determinism, nomadism, pastoral animal keeping Zoarchaeological data central to this paper originate from Data used in this study represent the lowest common settlements spanning much of the A.D. 1st millennium denominator of the three different
    [Show full text]
  • The Mhbk Vancouver Chapter Newsletter
    VOLUME X, ISSUE 1 WINTER 2008 HUNGARIAN MILITARY HISTORY MUSEUM PHOTOGRAPH ARCHIVES THE MHBK VANCOUVER CHAPTER NEWSLETTER Dear Members, I hope you all will like this new format for the Magyar Front – I think that it’s an MAGYAR FRONT improvement and a refreshing change for our tenth year of publication - a little nega- VOLUME X, ISSUE 1 tion with our printer will now allow our publication to be in full colour! Although we WINTER 2008 will always feature material about our organization’s heritage (the Front-Line Fighters’ Association), you will find other information and articles to keep it interesting. Other authors such as Andris Kursietis and Gergely Sallay are contributing material, which will ensure that the Magyar Front will continue to be exciting, as well as informative. I chose to use the two central pages to feature images from old Hungarian military manuals – I have a great deal of diagrams such as these (often very poor quality photocopies), that I will be digitally cleaning up for our newsletter. I look forward to your comments, suggestions and criticism. I also welcome original articles for the Magyar Front, and please let me know if there is anything in particular you would like to read about. If you would like to share interesting military photographs, documents or personal reminiscences, contact me, so we can arrange to feature them in a future issue. In our last issue, I included the letter of proposal to Lt. General Holló of the Military History Institute and Museum. He very graciously replied, and stated: “As I see it,
    [Show full text]
  • Modelling the Impacts of Climate Change on Shallow Groundwater Conditions in Hungary
    water Article Modelling the Impacts of Climate Change on Shallow Groundwater Conditions in Hungary Attila Kovács 1,* and András Jakab 2 1 Department of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, M˝uegyetemrkp. 1, 1111 Budapest, Hungary 2 Jakab és Társai Kft., 32 Jászóvár utca, 2100 Gödöll˝o,Hungary; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to develop a methodology for the evaluation of direct climate impacts on shallow groundwater resources and its country-scale application in Hungary. A modular methodology was applied. It comprised the definition of climate zones and recharge zones, recharge calculation by hydrological models, and the numerical modelling of the groundwater table. Projections of regional climate models for three different time intervals were applied for the simulation of predictive scenarios. The investigated regional climate model projections predict rising annual average temperature and generally dropping annual rainfall rates throughout the following decades. Based on predictive modelling, recharge rates and groundwater levels are expected to drop in elevated geographic areas such as the Alpokalja, the Eastern parts of the Transdanubian Mountains, the Mecsek, and Northern Mountain Ranges. Less significant groundwater level drops are predicted in foothill areas, and across the Western part of the Tiszántúl, the Duna-Tisza Interfluve, and the Szigetköz areas. Slightly increasing recharge and groundwater levels are predicted in the Transdanubian Hills and the Western part of the Transdanubian Mountains. Simulation results Citation: Kovács, A.; Jakab, A. represent groundwater conditions at the country scale. However, the applied methodology is suitable Modelling the Impacts of Climate for simulating climate change impacts at various scales.
    [Show full text]
  • Magyars and Serbs: the 'Southlands'
    Magyars and Serbs: the 'Southlands' The 1941 occupation of the Southlands and the 1942 round up E n ik ő A. Sajti On 10 April 1941, four days after Germany attacked Yugoslavia and the day Croa­ tia seceded from the state, Lt Col. Nenad Krnjajic commander of the 14th Garrison Regiment stationed in the Palic area in the Vojvodina region of Serbia, noted in his regimental journal: "Windy and cloudy; sleet. It is peaceful on our sector of the line. Minor Hungarian troop movements in the border area. On the radio the news is bad everywhere... The Germans broke through at Bela Crkva and are pushing forward... Lt Col. Ruzic, commander of 13th Garrison Regiment, informed me that Lt Col. Ivovnur [a Croat - E.S.], his second-in-command, has deserted."1 The next day, on the orders of Miklós Horthy, the Regent of Hungary, units of the Hungarian Third Army and the Mobile Corps crossed the Hungarian-Yugo- slav border. The main military objective, besides re-annexing the Baóka (Bácska) region to Hungary, was to secure the rear of the German troops, advancing in the direction of Belgrade. That was done without any major engagement with the Yu­ goslav army, and within three days they had recaptured the Danube-Tisza inter­ fluve, the Bács and the southern Baranja 'Triangle', thereby closing the era of Hun­ garian territorial gains. The last sentence of Lt Col. Krnjajic's journal entry for 13 April runs: "As the best solution, I have ordered the destruction of all war material and am dispersing the unit."2 In an autobiographically inspired novel by Attila Balázs, a writer from Vojvo­ dina, István Szilágyi, Hungarian army soldier recalls the reoccupation of Baóka in the following terms: They waited until every single one had closed ranks on the top of the hill, from which a far prospect opened onto the Bácska.
    [Show full text]
  • Open Access to Scientific Publications: Ideas and Problems
    OPEN ACCESS TO SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS: IDEAS AND PROBLEMS KOLTAY, T. Department of Information and Library Studies Szent István University Faculty of Applied and Professional Arts H-5100 Jászberény, Hungary KEYWORDS: distribution of scientific results, open access, OA, scholarly publishing ABSTRACT Open access scholarly publishing did not have yet a serious impact on the slow-moving world of re- search. Neither could it solve the serials crisis. Nonetheless we have to see that the push of journals from paper to electronic media resulted in an infrastructure the existence of which shed light – among others - to the fact that the system of journal publishing, acceptable in the print environment, is no more sustain- able. One of the most promising solutions to solve the serials crisis is open access (OA) publishing that has been initiated by researchers feeling responsibility for scholarship and which has many faces. This paper describes the main features of open access scholarly journal publishing and some of the ob- stacles that stand in its way. INTRODucTION Ginsparg (2007) sets the scene as follows: “The technological transformation of scholarly communication infrastructure began in earnest by the mid-1990s. Its effects are ubiq- uitous in the daily activities of typical researchers, instructors and students, permitting discovery, access to, and reuse of material with an ease and rapidity difficult to anticipate as little as a decade ago.” The advent of electronic journals raised awareness of the fact the current system of journal pricing is too expensive, while the Internet offers much lower cost of reproduction and distribution than print does (Varian 1998).
    [Show full text]
  • UNIVERSITY of PANNONIA Erasmus Guide for International Students
    UNIVERSITY OF PANNONIA Erasmus Guide for International Students Veszprém Hungary 2014 1 Edited by Dr. Ildikó Hortobágyi Editing Team Beáta Bődör Kornél Gombás Judit Lukács Réka Vámosi The publication of this guide was supported by the European Commission. The Commission does not take responsibility for the content. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. University of Pannonia General information Contacts Departmental coordinators Academic calendar 2014-2015 Short history of the University of Pannonia University management Mission and strategy Faculties Doctoral schools Research and development International affairs Student organisations University facilities Libraries Sporting facilities University map – Veszprém Campus, University map – Keszthely Campus 2. Hungary Facts and figures Geography and climate 3. Higher Education in Hungary at a glance The Hungarian Higher Education System Admission requirements International recognition of degrees Credit system System of assessment 4. Essential information for exchange students How to apply? Language requirements Orientation week for exchange students Legal matters Visa Residence permit Health care services available during temporary stay in Hungary Arrival information sheet Accommodation 5. Everyday life Travelling, public transport Postal services Mobile phone 6. Entertainment Programmes for the weekends – Places to visit The city of Veszprém Entertainment in Keszthely and its surroundings 3 University Programmes VEN Balaton Regatta rowing competition University Sport Days Students’ Days on Keszthely campus Sárgulás/Graduation Festivity Experience of current incoming ERASMUS students 7. Appendix ERASMUS documents ECTS issues Practical information Useful links and addresses 4 DEAR INTERNATIONAL STUDENT! Welcome to the University of Pannonia! You have made a really good decision by choosing us! The centre of our university is located in Veszprém, which is one of the oldest historic towns of Hungary.
    [Show full text]
  • Openaire2020 Final Summary Report
    OPENAIRE2020 FINAL SUMMARY REPORT Aug 2018 OpenAIRE2020 Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe towards 2020 Dissemination level: PUBLIC This is a summary of activities of tasks as reported by consortium members for the whole duration of the project: January 2015- June 2018. Detailed descriptions are in the project deliverable reports. Natalia Manola, University of Athens, Greece Najla Rettberg, University of Goettingen Paolo Manghi, CNR-ISTI H2020-EINFRA-2014-1 Topic: e-Infrastructure for Open Access Research & Innovation action Grant Agreement 643410 PUBLIC TABLE OF CONTENTS OpenAIRE2020 FINAL Summary Report ................................................................................................................................. 0 1| OPENAIRE DATA ............................................................................................................................................... 3 2| LEGAL ENTITY .................................................................................................................................................... 4 3| NETWORK OPERATION .................................................................................................................................... 5 4| DISSEMINATION AND OUTREACH .................................................................................................................. 7 4.1 BRANDING .............................................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • ERAC 1201/21 MVG/Cb 1 ECOMP.3.B Delegations Will Find in Annex to This
    EUROPEAN UNION Brussels, 2 June 2021 (OR. en) EUROPEAN RESEARCH AREA AND INNOVATION COMMITTEE —————— – ERAC – Secretariat ERAC 1201/21 NOTE From: General Secretariat of the Council To: Delegations Subject: ERAC ‘Triangle Task Force’ Guideline Paper on ‘Research evaluation in a context of Open Science and gender equality’ Delegations will find in annex to this Note the ERAC ‘Triangle Task Force’ (Joint ERAC Standing Working Groups (SWGs) on Open Science and Innovation (OSI), Human Resources and Mobility (HRM) and Gender in Research and Innovation (GRI) Task Force) Guideline Paper on ‘Research evaluation in a context of Open Science and gender equality’, as adopted by written procedure. ERAC 1201/21 MVG/cb 1 ECOMP.3.B EN ANNEX Joint ERAC Standing Working Groups1 Task Force on researchers’ training, incentives and evaluation in Open Science and Open Innovation (‘Triangle Task Force’) Guideline Paper Research evaluation in a context of Open Science and gender equality Executive summary This report provides stakeholders involved in research evaluation reforms with a set of guidelines that aim at fostering both Open Science and gender equality. Both topics are key dimensions in the implementation of a new European Research Area and provide policy and decision makers, funders as well as researchers with a unique opportunity to substantially renegotiate, through evaluation, the social roles and responsibilities of publicly funded research, as well as to rethink the science system as a whole. The report elaborates on six general principles, which
    [Show full text]
  • Maternal Lineages from 10–11Th Century Commoner Cemeteries of the Carpathian Basin
    G C A T T A C G G C A T genes Article Maternal Lineages from 10–11th Century Commoner Cemeteries of the Carpathian Basin Kitti Maár 1, Gergely I. B. Varga 2 , Bence Kovács 2 , Oszkár Schütz 1, Zoltán Maróti 2,3, Tibor Kalmár 3 , Emil Nyerki 2,3, István Nagy 4,5 ,Dóra Latinovics 4, Balázs Tihanyi 2,6 , Antónia Marcsik 6, György Pálfi 6, Zsolt Bernert 7, Zsolt Gallina 8,9,Sándor Varga 10,László Költ˝o 11, István Raskó 12, Tibor Török 1,2,*,† and Endre Neparáczki 1,2,† 1 Department of Genetics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; [email protected] (K.M.); [email protected] (O.S.); [email protected] (E.N.) 2 Department of Archaeogenetics, Institute of Hungarian Research, H-1014 Budapest, Hungary; [email protected] (G.I.B.V.); [email protected] (B.K.); [email protected] (Z.M.); [email protected] (E.N.); [email protected] (B.T.) 3 Department of Pediatrics and Pediatric Health Center, University of Szeged, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary; [email protected] 4 SeqOmics Biotechnology Ltd., H-6782 Mórahalom, Hungary; [email protected] (I.N.); [email protected] (D.L.) 5 Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary 6 Department of Biological Anthropology, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; [email protected] (A.M.); palfi[email protected] (G.P.) 7 Department of Anthropology, Hungarian Natural History Museum, H-1083 Budapest, Hungary; [email protected] Citation: Maár, K.; Varga, G.I.B.; 8 Ásatárs Ltd., H-6000 Kecskemét, Hungary; [email protected] 9 Kovács, B.; Schütz, O.; Maróti, Z.; Department of Archaeology, Institute of Hungarian Research, H-1014 Budapest, Hungary 10 Kalmár, T.; Nyerki, E.; Nagy, I.; Ferenc Móra Museum, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary; [email protected] 11 Rippl-Rónai Municipal Museum with Country Scope, H-7400 Kaposvár, Hungary; [email protected] Latinovics, D.; Tihanyi, B.; et al.
    [Show full text]
  • The Royal Hungarian Army 1920 - 1945 Volume I Organization and History
    The Royal Hungarian Army 1920 - 1945 Volume I Organization and History Leo W.G. Niehorster 2 The Royal Hungarian Army 1920 - 1945 The Royal Hungarian Army 1920 – 1945 by Leo W.G. Niehorster Copyright © 1998 and 2010 by Leo W.G. Niehorster All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, no portion of this book may be reproduced in any form without the express written permission of the pub- lisher. Neither the author nor the publisher assumes any responsibility for the use or misuse of information contained in this book. The Royal Hungarian Army 1920 - 1945 3 CONTENTS Page Foreword .................................................................................................................................. 4 Hungarian Military Organizational Symbols................................................................................ 5 A Short Review of Hungarian History up to 1920 ....................................................................... 6 Part I The Royal Hungarian Army 1920 – 1941 Chapter 1 Hungary Between the Wars ................................................................................... 16 Chapter 2 Military Organization and the Armed Forces ........................................................ 21 Chapter 3 The Ground Forces to 1941 ................................................................................... 38 Chapter 4 The Air Force to 1941............................................................................................ 54 Chapter 5 The River Forces to 1941 .....................................................................................
    [Show full text]