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Miterev, M., Engwall, M., Jerbrant, A. (2017) Mechanisms of isomorphism in project-based organizations. Project Management Journal, 48(5): 9-24

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Permanent link to this version: http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-217388 Mechanisms of Isomorphism in Project-Based Organizations PAPERS

Maxim Miterev, Department of Industrial Economics and Management, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden Mats Engwall, Department of Industrial Economics and Management, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden Anna Jerbrant, Department of Industrial Economics and Management, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden

ABSTRACT ■ INTRODUCTION

ecent studies report that an increasing number of firms are using This article challenges the dominant assump- projects as the main organizing principle to achieve their strategic and tion of goal rationality behind temporary operational objectives (Cattani, Ferriani, Frederiksen, & Täube, 2011; organizations’ design in project-based orga- Lundin et al., 2015; Whittington, Pettigrew, Peck, Fenton, & Conyon, nizations (PBOs). While extant literature pos- R1999). This trend is reflected in the growing scholarly interest in project-based its that organizations strive to select the forms of organizing within the strategic management and innovation literature most appropriate project arrangements to (Blindenbach-Driessen & Van den Ende, 2006; Brady & Davies, 2004; Davies & fit particular task requirements at hand, find- Brady, 2000, 2016; Gann & Salter, 2000; Hobday, 2000; Keegan & Turner, 2002; ings from an in-depth ethnography-inspired Loufrani-Fedida & Saglietto, 2016; Nightingale, Baden-Fuller, & Hopkins, 2011; case study suggest that projects in PBOs Prencipe & Tell, 2001; Söderlund, 2005, 2008; Whitley, 2006). While their effects tend to imitate each other’s structures, strat- on innovation and learning remain an intricate matter (Burgers, Van Den egies, and practices with little consideration Bosch, & Volberda, 2008; Keegan & Turner, 2002; Sydow, Lindkvist, & DeFillippi, of the potential performance effects. Building 2004), project-based organizations are widely praised for their capacity to upon the new institutionalism, this article flexibly address changing customer demands, integrate diverse knowledge sets, conceptualizes the PBO as an organizational bypass barriers to organizational change and innovation, and deliver complex field of temporary and permanent organiza- non-routine tasks (Hobday, 2000; Nightingale et al., 2011; Sydow et al., 2004). tions embedded in wider organizational and The literature on project-based organizations has been pervaded by the institutional fields and explicates isomorphic implicit assumption of goal rationality (Weber, 1978) throughout the past half processes among temporary organizations century (c.f. Levitt, 2012; Middleton, 1967). For example, project-based firms in PBOs. adopt an array of learning mechanisms (Prencipe & Tell, 2001), integrate proj- ect and business processes (Gann & Salter, 2000), introduce new management KEYWORDS: project-based organization; practices (Bresnen, Goussevskaia, & Swan, 2004), and manage intra-firm insti- temporary organization; organization tutional contexts (Lindkvist, 2004; Morris & Geraldi, 2011) in order to build design; institutional theory; isomorphic up project capabilities and competences. Overall, current theory depicts this mechanisms process as a deliberate action, carefully designed by top managers to improve performance. In the same vein, one of the major advantages of the project- based organization is claimed to be that it creates idiosyncratic structures to fit specific project tasks (Bakker, 2010; Hobday, 2000). This perceived advantage is commensurate with the contingency perspective (Dvir, Lipovetsky, Shenhar, & Tishler, 1998; Shenhar, 2001; Shenhar & Dvir, 1996) and pinpoints perfor- mance pressure as the key determinant of project management structures and approaches. It also implies that structures and approaches are chosen by firms in a deliberate and rational way and that they exist in a rich variety in a PBO. To date, however, several empirical studies have reported opposite evi- dence. For example, despite the fact that project-based organizations are Project Management Journal, Vol. 48, No. 5, 9–24 theoretically well-suited to adapt structures and approaches when a new © 2017 by the Project Management Institute project starts from scratch, paradoxically, they rarely do so (Ekstedt, Lundin, Published online at www.pmi.org/PMJ & Wirdenius, 1992). Moreover, even obvious improvements are often not

October/November 2017 ■ Project Management Journal 9 Mechanisms of Isomorphism in Project-Based Organizations

introduced to ameliorate a challenging temporary organizations in project- emphasize the linkages to the parent

PAPERS project situation (Brady & Maylor, 2010). based organizations often compete for organization and its business processes Furthermore, project-based manage- a limited centrally distributed pool of (Gann & Salter, 2000). However, project- ment practices can be adopted by orga- resources (Engwall & Jerbrant, 2003), to-project institutional mechanisms nizations even when they do not fit in which enables coercive isomorphism. are generally overlooked. On the con- well (Martinsuo, Hensman, Artto, Kujala, In addition, the ‘one-off’ character of trary, this study puts forth the lens on & Jaafari, 2006). Thus, in order to explain projects and the impermanence of their the project-based organization as an such phenomena, the literature needs to organizational forms result in high uncer- organizational field of temporary and build on a different set of theories. tainty, which is positively associated with permanent organizations. Second, the New institutionalism in organization mimetic processes. Finally, the profes- study challenges the goal rationality studies represents a promising candi- sionalization of project management assumption behind temporary orga- date to provide an alternative explana- (Hodgson, 2002) creates preconditions nization design and calls for a more tion of project-based dynamics (Henisz, for normative isomorphic processes; nuanced understanding of institutional Levitt, & Scott, 2012; Lampel, 2011; thus, in the context of a project-based processes within the PBO. Finally, the Manning, 2008; Sydow & Staber, 2002; organization one would expect rather article explicates the isomorphic pro- Windeler & Sydow, 2001), because, as strong isomorphic processes in projects. cesses at the level of temporary orga- explained further, it successfully deals In order to investigate how such nizations in the particular context of with similar issues within organization processes shape project management project-based organizations. theory. With regard to the enactment structures and approaches, this study The article is structured as follows. of structures and approaches, projects employed an ethnography-inspired in- The second section discusses the theo- as temporary organizations experience depth case study approach. By concep- retical background of the study; specifi- pressure from their institutional envi- tualizing the project-based organization cally, it starts by discussing the concept ronment (Lundin & Söderholm, 1995). as an organizational field of temporary of temporary organization design by Such pressure might result in a rela- and permanent organizations embed- building on the notion of the project as tively low variation among temporary ded in wider organizational and institu- a temporary organization and several project organizations (Kadefors, 1995), tional fields, the study findings question models from the organization theory since availability and familiarity heuris- the implicit rationality assumption and design literature. Then, it critically tics affect their structures and routines dominant across the literature on PBOs. evaluates the goal rationality assump- (Eriksson & Kadefors, 2017). Specifically, by applying an institutional tion in the literature on project-based In order to explain what they called lens, the article explicates isomorphic organizations and introduces the insti- the “startling homogeneity” of organiza- processes (i.e., coercive, mimetic, and tutional perspective as the theoretical tions, DiMaggio and Powell (1983) built normative) in the context of project- lens of the study. The section concludes on the notion of organizational field, in based organizations and shows how by developing a novel conceptualiza- other words, “those organizations that, projects as temporary organizations tion of the PBO that is used in the study. in the aggregate, constitute a recognized ‘imitate’ each other, often with little or The third section describes in detail the area of institutional life: key suppli- no focus on efficiency. research design and methodology; the ers, resource and product consumers, The article’s contribution to the liter- fourth section presents the empirical regulatory agencies, and other organi- ature is threefold. First, building on the findings; and, finally, the fifth section zations that produce similar services notion of a project as a temporary orga- concludes the article with a discussion or products” (ibid, p. 148), and speci- nization (Lundin & Söderholm, 1995) on the wider theoretical and manage- fied isomorphic processes that lead to it elaborates on the concept of project rial implications of the study. homogeneity among organizations as context within a PBO, thus contributing the organizational field evolves. to the contextual stream of literature on Theory Building on the notion of a project projects (Engwall, 2003; Grabher, 2004). Temporary Organization Design as a temporary organization, this article While the extant literature focuses on in PBOs posits that such isomorphism can be organizational and wider institutional In general management studies, the especially salient for intra-organizational context (Bakker, 2010), this study shows organization design literature aims to projects. Indeed, organizational fields how the portfolio of projects represents understand the configurations, ante- characterized by the high centraliza- an important constituent of the internal cedents, and consequences of various tion of resource supply, uncertainty, PBO context (Bergman, Gunnarson, & interdependent management arrange- and professionalization are particularly Räisänen, 2013). In other words, when ments at the organizational level (Van susceptible to institutional isomorphism scholars refer to projects as embedded de Ven, Ganco, & Hinings, 2013). Build- (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). Accordingly, in organizational context, they largely ing on this body of literature and on

10 October/November 2017 ■ Project Management Journal the notion of a project as a temporary these four dimensions represent the be an important (but not exhaustive) organization (Lundin & Söderholm, ultimate TOD model. theoretical pillar to explain observable 1995), this study conceptualizes such The antecedents and consequences organizational forms on its own (cf. arrangements at the levels of projects of various temporary organization Schoonhoven, 1981; Scott, 1995; Van and programs as the temporary orga- design choices are still ambiguous de Ven et al., 2013). Empirical find- nization design (TOD). This subsection despite their importance (Lechler & ings reported in the project manage- discusses various design dimensions at Dvir, 2010). Within the context of the ment literature suggest that this view the temporary organization level. project-based organization we know also seems to be valid for temporary The organization theory and design even less about the dynamics of tem- organizations. Indeed, temporary orga- literature has proposed a number of porary organization design (Bergman nizations experience pressure from organizational models encompassing et al., 2013), since much of the litera- their institutional environment (Lun- different sets of design dimensions. ture studies project arrangements sepa- din & Söderholm, 1995), which might Leavitt (1965) put forward four facets: rately from the organizational context lead to homogenization of project task, technology, structure, and people. (Engwall, 2003). structures and approaches (Bergman Alternatively, a popular 7S Model pro- et al., 2013; Kadefors, 1995). Moreover, posed structure, strategy, systems, style, The Assumption of Goal Rationality learning among projects contribute to skills, staff, and subordinate goals as key Behind TOD Choices in PBOs this process (Engwall, 2003; Prencipe design dimensions (Pascale & Athos, The dominant assumption behind the & Tell, 2001). Finally, observable pat- 1981; Peters & Waterman, 1982). Along temporary organization design is that terns of actions do not necessitate the the same lines, Galbraith’s Star ModelTM of the ‘goal rationality’ (Weber, 1978). In existence of prior calculated decisions (Galbraith, 1977, 2014) encompasses particular, the literature posits that proj- (Lundin & Söderholm, 1995). Specifi- strategy, structure, processes, people, ect arrangements are selected rationally cally, various cognitive “rules of thumb,” and rewards as the key organization with the aim of increasing efficiency. As such as heuristics or biases, were design elements. The project manage- Hobday (2000) states: “PBOs organise found to influence temporary organi- ment literature offers a similar set of their structures, strategies, and capa- zation design (Eriksson & Kadefors, design dimensions in the context of bilities around the needs of projects . . .” 2017), indicating deviations from pure project-based organizations (Miterev, (p. 875). Similarly, Bergman et al. (2013) rational thinking. To conclude, these Mancini, & Turner, 2017; Miterev, note that “. . . all aspects of a project observations pose certain challenges Turner, & Mancini, 2017). For exam- need to be considered by the firm: a to the assumptions and predictions of ple, Hanisch and Wald (2011) used the structure needs to be set up, the need the contingency-based stream of the dimensions of strategy and structure, for resources identified and made avail- literature. Consequently, we call for a project management and project orga- able, the relevant and viable processes better understanding of institutional nization, and culture and social pro- and technologies identified for realiz- processes that shape temporary organi- cesses. Bergman et al. (2013) derived ing the project outcome (the product).” zation design in the context of the PBO. four perspectives on organization from (p. 112) the literature—namely product, pro- This assumption is commensurate New Institutionalism and cess, people, and structure—which with the contingency stream within the Isomorphic Processes they used to analyze both firm-based literature on projects, which posits that The institutional stream of literature projects and their parent organization. universally applicable management solu- within organization theory has chal- Eriksson and Kadefors (2017), in their tions hardly exist, in other words, ‘one- lenged the idea that the demands of tech- discussion on project organizational size-does-not-fit-all’ projects (Shenhar, nical activities necessarily determine design, referred to organizational struc- 2001; Shenhar & Dvir, 1996). The con- the organization’s design, for example, tures and routines for coordination. tingency perspective, which has gained formal structure (Meyer & Rowan, Building on these and similar sources, considerable momentum in project 1977). Instead of being primarily driven the temporary organization design is management studies (Hanisch & Wald, by the need for higher efficiency, orga- conceptualized as comprising four key 2012; Miterev, Mancini, & Turner, 2017), nizations strive to achieve legitimacy in dimensions that appear to be common is traditionally linked to the rationalist their organizational fields by incorporat- in the models: structure, strategy, pro- stance. However, the claim of universally ing institutional rules into their formal cess, and people. In the remainder of applicable goal rationality behind TOD structures (ibid). In well-­established the article, these four dimensions serve remains a mere assumption rather than organizational fields institutional pres- primarily as a framework to analyze an empirical fact. sure leads to a high homogeneity of the data and organize the arguments. In organization theory, the contin- organizational forms and approaches Hence, the article does not claim that gency perspective has been found to (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). The key

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process is denoted as isomorphism, in normative isomorphism through limit- 2004). Finally, following the ideas that

PAPERS other words, “a constraining process ing variation among managers. were developed in relation to project that forces one unit in a population networks (Manning, 2008; Sydow & to resemble other units that face the The PBO as an Organizational Field Staber, 2002), the study views the PBO same set of environmental conditions” The study builds upon three key ideas as embedded in wider organizational (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983, p. 149). Spe- from extant literature. First, it builds on and institutional fields. cifically, DiMaggio and Powell (1983) the notion of the intra-organizational Building on these ideas, this study proposed an analytical typology of the institutional field, which originates from conceptualizes the project-based orga- isomorphic mechanisms—coercive, the studies of multinational corpora- nization as an organizational field of mimetic, and normative—leading to tions (MNC) (Dörrenbächer & Geppert, temporary and permanent organiza- isomorphism among organizations. 2017; Ghoshal & Bartlett, 1990; Kostova, tions embedded in wider organiza- Coercive mechanisms are related Roth, & Dacin, 2008). As Kostova et al. tional and institutional fields. Thus, the to external pressures exerted on orga- (2008) state: “all units in an MNC might intra-organizational field of the PBO nizations both by other organizations be viewed as belonging to the same comprises the totality of temporary and wider society. These pressures can intra-organizational institutional field, organizations, such as projects and pro- be both formal and informal require- which is contained within the boundar- grams as well as permanent organi- ments imposed on some organizations ies of the firm” (p. 998). Such fields exert zational units (e.g., HR department), by organizations they depend on and particularly strong influence over their and various governance institutions. can also reflect cultural expectations of members and are embedded in tradi- In such organizational fields, one can appropriate actions in the immediate tional external institutional fields (ibid). reasonably expect strong isomorphic organizational environment and wider Second, it follows the notion pressure on temporary organizations. society. of a project as a temporary organization Indeed, temporary organizations in Mimetic mechanisms are related to (Lundin & Söderholm, 1995; Packendorff, project-based organizations often com- imitation among organizations, com- 1995). While this view dominates the pete for a limited centrally distributed monly triggered by environmental uncer- discourse on single project manage- pool of resources (Engwall & Jerbrant, tainty. The imitation strategy under ment, it does not receive equal attention 2003), which enables coercive isomor- uncertainty allows organizations to find within the literature on project-based phism. The ‘one-off’ character of proj- a seemingly workable solution at low cost organizations (Bergman et al., 2013). ects and the impermanence of their (Cyert & March, 1963). One of the factors Within the PBO literature, projects are organizational forms result in high that might contribute to isomorphism is often seen as idiosyncratic business uncertainty, which is positively associ- the limited number of readily available processes and their structures are not ated with mimetic processes. Finally, models. In particular, organizations tend explicitly taken into account (Miterev, a rather strong professionalization of to imitate organizations from the same 2017). By contrast, in this study, tempo- project management (Hodgson, 2002) organizational field that they perceive to rary organizations are explicitly viewed creates preconditions for normative iso- be successful or legitimate. Diffusion of as constituent elements of the intra- morphic processes. In order to expli- the organizational models can occur via organizational institutional field. cate the related processes, this study employee turnover, customer demands, Third, this study acknowledges the employs the classic analytical typology and the activities of consulting firms or role of the project’s organizational and of isomorphic mechanisms, in other industrial associations. institutional contexts (Engwall, 2003; words, coercive, mimetic, and norma- Normative mechanisms are related Grabher, 2004). In particular, the study tive (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). to the effects of a shared cognitive builds upon the clarification of the base and emerge primarily from pro- project context within a project-based Methodology fessionalization. Both through formal organization (Bergman et al., 2013). Research Design education and participation in profes- Specifically, for a focal project within This article is based on an in-depth sional associations, professional norms, a project-based organization, all other case study of project-based organizing organizational models, mind-sets, and projects carried out in the same par- in the operations division of a large problem-solving approaches become ent organization comprise an important pharmaceutical company. The study legitimized and diffused among profes- part of the project context. In addi- is inductive in nature, aiming to chal- sional managers. The human resource tion, permanent organizational units, lenge and/or elaborate on existing theo- management (HRM) practices of selec- along with various governance insti- ries of project-based organizing, rather tion, promotion, and training repre- tutions (Müller, 2009), constitute an than to test them (Eisenhardt, 1989). sent another important mechanism integral part of the intra-organizational Thus, the resulting theoretical motiva- for spreading and/or strengthening institutional setup of the PBO (Lindkvist, tion presented in the Theory section is

12 October/November 2017 ■ Project Management Journal developed ex post, emerging from the level and the parent organization level. suggested that such variation is low and/ concurrent data collection and analysis Whereas much of the extant literature or cannot be linked to the various contex- (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Suddaby, 2006). on project-based organizations focuses tual factors, then the implicit assumptions Inspired by the ethnographic approach on the level of the parent organization, in the literature would be questioned. (Fetterman, 2010), the study employs a the temporary organization level is often Data collection was arranged accordingly range of data collection methods with either overlooked or conceived based to cover several temporary organizations a notable share of direct observations. on disputable assumptions (Miterev, within the project-based organization, The case study research strategy 2017). Finally, the research strategy is thus representing an em­bedded case provides several advantages to achiev- conducive to uncovering disconfirming study (Yin, 2009). ing the study purpose. First, the case evidence that questions assumptions study research strategy suits open-ended behind existing theories. Data Collection research inquiry into an interesting phe- For a single case study, the choice of The study involved a wide range of data nomenon in nascent streams of literature the case company is crucial. The study collection approaches and data sources (Edmondson & McManus, 2007). While followed a theoretical rather than proba- commensurate with the case study the literature on project-based organiza- bilistic/random sampling. The project- strategy (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007; tions has received scholarly attention based organization encompassed a Yin, 2009). Principal data collection (Cattani et al., 2011), few studies have diverse set of temporary organizations— methods included direct observations, paid close attention to the temporary projects and programs—with regard to semi-structured interviews, document organization design choices within the their objectives, local versus inter­national analysis, and various research-related project-based organization despite their operations, organizational functions meetings with the company managers. importance. Thus, the research strategy involved, management leadership styles, The empirical data utilized in the study provided us with the necessary flexibility and so forth. In case temporary organiza- are summarized in Table 1. to discover rather serendipitous find- tion design dimensions could be linked to A distinctive feature of this study is ings. Second, it enabled us to conduct some of these contingency variables, this extensive use of direct observations in an the research simultaneously at two levels would provide an extension to existing everyday work environment (Fetterman, of analysis: the temporary organization theory. On the contrary, if the evidence 2010). During the study one of the

Data Collection Number of Data Points Methods Type of Data (interviews, documents, etc.) Details/Comments Direct observations Days on site (including multiple informal 30 Field notes interactions) Management meetings, including at the: 7 Notes, agendas, and discussion TO level* 2 materials PBO level 5 Semi-structured interviews Interviews, including with the: 19 Transcripts and notes TO sponsors/Steering group members 3 Portfolio managers 2 TO managers 8 TO team members 5 Functional managers 1 Document analysis** Documents, including at the: 301 Status updates, blueprints, TO level* organization charts, guidelines, PBO level frameworks and templates, internal audit reports Other Research-related meetings with 7 Notes, discussion material management, including: Kick-off meetings 2 Feedback meetings 3 Global webinars 2 *Temporary organization level refers to both projects and programs **Only major documents are listed here Table 1: Empirical data overview.

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authors had his own work desk in the With the original goal of understanding wide range of issues, and provided a

PAPERS open-plan office space and unrestricted whether and how various factors influ- comparison across various temporary access to the company’s facilities. This ence temporary organization design, organizations. The documents provided allowed the researcher to attend weekly the interviewees were also asked about yet another point of triangulation in planning meetings, to have multiple the differences between different tem- addition to the interviews and observa- informal interactions with the staff dur- porary organizations in the organiza- tions. Any discrepancies between them ing coffee breaks and lunches, to observe tion that they were aware of. In total, were investigated further. the visual communication graphs, and 19 interviews were conducted, lasting The final source of data represented to closely follow everyday interactions on average slightly over one hour. The notes from several meetings of the among staff members. In total, the interviewees included managers of tem- research team with company manage- researcher spent between two and three porary organizations, steering group ment. These included two initial meet- days per week in the company office members, and other relevant actors, ings discussing the scope of the research during ordinary office hours over three such as project portfolio managers or a project; three meetings (two interim months, with a total of 30 full work- head of a functional unit. The respon- and one final) devoted to the discus- days spent on-site (approximately 240 dents were selected to represent differ- sion of research findings with company hours of direct observations). Each day ent hierarchical levels, geographies, and management; and two global webinars on-site resulted in a field note, either organizational units to reduce biases for the wider members of the compe- taken electronically or verbatim. The and strengthen the credibility of the tence network on project, program, and notes contained between one and four study (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007). portfolio management, both including pages of bulleted points and sketches, The interviews were recorded and later Q&A sessions. These meetings allowed which recorded key observations along transcribed for subsequent data anal- for the collection of additional data and with the immediate reflections and ideas ysis. In addition, the researcher took feedback on preliminary conclusions. to explore. Moreover, the researcher notes during the interviews to allow for The process of data collection was participated in seven formal meetings, early engagement between data and completed when a theoretical satura- including two regular progress meetings theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). tion was reached (Bryman & Bell, 2007; of two temporary organizations and five Direct observations and semi-­ Eisenhardt, 1989; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). meetings of an organizational develop- structured interviews were comple- ment group aiming to build up the proj- mented with document analysis of two Data Analysis ect and program capability of the PBO. main types of documents. The first one The data analysis was conducted in par- Most of the meetings lasted between included documents related to the orga- allel to the data collection process, in one and four hours, with an average nization and management of specific agreement with the inductive research duration of around two hours. Over- temporary organizations. Some exam- design. It was the data, rather than all, the ethnography-­inspired observa- ples included project and program blue- any extant theory, that guided the data tions allowed us to explore more covert prints, business cases, risk logs, progress analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The aspects of the temporary organization reports, templates, and organizational approach allowed us to maintain flex- design related to power structure and charts. The second type represented ibility and provided opportunities to leadership styles, as well as to build trust the documents concerning the project- discover serendipitous findings. This in order to improve the effectiveness of based organization as a whole, which subsection presents the data analysis the other data collection methods, such included numerous project, program, chronologically. as interviews. and portfolio management guidelines; Approximately one month from Semi-structured interviews rep- frameworks and templates; goal-setting the beginning of data collection, we resented another important source of documents, such as the project and reviewed the extant literature looking for data. In order to elicit the most valuable program capability development road- discrepancies between the extant theory information from each respondent, sev- map; and the internal audit reports. and emerging data. One such discrep- eral different interview protocols were The internal audit reports were found ancy emerged as a rather unexpected prepared depending on the interview- to be a particularly valuable source finding. Namely, we discovered that ee’s position, expertise, and the esti- of data. First, they were conducted by projects in the PBO were not that differ- mated duration of the interview. The employees not involved in the everyday ent from each other compared with what protocols covered two or three major work of the project-based organization the literature on project-based man- themes involving open-ended questions and, as such, represented an external agement rooted in contingency theory about the ways in which the tempo- point of view allowing for triangulation would predict (see Dvir et al., 1998; rary organization is organized and the of the data and a reduction of self-report Hobday, 2000; Shenhar, 2001; Shenhar reasons for the design choices made. bias. Second, they typically covered a & Dvir, 1996). Indeed, given the broad

14 October/November 2017 ■ Project Management Journal variations of preconditions and objec- affected several of the design dimen- thus strengthens the internal validity tives of various temporary organizations sions, so in the final representation of the (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007; Suddaby, within the PBO, we expected to discover findings in the Results section the evi- 2006). Furthermore, the documentation a considerable variation of their organi- dence was structured based on the iso- of empirical evidence and the use of zation designs. However, what emerged morphic mechanisms, whereas the TOD methodological triangulation strength- was that the temporary organization dimensions were indicated in italics. ened reliability (Yin, 2009). During the designs resembled each other to a nota- We followed some of the recom- study we also strived to pay attention ble extent; in addition, we also came mendations of Eisenhardt and Graebner to alternative theoretical explanations, across examples of temporary organiza- (2007) in presenting the empirical data, in particular, the contingency theory tions imitating each other and decided by adapting them to the single case (Gibbert et al., 2008). to explore this issue further. study research. In particular, the Results The data analysis involved multiple section is structured according to the Results iterations back and forth between the emerging theoretical constructs along Variability of Temporary data collection and theory develop- with their empirical evidence. In addi- Organization Design ment. Two broad stages can be dis- tion, we used a tabular representation There was relatively low variability of tinguished in this process. During the of the data along with selective story temporary organization design across first stage, the analysis was mainly con- descriptions to summarize the evidence various organizational initiatives in the ducted “bottom-up.” Because we were and illustrate the emerging causal links. project-based organization in terms of not able to make sense of the observed The rigor of a case study research can their structures and approaches. This phenomenon based on the extant be assessed through four criteria: inter- finding is supported by several inter- PBO literature, we looked through the nal validity, construct validity, exter- nal documents, including internal audit data for potential explanations. Three nal validity, and reliability (Eisenhardt, reports comparing organizational pro- major themes started to emerge, which 1989; Gibbert, Ruigrok, & Wicki, 2008; grams across various functions. Namely, seemed to be linked to the low vari- Yin, 2009). While management schol- the reports observed high compliance ability among temporary organizations: ars tend to emphasize the external to the frameworks and standards and ‘top-down prescription,’ ‘imitation,’ and validity, that should not be done at treated deviations as problematic and ‘common background of managers.’ As the expense of more fundamental unacceptable. After consulting with these themes resembled explanations of assessment criteria, such as internal the quoted guidelines and frameworks, reasons for isomorphism within the new and construct validity (Gibbert et al., we found that they covered a number institutionalism in organization studies, 2008). Table 2 presents a set of mea- of issues related to all four aspects of it was considered a promising line of sures taken to corroborate the rigor of the organization design identified in inquiry. Thus, in the second stage, we the study; for example, the bottom-up the Theory section. This was further decided to draw upon the seminal work data analysis process ensured a tight confirmed with the interviewees, who of DiMaggio and Powell (1983) in order link between constructs and data and were asked whether and why different to explicate the related processes within the PBO. A two-level coding system was used. The first level represented the Research Credibility Measures Taken to Sources of Criteria Strengthen the Rigor Recommendation three isomorphic mechanisms: coer- cive, mimetic, and normative (DiMag- Internal validity Deriving an explicit research (Gibbert et al., 2008), gio & Powell, 1983). The second level framework from extant literature (Yin, 2009), Pattern matching (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007) included more detailed specific mecha- Theory triangulation nisms falling under the first-level cat- egories. In order to avoid forcing the Construct validity Data triangulation (Gibbert et al., 2008), Clear chain of evidence (Yin, 2009) theory on the evidence, the data were Explanation of data analysis additionally reviewed with the aim of finding alternative or additional expla- External validity Nested approach to case study (Gibbert et al., 2008), nations of the phenomenon. (different case studies within one (Yin, 2009) organization) During the data analysis the evi- Rationale for the case study dence was grouped both by the tem- selection porary organization design dimensions Reliability Case study database (Gibbert et al., 2008), and by the high-level isomorphic mech- (Yin, 2009) anisms. What emerged, however, was that most often the same mechanisms Table 2: Measures taken to strengthen reliability and validity.

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organizational endeavors are organized phases, thus defining a large part of various functions and provided global

PAPERS differently. Using this observation as management processes. internal audit reports on all aspects of a starting point, we inquired into the Similarly, the company’s Prioritiza- management. possible reasons and discovered several tion Framework detailed how project Internal audits predominantly mechanisms, which were conducive to and program strategy should be aligned focused on the degree to which the pro- isomorphism. to the corporate strategy captured in a cesses were followed and the existence set of strategic priorities. This linkage of certain documents, rather than on Coercive Mechanisms was further reinforced through a speci- the performance or idiosyncrasies of Coercive mechanisms appeared in fied management process ensuring the the structure used to fulfill a project- various forms in the project-based strategic alignment. The requirements specific task. Even more importantly, organization. A number of internal to program blueprints elaborated on in many of the requirements were applied organizational guidelines and frame- the guidelines provided another restric- across a wide range of projects, includ- works mandated specific structures and tion on strategy; in addition, the benefits ing projects and programs within opera- practices for nearly all aspects of project management section within the guide to tions, research and development (R&D), and program management. Compliance program management discussed struc- human resources (HR), and information to the guidelines was ensured through tures and processes, which need to be set systems (Internal Audit Report). As one a three-level assurance framework, up to implement the strategy. program manager put it: comprising embedded policies at the Various guidelines that addressed team level, the independent functional capability building, in turn, affected the “I think that’s where these audit reports fail—in seeing things holistically. What level, and the organization-wide inter- people dimension. These documents they actually look at is: “Do you have these, nal audit level. Finally, different key prescribed procedures and criteria for and these, and these, and these things?” projects and programs reported to the employee selection and promotion. (Program Manager) same board members and appeared to Specifically, they detailed three clus- follow their demands and expectations. ters of competences related to leader- Indeed, getting the ‘green’ status Together, these mechanisms appeared ship, core professional, and technical from an audit group was considered to be important determinants of all aspects. In order to be a part of a project very important by the managers of tem- aspects of the design of various tempo- team, an employee was assessed against porary organizations and influenced rary organizations, thus contributing to the detailed description of each compe- their behavior. low structural variability. The empirical tence area in order to qualify; thus, the The internal audits had important evidence on the coercive isomorphic HR procedures were uniformly applied implications for the homogenization of pressure is structured according to spe- across various projects and programs in temporary organization design on two cific mechanisms and is discussed in an organization-wide manner. levels. First, project and program man- relation to the four organization design These examples provide an idea of agers had to fix the identified shortcom- dimensions identified in the Theory the comprehensiveness of formal pre- ings, for example, by creating missing section: structure, strategy, process, and scriptions embodied in extensive man- documents or formally assigning cer- people. uals and guidelines in the company. tain roles to team members. Second, the These guidelines were made mandatory reports occasionally recommended top Prescriptive Guidelines and and created pressure for the homogeni- managers to revise existing frameworks Frameworks zation of various aspects of temporary or add new ones. Overall, the audit A multitude of formal frameworks organization design. reports contributed to standardization and guidelines comprised the corner- of processes and structures. stone of the coercive mechanisms and Project Management Assurance System covered all aspects of the temporary and Internal Audits Expectations of Steering organization design. Compliance with the various guide- Group Members For example, the PBO’s guide to lines and frameworks was enforced In addition to the formal prescriptive program management and the project via a comprehensive global standard documents, there was also an infor- management framework prescribed in on project and program management mal component to the coercive isomor- great detail the processes of the tempo- assurance. One of the most salient phic pressure. In particular, there was rary organizations and their manage- assurance measures was the system of a large overlap of the steering group ment structures; moreover, two specific internal audit. Occasionally, upper man- members across various programs and templates provided the list of docu- agement commissioned organization- projects, with few top executives over- ments and structures that should be wide audits that randomly selected a seeing several key initiatives. The fact created during all project and program sample of temporary organizations in that different projects and programs

16 October/November 2017 ■ Project Management Journal reported to the same executives had an system and internal audits, as well as This report provided recommendations effect on many aspects of temporary expectations of steering group members. on the organizational structure of a pro- organization design. gram office, its communication flow pat- For example, strategy of temporary Mimetic Mechanisms terns with other parts of organization, organizations was affected because of There was also a great deal of imitation the process followed, and critical success the alignment to the personal prefer- among temporary organizations, which factors. In addition, the Program Office ences of the sponsor and, more gener- also contributed to the homogeneity. Handbook included a comprehensive ally, the steering group members. Those A crucial precondition for such imita- toolkit of guidelines, templates, and preferences could be based on inter- tion was that some temporary orga- some details on the process followed. nal organizational politics and purely nizations and/or their managers were subjective preferences. The steering perceived as more successful and cred- Sharing Approaches Within Formal group members made important deci- ible than others. This internal social Communities of Practice sions with regard to continuation or structure did not appear to be a result Much communication occurred through termination of the initiative (‘go–no go’) of an impartial reflection of the com- designated channels such as formal and decided what resources should be petency, as some managers took active communities of practice—one of them assigned to the projects. Senior man- actions to promote and institutionalize was the Project, Program, and Portfo- ager perceptions of the temporary orga- their approaches. For instance, the ‘best lio Competence Network. The intranet nization managers’ competency and practice’ reports often lacked analysis forum of the network functioned as effectiveness could also have impor- of the mistakes made and concentrated an active communication platform tant implications for their careers. All more on the success factors. where managers exchanged tools and in all, many managers tried to align the templates and answered questions. temporary organization strategy to the Post-Closure and Lessons Learned Occasionally, the network organized expectations and preferences of a few Reports worldwide webinars on specific top- steering group members, thus contrib- Upon completion of the project or ics. The activities were supported with uting to isomorphism. program, managers were required to an internal online corporate academy The expectations also affected pro- run a lessons learned session and fill offering a range of courses and training cesses in terms of which aspects received out a closure report. Some managers on various aspects of project, program, more attention at regular stage-gate went beyond this and wrote reports and portfolio management. Finally, a reviews. Executives had their preferred on their programs and/or the specific formal mentorship/coaching program ways of reporting progress and expected approaches used, which were later dis- within the network was in the process various projects to adhere to these ways. seminated as best practice reports both of introduction at the time of the study. As one of the executives put it: to colleagues (other managers) and top The program was expected to contribute executives. Such best practice reports to the homogeneity by reinforcing the “[When you as a project manager report were occasionally co-authored with top social structure among the managers to the board] you need an agenda, and managers of the organization, which of temporary organizations, with ‘star’ a standard agenda really.” (Member of a steering group) added extra importance and credibil- managers as role models and all others ity to such internal publications. The on the periphery. Together, a range of Overall, this informal influence pro- reports contributed to structural rigid- communication channels contributed to vided a subtler mechanism for shap- ity because they encouraged the use quicker dissemination of management ing temporary organization design; of ‘proven’ approaches rather than approaches and particularly affected the this subtlety, however, does not mean experimentation with new ones; there- processes dimension. that the effects were small. Rather, they fore, the available options to use as role tended to affect areas more difficult to models were essentially limited to a few Informal Networking Within Unofficial regulate with formal prescriptions, such ‘star’ projects and programs. Groups/Coalitions of Managers as strategic decisions. Two TOD dimensions, which seemed A pivotal role for mimetic processes was In conclusion: All aspects of tem- to be most affected by this mechanism played by unofficial coalitions of man- porary organization design, including were structure and processes. Among one agers, which were often based on com- strategy, structures, processes, and peo- of the many similar examples, one of the mon vested interests, friendship, spatial ple were affected by coercive isomorphic major change initiatives resulted in the proximity/colocation, and shared expe- pressure. Specific complementary mech- report, “[The Company] Operations Pro- riences. Some characteristics of the com- anisms identified in the study include gram Office: An Introduction to a Suc- munication in coalitions included even the prescriptive guidelines and frame- cessful Approach to Drive Efficiencies in higher within-group agreement, high works, project management assurance Large Cross-Functional Organizations.” level of trust, and informal one-to-one

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communication (e.g., face-to-face com- professional associations; however, (APM); Project Management Institute

PAPERS munication or email). when the managers were tasked with (PMI); as well as other organizations, Some exchange of methods and tools a development or an update to the including the United Kingdom’s Office happened this way, primarily affecting company’s guidelines and frameworks, of Government Commerce (OGC). the processes (through the exchange they consulted with external sources When some managers were tasked with of tools and templates) and, to some and borrowed models and ideas such developing certain internal guidelines extent, structure (through discussion of as those from Project Management or frameworks, they seemed to look appropriate organizational structures). Institute (PMI), International Project for readily available outside solutions; The only difference with communities of Management Association (IPMA), and because these models are relatively easy practice was the speed of dissemination. best-selling publications on the topic of to find online, they ended up in the While in the case of a best practice report project management. companies’ frameworks and guidelines. or a communities of practice forum dis- The similarity in the normative base All in all, since these models are rela- cussion, it could take some time before of the managers was primarily main- tively few and generally promote one- the tool was delivered and explained to tained by several institutional mech- size-fits-all reasoning, the influence of a manager in need; in the case of the anisms on multiple levels, including project management associations has informal networking within a coalition, a the societal level, industry level, and contributed to the normative isomor- telephone call would suffice. This mech- company level. The toolkit that man- phic pressure. anism also heavily influenced tempo- agers used to conduct the analysis rary design dimensions less affected by and come up with certain decisions The Influence of Popular Management coercive mechanisms, such as strategy was significantly informed by popu- Models and Wider Societal Norms and people. The influence on the tem- lar management models. Wider social Some popular management models porary organization’s strategy included norms and priorities also played impor- were widely used across temporary orga- exchanging opinions about various tant roles, for example, by convincing nizations, contributing to the similarity stakeholders and having discussions on managers to consider the environmental in management process—two notable who should be in the steering group impact of their decisions. At the indus- examples include Ishikawa diagrams for a particular project or program. The try level, the heavily regulated environ- and various Lean tools, such as A3 prob- people dimension was primarily affected ment of the pharmaceutical industry lem solving. Many of the managers were by soliciting advice on who could be a was reflected in a high tolerance of the familiar with the tools, which were also good addition to the team based on the managers for structures and reports, incorporated into various documents assessment of the credibility and compe- which provided an additional common without additional explanations, indi- tence of the potential candidate by other denominator to their approaches. In cating that they were part of the shared members of the coalition. addition, the managers were a homo- cognitive base within the company. In conclusion: All aspects of tem- geneous group in terms of educational Overall, some general management porary organization design, includ- and professional backgrounds, gender, models represented easily accessible, ing strategy, structures, processes, and psychological characteristics, all of comprehensible, and legitimate tools and people were affected by mimetic which could have affected the similarity for the managers. There was no con- isomorphic pressure. Specific com- of their cognitive base. certed effort to diffuse these models; plementary mechanisms identified they just appeared to be at least superfi- in the study include the post-closure The Influence of Professional cially known by many of the managers. and lessons learned reports, sharing Associations Consulting companies represented approaches within formal communities Although none of the interviewed man- another driving force behind the dis- of practice, as well as informal net- agers of temporary organizations was a semination of prescriptive models. In working within unofficial groups and/or member of any professional associations one case, several management consult- coalitions of managers. related to project, program, and portfo- ing firms presented their proposals on lio management, their influence was how to organize a large project. Even Normative Mechanisms noticeable. Various internal documents though the company eventually chose The third type of isomorphic incorporated and referred to frame- to run the project on its own, it was mechanisms—normative mecha- works, definitions, and models from a few exposed to the preliminary solutions nisms—was related to a similarity of project management bodies of knowl- during the pre-tender phase, which cognitive bases and mental models of edge, including the International Project might have influenced their thinking. In the temporary organization manag- Management Association (IPMA) and its another case, a whole IT-related project ers. Most of the managers were not branches, such as the United Kingdom’s was accomplished in close collaboration members of any project management Association of Project Management with a top management consulting firm.

18 October/November 2017 ■ Project Management Journal Wider social norms appeared to of think that way so we generate structures The selection requirements, combined influence the choices of managers; for for things not regulated by law, you know, with the relatively homogeneous staff to example, the issues of sustainability in so we’re kind of putting too much struc- choose from, resulted in a quite homo- operations and outcomes were widely ture on things that are not related to the geneous group of temporary organi- presented in nearly all company docu- core business.” (Program Manager) zation managers. For example, while ments, both at the PBO level and the there was no formal requirement that project and program levels. Similarity of Managers project managers had to be chemical (Due to HRM Practices) engineers from the operations division, The Influence of Industry-Specific Norms this turned out to be the case. A possible Managers of temporary organizations Industry-related norms contributed to explanation of this fact can be related represented a strikingly homogeneous the similarity in cognitive base, because to HR traditions or path dependency group of people. The managers were all interviewed managers of the tempo- rather than the formal requirements. almost exclusively engineers by edu- rary organizations possessed consider- In conclusion: All aspects of tem- cational background; in terms of pro- able experience in the pharmaceutical porary organization design, includ- fessional background—all had been industry (at least five years). For example, ing strategy, structures, processes, and working in the pharmaceutical indus- the pharmaceutical industry is charac- people were affected by normative try for a long period of time, primar- terized by a highly regulated environ- isomorphic pressure. Specific comple- ily in two areas (chemical engineering ment; many aspects of R&D, operations, mentary mechanisms identified in the and construction) and one function and marketing are subject to external study include the influence of profes- (operations), however, the project man- regulations, including the process of sional associations, influence of popular agement background was not a prereq- drug approval, Good Manufacturing management models and wider societal uisite. Finally, all of the interviewed Practices (GMP), legislation related to norms, influence of industry-specific temporary organization managers were tracing origins of ingredients, and adver- norms, as well as similarity of managers middle-aged men and shared some psy- tising restrictions. Over their careers in (due to HRM practices). Thus, the mech- chological characteristics; for example, the industry, managers are becoming anisms that led to the homogeneity of during a leadership session run by an accustomed to following external regu- project management structures and external organization, it was revealed lations; thus, heavy documentation and approaches are summarized in Table 3. that all but one of them were extroverts prescriptions are viewed as the norm. As based on a personality test. one of the interviewees stated: This similarity could be at least par- Discussion and Conclusion “We have GMP here . . . and you have to tially attributed to the HRM practices in The purpose of the study was to explore keep a record of everything and that also the organization. The HRM guidelines how temporary organization design influences other things, like our health had detailed descriptions of various dimensions are shaped in the project- policy, our environmental policy; we kind competence areas relevant to the role. based organization. In order to achieve

Affected Temporary Organization Design Isomorphic (TOD) Dimensions Mechanisms Specific Mechanisms Structure Strategy Process People Coercive Prescriptive guidelines and frameworks 1 1 1 1 Project management assurance system and internal audits 1 1 Expectations of steering group members 1 1 1 Mimetic Post-closure and lessons learned reports 1 1 Sharing of approaches within formal communities of practice 1 Informal networking within unofficial groups/coalitions of managers 1 1 1 1 Normative Influence of professional associations 1 1 Influence of popular management models and wider societal norms 1 Influence of industry-specific norms 1 1 Similarity of the managers (due to HRM practices) 1 Table 3: Isomorphic mechanisms within the project-based organization.

October/November 2017 ■ Project Management Journal 19 Mechanisms of Isomorphism in Project-Based Organizations

this purpose, the study employed an in- for a more nuanced understanding of of temporary operations, and the strong

PAPERS depth embedded case study strategy with institutional dynamics around tempo- professionalization of project manage- a significant ethnographic component. rary organizations (Engwall, 2003; Lam- ment. As an example, the need to create A rather unexpected finding of a lim- pel, 2011; Lundin & Söderholm, 1995). ‘skunk works projects’ to deal with par- ited structural variability of various tem- One of the promising research directions ticularly complex or exploratory tasks porary organizations prompted further is to build upon institutional entrepre- (Miller, 1995; Rich & Janos, 1994) might exploration of the phenomenon. Build- neurship literature (Battilana, Leca, & be explained by their ability to escape ing on the new institutionalism in orga- Boxenbaum, 2009) to explore the intra- the isomorphic pressure of the PBO by nizational analysis, the study explicated organizational institutional dynamics avoiding ’red-tape’ activities that hinder ten mechanisms that push temporary of PBOs. Namely, there is a need to focusing on the technical content (Eng- organizations toward homogeneity in the understand how certain temporary orga- wall & Westling, 2004). Moreover, recent PBO context and related various mecha- nization managers enact and institu- behavioral studies have associated imi- nisms to the specific TOD dimensions. tionalize their practices, safeguard their tation strategy with levels of stress, dis- This article offers three interrelated positions as opinion leaders, and the tractions, and time pressure (Buckert, contributions to the theory. First, the consequences of their actions. One of the Oechssler, & Schwieren, 2017). There- article questions the goal rationality promising lines of inquiry is to build on fore, since such preconditions are quite assumption of the project-based organi- the different types of legitimacy—prag- typical for multi-project environments zation literature. Second, it puts forth a matic, moral, and cognitive (Suchman, (Zika-Viktorsson, Sundström, & Eng- novel conceptualization of the project- 1995)—in order to explain why some wall, 2006), one would expect imitation based organization as an organizational temporary organizations or their manag- to be a common heuristic among proj- field of temporary and permanent orga- ers serve as role models for others. ect actors. Nevertheless, it is an impor- nizations embedded in wider organiza- Third, the findings inform the debate tant future line of inquiry to investigate tional and institutional fields. Finally, on alternative explanations on tem- the interrelation of alternative explana- building on this conceptualization, it porary organization dynamics in the tions (contingency and institutionalism) applies the new institutionalism per- project-based context, in other words, in various PBO contexts. spective to an intra-organizational contingency and institutional perspec- Fourth, the reasons described above problem and explicates the isomorphic tives. While the contingency perspective also point toward the potential boundar- processes in the context of project- has proved to be useful in analyzing ies of isomorphism pressures. For exam- based organizations. phenomena at different levels within ple, inter-organizational projects might Assuming these findings are gener- PBOs (Kock, Heising, & Gemünden, experience weaker isomorphism pro- ally valid, they have several implica- 2016; Miterev, Engwall, & Jerbrant, 2016; cesses than their intra-organizational tions for the research on project-based Pemsel, Müller, & Söderlund, 2016; counterparts. Future research should organizations. First, the results provide Teller, Kock, & Gemünden, 2014), the identify how two (or more) compliances insights for the discourse on the ten- institutional perspective offers an impor- to different institutional environments sions between standardization and cus- tant complementary explanation. Specif- in two (or more) different parent organi- tomization of project practices. In prior ically, the study provides disconfirming zations collide and then reconcile. literature, the standardization pressure evidence against the dominant assump- Fifth, the results of this study call was linked to the parent organization’s tion of goal rationality and shows how for a distinction between the concepts intent to control temporary organiza- internal efficiency might not represent of imitation and learning. While the tions by top-down means (Bergman the principal driver behind a temporary latter has a positive connotation and et al., 2013), in other words, coercive organization design. implies beneficial outcomes of the pro- mechanisms. Current study comple- One characteristic of the study is that cess (e.g., in terms of improved per- ments this view by showing how other it was conducted in the highly regulated formance), the former can potentially mechanisms, for example, imitation context of the pharmaceutical industry. result in lower performance. In addi- and similarity of cognitive base, might While it is possible that in other contexts tion, imitation can happen as a result of reinforce the coercive measures and the strength of the isomorphic effects subconscious actions, whereas learning contribute to the homogeneity of tem- might vary, there are reasons to believe appears to imply a directed effort. Based porary organizations. that isomorphism is generally a strong on these distinctions, the findings of Second, the study illustrates phenomenon across many PBO con- this study point toward a potential the untapped power of the institu- texts. These reasons include the depen- alternative explanation of why inter- tional perspective in relation to intra- dence of intra-organizational projects on project learning (e.g., Prencipe & Tell, organizational phenomena in the a single source of financing (the parent 2001) and renewal/improvement (Brady project-based setting. There is a need organization), the inherent uncertainty & Maylor, 2010; Ekstedt et al., 1992)

20 October/November 2017 ■ Project Management Journal can be challenging. In particular, the Management Annals, 3(1), 65–107. temporary organizational forms identified array of isomorphic mech- doi.org/10.1080/19416520903053598 (Editorial). Project-Based Organizing and anisms, including mimetic ones, can Bergman, I., Gunnarson, S., & Strategic Management, 28, xv–xxxix. create institutional pressure leading to Räisänen, C. (2013). Decoupling and Cyert, R. M., & March, J. G. (1963). A rejection of potentially beneficial new standardization in the projectification behavioral theory of the firm. Englewood practices, thus impeding learning in the of a company. International Journal of Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. project-based organization. Managing Projects in Business, 6(1), Davies, A., & Brady, T. (2000). A sixth research implication is 106–128. doi.org/10.1108/ Organisational capabilities and learning methodological and relates to the need 17538371311291053 in complex product systems: Towards to conduct multi-level research within Blindenbach-Driessen, F., & Van den repeatable solutions. Research Policy, project-­based organizations. While much Ende, J. (2006). Innovation in project- 29(7–8), 931–953. doi.org/10.1016 of the extant research only addresses the based firms: The context dependency of /S0048-7333(00)00113-X PBO level, it is important to study the level success factors. Research Policy, 35(4), Davies, A., & Brady, T. (2016). of temporary organizations as well. This 545–561. doi.org/10.1016/ Explicating the dynamics of project is because a neglect of temporary orga- j.respol.2006.02.005 capabilities. International Journal of nization dynamics can result in inappro- Project Management, 34(2), 314–327. priate organization-wide arrangements Brady, T., & Davies, A. (2004). doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.04.006 (Engwall & Westling, 2004). If we take Building project capabilities: From the project as a temporary organization exploratory to exploitative learning. DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). perspective seriously, we should borrow Organization Studies, 25(9), 1601–1621. The iron cage revisited: Institutional theories from the organization theory doi.org/10.1177/0170840604048002 isomorphism and collective rationality and design and apply them to temporary Brady, T., & Maylor, H. (2010). in organizational fields. American organizations within the PBO too. The improvement paradox in Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160. project contexts: A clue to the way Dörrenbächer, C., & Geppert, M. Acknowledgments forward? International Journal of (2017). Multinational corporations and This paper is produced as part of the Project Management, 28(8), 787–795. organization theory: Post millennium EMJD Programme European Doctor- doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2010.08.001 perspectives. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group ate in Industrial Management (EDIM) Bresnen, M., Goussevskaia, A., & Publishing Ltd. funded by the European Commission, Swan, J. (2004). Embedding new Dvir, D., Lipovetsky, S., Shenhar, A. J., Erasmus Mundus Action 1. management knowledge in project-based & Tishler, A. (1998). In search of project We are grateful to Hans Georg organizations. Organization Studies, classification: A non-universal approach Gemünden, Joana Geraldi, Miia Mar- 25(9), 1535–1555. doi.org/10 to project success factors. Research tinsuo, Lauri Vuorinen, Fredrik Tell, .1177/0170840604047999 Policy, 27(9), 915–935. doi.org/10 Graham Winch, Anette Hallin and Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2007). 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October/November 2017 ■ Project Management Journal 23 Mechanisms of Isomorphism in Project-Based Organizations

Van de Ven, A. H., Ganco, M., & Hinings, management in multi-project settings. Stockholm, Sweden. His research revolves around

PAPERS C. R. (2013). Returning to the frontier International Journal of Project the various features of neo-industrial management, of contingency theory of organizational Management, 24(5), 385–394. doi.org/10 including the projectification of organizations, and institutional designs. The Academy .1016/j.ijproman.2006.02.010 management of industrial R&D processes, of Management Annals, 7(1), 393–440. servitization of manufacturing firms, and the role doi.org/10.1080/19416520.2013.774981 of business model innovation in technology shifts. Maxim Miterev is a Postdoc in Project and Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society: His publications have appeared in Harvard Business Technology Management at KTH Royal Institute of An outline of interpretative sociology. Review, Research Policy, Technovation, Organisation Technology, Stockholm, Sweden. His research interests Berkeley, CA: University of California Studies, R&D Management, International Journal include program management, organizational design of Press. of Production Economics, Research-Technology PBOs, and innovation management. He has published Management, International Journal of Project Whitley, R. (2006). Project-based firms: in the International Journal of Project Management, Management, and International Journal of Managing New organizational form or variations on a Project Management Journal®, and the International Projects in Business. He can be contacted at theme? Industrial and Corporate Change, Journal of Managing Projects in Business. His research [email protected] 15(1), 77–99. doi.org/10.1093/icc/dtj003 was recognized with several awards, including the Whittington, R., Pettigrew, A., Peck, IPMA Young Researcher Award 2016 and the IPMA- Anna Jerbrant is an Associate Professor in S., Fenton, E., & Conyon, M. (1999). PMI Best Paper Prize, EURAM 2017. He holds a double the Department of Industrial Economics and Change and complementarities in the PhD degree in Industrial Economics and Management Management, at KTH Royal Institute of Technology, new competitive landscape: A European from KTH and Politecnico di Milano (Italy); a triple MSc Stockholm, Sweden. Anna holds both a PhD panel study, 1992–1996. Organization in Strategic Project Management from Heriot-Watt and an MSc in engineering degree from KTH, Science, 10(5), 583–600. University (UK), MIP–Politecnico di Milano (Italy) and and since March 2017, has been the Dean of Umeå University (Sweden); and an MSc in Applied Windeler, A., & Sydow, J. (2001). Education at the School of Industrial Engineering Mathematics and Physics from Moscow Institute of Project networks and changing industry and Management at KTH. Anna’s research is Physics and Technology (State University). Before practices — Collaborative content focused on increasing the understanding of the joining academia, Maxim worked as a management production in the German television organizational challenges that contemporary consultant with Roland Berger Strategy Consultants industry. Organization Studies, 22(6), project-based organizations and knowledge and an independent consultant; he also held analytical 1035–1060. doi.org/10.1177/ intensive business services (KIBS) face in a and managerial positions across the private and public 0170840601226006 globalized world with continuously additional sectors, including manufacturing, pharmaceutical, Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: competition. Her research has been published financial services, and regional development. He can Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand in the Research-Technology Management, South be contacted at [email protected] Oaks, CA: Sage. African Journal of Economic and Management Zika-Viktorsson, A., Sundström, P., & Science and the International Journal of Project Engwall, M. (2006). Project overload: Mats Engwall holds the Chair in Industrial Management, among others. She can be contacted An exploratory study of work and Management at KTH Royal Institute of Technology, at [email protected]

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