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1990 J Festival OF American Folklife
Smithsonian Institution/National Park Service On the front cover: Felicia Cciines iivaves hoopri)ie lo niiike a Si. John niark'cl huskcl
under ci tamarind tree in St. John. i'S. \'iriiin Islands. (Photo hy Betz Rohh)
On the back cover: In a Senegalese market, this ivoiiuni displays waist heads Cjaljali; and a variety of hairstyles braided into wigs. Tliese elements oftradilio)ial feminine personal adornment have contributed to the Senegalese reputation for elegance. (Photo by Andrea Snyder) 1990 Festival of American Folklife
June 27-July 1 / July 4-July 8
Smithsonian Institution / National Paik Service
Contents
Cultural Pluralism: A Smithsonian Commitment hy Robot McC. Adams 5
National Parks: A Home for Cultural Expression by fcinics M. Ridoioiir 7
Folklife in Contemporaiy IVlulticultural Society by Ricbcinl Kiih)i 8
U.S. Virgin Islands
Folklife of the U.S. Virgin Islands: Persistence and Creati\ity by Olivia Cadaval 18
Rounding the Seine /;!' Guy Beiijanii)! 11
Folk Architecture by Myron D. Jackson 28
Saxanne by Ruth M. Mooloiaar 30
Tea Meeting by Eulalie Rivera 32
Coal Carriers by Arena Peterson 33
About Man Betta Man, Fission and Fusion, and Creole, Calypso and Cultural Sur\ival in the Virgin Islands by Gilbert A. Spranve 34
Were There Giants? by Gilbert A. Spranve 36
Senegal
Tradition and Cultural Identity in Senegal by Diana N'Diaye 38
Teranga Among the Wolof People by OniarMarone 48
Social Beliefs and Craft Practices by Abdoti Sylla SO
Traditional Education and Circumcision Among the Diola in Rural Senegal by Fulgence Sagna 53
Musics of Struggle
Musics of Struggle by Anthony Seeger 56
Songs and Stories of Stmggle: Music and Verse as Ethical Discourse byJacquelin C. Peters 58
Festival of American Folklife ©1990 by the Smithsonian Institution Editor: Peter Seitel
Coordinator: Arlene L. Reiniger Designer: Carol B. Hardy Assistant Designers: Jennifer Nicholson, Andras Goldinger Typesetter: Harlowe Typography Printer: Peake Printers Inc. Typeface: ITC Garamond Paper: Patina Matte Insert: Sundance Notefrom the Editor: The Festival helps make some of the many ways of knowing tnith and embodying beauty a part of our national cultural dialogue. This year, we have tried to project that many sided dialogue into the Program Book.
The sections of articles about the U.S. Virgin Islands and Senegal have statements from two sets of authors.
One article in each section is a general, inclusive statement written by a member of our curatorial staff. Employing a point of view generally defined by Smith- sonian imperatives for "the increase and diffusion of knowledge," the author engages in the characteristic practices of the Festival. These include: identifying and valorizing traditional cultural practices; explaining them primarily in historical, economic and social terms; replying to popular stereotypes and supplanting them with empirically derived characterizations; representing geographically and historically bounded cultural wholes.
The other statements are written by authors from the geographic areas featured — the U.S. Virgin Lslands and Senegal. These articles are more richly detailed. They address a variety of audiences, reply to a variety of im- plicit and explicit assertions, and are couched in a variety of styles. They have, of course, been solicited, selected and edited — processes which are ineluctably based in our Institutional practice. We hope that in spite of this practice, and also in some degree because of it, these short critical pieces do incorporate a variety of voices speaking on noteworthy aspects of folklife.
In this sense, the organization of this year's Program Book represents the practice of the Festival as a whole. The dialogue of viewpoints, of understandings and of cultural styles strengthens the disccuirse of our national cultural Institution. Cultural Pluralism: A Smithsonian Commitment
Robert McC. Adams Secretaiy, Smithsonian Institution
the United States today there is increasing old areas enhances the process of creating new Inawareness and debate about questions of cul- Lmderstandings, new paradigms, new- visions. This is ture. The terms "multicultural" and cultural especially true when research is translated into exhi- "diversity," "equity," "conservation," "sunivai" bitions and programs. Scholars and others versed in and "pluralism" are becoming part of public discourse the culture of those represented must have a \oice in as national and local institutions evaluate their mis- how that representation is accomplished. Including sions, audiences and constituencies. The Smithsonian \oices of the "studied" does not diminish the respon- Institution has made cultural pluralism a high priority sibility of curators and researchers to use their knowl- for the decade ahead in its research, exhibits, pro- edge. Rather it challenges them to engage in a dia- grams, staff and audience. This is a complex goal and logue or even multilogue, so that different types of this year's Festival, as those in the past, helps us to knowledge and understanding may emerge. Broaden- pursue its many facets. ing our staff to include researchers and lay scholars of
In its original charter, the Smithsonian is dedicated diverse backgrounds is not onlv ethically correct — it to the broad dissemination of knowledge. More than is also good for scholarship. 25 million people visited the Smithsonian museums The Festival of American Folklife, the annual exten- last year. Millions more read books published by sion of the Smithsonian onto the National Mall of the
Smithsonian Institution Pre.ss, watched "Smithsonian L'nited States, is a long lived national and international Worid" on television, listened to Smithsonian Folk- model for the research and presentation of living ways Records, attended Resident or National Associate culture. It is an example of cultural pluralism in re- programs, visited SITES exhibits in local museums or search, exhibition development and public education. read Smithsonian magazine. One aspect of cultural This year, programs on the folklife of the U.S. Virgin pluralism is the democratization of access to knowl- Islands, the cultures of Senegal, and the Musics of edge: the Institution's audience should not be limited Struggle present people who have much to say about by cultural, economic, and geographic boundaries. the cultures they represent, but whose voices may not We must be everyone's \nsX\\.u\km. be frequently heard in national or international cul- But pursuing cultural pluralism invtjlves more than tural fonims. Field research to develop these programs indicating a willingness to admit ever>'one or encour- was conducted largely by academic and lay scholars aging wider audience development. Our exhibits need from the U.S. Virgin Islands, Senegal, and the featured to reflect adequately the many American stories, communities, and usually in close collaboration with songs, works of art, technological developments and local cultural institutions. Program interpretation is bodies of wisdom created by the populace of the multi\ocal, as tradition bearers, local scholars and nation, and those of the world as well. People need to Smithsonian curators speak for themselves, with each see themselves, their communities and their histories other, and to the public. Together they create a rich, in our museums often enough to have confidence that pluralistic and knowledgeable perspective. their voice is being heard and understood in a national, The U.S. Virgin Islands is a U.S. territory and a even international forum. multicultural American sociery in the Caribbean Sea.
The pursuit of cultural pluralism reaches beyond Its culture reflects the continuity of African and Euro- exhibitions and programs to the ways in which they pean traditions, their creolization, or amalgaination, are conceived. In the humanities, social and even into new forms in the cmcible of intense political and natural sciences, new or alternative perspectives brought economic interaction, and the influence of more by scholars from traditionally under-represented na- recent immigrants from Puerto Rico and the eastern tions and cultures make major contributions to our Caribbean. Yet within this cultural diversity. Virgin Is- collective knowledge. Focusing new perspectives on landers recognize a unity born of intimate island community life. People in the U.S. Virgin Islands Carolina they are told in GuUah, a language with West understand one another and the complex ways in African roots that provides the grammatical basis for which their roots are entwined. Rich traditions deriv- Black English. And there is a Senegalese tale about the ing from home life, the market, plantation slavery and Manding King Aboubacar 11 who set off westward resistance to it, fishing, local and international trade across the Atlantic with two thousand canoes several inspire pride in Virgin Islanders. These island-born tra- hundred years before Columbus. Whether or not his ditions are of increasing importance in a world pene- fleet arrived is unknown. But that spirit of exploration, trated by an impersonal mass culture not of their ow^n which aKso placed Senegalese in a network of trade making. But Virgin Islanders have also projected their routes through the Sahara to the Mediterranean, today skill and knowledge beyond their shores. Because of motivates a generation of Senegalese-American immi- their relatively early struggles for freedom (emancipa- grants to enter U.S. universities, participate in the tion from slavery was won in 1848) and their skill in professional work force and contribute to commercial successfully managing a multicultural environment. and street markets in New York, Washington, D.C., U.S. Virgin Islanders have played major roles on the and Atlanta. mainland. Individual Virgin Islanders contributed to In the Musics of Struggle program, we learn how- the Harlem Renaissance, the formation of the Brother- different communities, in the United States and abroad, hood of Sleeping Car Porters and to realignments in use traditional music, song, chant and movement to New York City urban politics — cultural, social and make their voices heard. In recent years we have seen political movements which mark important develop- profound changes in the social order resulting from ments in modern American history. mobilizations of popular support. Traditional music From Senegal to the Festival come exemplars of has taken on a dramatic, culturally dynamic role in traditions that reveal historical development within some of these mobilizations. Old songs and tunes ancient West African empires and the civilizations they newly recontextualized or revalorized provide a link nurtured. Senegal too is a multi-ethnic democratic between the continuity of the past and the challenge society; it is joined together by national institutions and of the present. Sometimes we forget how powerful the traditional values deriving from Islamic, sub-Saharan music can be which articulates a sense of moral African, and European sources. Traditions of praise purpose and moves a community, a people or a nation singing, storytelling, healing, weaving, hair braiding, to transform itself. This program demonstrates that and metal smithing enact and promulgate ethics of power to transform, from the songs of the Freedom social responsibility, personal integrity, and the dignity Singers to the chants, in sign language, of students in of self within a spiritual framework. The embodiments Gallaudet's "Deaf President Now" Movement. of these values are important for contemporary' Sene- While the Festival gives us a means to comprehend galese; they also can be keys to a complex history that cultural pluralism and distinctiveness, it also presents connect Americans to their roots in West Africa. Many historical contiguities and functional similarities in cul- Africans brought to the Americas in the slave trade ture. We can see the role that music plays in many com- came from Senegal and nearby coastal regions of West munities, nations and cultures. We can understand the Africa. The cultural continuity of the African diaspora relationship of tradition to understanding history and in the Americas is still evident in traditions such as informing social action. We can find connections and spirit stilt dancing and hair braiding practiced in both resemblances across oceans and centuries. But most of
Senegal and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Bni iiansi stories. all. at the Festival we experience cultural expression, West African moral tales about humans and animals, encounter creativity, and meet the people who can are still told in the Virgin Islands and in the American help us explore them. South. In the Georgia Sea Islands and in coastal South National Parks : A Home For Cultural Expression
James M. Ridenour Director, National Park Sei'vice
people think of museums as store- Park in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and the many presen- Most of objects houses and the Smithsonian, tations of traditional culture at Jean Lafitte National His- especially, as the steward of our nation's torical Park in Louisiana. Golden Gate National Recrea- material treasures — the Hope diamond, tion Area in California, Hawai'i Volcanoes National the Wright brothers' airplane, the original Star Spangled Park, Chamizal National Memorial Park. Texas. Blue Banner. In a like manner, most think of the National Ridge National Parkw^ay in Virginia and North Carolina, Park Service as the steward of our nation's natural and and Cuyahoga National Recreation Area in Ohio. cultural treasures — Yellowstone National Park, Grand We are particularly happy to have joined in produc- Canyon National Park, the Statue of Liberty, the Lincoln ing the programs at this year's Festival. We share an Memorial. But the Smithsonian Institution and the interest in the land and peoples of the U.S. Virgin
National Park Service are this and more. Their missions Islands. Virgin Islands National Park on St. John is a are not only to preserve physical objects and environ- beautiful, ecologically and historically important park. ments but also the values embodied in the natural, Research conducted there has taught us much about cultural and historical heritage that gives meaning to our Caribbean ecology and marine biology. A number of life as a nation and as a people. historical sites and sugar mills have been restored so as In the Festival of American Folklife we ffirm a to make the history of the Virgin Islands accessible to partnership in which we present living cultural trea- both residents and visitors. And some of our National sures — exemplary musicians, craftspeople, storytell- Park Service scholars have made contributions to the ers, cooks, and other cultural specialists — to the nation. cultural and historical research that supports this Festi- Through living exhibitions of their skills, knowledge val program. and artistry we expect that a broad public will learn We also see the significance of National Parks, about the different traditions, cultures and people that particularly monuments, reflected in the Musics of
comprise our nation and the wodd. 'We expect that the Staiggle program. Often, in American public life, our Festival will bring people closer together, helping us monuments and the significance they embody become understand one another. 'We also expect that the focal points for the mobilization of public expression. Festival will have an effect "back home" — encouraging The U.S. Capitol building became a center for Gallaudet feelings of community self-worth and pride. students to announce and advance their pressing need The National Park Service also works "back home" in for a deaf president. The Lincoln Memorial has been a all parts of the country. We collaborate with many local focal point for the Civil Rights Movement. Unlike many and regional agencies throughout the United States to nations, we take pride in this form of public discourse.
present programs that testify to the richness, vitality and It is a celebration of our political freedom. And while we
diversity of America's many people and traditions. I can may not always agree with one another, we do agree cite as but a few examples, the National Folk Festival that our freedom of expression, through access to these held for the past three years at Lowell National Histori- monuments and nationally symbolic public places, cal Park and this year at America's Industrial Heritage must be preser\^ed — and treasured. FoLKLiFE IN Contemporary Multicultural Society
Richard Kiiri)!
demographic, political, economic and long term sustainable development (Cultural Sun'ival Newecological realities have recently joined on Quarterly 1982 6(2), 1984 8(3), 1987 11(1)). The ongo- a global scale to bring cultural issues to the ing, systematic destaiction of the tropical rainforest for fore. Talk about "culture" — usually con- industrial and agricultural purposes contrasts sharply signed to the back sections of newspapers, to academic viith its use by its original human inhabitants. Indige- circles and to abstract critical discussions — has recently nous people of the rainforests generally have developed emerged as a major subject of current events requiring .systems of knowledge and resource use that conserve serious and broad consideration. both nature and culture. Traditional, local relationships
In the United States the 1990 Census will reveal the with an environment, be it rainforest, wetland, moun- continuation of a trend toward an ethnically diverse tainous region, .sea coast or other area, are most often population. Sometime in the middle of the next century^ more ecologically .sound than those of acKanced indus- most Americans will be identified as of African Ameri- trial society. can, Asian American, Hispanic or other "minority" back- These events and trends are both sobering and ground. The "majority," already a broad and varied humbling. They remind us that grass-roots, people's category of European Americans, will have become the culture — folklife — a residual category for many
"minority." The implications of this demographic shift, decades if not the entire century, is an important force already well along in some areas of the United States, in the world today, directly affecting demographic, po- has sparked debate on the public u,se of languages other litical, economic and ecological change. These events than English, culturally appropriate educational strate- also suggest a future in which folklife will attain greater gies and models and standards of American national recognition and legitimacy in an increasingly multicul- unity. tural nation and world. At the same time, the economic position of Japan challenges American models of production and man- agement. Economic differences are being discussed in Folklife and the Ideology cultural terms, with reference to underlying ideas about social organization, attitudes toward work, and the OF Modernit\' comparative values placed on individual and group Expressive, grass-roots culture, or folklife, is lived by achievement. Culture is at the cutting edge of economic all of us as members of ethnic, religious, tribal, familial production — even in the industrialized world. or occupational groups. It is the way we represent our Matters of national unity and cultural diversity have values in stories, songs, rituals, crafts and cooking. continued to be major, central issues in Brazil, Canada, Whether the legacy of past generations or a recent in-
China, India and Indonesia, among others. But perhaps novation, folklife is traditionalized by its practitioners: it nowhere are they more pressing than in the U.S.S.R. becomes a marker of community or group identity-.
Political perestroika has meant cultural restructuring as Folklife is a way that people say, "This is who and how well, with diverse ethnic, religious, regional and tribal we are." groups asserting their identities, values and institutions Folklife is as contemporary as it is historical: it is the in opposition to the dictates of the centralized state. The languages and dialects we speak, the clothes we wear quality and character of daily life — the locus of cultural and the other ways in which we express ourselves. It is policy in its true sense — is no-^v a matter of vociferous gospel music performed by African American choirs, debate. Anglo-American foodways, stories taxicab drivers tell, Environmental crises, especially our ability to create group dances done at Jewish weddings, whistle signals but not to solve them, have prompted new examina- of Salvadoran men, Missouri fiddling sessions and the tions of the cultural survival of indigenous peoples and practical kno^^'lecige farmers have of weather: it is Italians playing hocce. Vietnamese curing by rui)bing, relati\ely few locals trained in British medical schools Puerto Ricans playing the plena. Ojibway Indians either returned primarily to cities or stayed abroad. The harvesting wild rice, Pakistanis eating dal and chapati. denial of other, in this case, was also a denial of one's While implicating the past, these traditions are as own history. Hippocrates himself, the fountainhead of contemporary in their expressivity and function as Western medical practice, practiced the humoral sys- abstract painting, computer synthesized music and mi- tem. Greco-Roman scholars developed the systems crowavable food. Traditional Virgin Islands scratch pharmacopeia and theory, which, preserved and ex- band music and calypso singing, kallaloo cooking and panded by Arab physicians, was still taught in European mask making are contemporary with top 40 hits, fast imiversities well into the 19th centuiy. food and the tourist industry'. In Senegal, saying namaz. Concurrent with the monopolistic a.ssertion of singu- singing praise songs, dancing the sabar. participating in lar, exclusive ways of knowing and forms of kncjwledge, lambe wrestling, and practicing metal smithing, cloth European and American nations invested power in in- dying and hair braiding are part of contemporary lives. stitutions that transcended traditional loyalties. Alle-
Folklife is often and wrongfully associated in the giance to family, clan, religious sect and tribe might be popular mind with incomprehensible song and stilted seen as primordial ba.ses of nationhood, but they had to dance, doll-like performance costumes, and antiquated, be ethically superceded for the ,state to function. This naive arts and crafts. Despite the advertising label, transformation was understood as a fundamental shift in folklife is not a large troupe of choreographed, acro- the nature of society by .seminal theorists of the late 19th batic, finely tailored youth prancing to glorious orches- centun,- — from mechanical to organic forms of solidar- tral music in romanticized and theatrically inspired ity by Emile Durkheim, from community to association visions of peasant life. Nor does folklife properly refer by Ferdinand Tonnies, from status to civil society by to historical re-enactments of bygone crafts or to other Lewis Henry Morgan, from feudalism to capitalism by anachronistic performances in which individuals pre- Max Weber and Karl Marx. The success of this transfor- tend to be others situated in a distant time and place. mation can be seen in the permanency of its non-folk This tendency to think of folklife as theatrical recreation forms of organization — universities and school sys- of the past disparages it, divorces it from its contempo- tems, judicial courts, parliaments and political parties, rary existence. businesses and unions — which came \.o define particu- The devaluation of grass-roots, peoples' culture lar fields of social action. Less formal types of organiza-
grows from a desire to see ourselves as "modern. " This tion — church, home, family, elders, neighborhood, desire, as many social historians have noted, is rooted club — receded in importance. in the practices of the industrial revolution and their The success of American and European efforts to ideological consequences. Industrial manufacture — develop state institutions — and thereby to overcome with its rationalization of production to maximize profit the past by devaluing it — were mistakenly taken to — meant relying on those applied sciences that fostered justify the ethical superiority of colonizing powers over innovative technological development and giving pri- peoples of Africa, Asia, Oceania and South America. An mary legitimacy to systems of value based upon or well- ideology of social and cultural evolution postulated nec- suited to an economic calculus. In the 19th centur>', essary correspondences among technological develop- many older forms of knowledge, systems of values, ment, social organization and cultural achievement. In technologies and skills that were not useful to factory- the view of late 19th century social science, technologi- manufacture, to American and European urban life, and cally advanced peoples were better organized .socially to a growing cla.ss of professional scholars, were dele- and superior culturally. Modernity was opposed to gitimated. tradition and was associated with political power; it was
An example of this is the official de\aluation and thought to be characteristic of more sophisticated, delegitimation of medical systems, such as the Greco- higher class, adult-like culture, while tradition was asso- Roman-Arabic humoral system, or "Ionian Physics." ciated with powerlessness and thought to be associated This system of medicine practiced from the Mediterra- with a simpler, lower class, child-like culture. According nean to south Asia had a rich pharmacoepia, an to this ideology, the purpose of education, development experimental tradition, colleges and training centers, a and cultural policy was for the supposedly deficient, long-lived, vibrant literature, and tens of thousands of tradition-bound peoples (both foreign and domestic) to trained physician practitioners serving both urban and follow in the technological, social and cultural footsteps rural communities. Yet it was devalued by Britisli of the advanced and modern. colonial officials. Because they held power, not a This view has always been and continues to be necessarily or demonstrably better science, they were challenged. Technological "progress" does not mean able to decertify local practitioners and institutions. The "better" for everyone. Technological superioriry may result was that medical treatment by indigenous physi- indeed mean more efficient production. But it can also cians was lost to many, particularly in rural areas. The mean more efficient destruction. Witness our modern ability for nuclear annihilation. Witness the devastation in American work clothes and waving American flags.
and pollution of the environment with efficient forest For Ford, Americanization worked, and industry was its cutting machines and powerful but toxic synthetic engine. chemicals. Witness the breakup of social units, cultural Many Americans (Glazer and Moynihan 1963) have forms and ethical values resulting in part from televi- long been aware that the "melting pot" was an inade- sion, video and computer games. quate metaphor for American society. For in this melting
The comparative efficacy of social systems is difficult pot, American Indians were long invisible, African to measure. While modern states are often judged Americans were excluded, and the cultures of others positively for their nuclear families, social and geo- were ignored despite their persistence. Other meta- graphic mobility and diffuse systems of authority, these phors — the American salad, stew, patchwork quilt and forms have a cost. High divorce and suicide rates, urban rainbow — have been offered as alternatives. But now crime, drug problems, mid-life crises and alienation are and in the coming decades Americans will have to in part the prices paid for the type of society we live in. confront their own diversity as never before. The
It is difficult if not impossible to say that one culture demographic shift, combined with heightened con-
is better than another. All cultures provide a system of sciousness of civil and cultural rights will challenge symbols and meanings to their bearers, and in this Americans to devise new models of nationhood. fimction they are similar. All cultures encourage self- Despite such challenges, the ideology of cultural
perpetuating, guiding values and forms of aesthetic superiority still looms large. International development
expression. All cultures encode knowledge, although policy is typically conceived in this mode, although the ways in which they do so may differ. And when one "grassroots-up" and various types of community and
set of cultural ideas replaces another it is usually a case "appropriate" development strategies represent alterna- of knowledge replacing knowledge, not ignorance. tives that take into consideration locally defined goals, The relationship between ethics, power and technol- values and institutions. Political efforts to define cultural
ogy is also problematic. Progress on technical and social policy in America have, in some cases, taken a mono- fronts has not been uniform, even in Europe and the cultural track — "English-language only" initiatives in United States. Wide discrepancies continue to exist in several states, for example. Some national institutions the accessibility of technological benefits and social have also promulgated a monocultural view of Ameri- opportunities. Within the U.S. and Europe and around can society, stressing the overriding importance of a
the world, the point is easily made that political or singular, national, homogeneous core culture. For
coercive power is not necessarily associated with righ- example, a few years ago, the National Endowment for teousness. Modern states have inflicted ethical horrors the Arts issued a report Toward Civilization (1988). that upon each other — the world wars, for example, do not promotes arts education as the received wisdom of an bespeak of advanced and civilized values. Nor do elitist Euro-American art history. Folk and non-Western institutions such as slavery, colonialism, concentration accomplishments and aesthetic ideas are largely absent. camps and apartheid visited on the so-called "less devel- The spurious argument about the need for a standard oped" or "inferior" speak well of ethical or cultural su- American culture has been made most forcibly by Alan periority, as Frederick Douglas, Mohandas Gandhi, Elie Bloom (1987) in The Closing ofthe American Mind. On
Wiesel, Martin Luther King, Jr. , Lech Walesa and Desmond one hand Bloom disparages as weak and irrelevant the Tutu have clearly demonstrated. types of cultural differences expressed by Americans: The 'ethnic' differences we see in the United States are but decaying reminiscences of old differences
American Unity and Di\^rsity that caused our ancestors to kill one another. The Since the early pan of the 20th century, American animating principle, their soul, has disappeared popular culture has represented this country as a "nation from them. The ethnic festivals are just superficial of nations" that employs a "melting pot" or similar displays of clothes, dances and foods from the old crucible to blend or eliminate differences and produce country. One has to be quite ignorant of the national unity. Henry Ford actually devised a ritual splendid 'cultural' past to be impressed or charmed pageant for workers at one of his plants which involved by these insipid folkloric manifestations... And the an "Americanization machine." At an appropriate phase blessing given the whole notion of cultural diver- of their assimilation. Ford would have workers — sity in the United States by the culture movement mainly from central and eastern Europe — dress in their has contributed to the intensification and legitimi- various national costumes, march onto a stage waving zation of group politics, along with a correspond- their national flags, and enter the machine. The latter ing decay of belief that the individual rights was a large and elaborate stage prop replete with enunciated in the Declaration of Independence smoke, control levers and gauges. Workers would are anything more than dated rhetoric. (Bloom emerge from this crucible of factory experience dressed 1987:192-93)
10 )
If such differences are as irrelevant and superficial as Soviet Union, apartheid in South Africa, and civil wars Bloom believes, why are they such threats to his in Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Cambodia. Nicaragua and a host
monolithic version of national unity? Raising xenopho- of other countries. Indeed, there is broad national and bic fears Bloom says, international consensus that cultural rights — to wor- Obviously the future of America can't be sustained ship or not as one chooses, to have one's own beliefs, if people keep only to their own ways and remain to express one's own ethnic, cultural or tribal identity, perpetual outsiders. The society has got to turn to speak one's own language and to sing one's own them into Americans. There are song — are central, uni\'ersal human natural fears that today's immigrants rights.
may be too much of a cultural Acceptance of human cultural rights stretch for a nation based on "West- does not mean the end of supra-local
ern values. ( Time 1990 135(15 ):3 1 or supra-regional political unities. Na- Bloom and others think that atten- tions and larger federations can have tion to diversity should be minimized. political, legal and moral frameworks Education and public discourse based that enshrine cultural freedoms. But on diversity would not assimilate cultural dominance of one group over "minority" populations to the "main- another need not be a basic condition stream." Multiculturalism as a policy of contemporary nations, especially would, Bloom fears, undercut national democratic ones. European nations, unity. which as colonial powers squabbled On the other side of the debate are o\er a divided worid, will in 1992 unite those who argue that institutions should — despite the centuries-old differences III till iiiciviisiii;^!]' iliivrsi' .1 broaden their practices to include the people /mill iiiniunty liiIii ntnh' of language, culture and history that wisdom, knowledge, languages and lire tu the many sided discourse Ihal is separate them. The prospect of a united national ciiltn'iv. At the 1989 Festival. aesthetics of the many peoples who Earl Syholni. an Oiihtiay from Michigan, Europe, where many people are al- have contributed to the growth of the and Wni^lil Boiniuiii a Haiiaiuin. ready multilingual and multicultural, discuss iiucsii,,iis fonii fniKluni and nation. Too often the history books ,,f social rallies iii relation to their respec- has yet to resonate with Americans.
tire boat i and history museums have left out the making traditions Photo by Bi.it demographic changes taking place
Dane Penland. Smithsonian Jiistiliilion i accomplishments of "minority" in the United States, coupled with an peoples. For example, American Indian tribes had increased consciousness of issues of representation — created governments, civilizations and humanitarian resulting largely from the Civil Rights Movement and values long before European conquest — yet they have those that followed — assure that discussions of cultural historically been represented in textbooks as savages. unity and diversity will grow in frequency and impor- African American contributions to American history — tance. from the development of rice agriculture in the U.S. southeast to the creation — of technological inventions Cultural Pluralism: From have generally been absent from museums. The sacri- fices of Chinese Americans, who laid the railroad track Local To National Levels that crossed the nation in the 19th century, are removed In many communities across the country, institutions from public historical consciousness. The contributions, are developing strategies for dealing with culturally insights and wisdoms of many of America's people have diverse neighborhoods, student populations, and work simply been ignored in mainstream representations of forces. They are trying to resolve the tension between history and culture (Stewart and Ruffins 1986, Garfias the right to sing one's own song and the need to speak 1989, Tchen 1990). In response to Bloom, several with one's neighbors. In California, 42 percent of the scholars argue that ignoring diversity in the guise of in- total state population and slightly more than half the tellectual or moral superiority has led to a divided nation students in public schools are of "minority" background. and bodes ill for the future ( Tloe GrayivolfA)iniiaI Five The challenge in education is to adjust curricula, staff, 1988). Failure to accommodate diversity contributed to and teaching methods and materials to meet their the destruction of numerous American Indian peoples, students' needs in facing the future. Educators who to the institution of slavery and continuing discrimina- envision a multicultural America have diversified their tion against African Americans, and to the forced intern- staff to present the cultural perspectives of a broader ment of Japanese Americans during World War II. range of the population and to provide positive role Internationally, historical attempts to enforce a mono- models for students. Innovative language learning pro- cultural nationhood and segregate or destroy alternatixe grams, multiple points of view in history, art and music, cultural expression has resulted in National Socialism and imaginative use of community resources and expe- and the Holocaust in Hitler's Germany, Stalinism in the cont. page 13
11 bailey's elementary school — Cultural Pluralism in the 1990s
Bailey's Elementary School and its community' is arts, social studies, music and physical education in an example of how issues of cultural pluralism may English. The English speakers help the Spanish be addressed at the local level in the coming decade. speakers for half the day; they switch roles for the
It is a community I know, as resident and PTA other half. This approach has facilitated language president. learning in both sets of children, consistent with a
Bailey's Elementary School is located in the Bailey's body of educational research indicating that such
Crossroads area of Fairfax County, Virginia. It is a immersion programs result in increased abilities in public school with about 530 students from 43 coun- both native and target languages for all students. tries speaking some 22 different languages. About 40 The program has spawned other positive side percent of the children speak Spanish as their mother effects. For one, it helped hold more affluent native tongue. The other most often spoken nati\e lan- English speaking parents and their children in the guages in the school are English, Cambodian, 'Viet- .school by offering a special high quality enhance- namese, Urdu, Arabic and Korean. Of the 70 native ment program. At the same time, it helped legitimate English speakers, about half are European American, the knowledge that Spanish speaking students, new half are African American. The staff, including to the community, could contribute. Instead of being teachers and administrators is also quite diverse. The marginalized and told they were deficient, the Span- cultural diversity' of the students and their families is ish speakers could exhibit leadership roles in class apparent in neighborhood grocery stores, churches and help their English speaking classmates learn. and mosque, and flyers in store windows. Role reversal by both sets of students seems quite
Cultural diversity is matched by economic diver- healthy. Additionally, Spanish speaking teenagers sity. Many parents are recent immigrants from rural from nearby Stuart High School became involved in areas of El Salvador, Nicaragua and Bolivia, living in the Bailey's program. Some of these teenagers, relatively low rent apartments and working in un- coming into a high school in 11th or 12th grade from skilled or semi-skilled jobs, as landscaping and Latin America with little English speaking ability, construction laborers, housekeepers, child care were, understandably, alienated in their classes. providers, and servers at fast-food restaurants. More Some were on the verge of dropping out. A timely ar- educated and professionally trained immigrants from rangement between the Bailey's and Stuart Spanish Latin America are underemployed, as they support language teachers brought the high schoolers into their families while seeking certification or language the classroom on a regular basis to help teach, tutor training that would enable them to exercise their and mentor the first graders in the program. This has occupational skills. Also in the apartments and nearby now proved to be a great success. The high school in smaller homes, live various other immigrants, students feel they are making a valuable contribu- mainly from south and southeast Asia. Some started tion. The first graders get more attention and help in as refugees, earned money in jobs and businesses their studies. Instead of encouraging marginalizalion and bought their own homes. Further away but and .stigmatization of people on the basis of language within a half-mile from the lower rent apartments are and class, the program has used culture as a resource luxury apartments, some the dwellings of foreign for ever>'one's education. diplomats, and more expensive residential areas, Yet, in this neighborhood, in one of the wealthi- some with homes in the $200-300,000 range and est counties in the nation, the school is seen as a others with homes worth more than $1 million. threat, or a problem by a vocal and sizable minority Teachers, students and indeed most parents are of older homeowners. They decry the "decline" of the proud of the diverse nature of the school that is school, complaining about the "lack of White faces" reflected in its books, lessons, field trips and cultural and the wrongheadedness of the Spanish language events. Some of the academic programs build upon partial immersion program. The community, they and address the diversity of student backgrounds. As assert, is "decaying" as a result of the alien presence an example, the school initiated a Spanish language — this despite the fact that the apartments were built partial immersion program. In mixed classes of native well before the suburban subdivisions. Long time
English and native Spanish speakers, 40 first graders residents complain about soccer games, the "loud learn math, science and art in Spanish and language (Latin) music" played in public, the lack of 'neighbor-
12 On the public side, the United States has no Ministr}' liness" or "grounds keeping" exhibited by immigrant of Culture, no coven of government bureaucrats to craft residents. Many of these people and others, includ- and promulgate the nation's culture. 'We do not have a ing apartment dwellers, are also worried about alco- national language, a national costume, a national dance, holism, crime, undocumented and unemployable a national food. If we did have a singular national immigrants, and other issues bearing on the quality culture, what would it be? National cultural institutions of life. These are legitimate causes of concern, but have long played a role of encouraging the peoples of the challenge is always to separate them from racism, the United States to create their own cultural expres- fear and the spurious interpretation of facts. These sions in the context of larger frameworks of free speech feelings, based in prejudice, lead some people to see and cultural democracy. The National Endowments do a threat to the American way of life, jast because the this through granting programs. The Smithsonian Insti- kids at school are from working class families, have tution has recently played a leading role in encouraging a different color of skin, or speak a different lan- cultural pluralism, seeing it as a healthy extension of guage. democratic and populist practices which ultimately It is interesting to note that in .McLean, only a few strengthen the nation. The Smithsonian has made miles from Bailey's, very affluent European Ameri- cultural pluralism in its audience, its exhibits, its re- can parents are on a waiting list to enroll their search, its ideas and its staff a high priority' for the 1990s. children in a Japanese language partial immersion
program. Learning Japanese is not perceived as a threat to American education, but rather as a state-of- the-art program sure to give kids a competitive advantage in the world. The value of the Japanese language program vis-a-vis the Spanish program has nothing to do with the intrinsic grammars, poetics or linguistic attributes of the languages themselves. Instead, language and other cultural expressions may sometimes be valued, and devalued, rather transparently, according to the perceived social status of their bearers. With the support of the
county, teachers and administrators at Bailey's are working to use cultural differences in a positive, equitable way to encourage the flowering of ideas lidiiccition in vanous types settings coiwevs knowledge and aes- and talents from each of its students for the benefit of thetics ofdirerse cultiirat traditions At the 1989 Festival Leode- of all its students. gario KeviKi insinitl^ tl'ililivii mi the imihods of coconut leaf
wealing ilcrcli'pcd In liliin>iit\ in Huitai i The Festiral is an ciliicatiiiiial jiri^Lcw dijlciviil Jnoii the Llassnnnii and usual mu- seum setting It ivlics ii/niii hiniian interaction and stresses oral, cont. 11 from page manual and seiisun iiieciii-. fur transmitting insight I Photo by riences characterize educational strategies which recog- Richard Strauss. Smith\,iniiiii histuution) nize cultural pluralism as both educational context and resource. In the workplace, some industrial psychologists and Issues in a Multicultural Society sociologists have seen their task as the management and According to some interpreters of culture, the worid control of an increasingly diverse labor force. Some is becoming more homogeneous. The spread of mass, strategies entail minimizing expressions of diversity, popular commercial culture with a discrete set of while others more creatively encourage the develop- television programs and formats, fast food, top music ment of new forms of occupational culture. hits, designer jeans and other fashions, and a standard On national and international levels there are strong repertoire of consumer goods seems to have engulfed forces for cultural homogenization. If all consumers can the planet. Modern technology — from television and be trained to have the same tastes, for example, product radio to videocassette recorders, communications satel- and market development become easier and more pre- lites, modems and fax machines — has seemingly dictable. Diversity is more cumbersome and trouble- reduced distances between the earth's peoples. We can some to large multinationals when a myriad of differ- send our voices and images around the planet in a ences in taste, attribution of value, and moti\ational matter of seconds. goals inform consumer choices. International marke- Many cultures, as Alan Lomax ( 1977) has ably noted, teers would prefer unanimiry — today, generational, are in moral and aesthetic danger as a result of this tomorrow, global — on what the "real thing" is and how globalization of American mass culture, and as a result to become identified with it. of the continued valorization of elite forms of culture.
13 The power and frequency with which mass culture tional forms. New culture unlike that previously in New penetrates everyday life can suggest to people that local, York or New Delhi is created. grass-roots culture is not valuable. Publicity attending Technology aids this process. Cheap, easy to use tape the purchases of masterpieces for multi-million dollar recorders, video cameras and the like begin to democ- sums can give people the feeling that their own crea- ratize the power of media. Anyone can make a record- tions are relatively worthless. Some people stop speak- ing or a film, preserve and document their cultural ing their local language, discontinue their art, music, creation and share it with others. A videocassette foodways and other cultural expressions in the belief recorder can be used in India to view Rocky V, but it can that imitating either mass or elite forms of culture is a also be used to view a home video of a Hindu wedding route to a better position in the society. Old time music, sent by relatives living in New York. storytelling, traditional dance, and boatbuilding cease, The main issue in a monocultural society — whether as do traditional forms of mutual support; a culture relatively small and homogeneous or large and totalitar- begins to die. ian — is that of control. Who has the power and
Cultures need to be conser\'ed. Just as we mourn authority to make culture, to promulgate it and have biological species when they become endangered and people accept it? Historically, in colonial situations, the die out, so too do we mourn cultures that die. For each colonizers have tended to dictate cultural choices and culture represents scores of traditions built up, usually definitions of public and state culture. Those colonized over many generations. Each culture provides a unique accept in general terms the culture, language, garb, or vision of the world and how to navigate through it. religion of the powerful, and then continue their own Cultures are best conserved when they are dynamic, ways in various forms of resistance. In this sense, those alive, when each generation takes from the past, makes colonized, subjegated or out of power are often more it their own, contributes to it and builds a future. Cultural multicultural than those in power — for it is they that are change and dynamism are integral to culture. Cultures forced to learn two languages, to dress up and down, to were not created years ago to persist forever in un- participate in the "mainstream" as well as in their own changing form. Cultures are continually recreated in culture. Individuals from the disempowered learn to be daily life as it is lived by real people. successful in both cultures by code switching — playing For this reason, as Breckenridge and Appadurai a role, speaking and acting one way with the out-group,
(1988) suggest, the world is increasingly becoming at another way with one's own people. once more culturally heterogeneous as well as more Increasing cultural homogeneity and heterogeneity homogeneous. New variations of being Indian, for calls for increa,sed ability' to participate in a variety of example, arise from cultural flows occasioned by the cultures — national, religious, occupational, tribal, immigrant experience, tourism and reverse immigra- ethnic and familial — on a daily basis. Code switching tion. A Hindu temple, housed in a historic building, is and compartmentalization are part of ever>'day life. For established in Flushing, New York; fast food restaurants example, mainstream forms of language use, comport- featuring an Indian spiced menu are built in New Delhi. ment and dress may be used in school or at work during New contexts occasion creati%e applications of tradi- the day, but may be replaced by a different dialect and
st\-le back home in the evening. Religious culture and occupational culture may be compartmentalized by an anthropology professor who teaches evolution during the week and Genesis at Sunday school. As our identi- ties are increasingly multiple — as mothers, as workers, as household heads, for example — and as these identities are continually brought into juxtaposition, people will with greater awareness participate in and draw upon a multiplicity of cukures. Most Americans al- ready eat foods from a variety of culinary traditions — though our palates are generally more multicultural than our minds. And in daily life we are liable to use a variety of languages — including not only "natural" lan- guages but also those of word processing, mathematics Fonimsfor cultural interchange unite people uhn share a may and technical fields. One dimensional views of our- common past, enriching their oum cultural and historical identity. French fiddlers from western France. Louisiana. Quebec. ,\eir Fng- selves and others as being members of either this culture land and North Dakota, separated by centuries musical and of or that culture will seem increasingly simplistic, irrele- cultural history are united on the National Mall at the 1989 Festi- of a val. Says Louisiana Cajun fiddler Dewey Balfa. 'If it wasn't for the vant and unimaginative. Individual management Festival have to travel around the world a generation or tivo Vd for multiplicity of roles and the cultural forms associated to hear this richness and variety of French music. " (Photo by Dane Penland, Smithsonian Institution) with them will offer new creative potentials for person-
14 ality development, as well as, no doubt, new difficulties.
Socially, multiculturalism is a fact of life in many communities. Increasingly, formal institutions must respond to the consequences of a multicultural society. Educational and research organizations will have to
facilitate skill in multiculturality. As geographic distance and boundaries become more easily traversed, we will simply have to achieve greater cross-cultural and inter- cultural fluency than we now possess. Monoculturalism, even amongst the most powerful, will be untenable. To be successful, Americans will have to learn about the Japanese, the Soviets, the Chinese, the Muslim world, and many others. And Americans will need greater self- Cultural resonances may transi.end great historical and geo- graphic distances. Russians have a repertoire of traditional greeting knowledge if we are to deal with the increasing diversity songs for saints which they rarely use. At the 1988 Festival, ivhen of our neighborhoods and institutions. Cultural mono- Italian and Portuguese Americans from Massachusetts paraded their saints past the Soviet program, the Russians broke into appro- logues will be out, dialogues or multilogues in, as we get priate song and festive dance, then some cried and embraced the used to the idea that there are different ways of paraders (Photo by laurie Minor. Smithsonian histitutionl knowing, feeling and expressing. As differences in perspective are institutionalized, our museums, schools, tive, juxtaposed and newly synthesized varieties of workplaces and other organizations will become richer, aesthetic and conceptual orientations. more multilayered and complex, informed by alterna- The authority to speak and to know will be increas- ingly more widely distributed. Those who are tradition- ally studied, observed and written about may reverse
roles. This is illustrated by the experience of Tony Seeger, a cultural anthropologist and curator of Smith- sonian Folkways Records who did his fieldwork in the
Brazilian rainforest among the Suya Indians. On his first trip in 1971, he recorded Suya songs and narrative in an effort to understand why the Suya sing. His book. Why
Suya Sing (1987), is a masterful, scholarly attempt to interpret the significance of song in that culture. When Seeger returned to the field in 1980, the Suya had acquired tape recorders of their own. They were record- ing and listening to their own songs, as well as those from afar. As Suya themselves became cultural investi- gators, they recorded the banjo picking Seeger and wanted to know why he also sings. The role of the Festival of American Folklife in an
increasingly diverse and multicultural society is to
promote cultural equity, which is an equitable chance
for all cultures to live and continue forward, to create and contribute to the larger pool of human intellectual,
artistic and material accomplishment. The Festival fos- ters a general sense of appreciation for cultures so what they speak, know, feel and express may be understood.
The Festival is a collaborative engagement that fosters dialogue or multilogue between community, self and others. Rather than encourage monocultural competi- tions, the Festival creates the time and space for cultural
Ciiltitrat groups hnnight into amttict fiinl iiiul explore resonances juxtapositions, where bearers of differing cultures can in their tnuiitinns At the J9SS Fcstnril. Ituhan anil Portuaiiese meet on neutral ground to experience the richness of Americans frniii MassaJtnsetts /'iiraile 15 devalued, their beliefs delegitimated and their kids being told they are not good enough. For official standards come and go very quickly and are often tied to a particular history and exercise of power. Rather, we should respect the generations of knowledge, wisdom and skill that build a culture, and the excellences nurtured therein, so that, as Johnetta Cole, cultural anthropologist and president of Spelman College says, "We are for difference. For respecting difference. For allowing difference. Until difference doesn't make any more difference" (Cole 1990). Richard Kiihn is Acting Director of the Office of Tl:>e R'sliral of .American Folklife. like all events, is a moment in histoiy Here, the Ghana's Ga people meets a Rastafarian Fulklife Programs at the Smithsonian Institution and a kinf^ of from /aiiuiiLii ' New and rich types of cultural creations and negotiations are likely to arise from the juxtapositions of cultures and their exemplars. Marie McDonald is one of Hairaii's foremost traditional lei makers. Although there is a traditional lei for royalty Mane hail neivr made one. as the last Hainiiian king died in I'm >' she da ideil to make such a lei to honor the risil of the Ga king lo the h'estiral site in 19S'> .\fler iihiking the royal lei negotiations ria walkie-talkie enahled .Mane and the Ga king to da ide on hoir the lei would he presented After consultation with his adrisors and holy man. the king decided to follow Hawaiian custom, receiving the lei over his head and a kiss from Marie. This teas folknved hy a handshake. (Photo by Jeff Tinsley. Smithsonian Institution) 16 Citations AND Further Readings Bloom, Alan. 1987. The Closing of Ihe American Mind. New York: Simon and Schuster. Breckenridge, Carol and Arjun Appadurai. 1988. Editors' Comments. Public Culture l(l):l-4. Cultural Sunnval Quarterly. 1982. 6(2). Theme issue: Deforestation: The Human Costs. 1984. 8(3). Theme i.ssue: Hunters and Gatherers. 1987. 11(1). Theme issue: Grassroots Economic Development. Cole, Johnetta. 1990. Quoledm AUTbings Consid- ered news feature on Spelman College. National Public Radio. March 8. Garfias, Robert. 1989. Cultural Diversity and the Arts in America: The View for the 90s. Unpublished report to the National Endowment for the Arts. Glazer, Nathan and Daniel Moynihan. 19^3. Be- yond the Melting Pot: ne Negroes. Puerto Ricans. Jews. Italia>!s and Irish of New York City. Cambridge: MIT Press. The GraywolfAnnual Five: Opening of the Ameri- can Mind. 1988. St. Paul: Graywolf Press. Lomax, Alan. 1977. An Appeal for Cultural Equity. Journal of Communication. National Endowment for the Arts. 1988. Toward Civilization. Seeger, Anthony. 1987. WhySuya Sing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Time. 1990. Beyond the Melting Pot, 135( 15):28-35. Stewart, Jeffrey and Faith Ruffins. 1986. A Faithful Witness: Afro-American Public History in Historical Perspective, 1828-1984. In Presenting the Past: Essays on History and the Public, eds. Susan Benson, Stephen Brier and Roy Rosenzweig. Philadelphia: Temple Uni- versity Press. Tchen, John Kuo Wei. 1990. Notes on U.S. History Museums: Institutional Practices, Collective Memory and Racial Identity Formation. For Museums and Communities conference sponsored by the Smith- sonian Institution and the Rockefeller Foundation. 17 folklife of the u.s. virgin islands: Persistence and Creativity Olivia Cadaval Despite many challenges, folklife is still a Commercial entrepreneurs working in league with creative resource in the lives of many U.S. European governments developed the flatter parts of Virgin Islanders. Virgin Islands' folklife is the islands into plantations. Indigenous peoples — Caribs, legacy of generations who brought cultural Arawaks, and others — were driven off or enslaved if traditions from Africa, Europe and elsewhere, adapted they did not die of the foreign diseases brought from those traditions to meet local needs, Europe. Some islands were al- and combined them with those of most completely cleared of native other cultures in vibrant and use- vegetation for cultivation of cash ful new forms. Although unique, crops, transforming them into ag- the development of traditional ricultural production units in a culture in the Virgin Islands has worldwide system of economic been affected by the same histori- exchange. On other islands, en- cal movements and social prac- slaved workers u.sed land unsuit- tices that have shaped other Carib- able for cash crops as provision bean societies. This development grounds, or gardens, for growing can be understood within the his- food. tory and geography of the Carib- An infamous triangular trade bean as a whole. linked the Caribbean islands (and later, South and North America) The Caribbean with western Africa and Europe. Manufactured goods from Europe Context were exchanged by European and Mo.st islands in the Caribbean .'African slave traders for people Sea are mountaintops created by captured in western Africa. Those great volcanic eruptions along a Africans who survived the pas.sage planetary seam that arches from across the Atlantic chained in ships Florida to South America. These The infamous triangular trade linked differefit mode were sold as slaves, on the island production together in a world system were the lands Columbus first of of St. Thomas and elsewhere. The "discovered" and claimed for the Spanish empire when slave owners who bought them did so with profits made he came to what would later be called the "New World." from plantation grown and processed sugar, molas.ses Preoccupation with gold and other grand riches made and rum. These Caribbean products were shipped to subsequent Spanish settlements in the Caribbean merely Europe to meet the necessities of a newly urbanized staging areas for Spain's colonization of the American labor force. Profits realized in the European sale could mainland. This approach to exploiting the new territo- purchase trade goods bound again for Africa and the ries left room in the Caribbean for colonization by other trade in slaves. European nations. The plantation system itself, which combines mini- The U.S. Virgin Islandsprogram has been madepossible by the Honorable GoventorAlexanderA . Fatrelly. the Office ofthe Governor, the 18th Legislature ofthe Virgin Islands, the Department ofEconomic Development and Agriculture, Division ofTourism, Department ofPlanning and Natural Resources, the Virgin Islands Council on The Arts, Paradise Motors, Inc., Little Switzerland, Virgin Islands AT&T, West Indian Company Ltd., and other corporate sponsors. 18 mal cost and maximal control of labor with large scale variations in the nature and extent of continuing en- production of a single crop, was invented by the counters with native peoples, Europeans, Africans, Portuguese for use in their island possessions off the Asians and later, with the bearers of Creole cultures from coast of Africa. In the Caribbean, the slave plantation other islands. reached its potential for both profitability and human de.structiveness. It was a complex in.stitution, with a diversified and stratified labor force, international fi- The U.S. Virgin Islands: nancing, and a developed body of management theor\'. Cultural and Historical Enslaved persons defied the practices of slavery by whatever means available. Organized rebellions began Background to sweep most colonies within a decade after the arri\al The Virgin Islands, U.S. and British, are geographi- of the first slave ships. The first cally part of the Lesser Antilles, a insurrection of enslaved African chain of small islands east of Puerto runaways, who came to be called Rico colonized and ruled primarily Maroons, took place in 1^22 in by the English, Dutch, Danish and Santo Domingo against the Span- French. The U.S. Virgin Islands ish. Jamaican Maroons ha\e a are a closely grouped archipelago long tradition of resistance and of o\er 50 mountainous islands, have built the longest continu- most of which are not presently in- ously surviving communities. In habited. St. Thomas, St. John and the then Danish Virgin Islands, a St. Croix are the three major is- successful but short-lived revolt lands. Columbus named the group on St. John in 1733 permanently 'Las Islas Virgenes" in honor of the stunted plantation slavery on that Swedish St. Ursula and her legend- island. The system was reformed ary army of 11,000 martyred vir- after a revolt in St. Croix in 18-i8 gins.' On his .second voyage in when sla\'er}- was declared illegal 1493, Columbus records that his by the Danish crown. After that ship briefly anchored at the mouth entrepreneurs secured the labor of of the Salt River in St. Croix. He persons already resident in the and his men were attacked by Caribbean by means of contracts. Carib Indians and fled eastward These contracts granted workers toward Puerto Rico. Colonization rights and living standards little of the Virgin Islands did not begin better than those obtained during until ihhcuii irilh iiii et ufihc VS VirtiDi Islaih/s the 17th century and then slavery. only sporadically with English, Many former slaves did not become contract labor- Spanish, French and Dutch involvement. The Danes es- ers. Instead, they practiced agricultural and craft skills tablished their first foothold on what is now the U.S. learned from a variety of African and European sources, Virgin Islands when the Danish West India Company 'i'he free airal and urban communities they built were received a rcjyal charter for the island of St. Thomas in developments of .social forms that had existed during l(i71. Under the leadership of the governor of St. slavery but outside of and in resistance to it. Thomas, Denmark occupied St. John in 1717, and St. Caribbean island-born or Creole cultures developed Croix was purchased from the French in 1733. In 1917, to meet the challenges of this historical experience. the United States purchased the islands from Denmark These cultures emerged, as did those in many other to use as a naval base to protect Panama Canal traffic areas of intense European colonization, through creoli- from possilile German attack. zation, a process of cultural amalgamation that results in In the LI.S. Virgin Islands the earliest European identifiably new forms. Built on African foundations settlers were English, Dutch, and French, but the largest and framed with Eurcpean social forms, they were immigrant population was originally from Ghana and constRicted by .strong, active, creative people who lived other pans of West Africa. Old family names reflect in complex relationships to European derived and Danish and Spanish ancestry as well as some Italian, dominated institutions. In the Caribbean, people cre- Irish, Lithuanian, Polish, German and Russian heritage. ated distinct cultures on different islands because of A Sephardic Jewish population from the Dutch Islands ' According to The Penguin Dictionary of Saints (Middle.sex, England: Penguin Book.s, Inc., 1965), 333-.S34, the legend goes back to the 4th or 5th century when Ursula, to avoid an unwanted marriage, departed with her maiden companions from Britain, where her father was king. On their way back from a visit to Rome, they were slaughtered by the Huns in Cologne. By the 9th century the legendary number of martyred maidens had grown to thousands. 19 relocated in St. Thomas in tiie 1790s and established the Hebrew Congregation of St. Thomas, the second oldest synagogue in the hemisphere. Moravian missionaries were invited to the islands to educate and Christianize enslaved Africans in the early 18th century and played a major role in the development of the local culture. The Moravians acknowledged the importance of local lan- guage by translating the Bible into Dutch Creole. Labor- ers from the mideast and India came to the islands as contract laborers after the Danes abolished slavery' in 1848. Principal economic activity in the Virgin Islands historically centered around two institutions: the port, exemplified by St. Thomas, and the plantation, exempli- fied by St. John and St. Croix. While port and plantation complemented each other, they had different kinds of economic needs and provided different kinds of oppor- tunities; they formed different contexts in which cultural forms developed. The port required a labor force that moved the articles of commerce. It fostered urban living, growth of an artisan class, and a cosmopolitan perspective. The organization of plantation life ser\'ed the cultivation and processing of sugar. In many places, enslaved workers were allowed to till small plots of land to provide food for themselves and sometimes for the planter's household. Working these gardens, slaves practiced traditional horticultural skills, acquired new ones, and established an exchange economy among themselves. Some managed to buy their freedom with money raised from selling their crops. While patterns of mutual support evolved in the plantations among en- coloured" was the legal term used by the Danish for slaved workers, freemen tended to associate with the enslaved persons with African ancestry who had been planter society and often moved to the ports. granted or had purchased their freedom, and for the Danish rule was marked by political neutrality. They children born to free women with African ancestry. were usually uninvolved in the European conflicts that Slaves could be given their freedom by their masters spilled over into the colonies. St. Thomas, with its deep, throughout the Caribbean. Under the Danes, slaves safe, and neutral harbor, developed into a major inter- could also buy their freedom. national free port. Neighboring peoples often sought The diverse national origins of settlers, the formation a.sylum in the Danish islands, as in the case of Tortolans of different socio-economic classes which sometimes fleeing from English attacks. Economic opportunities cut across racial divisions, and migrations between attracted "free coloureds" from other islands. "Free islands have all contributed to the unique character of U.S. Virgin Islands. Creolized traditions have evolved in a spectacular variety of forms that can be seen to define an Afro-European cultural spectrum. In the area of music and dance, an African call-and-response legacy shapes the song tradition of cariso. while a European influence predominates in quadrille dancing. Basket- making traditions introduced by Moravian missionaries ha\e a recognizable European style also found in baskets made in Appalachia. Some traditions like moko jiimbie stilrwalking and calypso singing were devel- oped elsewhere in the Caribbean but are now part of the U.S. Virgin Islands culture. Some of these forms from other islands remain distinct, but most have been given a Virgin Islands imprint. The styles and traditions In her home in St. John. Mrs. Louise Sewer prepares whist-. making a basket (Photo by Karen Samuel) distinctive to the Islands are what Virgin Islanders call 20 their native culture. In the context of Caribbean creo- lization, the concept of native is thereby given a new meaning. Native culture here means an ernergent, continuously evolving, local Creole culture that is dis- tinct from similar cultures of other islands. This native culture absorbs and reworks cultural practices which came and are still coming from both outside and within the Caribbean. St. Thomas In 1666, the Danish crown chartered the Danish West India Company to occupy and take possession of St. French fisheniuiii fnfiii Sr Viomas. ncinates a Thomas. However, the first European settlers, as on loe Let Place, a f>e>soiuil experience (Pholu hy Mtirm Picayo) most other Virgin Islands, were English or Dutch. Strategically located at the head of the chain of the politan merchants, an urban class of workers and Lesser Antilles with the Atlantic Ocean on one side and artisans — including a growing free Black population — the Caribbean Sea on the other, St. Thomas is endowed built the grand residences and shouldered the work of a deep and protected harbor. It was a principal site with transport and craftsmen's trades. Urban neighborhoods trade of manufactured goods, enslaved human in the developed. These were a center of social life and beings sugar products between Europe, Africa and and helped define the character of Chariotte Amalie. Savanne, Americas. The island became a central holding the one of the eadiest of these neighborhoods, lives in place for slaves brought from the African Gold Coast. island memory as the epitome of urban native culture. The port prospered as trading schooners constantly The cultural complexity of the island increased as mi- sailed in and out of the harbor exporting sugar, indigo, grants arrived from other islands for political and spices, cotton, grain, tobacco, and fruits, and importing economic reasons. The vital communities of French transhipping manufactured goods and slaves. and fishermen of Frenchtown and the French farmers in the of Danish neutrality during the 17th century- Because Northside, now recognized as native, were formed by European wars and St. Thomas' good harbor and settlers who emigrated in the 1860s from St. Barthelemy, location, the island became a haven for pirates, many of known locally as St. Barths. Historian Antonio Jarvis whom became legendary figures and left their names to relates how they first came to the island: mark the landscape. Tourists stop and gaze from Shortly after slavery was abolished, in 1848, two Drake's Seat and visit Blackbeard's and Bluebeard's members of the LaPlace family left St. Barths for St. castles, now incorporated into hotels. Thomas of which they had heard a great deal. These Initially, St. Thomas had tobacco and cotton planta- young men found that Chadotte Amalie was still a tions. They were, in the most part, replaced by sugar by very bu,sy port but they noticed also that the natives But by 1815 the island's value as a trading hub 1765. neglected the land; the green hillsides were already to dominate its economy and culture. Most came uncultivated and copse-grown; so, instead of engag- St.Thomians came to see their traditions centered around ing in fishing, they thought they might do better by urban marketplace, international trade, and city life- the supplying vegetables to the people of the city. These styles in the deep water port of Chadc:)tte Amalie. In an LaPlace boys soon climbed over St. Peter Mountain dominated by energetic, cosmo- expanding economy and Crown and discovered that Barret and Hull estates were good sites for farms, and more fertile than other areas. They worked for three years until they were no longer renters, but owners of the land. On off-days they caught fish, as it was a quick cash crop. After three years of living in St. Thomas, they decided to make a trip back to St. Barthelemy to get the gids they had left behind. It hardly took any time for Trudi and Doni LaPlace to marry and find twenty other adventurers willing to go back to St. Thomas. This was the beginning of a continuous migration, stopped only by the United States immigration laws. (Jarvis 1944: 54-55) Distinct French communities continue. Known as .s/ Thi Childreit play in Ihv lUv, \,iitl 111 < ii,.llc Aiiuihc. those who live in Frenchtown are primarily 1950 (Photo hy CUiutie Miilunn) "Frenchies," 21 . fishermen and boat builders, though most of the work St. John they now do is repair. The traditional form is the A little over two miles from St. ThcMiias, St. John pirogue, a dugout canoe carved from a tree taink. In became part of the Danish crown in the early 1700s. St. Frenchtown backyards, fishpots are made and mended. John was first acquired to expand sugar cultivation, but Frenchies who live on the north side of the island come the plantations did not last long. One of the earliest and to the market early on Saturday to sell their herbs, faiits initially successful slave rebellions in the Caribbean and vegetables. took place in St. John in 1733- That same year the island French woven straw hats and baskets are still made was devastated by drought and a hurricane. Many by a few women in Frenchtown, but in earlier times, plantations were destroyed, and many plantation owners almost all women made their own. Married women returned to Europe. Freed Blacks from other islands wore a calecbe, a shoulder length headdress of plaited acquired .some of the land and attempted to revitalize straw covered with white cloth, resembling hats worn the sugar plantations. Although sugar cultivation con- by peasant women in Brittany. Men also wore distinc- tinued for some time, it never became as extensive as it tive hats. Even today, most older women keep rolls of had been before the rebellion. plaited grass from St. Earths to make hats for Sunday or From the mid- 19th to the mid-20th century, there special occasions. emerged a new class of estate owners who, though In the late 19th centuiy, when steamships replaced landowners, were relatively poor and less powerful sailing vessels, St. Thomas became less important as a than those in the larger colonial system. They had only trading port. But it continued to be an important coaling limited need for laborers and cultivated smaller plots of station, or fuel stop, for coal-powered ships until the land. As the plantation system declined, plantation 1930s. Older Virgin Islanders still remember coaling laborers continued to sustain their peasant society on times when men and women carried baskets of coal on the fringes of the plantations by gardening for subsis- their heads to the docks. They were given a "tally, " a tence and internal trade. According to anthropologist coin which could be cashed in for two cents, for each Karen Fog Olwig, the provision grounds allotted to basket. Traditional sea shant>'s still heard today, like slaves for their own subsistence enabled them to de- "Roll Isabella Roll," comment on the tally days and the velop a system of production and distribution that exploitation of the coal carriers: outlived the plantation (Fog Olwig 1987: 6-7). Roll Isabella roll, oh roll Isahclki roll. To this day, a social infrastructure resists exploitation Roll Isabella roll, the clanui shopkeepers got from the outside, supported by a traditional subsistence the island doiv)i economy and cooperative behavior. Guy Benjamin, a Went to the shop with a qiiartter) to buy local historian and educator, recalls his growing up in fifteen cent thing. his book Me and My Beloved Virgin St. John U.S.A. When I looked in me hand, the damn (1981:1 ), "Ea.st End was a self-sustained village. We had shopkeeper give me tally for change. our cows, goats, pigs, chickens, fish and seafood, sea- grapes from the shore, fruits from the land, our school, Although it is no longer a shipping center, St. Thomas and six or seven sailboats to go to St. Thomas for all our is still a busy port Cruise ships dominate its harbor, and desires." The community's eleven families shared the tourists replace the traders of earlier times. But aspects work in hard times and in good times. of traditional island life persist. The combination of pon Fishing, gardening, charcoal making, masoniy, herbal town lifestyles and enduring cultural heritage, together healing and traditional cooking, all support a vital local with a constant flow of ideas and people from the outside, have made St. Thomians at once cosmopolitans and keepers of tradition. Fishermen still go out at dawn in Hull Bay and sell their catch by the docks. Fishpots are made and mended in the back yards of homes. The northside French farmers continue to grow herbs and vegetables in terraced gardens. Johnny cake and fry fish are fried in coal pots at the beach on Sunday. Women prepare traditional cakes and candy, and men and women make guavaberr\' wine for holidays. Yoimg people are still taught hand crafts, many of which were introduced by the Moravian missionaries. And songs based on traditional forms continue to be composed; a number of calypso songs about the recent hurricane, Mrs. .Marguerita Fretl stretches, shapes, and twists "/tiirhniie" c«inly Hugo, were submitted to a "Hugo Song Contest" spon- on a marble slab as chililreii aii.xiously await the ciittinf> and cool- sored by local radio station "Lucky 13." ing of this hiinwmaile treat (Photo by Janet Burton) 22 exchange system augmented by an inter-islanel trade. the plantations by contract Viorkers from the down Benjamin recalls the first motorboat he ever saw, "Eveiy islands. week the Adella went to St. Thomas with her load of Migrants frcjm Nevis, St. Kitts, Barbados, and Antigua cows and returned filled to her gunwales with sugar, brought with them dramatic and narrative traditions, flour, matches, oil, lard, butter, fat pork, salted beef, rice including "tea meetings" and "masquerade jigs," which and cornmeal" (Benjamin 1981: 28). were incorporated into the Cnician cultural repertoire. Although gardeners, fishermen, basketmakers and A tea meeting was a community social event that others invc^lved in traditional occupations are now included an oratory contest and a talent show. The tea turning to the tourist industry for a living, they resist the meeting was charged with pomp and humor. Partici- destruction of their identity, persist in their traditicjns, pants challenged each other's oratorical skills and and transform foreign lifestyles into their own. Miss knowledge of history and current events. Lucy earns her living touring visitors around St. John in Masquerading is a long established tradition on the her flower-decorated taxi. She drives visitors from one island. On holidays, small costumed groups would end of the island to the other on the recently paved road "dance masquerade" from estate to estate, singing and which connects the more commercial port of Cmz Ba\' jesting as they went. The procession concluded in town, on the western end with the more traditional East End in either Christiansted or Frederiksted. Today this and Coral Bay. She stops by the sugar apple, gua\a, tradition has been transformed into an organized town coconut and genip trees explaining their cultural, parade. A "masquerade jig" is the fancy footwork culinary and medicinal importance. A tour of the island danced by some of the masquerade trcuipes. with such a guide is a trip into the tales of the island, the Masquerading dance traditions survive in Cmcian lore of the "bush" or wild herbs, and a history of its dance music. One of these forms is quadrille, a tradition communities and culture. introduced in the 19th century- by European planters, Like tourism, the dominant presence of the i\atit)nal which became very important in Caician social life. Park Service has greatly affected the daily life and Once held on the estates imcler palm-thatched shelters, culture of St. Johnians. In 1956 the National Park Ser\ice today's dances can be found in St. Gerald's Hall in acquired two-thirds of the island from Laurance Frederiksted accompanied by "fungi" or "scratch" bands. Rockefeller as a national park. This acquisition has Fungi is named for a traditional dish that combines a generated mixed feelings among St. Johnians. On the \ariety of available ingredients, so the fungi band — also one hand, the Park Service has protected the land from called scratch because of a gourd "scratched" for massive tourist development. On the other hand, St. peicussion — brings together a variety of instruments Johnians lack full access to the land resources which are including fife, drums, banjo, bass, tmmpet, bass guitar. critical to the continuity of their lifestyle and craft Instruments change according to band. Both fimgi stew traditions. and a fungi band have a down-home, informal st^'le. Cariso and calypso songs comment on current events and individuals, voice complaints and take sides in St. Croix ctjntroversies. Cariso's praise and derision came to the St. Croix, the only island of the three principal LIS. islands with slavery. Its extemporaneous composition Virgin Islands with large areas suitable for farming, and flattering or satirical content make cariso the became a classic Caribbean planter .society. Intrigue forerunner of contemporary calypso. Immigrant groups and conflict among the Dutch, English and French gave the island its claim to seven flags. Denmark bought it from the French, who had abandoned it when they ordered all inhabitants removed to the then booming plantations of the island of St. Domingue (which be- came Haiti). After the Danish purchase, and because of the Danes' lack of interest in settling there, English and Dutch settlers from St. Thomas and St. John and from the "down islands" to the east — St. Kitts, Nevis and Barbados — were invited to start estates, the local name for plantations. A "free coloured" class is mentioned in documents as early as 1744, some of whom became estate owners. The Danes wavered about emancipation, but a A scriitch hciinl pfifanns trculUunial ijiiclhi? music. iiuUfieiunis to liberal Danish governor, Peter von Scholten, declared the \'ii:i>:ii h/iiiiih Fniiii U'/l !<• n^hl tlh' inslniDiriits div Si/iuish Isliii/lI'i. •^iiiliir cliiivy r/>i'lliiii fnpf tj-,^ ]iipci, ciihl iik'i'lclc the end of slavery during a major slave uprising in I84S. iPhnt., L-niiUcsv the \uii Scholten ('nllcaim,. Eiiul liiui Piihhc After emancipation, liberated slaves were replaced on Lihniiy mill Aycbiivs, St Tljoiiius. \'irf^iii hlciiuls) 23 ) One day you up the ladder. Next day you crawling on the floor. Beauty is skin deep: material things is for a time. A co)Tupted soul willfind no peace of mind. I think that is all our gale Hugo was trying to say to all mankind. As in St. John, cane workers survived on crops and animals raised on provision grounds of the large estates. Richard A. Schrader, Sr. describes these grounds in his history, Notes of a Crucian Son-. The nega ground on the estates' land was truly a blessing. it tanya, okra, water- Ill the 1930s, wiirkel rciulurs inspecl/iv^h ImirisKnis recently From came: yam, arrivedfrom neighboring islane/s. Trade with adjacent islands still melon, cabbage, corn, cassava, pumpkin, potato creates spontaneous marketplaces like this one on the wharf in even kallalloo for the Crucian kitchen table. Christiansted. St. Croix. (Photo bv RaymondJacobs and For saltin (meat) the people raised chickens, hogs, have often been cariso's target. For example, the cariso goats and sheep. A few people owned milking song "Me Mother Had Tell Me Not to Marry No Bobajan" cows. But most favored goat milk and raised their warns girls about the "Bobajans" or "Bajans" — men children on it. Beef was produced by the big land from Barbados who came to work in large numbers after owners with large herds of cattle. (Schrader 1989: emancipation. A Cnician cariso singer commented on 31) the rhetorical power of the songs in an interview: Sugar cultivation continued into the 1960s although "When you did anything that was wrong, they look at the economy had begun to shift with the opening of the you from head to foot — and they composed a song Hess oil refinery, the Martin Marietta alumina plant, and about you. And that lasts forever. Even though you die, a boom in tourism that continued to draw immigrants somebody remembers the song." from the down islands. Immigrants from the mainland In 1878 a rebellion now commemorated as "Fire- U.S., known in the islands as "continentals," came in at burn," because half the town of Frederiksted was this time as school teachers for the mushrooming burned down, erupted in reaction to desperate eco- migrant population and later moved into hotel and nomic conditions and restrictive post-emancipation restaurant management work. Much farm land has now labor laws. Mary Thomas or "Queen Mary," a canefield become grazing fields for beef and dairy cattle and worker and one of the leaders of the rebellion, is goats. Rastafarian communities from Jamaica (and later celebrated in cariso songs. The following stanza, still native born) began to settle in the area in the 1970s, popular among cariso singers, praises Queen Mar\''s cultivating vegetable gardens as others turned to .service readiness to die for her cause: occupations. Puerto Ricans, now a significant part of the popula- Queen Mary - 'tis where you going to hum- tion, came primarily from the islands of Culebra and Queen Mary^ - 'tis where you going to bum- Vieques to work as cane cutters. After less than a Don 't tell me nothing fall generation, many have become government workers Justfetch the match and oil and small businessmen. Although they are established Bassin (^ChTisiiansted) Jailhouse, 'tis irhere in their new communities, like many of the other I'm going to bum. immigrants they maintain a link with their homeland. It Other aspects of Crucian life and history also become themes for songs — conflicts with estate managers and foremen, the economic hard times in the 1950s, horse- racing and, most recently, hurricane Hugo. Many a calypso was written about hurricane Hugo and per- formed during the traditional celebration of the Day of the Kings this year. Although calypso developed in Trinidad, it has assumed a distinct style in the Virgin Islands. Calypsonian Mighty Pat assessed the situation after the hurricane in his song: When I looked around and saw the condition of our Virgin Island. Virgin Islands rum factory workers bottle and label eiiii,iii h'li. I tell myself advantage can 't done. before it is distributed to local ami international markets iFbi One day you rich. Next day you poor. by Jewel Ross Sage) 24 has become traditional for the mayor of Vieques to take rituals and celebrations. On the three islands there are a boat to St. Croix on "Friendship Day" to commemorate also rich traditions of local histor\- and personal narra- the ties between Crucians and Puerto Ricans. During the tives. Christmas season, families visit between islands in Another value islanders hold in common is what they parranda or holiday serenading traditions. call "good manners." These go beyond politeness in the Puerto Rican traditions both from the European and appropriate recognition of another person upon meet- African ends of the Caribbean cultural spectaim have ing and before engaging in social or business conversa- become part of Crucian culture. Among these are tion. Good manners are learned in the home and baquine or songs for children's wakes, and the rosario reinforced in school. Richard Schrader remarks: cantao sung in the highlands of Puerto Rico in the Manners and respect, a common theme in school, month of May, the month of the flowers, for the Day of continually rang in our ears, and were hammered the Cross: into our brains at home. 'Yoh must always have Mayo florido. Blossoming May, manners and never be disrespectful to older people. Mes de lasflores - Month of the flowers - Respect and manners is a passport that can take yoh Aqiii te cantan. To you they sing, through this world,' my parents would say. (Schrader Los trovadores. The troubadours. 1989: 21) A traditional Puerto Rican song form, the plena, also Family ties reinforce cultural unity between islands. thrives in St. Croix and provides social commentaiy It is not unusual to have family from at least two of the much like cariso and calypso. three islands. This is most evident at Christmas time when serenaders go from house to house visiting family U.S. Virgin Islands and and friends, bringing cheer with the "Guavaberry Song." Today they travel on safari busses through St. Thomas The Festival and St. John, and last year they included St. Croix. Native cultural patterns represent both historical These cultural values currently face a new set of continuities and an ever changing pattern of adaptations challenges. Virgin Islanders have hi.storically struggled and amalgamations. Several key values and orienta- to control their destinies and define their own lifestyles, tions continue to characterize local culture in the Virgin values and aspirations. Exertion of cultural control, Islands. Chief among these is education. Islanders also even when enslaved, is represented to this day by such honor skill: with words, with crafts, in work. "Throwing forms as cariso, calypso and storytelling, in foodways words" is a highly valued verbal skill characteristic of the and the practice of "bush" or herbal medicine, in the Caribbean in general — the ability to contend effectively traditional occupations of fishing, charcoal making and with vv'ords in social, ceremonial and competitive situ- masonry. Currently, Virgin Islanders, as people through- ations. As described by Roger Abrahams, out the United States, and indeed the world, face the The range of verbal repertory includes the ability to challenges of mass popular culture, tourist culture, and joke aggressively, to 'make war' with words by insult the multiple cultures of new immigrants. How can and scandal pieces, to tell Ananzi stories (any kind of Virgin Islanders appropriate and revitalize mass culture folk tale), and to make speeches and toasts appropri- without falling into the tourist industry's definitions of ate to ceremonial occasions. (Abrahams 1983: 57) native culture? To what cultural forms will the ongoing Expressive forms are as vital in everyday life as in creative process of amalgamation between native and immigrant cultures give birth? John Kuo Wei Tchen, in an address entitled "Race and Cultural Democracy," presented at the Smithsonian Institution's Martin Luther Kingjr. celebration last year, addresses the pluralistic nature of American society. His observation that ethnic groups in the U.S. "have shared histories" and 'interwoven identities" seems equally descriptive of communities on the three American Virgin Islands. These cultural identities, he continues, are both "constructed and multi-faceted." The U.S. Virgin Islands Festival program thus not only presents the "interwoven identities" of the islands, but ine.scapably becomes part of the process of constructing them. The program has been researched and designed by scholars and community members of the three Salvacliir Friiiiiisii. Aiiuhli'r I'cli.w Sitnlas I'jiciinuiLU'iii iiinl i ,cih islands in collaboration with the curator and Office of Ortiz reheane I'lieHu Ricliii ii'lkim tiiiies in Ihcir hat.kyan/ iii St Croix I Photo by Daniel Sheehyl Folklife Programs staff. Researchers have documented 25 performances and demonstrations, multiple voices collaborate in telling stories their own way, in a dialogue with one another, with the public, and with the some- times complex voices within. Olivia Cadaval is Director of the Office of Folklife Programs' Quincentenary Program and curator of the Festival's U.S. Virgin Islands program. She has con- ducted research and collaborated in public program- ming with the Washington, D.C. Latino and Caribbean communitiesfor over a decade. She received her Ph.D. from the George Washington University American Stud- ies/Folklife Prog ra m. Citations and Further Readings Abrahams, Roger. 1983. The Man of Words in the In her yard in St Croix. Mrs. Lia ilk- Ruhcrts l uls a siinarcunf slcilk West Indies: Performance and the Emergence of Creole forfamilv andfriends (Photo by Maty Jane Smile) Cidture. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. traditions tiiat have been maintained informally over Benjamin, Guy H. 198T Me and My Beloved Virgin time. These traditions are practiced in community St. John, U.S.A. New York: Benjamin's Publishing. settings such as favorite fishing coves in St. John, Boyer, William W. 1983. America 's Virgin Islands: A Frenchie Northside gardens of St. Thomas, or the Christ- History ofHuman Rights and Wrongs. Durham: Caro- mas parade of St. Croix; in intimate domestic settings lina Academic Press. and in work places; in markets and in dance halls. Fog Olwig, Karen. 1987. Cultural Adaptation & Local researchers suggested an interesting strategy Resistance On St. John. Gainesville: University of for interpreting traditions of the Virgin Islands to create Florida Press. a public program. This was to identify "cultural touch- Jarvis, Antonio. 1944. We Virgin Islands and Their stones" or historical points of reference that are still People. Philadelphia: Dorrance & Company. useful in understanding the present. The big yard, the Lewis, Gordon K. 1972. The Virgin Islands - A marketplace, and public celebration were selected as Caribbean Lilliput. Fvanston: Northwestern University meaningful cultural touchstones to all three islands. Press. The big yard developed in urban neighborhoods of Lewisohn, Florence. 1964. Divers Information on St. Thomas as shared area behind row houses where Tloe Romantic History of St. Croix - From The Time of workers lived. The big yard was the setting for everyday Columbus Until Today. Bo.ston: St. Croix Landmarks activity, casual or planned meetings, storytelling under Society-. the tamarind tree, laundering, cooking, children's play, Mintz, Sidney W. 1974. Caribbean Transfonnatio)is. and gossiping. Although the St. Thomian big yard is not Chicago: Aldine. found as an urban space in St. Croix or in St. John, the Paiewonsky, Isidor. 1987. Eyewitness Accounts of concept of big yard can refer in general to a communal Slave/y in the Danish West Indies Also Graphic Tales of place for shared domestic activity on all three islands. Other Slave Happenings on Ships a)id Plantations. St. While the big yard shapes the private world of the Thomas, U.S.V.I. home, the marketplace is at the crossroads of commerce Peterson, Arona. 1974, 1975, 1982, 1987. Herbs and where people sell and trade, throw words, preach, Proverbs. St. Thomas, U.S.V.I. campaign and catch up on events of the day. Its values Rivera, Eulalie C. 1987. Growing Up On St. Croix. St. are public; its gestures and jests may be broad. CroLx, U.S.V.I. Socially inclusive and temporarily transforming, cele- SchraderSr., Richard A. 1989. Notes ofa Crucian Son. brations join domestic and public spaces and bring the St. Croix, U.S.V.I islands together, whether it is carnival on St. Thomas, Vails, Lito. 1981. What a Pistarkle!. St. John. U.S.V.I. the Day of the Kings Festival on St. Croix, or Emancipa- tion Day on St. John. The big yard, the marketplace and celebration are Suggested Listening contextualizing, interpretive devices that represent Virgin Island Voices. Radio Program produced by continuity in the folklife of the islands and that serve as Maiyjane Soule, 1989. backdrops for exploring contemporary cultural issues of loop, Zoop. Zoop. Recording produced by Maiy Jane concern to Virgin Islanders. In these discussions, as in Soule. 26 " Rounding the Seine Guy H. Benjamin GuyH. Benjamin remembers growing up in East End in St. John in hisMn and My Beloved Virgin St. John, U.S.A. Mr. Benjamin has had a long career as an educator He began teaching immediately after graduating as thefirst St. Johnianfrom Charlotte Amalie High School in St. nomas. He is now retired and lives in New York City in the winter and in St. John in the summer. Even,' time I remember our boyhood day.s in that's attached to the seine. The women pulled the ropes Ea.st Fnd, I still feel correct in .saying that no to get the seine in as fast as possible before the fish got other children had as much fun. joy, and a chance to realize that they were a captive supper, happiness as we had. lunch, or breakfast. And all of us naked boys got nearer Our community had just eleven families. My godfa- to land, so that we soon would be pulling the seine. ther owned a seine and a large boat to hold it. He would We had the two arms in the surf. We had to let the keep the boat ready, and whenever a school of fries tries out ,so we could see what we'd caught. A (minnows) came into the bay, we would be looking out beauteous sight! The fish were going around in perfect for the sweet carang (the cavally, a member of the jack circles, gli.stening silver and spotted gold. We had family], the beautiful yellow tail snapper, and the fat caught carang and yellow tails. There is no prettier sight blue runner loLir nati\e name, "hard nose"). They any place than these beautiful dinners swimming around. generally came one or two days after the fries. I wondered if they knew their fate? Then my only If they were sweet head fries, they never had a thought was to help to get them on shore, which we did. chance to la.st too long near the shore. The men threw Now it was sharing time. First, they were all divided their nets over them and would have to ease them to the in two — one share for the owner, the other for the rest shore, so many would they cover at one time. Then they of us. No one was omitted, not even the landowner. emptied the fries in their boxes. Everybody in the Ever>' child, woman, and man was given a share. When village would come to get a share. I could hardly wait we caught the blue-eyed bonito, if each one could not to get home with them. My aunts would jump on the get a whole one, then we sliced it in junks [chunks] and fries, take off the heads, and wash them. Meanwhile my we all shared. If that were communal living, then we grandmother gave me the mortar, with the black pep- were the first Danish-American communists in the per, onions, and salt. This I had to pound until it was Virgin Islands. fine and mixed. Then my aunt would season the fries This was the happy, glorious life we lived in East End, while the flour batter was being prepared. Many |X-ople with our sea which provided us with natural health and then made roussayed (fried the fish with lard, butter, or life. salad oil). The fries were then placed in the batter and It my grandmother wanted a lobster for Sunday cooked Ambrosia! The whole operation took 30 morning breakfast, she would say, "Guy, bring home a minutes combined, from sea to stomach. Nothing can lobster with you tonight." I would go to my favorite rock be finer than to be eating batter from the sweet head and take out a lobster and bring it home. My aunts tries. This year, Goldie (Mrs. Golda Samuel) gave me would cook it in a kerosene tin on the fire. I would eat some at Thanksgiving. Is it any wonder that I o\'erate the legs while it was cooking — so succulent and sweet. again? We had lobsters like this, even after I returned to St. In the meantime, the men were on the lookout for the John to teach. Then Milton would say, "Benjy, cook the fish. You heard the signal — Roundoff! Everybody left raisin fungy [cornmeal dish] and I'm going for the the houses and headed for the beach, every little boy lobsters. and girl, grandmothers, aunts, uncles, and cousins by In an hour, he'd be back with at least four. It would the dozens. be a whole gang of hungry men and boys. But we'd All of us small boys were out in the water. We must have enough and some to spare. keep the fish from coming to the ropes so we "beat Progress has taken away our lobsters. Today, we are water." paying $20.00 for a three-pound lobster, and we must The men were out at the back, holding back the cork go far out in the ocean bed to dive for them. 27 Folk Architecture Myron D. Jackson MyronJackson was bom in St. nomas and works for the U.S. Virgin Islands DepaiUnent of Planning and Natural Resources. Division of Historic Preservation barely sui'viving example of folk architec- when interviewed, spoke of several structures he had ture, the wattle and daub house had its built on St. John. origins in Africa and proliferated in the It is Folk Cottages A Virgin Islands countryside. strong and durable, and some of the structures have survived Wood frame West Indian houses are a folk form that hurricanes. Variations on the wattle and daub theme can be found in a number of variations in the Virgin also can be found in other parts of the Caribbean, South Islands. Houses of this type are visible throughout the America, Asia and Europe. Several examples are still three major towns — Charlotte Amalie. Christiansted standing on the island of St. John. and Fredriksted. Building materials for this house were taken from Charlotte Amalie is the oldest of the towns on St. the natural forest and surrounding areas. Tropical Thomas. Many wooden structures can be found on the hardwoods and tyre palm leaves were selected and cut east and west sides of its commercial district. Within the at times that coincided with particular phases of the areas defined by the structures are historic neighbor- moon. Craftsmen say working with the moon ensured hoods of working class citizens. The Savanne district is that wood and palm leaves would not be eaten by the oldest community on St. Thomas. Established in the insects. mid 1700s for the large number of free Blacks in the then Supporting poles usually were cut to a length of Danish West Indies, the area was also reserved for a about seven feet and placed into the ground several feet large number of Sephardic Jews who came to the apart. Smaller branches were woven through these Caribbean to escape the Spanish Inquisition and other supporting poles in a pattern similar to basketwork. religious persecution. Fresh cow dung, clay or a mixture of sand, lime and Structures were built facing the street and were water was u.sed to plaster the exterior of the structure. restricted by the size of their lots, which could be either Sometimes a white lime wash would be used on the purchased or leased. Many houses were constaicted on exterior. Roofs were usually of the hip or gable type, a masonry foundation of local materials and imported covered with grass or palm leaves. Tyre palm seems to European bricks, which were brought on sailing ships have been the more favored material. as ballast. Plaster finishes were done with a lime mortar, Mrs. Alice Daniels, 96, recalling life on the western which was prepared by burning cut coral stones in a kiln end of St. Thomas, tells of how the country people came to produce a lime powder. This powder was turned to together to assist one another in building homes. Most mortar by mixing it with beach sand, water and some- of the actual construction was done by men, while times molasses. women gathered palm leaves and did other work. Local tropical hardwoods were sometimes used, but Women often prepared dishes of hearty food to make for the most part, imported pitch pine was the favored the event a festive one. There would also be singing of material for the skeleton of the structure atop the folk and religious songs, gossiping and storytelling. masonry foundation. Cypress shingle or shipboard The houses were used primarily for sleeping and siding was used for exterior sheeting. household storage. Cooking and other chores were For the construction of roofs, craftsmen chose either done in the surrounding yard, in which many families thatch, shingle, tile or, later, galvanized sheeting. In also maintained gardens and kept animals. This was a wooden folk cottages, the roof took one of the three lifest\'le tA'pical of many Afro-Caribbean people. basic styles — gable, hip or shed. The hip roof was the Few Virgin Islanders today remember this type of type most commonly found in the Danish West Indies. house construction, but on St. John surviving examples Its form can be traced to both Africa and Europe. This of the wattle and daub house were in use up to recent roof shape, usually constructed with steep pitches, has times. Several families in the Coral Bay area have several advantages. In Europe the hip roof design was retained the houses, and other examples can be found used to prevent large accumulations of snow on rooftops. on old plantations and estates on the island. One family In Africa it allowed quick drainage of rain from the patriarch, Mr. Winfield James, who was 92 years old thatch roof. In tropical architecture, its high ceilings 28 In European architecture, Victorian Gothic and Ital- ian Villa themes were in vogue. Noveau riches in the Americas seized and embellished these styles using wood as their principal building material. The actual construction techniques of the wooden frame cottages on all three islands were similar, although the constnac- tion terminology sometimes differed from island to island. Viet 1 1 he It'll hy vi'diy ofhiirrictinc ^ciis(iii\. tin iihiiiulmiuil ucittlv and ciciiih house still suiinls in Si /nhii. ils htisheliniik stnicliiiv This method of constniction continued up to the mid exposed by the elements (Photo hy Fred Sahieooksy) 1930s. The introduction of American cut-and-nail tech- allowed hot air to rise. This feature, in addition to the niques eventually replaced the practice of mortise and cross ventilation from windows and doors, enabled the tenon construction. The old method, howe\er, can still structures to remain cool during the hot summer months. be found in neighboring islands. The durability' of hip roofs was evident after the Most of the structures in the Virgin Islands were devastation of hurricane Hugo in September 1989. The designed and constructed by skilled, local carpenters four sloping sides of the hip roof present minimal who passed their techniques from one generation to the resistance to the wind, allowing it to blow over and next by oral tradition. They took pride in their creations, around the roof structure. As an added safety feature, and they built three beautiful towns. Their work repre- craftsmen would build the roofs of galleries separate sents a fusion of European and African contributions. from that of the main structure. This would ensure that Today many of our wooden structures are on the when a storm tore off the roof of a more exposed and verge of collapse. It is incumbent on us to restore and vailnerable gallen,', the roof of the main house would not to preserve for future generations this architectural go with it. heritage, which represents a history of people's lives Wooden doors and shutters were simply detailed and and the times they lived in. Homes built by Afro- gave protection from the elements. These had simple Caribbean people are now primarily of concrete. Intro- metal hinges and were fastened from the inside by duced into the islands in the early 1900s, this type of means of a wooden bar cradled by metal brackets, hi- structure represents a new era in Caribbean architec- terior wooden jalousies allowed privacy and ventilation. ture. But my question is, at what cost? As we see the Metal fittings were usually forged by local blacksmiths. wooden frame cottage disappear from our countryside, Galleries were not ver>' common with the smallest, older towns and neighborhoods, they are being replaced with frame cottages. However, one would always find deco- foreign and insensitive reinforced concrete and steel rative trim attached. frame monsters. One can't help but feel a sense of On the island of St. Croix one can find an assortment displacement, though others see in these developments of decorative trim. Frederiksted is known for its ginger- a sign of progress, of our entrance into modern times. bread, an impressive decorative feature. Gingerbread The new structures also speak of our changing refers to the strips of ornately carved designs used along relationship with the land. As we house our people in the roof ledge and balconies, which give the effect of high-rise, multi-level complexes, we radically alter their lace trim. relationship with the environment and with a way of life In 1878 Frederiksted was \irtually burnt to the that involved direct contact with the earth. The conse- ground during the "Fire Burn" carried out by Africans quences are grave. We can change our way of living, who wanted an end to slavery. Although emancipation but only so much before we, ourselves, become dis- had been granted in 1848, Crucians were still under the placed. Our historic towns and neighborhoods provide yoke of the White planters who continued to exploit us a sense of regional identity and represent our them. During the period of recon.stnjction of the town, inherited cultural legacy. We are one with the tradition. many former slaves acquired property and moved in from neighboring estates. Wood houses became very popular. During this era of the Industrial Revolution, mass production and modern transportation brought greater wealth to an ever-increasing number of people in the United States and Europe. This accumulation resulted in a steady growth of the middle class and a proliferation of its style of opulence. The style was imitated by local land and property owners who adapted published Neighhiii-s conslnicl a thalched roo/hiil in St 'Ihomns in the /9th patterns to suit their own taste and homegrown aes- centnir (Photo cuiirlesy the \'iigiii Islands Depiirtiiient of Plan- thetic. ning and Natural Resources) 29 Savanne Ruth M. Moolenaar Ruth Moolenaar is a retired educator and coordinator of the 1973 Project Introspection j\. the U.S. Virgin Islands Depaiinient of Education. A Historical Perspective and other businesses of the commercial district. The The port town of Charlotte Amalie on St. Thomas was people of Savanne were obligated to leave their neigh- founded to serve the needs of early Danish traders and borhood to seek employment. Many women and a few- planters. Savanne, or Savan, the northwestern subdivi- men were engaged in "carrying coal," a job that involved sion of Charlotte Amalie, was established to provide carrying huge baskets of bituminous coal on their heads housing for an increasing number of manumitted slaves up the planks of ships calling on St. Thomas. Coal was or "free coloureds," as they were called. This group, used as fuel by the ships. Working from mid-day into having gained their freedom by direct purchase or by the wee hours of the next morning, coal workers were baptism, left the rural estates on which they worked and paid with tallies which, when redeemed, netted two or lived and moved to the town. Although legally free, they three cents per basket. were treated as an inferior class and were subjected to Another source of employment for women was rigid restrictions, As reported in Emancipation in the laundry, which involved washing uniforms worn by Danish West Indies, Eye Witness Accounts II, by Eva gendarmes and other uniformed officers. The uniforms Lawaetz, "the free colored were banned from certain were made of heavy cotton like khaki, twill or denim, punishment for certain offenses. In addition, they had and when wet, the clothes exacted much energy from to always have on their person a FRIBREV (Letter of the women who did their work without modern ma- Freedom) to prove they were not slaves." In the mid chinery and detergents. They hand scaibbed the 1700s Governor General Peter Von Scholten passed garments, slapped them on rocks, boiled them on an several laws to protect the rights of the free coloureds. outdoor fire and finally bleached them dr>- in the sun. Unfortunately, many of the freed Blacks were never Ironing was almost as tedious a chore done with a apprised of their rights. So large was their number in St. charcoal fired "goose." Thomas that it was agreed to sell lots in the Savanne area Some women earned a living as vendors in the to facilitate their needs. Thus, the neighborhood was es- Bungalow at Market Square, now called the Rothschild tablished around 1764-65. Francis Square, or as peddlers throughout the town. The character of the neighborhood was evidenced by The Bungalow vendors were a distinctive group. Col- the construction of its houses. In contrast to the orful in dress and spirited in temperament, they added masonry, European-styled buildings and homes of the a special flavor to the area. Each woman had her commercial district, houses of Savanne were small individual spot or table, which she guarded jealously. wooden frames covered with shingles. Described by As a group they regulated prices and conformed to some architects as vernacular row, the prevailing design unwritten norms as they bargained their wares erf fresh was a long row of contiguous houses that formed an L- fruits, vegetables, herbs, spices, food and drinks. or U-shaped structure. Others were individual houses Men earned their living as cargo men, common of the same wooden frames but having a small balcony. laborers, janitors, or fishermen. Skilled workers emerged Built a few feet above the ground these elevated homes years later from this group. These artisans exercised were reached by wooden or masonry steps. Under the great influence in the community. Operating small trade raised houses children found safe havens for play, and shops within and outside the area, they satisfied the nesting hens used these shaded areas as good hiding community's needs in such areas as cabinet making, places for their eggs. One long, winding road ran furniture repair, masonry, joinery, brick laying, barber- through the center of the neighborhood. ing, dressmaking, needleworking, and cooking. Economy of the Area Social Services There was no alternative in Savanne to the trading Before local government provided social services for 30 the needy, fraternal organizations played an important graduation from high school was considered an out- role in furnishing these services for the Savaneros. standing milestone in one's life. Unlike parents in the These institutions, in addition to providing financial commercial district, few Savaneros could send their assistance in time of need, supplied counseling and children to the mainland or to Europe for higher other services. Two such fraternal organizations in education. Therefore, after high school graduation most Savanne were the United Bretheren of the St. Joseph young men and women worked for the 'Virgin Islands Association and the Beloved Sisters of Mary and Joseph. Government. Many of these individuals continued their The Harmonic Lodge and the Old Unity Lodge were also education in the 1950s. popular among Savaneros even though they were located outside the boundaries of Savanne. Savanne Today Entertainment Visible change in the area is reflected in the houses. Quite different from their predecessors, many homes Unlike the courtyards of the commercial district, are now two- and three-story concrete buildings. Glass which served as extended work areas or as stables of and aluminum shutters have replaced wooden win- wealthy merchants, the Big Yards of Savanne were for dows and doors. Several wooden homes with shingles entertainment and informal, traditional education. The.se remain, however, as testimonies to the eariy character wide open spaces bordering the long row houses were of the area. identified by landlord's name or by location. There Unlike commercial Charlotte Amalie, few historic were the Lockhart's Big Yard, Richard's Big Yard and the sites in Savanne remain to tell the community's history. Sealey Big Yard. Three popular yards outside of the One surviving site is the Jewish Cemetery, which served Savanne area were Ross's Yard, Buck Hole, and Bar- the group of Jews who fled from the island of St. racks Yard. On moonlight nights families gathered to Eu.statius in 1781 after the attack of Sir Rodney on that share stories, jokes, gossip, and family events; they island. These Jewish members of the community recited poems, danced and sang in the Big ^'ards. became ship owners, ship chandlers and brokers and Daytime activities were also plentiful. The people of participated in the slave trade. They became a vital part Savanne also frequented two pcjpular dance halls. of the community and lived primarily in other urban Jubilee Hall and Dilley Hall. Additionally, the fraternal areas, but they were buried in Savanne, on Jode (from lodges were a\ailable for social affairs. Judah) Street." Other street names in Savanne are Pile Strade, 'Vester Gade, Slagter Gade, Gamble Gade, Silke Political Life Gade, and Levkoi Strade. Since Savanne was one of the most densely pcjpu- Currently Savanne is home to immigrant populations lated areas on the island, it attracted the attention of from Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and the politicians, who stumped the area at election time eastern Islands. Blacks of Savanne earned a living in wooing voters. In the 1940s and later, the strength of a conditions resembling servitude while the Whites of the political party or its candidates hinged on support from commercial district flourished financially from the bus- Savanne. The old Banaba Well, a popular landmark tling trade of the town and its harbor. The sociology of formerly used as a water source, became the rostrum the two groups reflected this difference. from which political candidates delivered fiery speeches. After these performances people gathered at nearby "Eva Grants Corner" for drinks and conversation. Middle- Citations AND Further Readings class and wealthy political candidates were sometimes Gjessing, Frederik and William MacLean. 1987. viewed ironically by the Savaneros who were aware that Historic Buildings ofSt. nomas and St. John. London: their small homes and their food and drink would Macmillan Publishing Ltd. ordinarily be scorned by these candidates outside ot an Jarvis, Antonio. 1938. A BriefHistory ofthe Viriiin election year. J. Islands. St. Thomas: The Art Shop. Several leaders were elected from Savanne. These Knox, John P. 1952. .-1 Historical Account of St. individuals fought tenaciously for improved wage laws, nomas. Reprinted 1966. St. Thomas: CV.I. improved roads, better health facilities and most impor- Lawaetz, Eva. n.d. Emancipation i7i the Danish ^^"est tantly, for job opportunities. Today, people with their Indies, Eyewitness Accou>its II (English Translation). roots in Savanne can be counted among the society's list The City Library, St. Thomas. of legislators, doctors, lawyers, civic and religious Svensson, Ole, ed. nree Towns. Copenhagen: leaders and other professionals. Tutein and Koch. Taylor, Charles Edwin. 1888. Leaflets from the Other Impacts Danish West Indies. London: Dawson and Sons. From the 1930s education became high priority, and Reprinted 1970 by Negro Universities Press. 31 " Tea Meeting Eulalie Rivera The "Tea Meeting, "a combination ofuahety show and church social, is usually held during the Christmas holiday season. It consists of a series of verbal perfoniiances introduced by a Chairman to a King, Queen and Princess, who preside in appropriate costume. At the event, speeches arepompous, often ridiculous and replete with outlandi.'^h diction andJlamboyant or- namentation. The Tea Meeting was introduced to St. Croixfrom Barbados. It probably developed out of fundraising church events. The name derivesfrom an attempt by Methodists to substitute tea- drinking occasionsfor those in which alcoholic beverages predominated. Older Crucians can still declaim parts oftea meeting speeches but because the organization ofthe event is very elaborate and time consuming, it is rarely celebrated today. Eulalie Rivera, educator and chronicler of Crucian traditions, recalls the tea meeting: mu.scles About the year 1934-35, I attended a Tea He then names the bones of the body, the Meeting at the Auditorium of Diamond School. and composition of the blood. Tiiis is what I remember about the procedure The Choir then sings a song or rw,'0, and the Chairman of that Tea Meeting — a pattern similar to the again salutes the King and Queen. one followed in all traditional tea meetings, including He then calls on the Mathematician, who proceeds the ones still held today. from the back of the room onto the stage, with a square, First of all, there were not many cars on the island, a rule, and a protractor in his hand. As he approaches so most of the people came on foot or by honse and cart. the stage, he chants: The Tea Meeting began at about 6:00 p.m. "Mr. Chairman, I'm coming. I am coming, Mr. The Characters: Chairman. I'm coming like the days of the week which A Chairman we know now to be seven." A King and Queen, representing British Royalt\' Reaching the stage, he continues: A Philosopher "Mr. Chairman, it was not always so, as I will explain A Mathematician in my address. A Socialist "Mr. Chairman, as the ocean moves in currents of A Physiologist seven, so I'm coming in seven more steps. Mr. A Cook Chairman, I've come as the ocean current moves — in A Bartender six small waves and one big one to make it seven." The Meeting opened with the Chairman's announce- He salutes the King and Queen, then turns to the ment of readiness. Then ever\'One sang "God Bless Our audience: Native Land." "Ladies and Gentlemen, I begin my lesson with the The Chaimian then saluted the King and Queen. unit of things. I'll talk about abstract things. Ill talk A Choir sang. about concrete things. I'll talk about symbols. Then the Chairman called on whoever was at the top "Gentlemen and Ladies, I'll show these ten fingers, I of the program, and this is the way it went: also have ten toes. Ladies and Gentlemen, the number "Mr. Physiologist, will you address us?" ten then represents the base of all mathematical proce- "Master Chairman, I'm coming. I'm coming. iMaster dure. Ladies and Gentlemen, the art of expressing Chairman, I'm coming." He starts walking from the back numbers by symbols is called notation, and the art of of the room. "When he gets up to the front, he says: expressing them in words is called numeration. "Master Chairman, I am coming as a human being. He would then go on to lecture for quite a while. Master Chaimian, I'm here to tell you tonight of our The Chaimian next calls for Mr. Philosopher, who human body. Master Chairman, our human body is also approaches from the back of the room, saying: made up of flesh, blood, water and bones. "I'm coming. Master Chairman. I'm coming as the "Master Chairman, the human body has over 200 Philosopher who said, ''Wise men learn more from fools bones. Master Chairman, our two hands has over 50 than fools learn from wise men.' Yes, Mr. Chairman, I bones." 32 ) am here tci show you some wisdom from the Philoso- The Tea Meeting was over after everyone had joined pliers." in singing the hymn, "God Be With You Till We Meet hi this way Tea Meeting would progress until about Again." But there was often a band of the kind that's midnight, with many speeches on a variety ot subjects, called a "scratch band" today, but was known then as interspersed with songs by the Choir. a "fungi band," and it would strike up a popular dance At the midnight intermission everyone was served tea tune and everyone who had been at the Tea Meeting and a sandwich, usually homemade bread or johnny would troop up the road, sometimes to Grove or to cake with a slice of ham — real, home-cured pork which Bethlehem. the members cooked a day or two before Tea Meeting. Tea Meeting was an event usLially held about twice As the meeting came to an end, a specially co.stumed a year. It was an occasion in which the whole commu- group of dancers would perform an exhibition dance nity participated and it was the highlight of our social called "Lancers." vear. For each had of coat. a workerfor the West India Coal Coal Carriers Company received a brass tally worth two cents. (Courtesy the Fan Christian Aroiia Peterson Museum. St. Thomas) Aroiia PeteiycDi is a n'ell-kiioini Si. Thoinciscintbor. uewspcipercdhinuiisl and cbmiiiclerof island culture. She has written about island slDries. proverbs and traditional foods and herb uses. ne following poe>n and notes are e.xceiptsfrom her most recent book. Food and Folklore of the \irgin Islands. Faces so blackened %\'as justly earned. Only White of eyes clear No two ways about it, that was hard rough work, but Flour bag shirts and pants whatever the people that carried those baskets were Once bright colored dresses now made of, is not used for making people anymore, at least Faded after many washings not in these parts. Tally bags filled with tallies Spines and connecting links of necks are made of Swinging and swaying plastic, buckle under slightest pressure in these days, With movement of hips the days of the joggers with noth- Making sweet music. ing on their heads. For all the hard work bodies Not a troupe of 7ai1us were kept in good shape, even Out of merriment wkh the load off their heads they But men and women walked as if they were carrying On their way home the heavy baskets, heads held Sweaty, bone weary high, chests way up, backs straight After a day of canying as a pin. Whatever they did, they Hundred pound baskets must have been doing it right, for Of coal on their heads In the early 20th century. I irfJin IsUinds coal ctirne load they seldom needed doctor's care. coal aboard a visiting ship anchored at the harbor when Heavy baskets unloaded They drank maubi [ale-like drink] St Tliomas was one of the busiest ports in the Caribbean They talk and laugh A colla.i>c ofphiiio.i'mphsfniDt the souvenir pampiblet by the gallons to keep the lungs Si Thiim.is ,ind the \irgin Islands, U.S.A.. compiled and In tune with jingling tallies clear, and took frequent bush published !>] the SI Tlxiiniis Bureau of Information. l')l'^) In pockets and tally bags (Photo coiiHe.^y the \'(in Schollen Collection. Enid Ban [herb] baths to keep the pores Public Libraiy and Archives. St. Thomas. Virgin Islands) Making .sweet music. open so they could perspire freely. When dressed for church, weddings, funerals or any A familiar scene in bygone days — Coal carriers. By dressing up occasion there was much lace and embroi- no means the best or easiest way to earn a living, but dery under those dresses as any other lady from a between a rock and hard place and children to teed, no different walk in life. choice. The language was strong but reserved for the dock, The men and women who made the choice may not .seldom ever on the street and never on Sunday. Even have been on any rung of the social ladder but they were if provoked they'd say if today wasn't Sunday I'd give not incumbents either. They gave much more than they the length of my tongue but wait till I ketch you received but with satisfaction that every penny ( or tally tomorrow. 33 About Man Betta Man, Fission and Fusion, and Creole, Calypso and Cultural Survival in the Virgin Islands Gilben A. Sprauve Dr. Gilhen Spniui'c is a Dutch ciucl tjiglisb Creole scholar cDicl Professor of Modem Lan- guages at the University (f the Virgin Iskiiuls He received his Ph D in linguistics from Princeton University. Here and there, scattered over the thin topsoil 12. Arabs of these mountaintops in the Caribbean Sea 13. Indians that we call the Virgin Islands is a thistly weed 1-1. Haitians known to locals by the name "Man Betta 15. Dominicans from the Dominican Republic Man."' Its name is a riddle to all, one that is mirrored in The sociolinguistic approach taken here is useful in the sharp contrast between the limited land mass that understanding the forces that bind together the society geographically defines the Virgin Islands and the cul- of these islands, themselves microcosms at once of the tural complexity and diversiry characteristic of the ethnically mixed Greater West Indies and of the United Islands' historical and current population. States melting pot. The author admits to a predilection A key to unravelling the Islands' rich cultural flux and for an approach defined less by conflict among the variety is the perspective compounded of linguistic and \arious groups and more by the cultural wealth which sociological sciences. Thus the major cultural group- attends diversity and which, to some extent, is the by- ings are to a large extent subsumable under the rubric product of intense economic exploitation and adversity. "sociolinguistic sectors." Approaching the society' in this He, moreover, fully recognizes the validity of a strictly way provides a clear cultural perspective on the com- sociological survey of the same community informed by plex and creative ways the following sectors of the surface conflictual indices, one that could effectively population interact, communicate and compete with reduce the groupings to "Blacks." "Whites" and "Others" each other in relatively peaceful and harmonious set- or "Natives," "Aliens" and "Others," consistent with tings: antagonisms still present in our islands. 1. Crucians Cultural divisions also can be marked by conflict. 2. St. Thomians, St. Johnians This may be heard in the terms utilized for other-group 3. British Virgin Islanders identification in conflictual — and quasi conflictual, that 4. French is, festive — settings. These include "cha-cha" for Virgin 5. Puerto Ricans Islands French folk, "garrot" for folk from the Eastern 6. Kittitians/Nevisians Caribbean islands and "tomian" for St. Thomians. 7. Antiguans "Crucian" for St. Croix natives and "tolian" forTortolians 8. Dominicans St. Lucians carry no significant negative or conflictual charge. 9. Trinidadians "Pappa" and "mamma" are used frequently to refer to 10. American Blacks Puerto Ricans in the Virgin Islands, as "johnny" is to refer 11. American Whites to Arabs. ed. note: The words can also be a proverbial way of advising against excessive pride (or despair); there is always one man better, never ; final best. 34 If presen'ation «t the Islands' ricli cultLiral \'ai"iety is would find their way back into the treasuries of the on our list of priorities, then all sociolinguistic instal- labor-producing islands. This hard earned U.S. cur- ments marshalled to serve that variety' deserve our rency now deposited in the treasuries of our neighbor- attention, from lyrics of our calypsos to folk stories told ing islands in the Eastern Caribbean translated into a in West Indian Creole. For the survival and persistence caring posture for the United States vis-a-vis this poten- of the consciousness that we call "Virgin Islands culture" tially turbulent region. is by no means a trivial historical matter. To understand It must be tempting for the architects of Virgin Islands the workings of the engine that drives this conscious- modern style development to congratulate themselves ness we must first glance back at the economic and for the apparent success of their project and its far-flung political forces that came to bear on these islands during ramifications for regional ".stability." The truth of the the past half centur\'. matter is this economic success story is also a blueprint The most dramatic expansion ever in the Virgin for cultural fission and disintegration. It fosters un- Islands economy began in the late fifties and early sixties faththomable levels of cynicism, divisiveness and dis- of the present century; it is still in progress today, much trust within the populace. to the dismay of a wide cross-section of our populace. Some historians date the groundwork for this boom to Enter Creole, Calypso the years of the Second World War. Almost overnight these islands came under intense pressures to be the AND Carnival! showcase par excellence of unchecked capital develop- One or another of the Creoles (whether Dutch- ment and exponential commercial expansion. (Weren't English- French- or Spanish-associated) is recognized as we, after all, an American territory operating in the free the folk language on practically every island of the enterprise system? And weren't the islands unsurpassed Eastern Caribbean and Virgin Islands. The grammar and in natural beauty, the ultimate commodity for wealth)- the lexicological strategies of each Creole generally and adventurous visitors and inve.stors?) When we differs in only minor ways from the others. Sociologi- consider these pressures from the outside, combined cally speaking, Creoles throughout the region are de- with local leaders' self-consciousness about poverty and spised and their u.se discouraged by educators and all their naive vulnerability to grandiose .schemes of wealth custodians of "higher culture." Yet it would appear that for all, then we can comprehend why suddenly the the more resolute the program to eradicate a Creole, the doors were thrown open and the ft:)rces of development more persi.stent the language has grown as the instal- unleashed. ment erf folk expression. This kind of accelerated development everywhere Beyond its use in unguarded, informal conversation, hinges on the availability of cheap labor. The Virgin Creole plays a very important ceremonial — and even Islands were no exception. But Virgin Islanders were communal — role throughout the Caribbean. It is the also coming into their fuller rights as United States medium for lyrics of calypso, the West Indian musical citizens/subjects; this meant that, although their wages phenomenon that at once energizes our fetes with did not enjoy full equity with those of United States pulsating rhythms and seduces our intellect with potent citizens on the mainland, they were still a decent cut political, social and historical commentary. Although above those of our fellow West Indians on our neigh- Virgin Islanders, like other West Indians, are flexible boring islands. The ambitious Virgin Islander who felt enough linguistically to function reasonably well in hemmed in by inadequate wages at home routinely .standard varieties of English, all our calypsos are sung pulled stakes and travelled to "The Big City" — usually in Creole. The inaccessibility of this code to newcomers, New York — to make his fortune. The ambitious West to the press and to the cadre of largely imported or Indian, analogously stymied by low wages on his home alienated managerial staff makes room for transient island, was all too ready to fill the order when develop- satire — and sometimes outright ridicule — of those ers from the Virgin Islands — latter day raiders — arrived who ain things. on their shores in pursuit of able-bodied laborers for And herein lies one of the more gratuitous ironies of Virgin Islands industry and construction. the Virgin Islands as the American Paradise. It is the Thus was set in motion a new version of the famous transplanted Eastern Caribbean calypsonians, expand- triangular trade, this one involving the United States, the ing the poetic energy of their own particular Creole Virgin Islands and other islands in the Caribbean. The dialects, who have revitalized calypso in the Virgin Virgin Islands were the hub of this trade, rather than Islands. Perhaps in response to the harsher socioeco- simply one corner, so the analogy with triangular nomic landscape of their homelands, they lend them- patterns is perhaps imperfect. But in effect the three part selves heartily to expressing the underclass's frustra- trade worked as follows. From the brow of an under- tions and cynicism. They make their mark with lyrics paid labor force transported to and toiling in the Virgin that strike at the heart of the system's dual standards. Islands, substantial revenues in the form of greenbacks Often the tourist does well to simply jump up in the 35 crowd and turn a deaf ear to lyrics that, in any case, settled these islands. On the other hand, when Crucians would not only mystify him linguistically but assail him discuss their past and their cultural traditions they pay morally. homage to ancestors, including relatively recent ones, In this region, to discuss calypso is to evoke Carnival. whose place of birth was on one of the Eastern Carnival is described as the season when everybody Caribbean islands such as Antigua, Barbados, Nevis or comes together as one. Families are reunited a.s St. Kitts. Several mini carnivals or ethnic celebrations in members return home from hundreds and thousands of our islands demonstrate this bidirectional orientation. miles away. Carnival is advertised as two days of giant British Virgin Islands/American Virgin Islands Day is parades, pageantry in which the Islands' romanticists primarily a St. Thomas and St. John fete, while Eastern and realists compete for center stage — Main Street from Caribbean Day is celebrated on St. Croix. Dividing one end of town to the other. Fantastic costumes along similar lines, Fathers Day in St. Thomas — abound; social parody is plentiful. And Carnival is the including boat races and a fishing tournament — toasts World Series of Calyp.so, replete with a junior series for the contribution of the French settlers and their descen- the up and coming generation of Caribbean trouba- dants; while on St. Croix, Puerto Rico/VI Friendship Day dours. Here they compete for the title of King or Queen celebrates the presence of those who migrated from of Calypso before appreciative but wise and discriminat- Vieques and Culebra to our shores. ing audiences. Carnival is also the season when political A vigorous debate has been going on in tlie Virgin aspirants traditionally announce their plans for upcom- Islands about whether these festivals promote unity or ing elections. Carnival speaks volumes about social disunity. But in each community the grand-daddy of the organization and cultural identity- and political postur- annual celebrations is clear: it is Carnival on St. Thomas ing in the Virgin Islands. and St. John, and Festival on St. Croix. All groups From the vantage point of our approach founded on participate and compete in these events. Calypsonians "sociolinguistic sectors," the unity^ of Carnival can be flock to them from the Greater Caribbean to meet the seen to be mediated by several social realities. St. challenge of feting and entertaining the Virgin Islands in Thomians and St. Johnians accept Tortolians and British all its cultural diversity. In this way, the fissures of Virgin Islanders as kinfolk; regular commerce with the rampant exploitation and its attendant cynicism are British Virgin Islands and waves of migrations from subjected to intense festive meltdown. And the culture them have gone on uninterrupted since Europeans prospers. Were There Giants? Gilhen A. Spraiwe one! incredulous Kenny, who resolutely refused to .swallow Yes,WHO? the meaning of the Lilliputian fairy tale for the better part Tampo! of a class period, suddenly made him and the rest of the Sifting meticulously through recollections class understand by comparing Gulliver to... you know from his youth the writer was able to recall one man that who! enjoyed the status of "giant." "Enjoyed" is used rhetori- But the writer decided on a different tactic. At the end cally, for Tampo certainly did not solicit, much less of each interview done in preparation for the abuse, any special dispensations that came with the Smithsonian's Folklife Festival, he would ask his inter- distinction. He may in fact have been totally oblivious locutor to tell him what he or she knew of Tampo. to them. The writer next pondered the que.stion of confirming Fred (a fisherman): De story 'bout Tampo?? the Tampo-the-Giant myth. Tracking down school- Interviewer: ... ain' got a bank out dey, dey call mates would be simple enough. It is a small, close-knit Tampo? community. Just mention "Tampo," and Jiggy, for one F: Not me! — our unofficial class historian — would recite the exact I: I hear some St. John man talkin' 'bout Tampo Bank. day when Miss Marcellus, after struggling with an F: You know who dey call Tampo? 36 I: I know who dey call Tampo, but.., name... an' he take an' dey say dey is boxer, an" ting. F: No. ah ain' talkin' 'bout da fellow... Ah talkin' 'bout He say: Come, come: in dis To'tola language, jus' a whale... a whale shark. lemme ge me hean' on him. He had about two o' dem I: A whale shark de call Tampo? under dis foot an' dey couldn' move... squeezin' dem. F: ^'es... yen, being so big, no? An' ferocious-lookin! An' dey say dey boxin'. An' he only makin' so, grabbin' I: Wat it is: a whale of a shark?? dem. 'Bout .some four, five o' dem. But Tampo was too F: A ^'haleshark. I was on he back, Man! Yo' don' much fo' dem. Das de one! believe me? Edouard Blanchard an' ancxida fellow (from interview on 18 February name... gimrne a chance, ah goin' tell yo'... Battiste, a with Mr. Jospehus Williams) sixteen year ol' boy was also in de boat. Fourteen foot plywood boat. Fie had us up on he back fo' 'bout 20 1: Ya' know a fellow... firs' yo ever hear of a place call minutes. An' he didn' want to do not'ing wid us. .Mus' Tampo? be scratchin' he back. Battiste had want us... take de oar H: A place yo' call Tampo, yo' say? an' .stick him. I: Yo' ever hear any o' de fisherman o' anyt'ing talkin' I: He actually get up under dc boat? bout a place dey call Tampo? F: He came up... like we was anchored here. He came H: ... No, no, no. up likederean' went noil'... bout half de way over dere I: But yo' know a man... dey name, dey call Tampo? an' he turn straight sout', come .straight under de boat H: Here? 1 knov\- a guy w'a we call Tampo. De one fel- an' w'en he get half o" heself under de boat he raise up low w'a I know... an' he stop niovin', yo' know. Jus' rai.se right up like a 1: W'a yo' remember bout Tampo? helicopter, raise up right outa de water. He was about H: Yeh, but he wasn't a fisherman. dis height outa de water. But I wasn't scared because 1: No. I jus' want to know w'a yo' remember 'bout him. I know dey don' eat people, dey're not dangerous. Wat H: ... bout a fellow name Tampo? Well, Tampo is... he dere danger is, if you create it. if yo' hit dem wit' a oar ivas a very .strong man. De one dat I know. and dey get frighten an' dey dump yo'. I: De same one. I: Bout how long yo" say he was? H: An' he got a bad leg. An' I went down to he coal pit. F: 'Bout 50 feet long, 'bout ten feet wide... We average Down at Mr. Newton, back dere. An' I find Tampo: he him by de boat an' he was, ah believe, t'ree and a half had two half bag o' coal on he head, one straight an' de times de lengt' o' de boat, maybe four times... odda one cross, an' he still had two under he arm, (from interview on 12 February comin' wid dis piece o' ftM::)t. with Mr. Alfred Richardson) 1: Even wid de bad foot, yo' tellin' me? H: Wid de bad foot! I say: 'Well, Jesus Christ! Wa dis I: "\'o' remember a fellow in St. Thomas dey call Tanipor' man doin'?' An' Tampo dere comin' t'rough de stone... not'ing J: Tampo is a big fellow. But v\ait, 1 hear he dead? Dere de place dere. couldn' run, Tampo was dere were two Tampo. even wid he bad foot. If somebody had tell me dat, I I: Yeh, tell me bout dem. woulda say 'Ncj!' But wen I firs' know Tampo he was J: Dere were nvo. One had name Cyril. Dere's anodda a prayer meetin' man. He had a nice voice an' ting! one from To'tola. A set o' dem boy had fight him a time, (from 27 Febniary interview down Buck Hole. Lawd, I know... I know de boy-dem with Mr. Humphrey Hermon) 37 Tradition and Cultural Identity IN Senegal Diana Baird N'Diaye Introduction history of kingdoms, empires, long-distance trade, and continuous cultural contact. The influence of these In Senegal these are the words to a well-known institutions is still to be found in the multilayered and lullaby in the Wolof language: multifaceted cultures that exist in Senegal today. Visitors to the Senegal program at the Festival of Father Malamine. religious teacher ( marabout), American Folklife have an opportunity to experience Write me a talisman. some aspects of the traditional folk cultures of Senegal Talismans are not easy to find in Saloum and to learn the way they shape and express cultural For Saloum has just two rooms. identities in this complex African society. Cultural identities embodied in personal presentation and other The third room is only a kitchen. forms of expressive culture will be explored through And that kitchen belongs to the king. crafts, music, narrative, dance, and foodways traditions That king is the King of Saloum. performed in domestic, occupational and festive con- Ayo Ayo, texts. Senegal's contribution to Ayo Baby, the culture of the Americas will Little Baby. also be featured. Visitors to the program may find that presenta- Like many English nursery tions by Senegalese Festival par- rhymes, the song is a coded way ticipants challenge their precon- of talking about events and issues ceived notions about African cul- that could not be openly discussed. tures, societies and forms of tradi- The words of the song refer to the tional artistic expression. The 14th century, when the kingdom social complexity of Senegalese of Saloum in Senegal was divided societ)', the importance of history into two warring factions (the two in ever\'day life, the legacy of nine rooms) — converts to the newly centuries of empire, the impact of introduced religion of Islam and Islam, and the relationship of aes- adherents of the traditional Wolof thetics and morality are all visible religion. The "kitchen" mentioned Topography and Ethnic Groups ofSenegal . (Adapteil through the lens of traditional in the song symbolizes the wives from Tbiam, Mangane and Sow. Geographic du folklife. of the king — particularly his fifth Senegal 1989 edition. Dakar Xoiwelles Editions Africaines) wife, an older woman captured in war. She retained her belief in the Wolof religion, and Geography so did King Saloum. The words of this Wolof lullaby Lcjcated at the western most tip of the African refer to events, heros, customs, beliefs and social continent, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, Senegal is structures that existed five centuries ago. the closest point of contact between Africa and the They mark a particular moment in Senegal's long Americas. Its geographic position and its many rivers The Senegalprogram has been madepossible, in part, bv the President ofthe Republic ofSenegal. Abdou Diouf the Office of the President, the Ministry of Culture and Communication, the Ministry of Tourism and Environment, the Senegalese Embassy to the United States, the American Embassy to Senegal, the American Cultural Center in Senegal, Cheikh Anta Diop - Institut Fondamental de lAfrique Noire, and administrative authorities in Dakar and in the various regions of Senegal. 38 made Senegal an important point of entry, departure and contact for the Wolof, Lebou, Serer, Toucouleur, Soninke, Peul, Diola, Manding, Balante and Bassari who call Senegal home as well as for peoples from other parts of Africa and from Europe, Asia, and the Americas. For a little more than half of its width from west to east, Senegal is divided into upper and lower regions by the Republic of Gambia, an elongated encla\e following and sheathing the Ri\er Gambia. The countiT of colonial administration, the present outlines of the population. As early settlers of the region and as country were established. The citizens of Senegal re- builders of kingdoms (the Jollof, the Waalo, and the gained their self-governing status in I960 and retained Cayor, from the 13th to the 19th century), the Wolof both political boundaries and a developing conscious- have given Senegal its most widely spoken language ness of themselves as Senegalese. The influence of and have influenced many of the traditions practiced these earlier social forms has been profound on the nationwide. Ubiquitous Senegalese traditions like traditions that are part of the Senegalese way of life cbiehoudieiiue {fish with rice), the sabar dance style, today. the grand houhoii mode of dress are all of Wolof origin. Although most Wolof are farmers, on-going tradi- The People tions of long distance commerce account for the pres- ence of Wolof street merchants in many African and At first glance it might seem that performance tradi- North American cities including New York, Washing- tions and cultural identities in Senegal might be orga- ton, D.C., and Atlanta. These farmer-merchants are nized along the lines of people who speak the same called Baol-Baol after the general region from which language, live in the same community, share a common many Wolof originate. They customarily would leave history' or ancestor and practice the same religion. home during the period between harvest and the first However, visitors to the Festival's Senegal program are planting to earn money in towns so they could purchase likely to encounter different traditions and beliefs needed goods to send to their families back home. The presented by speakers of a common language and just Serer, like the Wolof, were among the eadiest settlers of as likely to hear different languages spoken in the Senegal. The late Senegalese scholar, Cheikh Anta Diop presentation of similar styles of dance, music and crafts. concluded on the basis of linguistic studies that the Serer These experiences indicate the complexity of the were an Egyptian people who migrated to their present relationship between Senegal's ethnic identities and its base in the Sine and Saloum regions of Senegal. They folk traditions. ha\e remained largely rural, supporting them.selves by The simplistic notion of tribe can mislead under- farming, fishing and cattle-raising. According to oral standings about Senegalese culture and identity. Indi- traditions, during the jihads (wars of religious conver- viduals create their cultural identities within a complex sion) of the 12th and 13th centuries they moved from the social environment composed of groups defined by north of the country towards the south, to avoid forced such things as kin relationships, religious belief, mutual conversion to Islam. Since that time, the Serer have lived assistance and economic production. In a book on mainly in the western mid-section of the country. They Manding oral traditions, Donald Wright observes: are the second largest ethnic group in Senegal, many of Holding together Mandinka [Manding], Serer, Wolof. whom continue to practice locally-based sacred tradi- and Fulbe [Peul] society and lending unity to the tions. wider Senegambian social and cultural region were The Toucouleur share common ancestry with the a tripartite social structure and strong kinship rela- Peul who have traditionally roamed throughout West tions. Freemen, artisans, and captives were the three Africa, both as herders in search of grazing ground and major class divisions throughout much of the West- as warriors. The Toucouleur broke away from the Peul ern Sudan... Uniting persons in different parts of the to embrace Islam. They are the third largest group in the Senegambia, giving individuals the framework for country. In contrast to the Serer and to the Peul, they their own identity, and providing a measure of the are fer\ently orthodox in their practice of Islam. Toucoul- sense of unity that tied together the various ethnic eur travelers to the Arab countries in North Africa were groups was kinship... the first people in Senegal to adopt Islam. From the middle of the 13th century, they propagated this religion Class and status seem to have played more important throughout Senegal through jihads, or holy wars. By the roles than ethnicity in the establishment of settle- l4th century, their homeland in the eastern midlands of ments, interpersonal relations and intermarriage. Senegal had become the seat of the Islamic empire of The only restriction on marriage seems clearly to Tekrour. A close connection to the Islam of the have been one of class: a Mandinka freeman would Almoravids (warrior priests who traveled throughout only marry a "free" person from any ethnic group. the Mediterranean) can still be seen in the Arab influ- Members of the different [ethnic] groups did inter- enced singing style of the Tidiane religious brother- marry on a wide scale, and this intermarriage and the hood, to which many Toucouleur belong. subsequent mixture of ethnic groups seems to have Originally, the Peul were nomadic. They were been a key element in the development and long- herders who traded milk and milk products with farm- term stability of political institutions in the area. ing communities for millet and other agricultural goods. The Wolof people are the largest ethnic group in In Senegal this group was spread throughout the eastern Senegal, representing well over a third of the nation's border region popularly known as the Fouta, and in the 40 southern part of Senegal popularly known as the ing people of the Cape Verde region, which includes the Casamance near the frontier between Senegal and capital city of Dakar. They are traditionally fishermen. Guinea Bissau. Over time, contact with other ethnic Lebou oral historians trace their origins as a people from groups influenced some Peul to settle and to practice the intermarriage among Wolof, Serer and Manding agriculture. Most of these sedentary Peul are concen- fishing communities. Today, they share occupational trated in the Casamance region. Peul, both nomadic and traditions such as boat building styles and reverence for .sedentary, have a characteristic love of cattle and a particular water spirits with the Niominka — fishing tradition of pre-Islamic religion. communities of rural-based Serer. Their dance and Today most Manding are farmers living in the Casa- music traditions, however, are closer to Wolof .styles. mance. During the 14th century, the first wave of Senegalese have developed strategies for easing the Manding, also called Soce, arrived in Senegal as part of stresses that occur when different people live together. the expanding empire of Mali from the southeast. In the Among them is "cal," the traditional joking relationships 19th centur>', a second migration of Manding people between ethnic groups. Similar joking traditions exist came to settle in the country as converts to Islam by El within families and between people with specific sur- Hadj Omar, the warrior marabout (Islamic religious names. For example, the N'Diayes and the Diops teacher/counselor) of the Toucouleur. They are related jokingly call each other their slaves and accuse each to the Malinke in the Republic of Guinea, and to the other of being gluttons. The same playful accusations Bambara in the Republic of Mali. They brought with fly between the Peuls and Diolas and between specific them the 21-stringed instrument of troubadours called family members in several ethnic groups. kora, the lute called gamhareand the type of dami used A more serious unifying practice is Islam, introduced in social and ceremonial dance throughout most of to Senegal in the 13th century through both voluntary Senegal today. Similarities between Manding dance and conversion and jihad (holy war). The latter were music traditions and those of the Serer, Soninke (also conducted by the invading Almoravids and by decree of called Sarakole) and the Diaxankes bear witness to the converted Senegalese monarchs. Ninety-five percent of close relationship between these ethnic groups. To- the .Senegalese population now define themselves as gether, the Manding, Soninke, and Diaxanke make up Muslim, In addition to practicing the "five pillars of eight percent of Senegal's population. Islam" rcc|uired of all, Senegalese Muslims are likely to The Diola live in a number of communities related by identify with one of the four major Islamic brotherhoods language, history, forms of traditional artistic expression of the country: Tidiane, Quadrya, Mouride, or Layyen. and shared traditions of government. The sixth largest The brotherhoods exist throughout Senegal, and within ethnic group, they are among the only groups in Senegal a single family, men and women may belong to any of to have retained ceremonies in which forest spirits are the four brotherhoods. It is a matter of personal embodied in masks. They cultivate rice and har\'est the preference. products of the palm trees which grow abundantly in The religious brotherhoods exist within the Sufi the Casamance. Diola communities located on river (mystical) traditions of Islam. These religious practices banks and the Atlantic coast also practice fishing as a include testimonials, preaching, call and response, way of life. Most groups in Senegal are stratified chanting and group singing. They often resemble internally with ranked, inherited status groups based on revival meetings held among African Americans. Dur- family and occupation. But Diola social organization is ing the chants, believers experience a reaffirmation of based on egalitarian, small-scale, self-governing com- their faith and sometimes become possessed by what munities in which age and initiation are the major they describe as the light of the Divine. criteria for participating in religious ritual and commu- Coexisting with devotion to the word of Allah is nity decision making. Ethnic groups closely related to respect for the power and the will of local spirit forces. the Diola are the Balante, Mandjak, and Mankangnes, Called Jlims in Islamic lore, these spirits inhabit and who have similar traditions, artistic forms and liveli- animate the land, the forest and the waters. Some of hoods. them are the continuing presence and influence of The Bassari, who live in the extreme southeast of the deceased ancestors on the world of the living. country, are among the smallest and least well-kncjwn Combined manifestations of the two systems of belief of the ethnic groups of Senegal. Numbering about pervade the everyday lives of many Senegalese and 10,000, they account for less than two percent of the inform language and other symbolic systems such as nation's population. Because access is relatively diffi- material culture and music and dance traditions. The cult to the steep hills where they live, they have had less technique of reverse glass painting, known as fixes sous continuous contact with outsiders than other ethnic verre, is used io illustrate both locally-based and Islamic groups. They traditionally made their livelihood by mythok\^y as well as scenes of traditional Senegalese hunting, gathering and farming. life. The art form was imported from the Near East Another small group, the Lebou, are a Wolof speak- during the 19th century as tableaux for Islamic religious 41 Serer, and Manding ethnicities. Each of these classes is distinguished from the others by birthright to certain traditional knowledge, skills, and practices that are subject to restrictions or taboos recognized by the society as a whole. Within these ethnicities until very recently, the knowledge and skills required to produce textiles, perfumes, hairstyles, jewelry, and many forms of artistic performance were family or clan secrets zealously guarded by supernatural sanctions against transmission to outsiders. For example, Kliadydiatou Samassa is a Soninke resist dyer from Bouki-Diawe in the Fouta region of Senegal. She remembers when she was growing up that people who stole knowledge of resist-dyeing from her Siiniha Duihare Samh and Amad .\ T)ui\v Scimh pliiy the halam. family and tried to practice it elsewhere were subject to iihrnii ihf hisi, the II tnulitiiinal hue. lo accompany their siiimhil; .n "/ supernatural curses. These made their hands swell W'oldf people. OmI historians, musicudis iiiid /'raise sniifers In the powerful and wealthy, these griots — nienihers oj the nceiipaluiual when they touched the dye pots and thus prevented class ofperformers — continue to play an important role in contem- them from working. Among the Soninke people, the porary Senegalese society. (Photo by El Had] Malik M 'Baye) practice of resist-dyeing was historically restricted to the nobility, and the art continues to be passed down from instruction. During the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, the older to younger generations within the same families. narrative paintings by Senegalese artists became ven,' But in urban centers such as Senegal's capital cit\- of popular in Senegalese households. Some are portraits of famous as well as ordinar>' people. Others represent events in the lives of local Muslim saints. The paintings also depict spirits from Senegalese cosmology. How History Informs Daily Life The people of Senegal live with their history in ver>' personal and meaningful ways. Whether they are born into a Wolof, Serer, Manding, Toucouleur, Soninke or Diola household, children still at their mothers' breasts begin to learn about the origins of their families, their names, their clans, and about the occupations and exploits of their ancestors. Wolof luUabyes often tell portions of the baby's genealogy and sing praises for the infant's illustrious origins. In Senegal as in much of West Africa, knowledge about one's history is not merely fascinating information. It is part of the foundation on which one constructs his or her cultural identity. Artistic speech, song and dance help situate individu- als in a continuum of kinship links, past and present. For example, professional oral historians, griots, who can trace families back 13 generations, practice their art and knowledge in negotiating a marriage, naming a child and establishing birthright to a particular occupation or status. These griots, who may also be musicians, traditionally have been advisors, confidants and praise singers of the rich and powerful. Because of their recognized ability to affirm or damage an individual's social identity with their oratorical skill and detailed family knowledge, griots are both respected and feared by their patrons. Children from the family of Standing, ^iiriol. Kemo Piuhate. come h>'rii players nral lustnnans. Often referred to by Senegalese as caste, a particular from II lnii^i;'liiie o/ disliiiiiiii^hi'd and From an early a,iie Ihey heLi^me familiar inlh their iiihenled profes- class exists within the form of occupational and social sion hy playing child sized versions of this many strin.iied musical traditional social structures of the Wolof, Toucouleur, instrument. (Photo by Diana Baird X'Diaye) 42 ity to construct public presentations of themselves. Cultural values about personal beauty include behavior and movement as well as dress and personal adorn- ment. Virtues such as personal integrity (djom). per- sonal cleanliness (set), self-respect ifaidd), patience ( nioun) and generosity and graciousness in the treat- ment of guests (teranga) are taught to Senegalese children growing up in a traditional home. Virtually from the first few hours of a child's life until the time an elder attains the status of ancestor at burial, arts of adornment and speech help people learn and project these ideals. Grandmothers in Senegal massage and mold the heads of their grandchildren to encourage a beautiful form. While the child is still very young, stories and proverbs massage and mold the child's growing .sense of his or her place in the v/orld and of community aesthetics and morality. Throughout Senegal, people now in their thirties and forties who grew up in the country can remember stories their grandparents told at night about the two Coumbas. Dii>la feslive occasions such as naming ceremonies, iniiuituni cind weddings include the dancing of bugur. (Photo hy Diuiui N'Diciye) Dakar, these professions are now open to outsiders. The craftsperson who can claim membership in a family whose ancestors practiced their art for the royal courts is well respected. Certain family names, such as Cissokho, Diabate, Kouyate, and Konte are synony- mous with playing the kora and the balafon and singing Manding epic poetry. From interviews with the Cis- sokho family, I learned that Bakary Cissokho's father made his son promise that every one of his 1 1 children would learn the kora. According to Bakary Cissokho, truly great talent was inherited by particular family members. This gift was identified early in life and nurtured and protected with charms and secret family rituals. In contrast, among Diola and Bassari peoples, only gender, age, circumcision and marriage status qualify people to learn and participate in particular traditions. The practice of a wide variety of traditional crafts is open to anyone who meets criteria of gender and age; a single exception is knowledge of metalworking which is passed on through family lines. Senegalese tailors create elegant [K'l^initil udommentfor men as well as women. In this 19th cciiliiry phulngraph. a Senegalese nobleman icears a richly embroidered mhc allied a grand boubou, The Practice of Identity leather babouches (slippers) and a gri.s-gris (amulet) on a chain enclosed in a silver case. These articles are still veiy much a part of In Senegal individuals often u.se traditional arts of Senegalese formal dress today (Photo courtesy Elliason collection. personal adornment, artistic performance and hospital- Smithsonian Institution National Museum of African Art) 43 . . gestures and comportments, announce his or her own identity to the community and the world. Senegalese express admiration for subtle and discreet displays of personal creativity within the framework of tradition, and in certain circumstances, a boastful chant is ac- cepted and even applauded. For instance, in the Sine and Saloum regions of Senegal, the performance of social identity is exempli- fied in the lambe, a wrestling tradition which originated with the Serer and which has become a tournament game associated with harvest celebrations all over Senegal. The object of the lambe contest is to force an opponent off balance so that his body touches the ground. Lambe competitions take place each year in the These Wolof women at a Iraditional healing ceivminiy in SciieiJal Sine region of Senegal in the months of January and exemplify the qiialtlicf (if iMi.\.\ ( ^elf re^ipcct ) associated with the arts of pcrMinal (hlfniiiieiil iinil Liirruivi' The Ilia women in the center ofthe February, the period following the harvest and prior to phnini;ni/ili an' iisiii,i; in,>ihstiU-^ Kdtdu' Selected from aromatic the first planting of the new year. At other times of the trees, these slicks are handled piiltliciilly with an elegance not unlike that of a 1930s screen actress wielding a cigarette holder (Photo year, wrestlers farm and raise cattle as others do, but INTRASAHEL) courtesy during the harvest celebration, each champion wrestler represents his village in bouts with the champions of In a Wolof version of the stoiy, Coumba Am N'Deye other villages. The excitement surrounding the lambes (Coumba with a mother) and Coumba Amoul N'Deye can be compared to that of Americans during the World (Coumba without a mother) are half-sisters. Although Series. indulged by her mother, Coumba Am N'Deye is ulti- Before a match, each wrestler prepares himself with mately devoured by vultures because of her lazy, the help of his personal marabout who prescribes a impatient and spoiled behavior. But Coumba Amoul detailed set of rituals, medicines and talismans to insure N'Deye, despite the unjust treatment of her evil step- the wrestler's success. Then, in the midst of an mother, gains great good fortune becau.se she is coura- entourage that can include hundreds of the wrestler's geous, polite, helpful and hard-working. supporters, drummers, his marabouts and singers, the At the same time, some tales, such as the exploits of combatant proceeds to the village where the match is to tricksters Bouki the Hyena and Leuk the Hare, hint at be held. He announces and presents himself to the tolerance and even admiration for those individuals assembled crowds, dancing and reciting poetry that tells audacious enough to break the rules and clever enough of his prowess. These poems suggest common roots of to achieve their goals in seemingly impo,ssible circum- a tradition which includes the rap songs of young stances. African Americans and the inventive, boastful rhymes of Personal adornment is a primary means of individual former world champion boxer Muhammed Ali. expression. Aesthetic variety and innovation are char- Another arena of personal presentation is that de- acteristic features of Senegalese traditional arts of per- fined by the formal reception of guests. It is not mere sonal presentation. These traditions provide opportuni- ties for highly valued personal and cultural statements. Good grooming in Senegal indicates a person who has self-respect and the expectation of the respect of others. Good grooming and cleanliness (set) are Muslim values as well since one is called five times a day to present oneself before God without physical impurity. Performed arts — music, dance, and verbal arts in- cluding such genres as Malinke epic poems, Toucoul- eur lullabyes, Serer wrestlers' chants, the use of prov- erbs, children's games, and the incantations and pro- nouncements of healers and diviners — also make highly valued statements about personal and cultural identity Performances constmct identities in many ways and Souley N'Diaye. a Serer wrestler takes on a fighting stance at a in many contexts. Some performances by professional lamhe tournament in the I'illage ofSamha Dia in the Sine region of artists honor or occasionally satirize an individual and Senegal. In his hand he holds a talisman made ofhorn . (Photo by A his or her family. Other performances, like an individual's Lamine Drame) 44 element of advertising rhetoric u.sed for nurturing a growing tourist industry. Hospitality in this sense is an MessoleU issue which Senegalese are beginning to consider at a national level in pragmatic terms, weighing hard cur- SENEGALAISDESETATS-UNIS PRESSE rency against cultural distortions. LESMODOU-MODOU REACTION Senegalese Traditional Cultures ONTPIGNONSURRUE DESMAGISTRATS IN International Context Entering the apartment of Fatou and Mamadou Diouf, a model couple whom you might meet in New UUm-TELl York City, Washington, D.C. or Atlanta, you are likely to MORFADAM-MOHtMEDlL! find yourself surrounded by the sounds, smells and Nouvelles tastes of their old home in Senegal. As you stand in the emissions au lobby, you may hear voices speaking a mixture of Wolof programme and English. Walking through the doorway, you may be treated to the smell of incense created with ingredients brought from Senegal. You are sure to be greeted by men and women dressed in a variety of traditional styles from grand boubous — voluminous robes embellished with richly textured embroidery, — to liirkiednd chaiya ALGERIE SBKBMUIS Leretour 90 — shirts and drawstring pants in resist-dyed cotton. On Ni6be FEUILLE the VCR, you are likely to catch the performance of a la carte desgeants DE ROUTE halam music or see the videotape record of a neighbor's OES «L10NS» naming ceremony held the week before in the building's ccjmmunity room. If you are lucky enough to be in Anta's home at mealtime, you will certainly be invited to partake in a meal of chieboudienne (fish with red rice) or wrt/e (ground nut stew) from a large, common Headlines of the front page of the Senegalese daily. Le Soleil, fir tray and share in a ritual of tea drinking after the repast. Febniaty 9. 1990. announce articles that reflect contemporary inter- Perhaps Fatou's younger sister will be visiting from ests: the lives ofSenegalese vendors I'modou-modou ) in i\eu' York City. a recent lambe wrestling tournament and the nutritional value Senegalese comportment and the warmth of Senegalese according to Senegalese ideas about what is beautiful hospitality. Each ethnic group has elaborate traditions and morally correct. Senegalese living in cities in the concerning the treatment of guests. In Senegal, the United States rearrange parts of an environment built Wolof word teranga. "hospitality," is often invoked by according to American ideas. They provide appropriate Senegalese regardless of ethnic group to express pride settings for events such as meals, family rituals, the five in the complex of traditions for the proper treatment of daily prayers that are part of Islamic spiritual practice, strangers. Teranga includes both material generosiry and tea ceremonies. The Dioufs, like many other and generosity of spirit. The traditions of teranga — the immigrants to the United States, enrich the American preparation and presentation of food, attention to cultural landscape with their folkways — music, deco- remembering and repeating names in greetings, alert- rative art forms, foodways and other traditional expres- ness to the anticipated needs of a guest — are ultimately sions of identity. related to the aesthetics of the host's personal presenta- Part of an earlier immigration, Africans kidnapped tion. The ability to offer teranga is an important virtue for slavery in the Americas also brought a cultural which transcends ethnic and regional boundaries. heritage with them across the Atlantic Ocean. Originat- Hospitality shown towards a visitor marks a host as ing in the region of Senegal and neighboring countries being well brought up and of good character and good of the Western Sudan, the animal tales of Hare and family background; a person of whom praises can be Hyena they brought with them were nurtured through sung and whose family history is worth recounting. It many generations and can still be heard in the U.S. is interesting to note that teranga has become an Virgin Islands, in Louisiana, and in the Carolina and 45 Senegalese artists and craftspeople who have come to the United States have found markets for their traditional forms. In the three photographs above (from left to right) Aston Adje Thiam and Awa Biteve braid the hair of a cu'itomer in a New York iTeaiity shop: a Senegalese tailor measures a client for a custom-made outfit: and a Senegalese metalwoike) by hirthnght displays his jeivehy in an American shopping mall (Photos by Martha Cooper, courtesy City Lore) Georgia Sea Islands today. They fomi part of the Bravmann, Rene. 1983. African Islam. Washington, contributions of Africa to the American continent. D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Many other contributions by Senegambians to the Centre d'Etudes des Civilizations. 1980. Les Nais- cultures of the Americas have also been documented. sances extraordinaire. Special issue of Demb ak Tey.- They include the rice technology brought to the Caro- cahiersdu mytheino. 6). Dakar: Ministere de la Culture linas during the 17th century', additions to the American du Senegal. vocabulary of words such as "goober" for peanut and Centre d'Etudes des Civilizations. 1982. Education et "gumbo" for okra based stew, the introduction of rich initiation. Special issue of Demb ak Tey: cahiers du and nuanced artistic traditions of music, movement and mytbe (no. 7). Dakar: Ministere de la Culture du personal adornment exemplified in forms such as the Senegal. banjo, jazz dance, and cornrow hair-braiding, hi the Colvin, Lucie Gallistel. 1981. Historical Dictioriaiy of past 20 years, contacts between Senegalese and Ameri- Senegal. Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, cans, especially African Americans, have resulted in a Inc. continuous exchange of artistic and expressive forms. Diagne, Leon Sobel. 1989- Contes Sereres du Sine: Mutual influences are most evident in music, language, (Senegal). Dakar: Universite Cheikh Anta Diop, IFAN- dance and personal adornment. Ch. A. Diop. Shared foodways and performance traditions result Cellar, Sheldon. 1982. Senegal: An African Nation from the long history of African contact with the Betireen Islam and the West. Boulder: Westview Press, Americas. They have become part of the cultural Inc. repertoires of many in the western hemisphere, particu- Hesseling, Gerti. 1985. Histoire politique du Senegal: larly African Americans and Caribbean peoples. The Institutions, droit et societe. Paris: Editions Karthala. traditions Senegalese bring from home and continue to Kesteloot, Lilyan and Cherif M'Bodj. 1983. Contes de practice in the United States are an additional source of mythes Wolof Dakar: Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines. our cultural enrichment. Magel, Emil A. 1977. Hare and Hyena: Symbols of Honor and Shame in Oral Narratives ofthe Wolofofthe Diana Baird N'Diaye. Curator of the Senegal pro- Senegamhia. Ann Arbcjr: LIniversity Micro Interna- gram at the 1990 Festifal ofAmerican Folklife is an an- tional. thropologist aiUst with special interests in sacred and an N'Diaye, Abdou, et al. 1986. La Place de lafemme arts, ethno-aesthetics and material culture in the Afri- dans les rites au Senegal. Dakar: Les Nouvelles Editions can world. Currently on leavefrom herposition as Folk Africaines. Arts the o)i Program Associate at New York State Council Sembene, Ousmane. 1972. The Money - Order. Lon- the Arts, she has designed and ciirated exhibitions, don: Heinemann Educational Books, African Writers interpretive programs and related educational projects Series. the ai1s in cultural on contexts. Sylla, Abdou. 1988. Creation et imitation dans I'art africain. Dakar: Institut Fondamental de I'Afrique Noire. CITATIONS AND FURTHER READINGS Thiam, Iba Derand Nadior N'Diaye. 1976. Histoire de Ba, Mariama. 1981. So Long a Letter London: Heine- Senegal et de lAJrique. Dakar: Les Nouvelles Editions mann Educational Books, African Writers Series. Africaines. 46 Wright, Ddnaici R. 19"'9. Onil Traditunts From the Gainhid. Wii 1: Mconlinka Ghals. Athens, Oliio: Center for hiternational Studies, Ohio University. SUGGESTED LISTENING The Griots: Si)igers and Historians of West Africa. Recorded by Samuel Charters. Smithsonian/Folkways Records 4178. African Flutes. Smithsonian/Folkways Records 4230. We .Music of the Diola-Fogny of the Casamance. Se- negal. Recorded by J. David Sapir. Smithsonian/ Folkways Records 4323. WolofMusic of Senegal and the Gambia. Recorded Members uj the Luciyen, a Senegalese Muslim religiuu.^ bmiliLi- by David Ames. Smithsonian/Folkways Records 4462. bdud. share tea and conversation after a meal in a New York City Folk Music of the Gambia. Smithsonian/Folkways apartment. (Photo by Martha Cooper, courtesy City Lore) Records 4521. Songs ofSenegal . Oussma neM'Baye and African Fn- semble. Smithsonian/Folkways Records 8305. Kora Music from the Gambia. Smith.sonian/Folk- ways Records 8510. Gambian Griot Kora Duets. Smithsonian/Folkways Records 8514. Al Teranga Among the Wolof People OmarMarone OmarMarone. Ph.D., now retired, was aprofessor ofeducation at the Universite Cbeikh Anta Diop de Dakar. He has done extensive research and fieldwork on Wolof education for the Universite Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar — Institttt Fondamental de lAfrique Noire. This is a translation and adaptation ofa larger article entitled, Essai Sur les fondements de I'education senegalaise a la lumiere des metaphores a queses de la langue Wolof. "Bulletin de I'IFAN Vol 31, series B no.3. 1969. hese are the principal instalments of social munal burden of new rights and duties. As an individual organization among the Wolof: matures, he or she is increasingly responsible for - the idea of a vital force insuring socio-cultural continuity. But one becomes an T - the cult of age active bearer of group values — a person of knowledge the art of hospitaliry — only after acquiring extensive life experience. The person of knowledge exhibits virtues of carefulness and The Idea of a Vital Force incorruptibility and thereby earns titles of conserver, exemplar and guardian of the communal socio-cultural Wolof education is based on an ideology that sees heritage, that is, of the group's "specific energy." society as a sum of the life forces of its members. These individual life forces can be collectively mobilized to achieve the "specific energy" of a particular sociers'. The Art of Hospitality: Teranga Social education — with this philosophy in mind — A principal of universal kinship places a Wolof becomes a permanent quest for social cohesion, for individual perpetually in situations of both giving and progressive adjustments in individual behavior that receiving. Any neglect of the duty of social exchange is provide a person with a stable sense of socio-cultural a source of disturbances that can threaten the "specific identity so that the individual's life force contributes energy" of the community. Among Wolof speaking positively to the social whole. people, the word teranga appropriately conveys this Hence, any disturbance to this collective plan, any spiritual attitude. The root of the word teranga means a individual sickness or impotence, any social failing part of the body — legs, arms, etc. — or a portion of the produces a negative force that harms the "specific whole, the result of a division. Taer means a portion energy" of the community. owed to a person by right. The verb teral means to The Wolof word nyumni means both intellectual reassure a stranger of the safety of a place to which he integrity and physical well-being: it is a condition for or she has just arrived. social acceptability. A principal characteristic of Senegalese society, ter- anga is expressed in many customary practices. It is a set The Cult of Age of formulas for well-being and for polite behavior taught particularly to young women, who are the future Kit magatul di mag. "He who has stopped growing masters of hospitality. The formulas apply to relation- is an adult." This aspect of Wolof thought envisions a ships bet^veen both individuals and groups. process of maturing that leads a child through adoles- cence to adulthood. The process is marked by rites of passage, initiation rituals that are ordeals of separation Between Self and Others and consecration: The education of a young woman aims at giving her - weaning all she needs to perpetuate good manners. These - circumcision or excision manners epitomize politeness, child-rearing skills, - deflowering of the virgin newlywed generosity and hospitality — qualities that predispose - tattooing the lips of a young woman. her to meet others as a manager of the on-going "specific For the initiate, the passage from one stage to another energy" of the community. is marked by the accumulation of knowledge, infomia- These are some formulas for good manners: tion, feelings and discoveries. This process awakens the How to sit: individual's ctjnsciousness and realization of the com- Avoid positions that are indecent or provoking to 48 others. Decency should aile all communication. der. The same ritual formula is used with a stranger to How to address others-. keep him from feeling toiimoiiranke, "disorientation." Make a habit of using a low tone of voice appropriate To take care of all his small needs is to fulfill one's for confidential information. obligation of teranga. This form of teranga is expressed Never raise your voice or use lewd words. in a number of ways. Avoid contradicting people who are older than - A welcome is amplified by unrolling a ceremonial yourself. cloth under his feet as a "red carpet." to laugh: - How A calabash full ( )f milk or water is offered along with Never have outbursts of laughter. a cola nut Smiling or discreet laughter is more appropriate. - The guest house called neeru gaini. "room for Keep a kind and friendly expression under all foreign guests," is prepared. circumstances. - Neighbors contribute prepared food for meals to How to look at others: families during a guest's stay; they contribute gifts Avoid looking at others insistently in the eye; to do and provisions when he leaves. so indicates aggression and lack of respect. - A host shares his meals with his guest and avoids How to eat: "leaving the table" first, abandoning him to finish the Always eat from a communal bowl with others. meal alone. Never speak with a full mouth. Never touch meat or fish until adults have served you In Special Circl'MSTances a portion. Teranga, which has the goal of establishing good How to walk human and social relationships, is also evident on Walk at a normal pace, without hurPi'ing or amning. certain special occasions. How to dress: The naming ceremony is an opportunity- for parents, Avoid sloppy, inappropriate or loud clothing or friends and neighbors to offer ndokale, "congratula- clothes that reveal the sacred parts of the body. tions. " through their presence, a sign of respect and Dress cleanly and with decency. solidarity more meaningful than gifts of money. These How to offer and accept: recent expressions of ndokale reflect the contemporary Never offer or accept anything from anyone with the value placed on material goods. The greatest teranga on left hand. Use the right hand which indicates consid- this occasion is a godparent's double gift. The newborn eration and friendliness. receives the name of this well respected person, whose good qualities, according to belief, will also be con- Between Communities and Groups ferred on the child. Let us examine, as examples, the relationships be- Offering condolences at a funeral — deiidj. related to tween to particular ca.ste people who belong a and those deju "to be or stay seated, " — is a manifestation of who do not. Castes in Senegal have tacit codes of rules teranga as compassion. It is offered as a communal act that regulate relationships between people. Those who at the home of the deceased during the funeral ceremo- belong to a particular caste have rights that those who nies. do not belong are obliged to respect, under penalty of At weddings, in addition to the usual congratulations, offending the established order. The rule of social teranga is expressed in giving someone the role of priority that demands a caste member to avoid a non- iidieke, "first maid-of-honor," which is associated with caste member is sanctified in the practice of endoga- a variety of responsibilities. It is a gesture usually be- mous marriages. This rule leads to exchanges of gifts stowed on an admired, close relative for whom being between caste members, who cannot refuse to recipro- head of the procession and ceremonial host is a source cate without sustaining dishonor. This exchange, an of great pride. expression of teranga, is the nile during ceremonies and Teranga is proper conduct in communal rites. On feasts (wedding, naming ceremony, circumcision, tat- these occasions good compc^rtment is rewarded and tooing of the lips, religious festivals and the like) to songs are offered to men or women whose behavior which relatives, friends and neighbors lend assistance. indicates they have given the community their own teranga. They have shown themselves secure bearers of Towards Neighbor and Host traditions and guarantors of Wolof socio-cultural heri- By tradition, a neighbor who has just moved in must tage. formally present himself to the inhabitants of his nev>- The Wolof word teranga is more than merely a community. In return, they will visit him and welcome synonym for hospitality-'. Teranga is an aesthetic and him with ritual greeting, dalaljanim, "may peace greet moral quality that encompasses much of the spirit of you here." This obligatory exchange of civilities assures communality of Senegalese society. a reciprocal welcome and avoids intolerance and disor- 49 Social Beliefs and Craft Practices Abdoii Sylla Translated by Winifred Lambrecht Abdou Sylla. Ph.D., is a professor of bisto>y and sociolog}' specializin^J i)i West African craft traditions with Universite Cbeikh A>ita Diop de Dakar - Instititt Fondamental de L Aftiqiie Noir. This article is translated and adaptedfrom his book on African aesthetics. Creation et imitation de L'Art africain, Universite Cheikb Anta Diop de Dakar — IFAN 1988. Traditional Senegalese society was and still is in urban centers, tradition became less determinate. organized along "caste" lines, that is to say, Nevertheless, the stratification of society into castes by distinct social categories which group remains permanent; and that permanency is always individuals and their families according to noticeable, especially during social events such as specific occupations. weddings, naming ceremonies and funerals, in which A caste is a group of individuals who do particular members of different castes customarily perform par- kinds of work and distinguish themselves socially by ticular tasks. Not anyone who wants to can be master that work. Within each caste, individuals have specified of ceremonies for a certain family's social event; one has relationships with each other, following practices spe- to be the family's,^no? or praise singer. And in exchange cific to their group. The skills of each caste are passed for obligations met and services rendered, the griot, like from father to son, and from mother to daughter, his parents before him, expects considerations and gifts. vertically, but they also travel horizontally since initia- Historically all men belonged to specific castes and tion and other forms of education are carried out collec- all were free, except slaves, members of the lowest ti\ely. group, which was not tmly a caste, since domestic In traditional Senegalese society, each indi\idual slavery was the result of warfare and raiding. The learned his fathers and his ancestors' skills: the practice of African slavery was intensified in the 18th individual became a jeweler or a cobbler if his father and and 19th centuries, driven by the triangular economy his ancestors were jewelers or cobblers. And initiation tying Europe, Africa and America. In this practice any into the ancestors' trade was mandatory. An individual person could become a slave, domestic or exported, was obliged to learn not only the occupational skills and at the time, any slaver risked becoming a slave associated with a particular caste but also the accumu- himself as a result of defeat. lated knowledge of its customs and beliefs. It was and Generally speaking, castes appear as groups which still is impossible to escape one's caste. The prejudices are hereditary, endogamous, occupation specific and and beliefs attached to a caste attach to the individual. connected with one another thrtxigh hierarchical ties. Individuals are born into a caste and belong to it all their lives. The Geer or Nobles Modernization contributes, of course, to the decline The caste of nobles, called geerin Wolof, is at the top of traditional occupations and of traditional initiation of the caste hierarchy. An important segment of this into them, particularly in urban centers. But, even so, caste formerly did nc:)t have a materially productive the beliefs, prejudices and customs associated with each occupation. That segment was composed of royal fami- caste still endure. In villages, tradition and crafts are still lies: the Damel of Cayor, the Tegne of Baol, the Buur prevalent and exclusive. of Sine, the Gelewar of the Wolof region, the Ceddo of Within the society, however, castes are not closed the Manding area, and others. Members of this segment autonomous groups isolated from one another. Rela- usually governed society and led armies. The other part tionships between castes are based on work, on tradi- of the geer caste are the baadolo. agricultural peasants tion and on social beliefs. These relationships were first who were not craftsmen. They represented the majority incorporated in the reciprocal exchanges of labor. of the population. Undoubtedly, certain castes have had the value of their The ideal virtues associated with the position of geer labor progressively diminish during the course of his- are basically 7'oom (honor and dignity-), miifi (patience) tory. The devaluation is the result of a number of factors and kersa (decency) which each geer is obliged to enact including colonization, which introduced new kinds of through behavior, appearance, way of dressing, and the work and the capitalistic division of labor. As a result. like. 50 Theoretically all other castes of craftsmen, called The Unde neeno, work for the geer caste; and every geer family Uude form the third caste, that of cobblers; they work has relationships with workers from the other castes, with leather, which they tan, prepare, dye and decorate specialized in the various occupations. Every geer and in the manufacture of knife sheaths and sword scabards, every geer family is obliged to offer gifts and services to sandals, horse saddles, bags, billfolds, belts, amulet the members of the neeno caste who ser\-e them. These cases and leather bracelets. Like the metalworkers in relationships of exchange are hereditaiy, rendered traditional society', the leatherworkers were attached to perennial through custom. geer or geer families from father to son. This tradition has been perpetuated until now, but like the metalwork- The Tegg ers, the leatherworkers do not restrict their clientele. The second caste in the social hierarchy is that of jew- Undoubtedly, Senegalese leatherwork, particularly elers and blacksmiths whom the Wolof call tegg: they that of urban centers, has long been indebted to the share the common occupation of working fire-heated leatherwork from the Maghreb, not only for its styles of metals by hitting or pounding them. Other characteris- footwear, typically, hahoiicbes or Turkish slippers, but tics distinguish them from one another. Jewelers gener- also for the acquisition of tanned skins. Senegalese cob- ally work with precious metals, gold and silver mostly, blers preferred the tanned pelts imported from Morocco sometimes using the lost wax method; they fashion and Tunisia for two main qualities: they were easier to wearable objects of small size (earrings, rings, pendants, work and they were stronger than locally available pelts. necklaces, and the like) guided only by aesthetic Nevertheless, in recent years Senegalese cobblers have principles. Blacksmiths on the other hand, are tradition- produced a varied array of styles of slippers for the ally specialists in making utilitarian objects (axes, adzes, Muslim holiday of Tabaski. These are tanned by the hoes, knives) and weapons (guns, spears, sabers, knives, leatherworkers in Senegal. The skins are dyed in vibrant swords, arrowheads.) Jewelers and blacksmiths are thus colors which have replaced the more pastel colors of the essential in Senegalese society: they fashion all the tools Maghreb skins. Local goat and sheep skins are used necessaiy for economic production and .social fimction. more and more for everyday use, whereas the very the ornamental objects and tools commonly u.sed in costly tanned skins imported from the Maghreb, are domestic life. saved for the manufacture of babouches for the wealthy. Metalworkers also fulfill a variety of religious, cul- The dynamic quality of this craft can be measured by tural, social and political functions: they are mediators, its abundance of products, variety of styles, number of both among living members of social groups and workshops in various districts, and low asking prices. between the worlds of the living and the dead. They or- Like the weavers and the sculptors, the leatherworkers ganize funerals and secret societies; they can be coun- are organized into guilds, each workshop having a selors to or messengers between political powers. Met- specific hierarchy. Nevenheless, the tools of the trade alworkers' wives are equally multi-talented; they assist have remained traditional. women who are sick, giving birth, or dying, and they also are potters. The multiple social roles the tegg play The Rebb and the mysterious quality of fire and the forge explain The weavers, named rebb by the Wolof. form the the ambivalent feelings they generate: respect and fear, fourth caste, which is fast disappearing because of admiration and spite among others. modernization and the textile factories that have ap- Traditionally each tegg or tegg family is attached to peared in our country. Although in traditional society one or more geer or geer family and that relationship is weaving provided cloth for all clothes, today it produces transmitted from one generation to the next. Theoreti- cloth mainly for women's wrap-around skirts and the cally, a tegg gives higher priority to the manufacture of large men's robes called bonbons. those objects commissioned by his geer and the latter In rural areas weaving is still practiced by families, can require his punctual services at an\' time. In and they maintain the same kind of exchange relation- exchange, the tegg receives goods and services from his ships with other castes as those already described. geer, notably during important events occurring in the Within the caste of rebb (weavers), are also the geer family. Standing obligation and reciprocal ex- ;»c7£:7iio (woodcarvers). Woodcarvers produce utilitar- change are enforced by both parties; to agree to it ian objects like mortars and pestles, drums and dugout always and everywhere is part of the ethical code of canoes, benches and chairs, basins, plates, forks, ladles, each caste. Although in the old society the tegg usually statues and masks. Today, their various products are worked only when commissioned, in the modern world sold all over the country and sometimes exported. the tegg produces a variety of pieces which he exhibits Usually settled in the crafts neighborhoods of urban in shop windows and offers to potential clients. Nev- centers or in family workshops, woodcarvers are tradi- ertheless, the particular relationships between tegg and tionally organized in guilds. The head of the guild is geer still exists. 51 responsible for the gathering of primary materials and praise singers, and the like who generally serve noble for the marketing of products. Sometimes he directs families. In traditional society they also played other young apprentices to market the carvings in hotels and roles, such as messenger, confidant, and public enter- markets, in airports and public squares, or he sends tainer. They used to praise and glorify the geer. They them abroad. Tliis is why we can now see young wood- told of the heroic feats of warriors. They taught history worker merchants selling statues and other African art and instilled social values in younger generations. They objects in large European and American cities. They are might also serve as social mediators and masters of called bana-bana and their merchandise is known as ceremonies. Attached to geer families for generations, "airport art." the griot received gifts and other goods and was often Woodcarvers are known for their linguistic play and totally dependent on them. impertinence. In that, they resemble the griot, masters of language. Their wives do several kinds of work, such The Jaani as braiding the hair of women from other castes, particu- The /aani, or slaves, do not in fact constitute a caste. lady the geer, making women's beaded belts worn Descendants of past prisoners of war, in many cases, around the waist and small intimate apparel called they held inferior status. They depended their whole m 'becho; and mixing ingredients for incense. Beaded lives on their masters for food, lodging and clothing and belts, m'becho and incense are designed for sexual could be inherited by their master's heirs. Every above- allure. Women of the woodcarver caste have their own mentioned caste could own slaves. Jaam were at the ex- beaded belts that sometimes weigh several pounds and clusive disposal of their master. They were the ones who move so as to attract attention to their hips. They have usually cultivated their master's land and performed special dances with their beads and hips. All these what are known as "servile" activities. But the slavery customs and behavior are socially accepted because system has gradually disappeared in African societies woodcarver castes have traditional license to ignore because of its interdiction by the modern state system modesty and reserve. Each caste follows a particular and also because of changes in world-view. code of ethics; it creates a way of life according to its These different castes are very separate, even today, rules and shapes the attitudes and behavior of its and relate to each other only in a traditionally approved individual members. Thus, one may know, sometimes manner. For instance, marriage arrangements are still ahead of time, the kind of reactions and the answers an endogamous: marriages are allowed only between individual might give, depending on the customs and people of the same caste. It is extremely rare that a geer ethics of his caste. marries a tegg and, a tegg's trying to marry a geer would be an insult to the geer family in question. In urban The Getval centers however, tradition and custom are becoming In pre-literate societies, where writing and modern less important because of modernization and the chang- means of communication did not exist, the spoken word ing of popular consciousness; traditional taboos are and the use of language were e.ssential to social organi- gradually being eliminated. zation, to relationships between individuals and to Although they have often been perceived as a reason transmission of knowledge, ideas, and values. This is for stagnation in traditional society, castes have contrib- the reason the griot (oral historian) is without a doubt uted to the maintenance of social cohesion. Caste- the most well-known and popular figure of traditional based production has filled the basic needs of African Africa, and of Senegal in particular. populations, contributing essential technology and social The griots, or geww/ belong to the fifth caste. Tradi- organization. In traditional Africa, they were elemen- tionally, they are considered to be of inferior status and taiy forms of social classes. are the troubadours, musicians, singers, oral historians. Traditional Education and Circumcision Among the Diola in Rural Senegal Fulgence Sagtia Translated by Winifred Lambrecht Fulgence Sagna is a researcher andfolkloristfor the Centre d Etude des civilisations. He is the area specialistfor Diola culture. This article ivas published in Demb ak Tey. a Senegalese folklore Journal and is excetpted nith permission from Centre d'Etude des civilisations. Min- istere de la Culture de Senegal. Senegal, a child's education starts eady in life, events during the period of circumcision — isolation Insince according to a proverb, "A tree already from the family, tests of endurance, instaiction and grown cannot be straightened." A child still learning and return to the family — permanently marks crawling on all fours is watched carefully by his the life of a young man. mother. She is the guardian of the hearth. The father, - Isolation for three to four months in the sacred grove provider of material well-being, has other daily activi- separates the young from their nuclear families and ties. Both contribute to the child's education. enhances learning. The length of time has now been The mother is responsible for the child's fcxxi. She reduced because of the conversion of many Diola to admonishes him to sleep on his side to encourage a Islam or Christianity and the introduction of non- healthy physical development. She does not allow him traditional formal education. to sleep on his belly or his back, for it is believed that - Tests of endurance build a sense of responsibility sleeping face down diminishes one's life chances, and toward the group of young men and toward the society sleeping on one's back creates bad dreams. During his as a whole. One must give proof of courage and first three years, a child imitates adult activities, such as withstand physical and psychological pain. cooking. - Civic and moral instniction aims at transforming the In rural areas, around the age of four or fi\e, a boy's young initiates into responsible members of the com- education becomes different from a girl's. A girl is munity of men. encouraged to do household work and is introduced to - Their return to family life marks their attainment of agricultural tasks. A boy is responsible for keeping adult status in the community. goats, sheep and even cattle. He will then learn to work The internal structure of circumcision rituals is the fields with his father and will join a group of boys known only by the Diola. It originated with the creation his own age. Members of this group help one another of sacred groves in the ancient villages of Boulouf in cultivating peanuts and weeding. Fogny and Lower-Casamance. Recently founded vil- Male circumcision is a social institution among many lages do not have the right to practice circumcision. of the peoples of Senegal, but nowhere is it more During the two days that precede entrance into the important than among the Diola. The rite of circumci- sacred groves, certain rites must be performed. These sion is governed by firm rules shared throughout the are shaving the head, benediction with sacred water and ethnic community whose economic and cultural life protection by the forge. rests on this ethical foundation. According to tradition, - Shaving the head is done in a sacred spot found in circumcision takes place every 1^ to 20 years. Each each section of a village. It takes place, for instance, village undertakes the ritual ceremonies at the same near the sacred post named Boukeg in the Diedhiou time. family section of Niankite-Fougaye. The rite protects The purpose of circumcision is to admit young boys the child from bad luck; if it is not respected by the to the community of men as responsible members. It is parents of the future initiate, he will have bad luck for required of them in order to marry. The sequence ot the rest of his life. A second part of the ritual takes place 53 at the Battum forge belonging to the Diedhiou family at noon and evening, sometimes longer. Foubalot Badji, Niankite in the Fougaye section. This defends against the great sorcerer from Bignona county, makes future malevolent spirits that cause childhood diseases and initiates invulnerable with a traditional meal that pro- against certain sorcerers. Libations made near two tects them against swords, knives, arrows and bullets. sacred posts protect the child against all evil, Finally, on the next day, the day appointed by the - The sacred water rite also takes place in each section spirits for entering into the sacred grove, the opening of the village. Initiates from the villages of Niassarang ritual is carried out by those who belong to the oldest and Kagnarou receive their benedicticm in the village of neighborhood. At Kagnarou, since people from Bopolon- Niassarang one day prior to their entrance in the sacred dioc refused to agree to the conditions requested by grove. A blessing is made to the water in a depression their grove, they delegated the solemn opening to between two sections of the exposed roots of a fro- people from the Kassana neighborhood. After that mager tree located in the Essyl neighborhood. The section, Kansy, Dialamantang, Baliyoeng, and others initiates are grouped and isolated from women at this follow. A huge crowd led by dancers follows the future time because the sacred water can damage women's initiates. Women come behind singing. They have tears normal reproductive development. It makes young in tlieir eyes at the thought that their sons may not return women become infertile, pregnant women abort, and after their stay in the grove. Some carry a jug of water women of post childbearing age have menses for the or dolo, a drink made from millet flour, water, and a rest of their lives. special plant reserved for the initiates. A line at the edge - A ritual at the forge protects initiates from dangers of the grove marks a boundary beyond which strangers that could strike them in the sacred grove. Whoever and women cannot go. seeks the blessing of the water of the forge is safe and There the initiates are given a drink of water or dolo whoever fails to do so becomes a leper. Blacksmiths and then enter the grove in single file. The rhythm of heat iron glowing red, then dip it into water. That water gunshots increases. Women and visitors must return io is sprinkled on the future initiates. For Fogny, the ritual the village. takes place in the villages of Niankite, Suelle, and At Mlomp village in Bignona county, the shaving Diakine among the Diedhiou families, who alone are in ritual is performed in front of a large crowd on the day charge of the forge. the initiates enter the grove. Shaving is done with a knife or razor blade. When a future initiate is shaved, a tuft of hair is left near the forehead. Women carry smolder- Circumcision in Kagnarou ing bunches of palm nuts whose copious smoke dis- Village tracts evil spirits. The initiates' remaining tuft of hair is removed near a fromager tree chosen for that occasion According to Diola tradition, entrance into the sacred in each neighborhood. In the Fogny area, the tuft is grove must be sanctioned by the spiritual beings who removed at the ancestral home of the founder of a reside there. Men in charge of the sacred grove appoint .section. the person who widely announces the date on which In Mlomp, rituals take place alongside holes from the initiates may enter. The day is usually selected which earth was dug to make mortar for building according to the ancestral, lunar calendar. houses. The initiates circle a hole seven times, preceded The eve of the entrance into the sacred grove is by their mentors. Women are not allowed to take part marked in the various village neighborhoods by cele- in this procession. brations that include shooting off firearms. Villagers are All Mlomp neighboriiuods go tc^ a central grove divided into two groups, and those from the Bapolon- located in the South for the initial testing of their dioc neighborhood are the first to circle the fromager initiates. The priority for entrance is the same as in the tree four to seven times. In Niankite village it is those Fogny and Boulouf areas. Those from the oldest neigh- from the Fougaye section who circle the fromager tree. borhood enter first. All must obey the rules and wait at At this time, gunshots increa.se, and singing is accompa- the outskirts of the grove. If ancestral priorities are not nied by flutes, horns and the clash of metal objects. respected, severe consequences await the erring neigh- These shooting demonstrations take place in the after- 54 borhood.s. Deaths, di.sappearanct-s and cases of insanity may result for those who disobeyed. Grove spirits harass group members until ancestral mles are followed and sacrifices made. Once the first part of the ritual at the central grove has ended, men surround the initiates, who carry branches with green leaves. A procession to each of the other sacred groves then follows. Gunshots cease. All that can be heard is the singing of men that calls forth courage and willpower from each initiate about to receive the ancestral seal of circumci- sion. The rituals that take place inside the grove concern the Diola people only. To reveal them would result in death or insanity'. 55 Musics of Struggle Anthony Seeger Introduction will present some of the music they have used in their If music were not a powerful resource in social and struggles, and you will have an opportunity to contrib- political struggles it would not be so widely censored, ute your own songs of struggle to the archives of the controlled, and surrounded with restrictions. All around Smithsonian Institution's Office of Folklife Programs by the world music creates loyalties and galvanizes oppo- singing them to collectors at the Festival. This short sition so well that music itself sometimes becomes an essay outlines some general features of music in social object of struggle, rather than an expression of broader stniggles. By no means complete, readers can supple- issues. Americans with long memories will recall the ment it with examples from their own experience and politically motivated artist blacklisting in the 1950s, the with the books and records cited in the bibliography.' moral furor over the Rolling Stones in the 1960s, and many other so-called "crises" that prefigured today's uneasiness about rap and heavy metal. As I write, How Is Music Meaningful? several states are debating record labeling statutes, Music consists of structured sounds, including pitches Newsweek presents a cover story on rap music (March that are combined to form melodies, beats that are 19, 1990 with letters in subsequent issues), and Gary combined to form rhythms, and sound textures that are Trudeau's comic strip "Doonesbury" caricatures the combined to form what musicians call timbres. Repeti- generational, exclusionary, aspects of American popu- tive patterns are central to all music, and the patterns are lar music (The Washington Post, March 5-10, 1990). At given meanings by performers and their audiences, by the same time, song and dance accompany liberation fans as well as detractors. The patterns of each musical movements in South Africa, the Baltic, and the Middle feature may convey meaning, and each can be varied to East; union halls swell with song, and musical groups in change or comment on its usual associations. Thus Latin America promote local community development. some people may associate a certain melody — a "Other people" aren't the only ones who use music national anthem for example — with national pride and in their struggles. Did you ever make up a song about citizenship; but to others the melody may mean political one of your teachers, a girlfriend or boyfriend, your oppression and exclusionary laws. Playing the melody boss, or try "rapping" about something that bothered to a different rhythm, at a different speed, or with you? Did you ever remain stubbornly silent when unusual orchestration can mock or accentuate the everyone else was singing something you didn't agree .sentiments usually as.sociated with it. with? Maybe you recall singing (or not singing) "We Certain rhythms can be significant in themselves. Shall Overcome" as you marched in 'Washington, "I Ain't The steady beat of a march may recall parades, wars, or Gonna Study 'War No More" in the antiwar movement, sports events. A "disco" beat may inspire dancing while or some other song that expressed political positions other rhythms may recall national, regional, or ethnic you held. 'Whether you joined with thousands of others traditions. Sometimes rhythms can be quite specific. In in public or sang alone in the shower, you probably Afro-Brazilian religious drumming, certain rhythms are have some experience with the subject of this summer's as.sociated with specific deities. music program, "Musics of Staiggle." While Western musicology has rarely focused on Performers at the 1990 Fe,stival of American Folklife sound qualities, the.se can have associations of their The Musics ofStruggle Program has been made possible, in part, by the Music Performance Trust Funcis. the Inter- American Foundation and the Arab American Cultural Foundation. 'Mast of the literature on music of struggle deals with specific traditions. Very few general obser\'ations appear to have been made about the relation of music to struggle outside of particular historical circumstances Chut see Denselow 1989). This essay is an initial attempt at such an approach. Readers are invited to send their suggestions and comments to the author at the Office of Folklife Programs 56 own. The same melody and rhythm performed on a language. Song texts can convey information in many brass band will have a different effect on the audience different ways and can be altered to suit the occasion from a performance on violins or piccolos. Certain even more easily than musical features. In comparison instrumental or vocal timbres become associated with with speech, most song texts are relatively fixed, and class, regional, national, or even international traditions. their association with particular melodies can serve both The unique sound quality of Andean Indian instalments memory and irony. has itself become an emblem of an emerging ethnic and Scmgs permit the creation of complex relationships regional identity, quite apart from the melodies and betw^een the music and the text. Sometimes the music rhythms performed on them. Sound qualities are will be used to express one message and the text to directly associated with types of instamients (even in express another altogether. A songwriter can take a this age of the synthesizer), and certain sounds may be popular melody and write new words to it that may even associated with the regional origin or social history of contradict the original song. Joe Hill, a labor songwriter the instruments themselves. Swiss horns, Norwegian for the I.W.W., took the melody from a hymn "In the hardingfiddles, American banjos, Caribbean steel drums, Sweet Bye and Bye" and parodied its religious rhetoric Scottish bagpipes, African royal claims, and many other with the words "You'll get pie in the sky, bye and bye." instruments have associations with a region, a way of He also used the melody from a song about a prostitute life, and often with a type of music. Just a little bit of their and wrote words to it about a woman labor organizer; sound carries with it many other as.sociations. and took the melody of a popular love song and put Music is structurally repetitive. Sometimes the repe- words to it about a prostitute. The "Battle Hymn of the titions themselves are significant. They may even Republic" and "Solidarity Forever" use the same melody embody a cosmology, where a pattern is repeated tor to express different ideas. The combination of a well- each of the cardinal directions, each of the major deities, known melody with new words can be an important re- or some other consecrated number. source in the musics of struggle. As long ago as 1779 the French writer/philosopher Music does not only convey messages. Performing Jean-Jacques Rousseau noted that the "meaning" of music can increase feelings of community and solidar- music does not reside in its physical sounds so much as ity. One way to turn a crowd into a community is to get in their interpretation. His famous description of how a people to sing, chant, or gesture together (the last being certain song could make Swiss army troops burst into effectively u.sed in the Gallaudet "Deaf President Now" tears, desert, or even die, makes this important general protests in 1988 represented at this year's Festival). point about music: There are many participatory singing traditions in the We shall seek in vain to find in this air any energetic accents capable of producing such astonishing effects. These effects, which are void in regard to straugeis, come alonefrom custom, refection, and a thousand circumstances, which retrac'd by those who hear them, and recalling the idea of their country, their former pleasures, their youth, and all the joys of their life, excite in them a bitter sorrow for the loss of them. The music does not in this case act precisely as music [physical sound], bid as a memorativesign... It is not in their physical action we should seek for the great effects ofsrmnds on the huma)i hea}-t. (Rou,sseau 1975 [17791:267, emphasis mine) The "thousand circumstances" that give meaning to melodies, rhythms, and timbres are specific and histori- l>nuv audh^h, \l Song is the combination of music and language. The music, and this is another reason many songwriters have addition of words to music adds rhetorical power and taken old melodies and put new words to them. semantic complexity to the already subtle messages sent Although we may consider union songs or modified and interpreted through in,staimental music. Most song spirituals as seen in the U.S. Civil Rights Movement to be texts are poetry, constaicted within constraints of meter, "typical" protest songs, no single musical form or song sometimes rhyme, and sometimes the pitches of a tonal cont. page 59 57 ) Songs and Stories of STRUGGLE: MuSIC AND VeRSE As Ethical Discourse Jacquelhi C. Peters The Pittston Coal Strike The Greenwich, Connecticut headquarters of the Going to Richmond. Pittston Company is far from the southwest Virginia And when I go. coal miners it employs both in miles and in attitude, Tell that old Virginia boy from the point of view of organized labor. Citing a We ain 't gonna haul no coal. need to revamp During the Christmas Pittston's financial struc- season, traditional carols ture in the late 1980s, were given a new slant management decided to with words that ex- reduce costs by cutting pressed the determina- a number of miners' tion of the miners to stand benefits, including life- firm. time health care pen- Hazel Dickens of sions. Since coal miners Mercer County, West enter the occupation Virginia, whose musical recognizing its high risk talents were featured in of black lung disease the Academy Award win- and other mine related ning film "Harlan County, ailments, health care U.S.A." and in "Matewan," benefits have been part has sung what she calls ((,•. hitislernii Sinking cmil mhn'i^ ;(.* miisic a III: <-ii/c the "southern mountain of labor contracts for picket line. (I'holo by Richard Bm hero, c: iitcsy liiUecl Mine decades. Pittston also If 'llrkc^^s of A mencci music" for most of her wanted mandatory over- life. Her father mined for time, increased numbers a living and made music of non-union workers and sub-contracting to nc:>n- for enjoyment in addition to working as a Baptist union companies. Fourteen months into negotia- minister. His eleven children grew up singing and tions, members of the United Mine Workers of playing instalments. Ms. Dickens' home community strikes, lost her America voted to strike; it began on April 4, 1989. experienced lay-offs and and she A musical dimension of this struggle emerged in oldest brother and two brothers-in-law to black lung the newly composed lyrics sung to traditional gospel disease. Her songs on social issues and coal mining and bluegrass music. Mrs. Edna Sauls of the Daugh- — including one she wrote on black lung — embody ters of Mother Jones emerged as an inspired lyricist, the experience and aesthetics of a vital, regional and the Rabbit Ridge Pea Pickers became well- music tradition, interpreted through her own individ- known musical morale boosters. One lyric written in ual perspective and remarkable talent. response to repeated encounters with Virginia state Ms. Dickens notes how similar the mine wars of troopers and addressed to former Governor Baliles the 1920s were to the Pittston strike. Then as now, said: "gun thugs" were used to try to intimidate the strik- 58 ers. Ms. Dickens observed that the Pittston strikers, Pittston Miners' Strike a Clash of Principles and like their predecessors 60 years ago, were "extremely Personalities. 1989. Chicago Tribune. Nov. 26: sec- spirited" in their resolve to fight, "It was great to see," tion 1, p. 11. said Ms. Dickens, who has given several perform- Thompson, Chariie D. 1989. The Pittston Strike. ances to benefit the Pitt.ston miners. Southern Clnuiges. ll(h):I, 3-6. CITA TIONS AND FURTHER READINGS SUGGESTED LISTENING Camo Carols. 1989. Adapted by Julie McCall for Dickens, Hazel. A Few Old Memories. Rtninder the Labor Heritage Foundation. Madison. Wl: Lake- Records 11529. side Press. . Its Hard to Tell the Singer From Dentzer, Susan. 1990. A healthy settlement for the Song. Rounder Records 0220. mine workers: Pittston strikers won big, but the fight . Come All You Coal Miners. over retiree benefits has just begun. U.S. News & Rounder Records 4005. World Report. 15:45. January . Hard Hitting Songsfor Hard Hit Fowke, Edith and Joe Glazer. 1973. SoufiSofWork People. Rounder Records 0126. and Protest. New York: Dover Publications. Glazer, Joe. Down in a Coal Mine. Collector Rec- Korson, George. 1964. Minstrels ofthe Mine Patch: ords 1923. Stories the Indiistiy. Songs and of Anthracite Hathoro. . We (AW: Fifty )'ears in So)ig & Story. PA: Folklore Associates, Inc. Collector Records 1940. Pittston Coal Miners. 1989. Highlander Reports. Fall:2-3. coni . from page 57 them. Song words can be standardized and passed on style can be isolated as "the music of staiggle." Almost without requiring that people read, write, or possess any kind of music can be used as a sign of struggle, incriminating evidence. Music can focus attention on depending on the meanings given to the performances injustices, create feelings of solidarity, advocate a cer- by participants and their opponents. An instrumental tain cause, encourage supporters, and frighten oppo- arrangement can be as forceful as a lyric; a rhythm can nents. It can create links between the present and the be as expressive as a phrase. Sometimes an unchanged past while helping to create a new and different future. old folk song is as potent as a new composition. The Music is not unique in its ability to act symbolically meaning of a musical performance depends to a large in struggle. Although language, dialect, speeches, extent on the specific context in which it occurs — the written documents, dancing, theater, dress, and even "thousand circumstances" referred to by Rousseau and food can all mobilize groups, music has several attri- rarely understood fully except after considerable inves- butes that make it particularly suitable for mobilizing tigation. people. Songs often can be performed while doing something else (like working or marching); they don't necessarily require physical objects (props, stoves, Why Use Music in Struggles? plates, etc.), they can be changed quickly, and they can why do people involved in struggles make music at be sufficiently abstract to unify a wide range of support all? Wouldn't it be more effective to work silently and and confuse the opposition. resolutely to change an unsatisfactoi^ situation rather Although music is widely used in struggles, it is not than sing songs about it? Although it has been argued found everywhere. Protest is sometimes expressed "the pen is mightier than the sword," what would through silence or another expressive mode. Where happen if everyone put down their pens, stopped most public forms of music are dominated by a central making music, and took up swords? What indeed! They state, opposition to the state may take non-musical might all swing their swords in different directions, at forms. Where individual opinions are not culturally different times, and at different fcjes. Among other sanctioned, new songs may not be composed. Where things, music can focus attention, mobilize emotions, music is considered to be a low status form of activity, and coordinate activities. performers of higher status may choose other modes of To mobilize people toward a goal, you need to make expression. Opposition may be expressed by refusing the issues clear, you need to get people to agree with to participate (silence) or refusing to attend perform- them, and you need to incite them to act. Music can ances (boycotting) rather than through music itself. accomplish these quite effectively. Songs can help bring Silence is probably a fairly common protest in societies certain i.ssues into focus and specify an approach to where eveiyone is expected to participate, and where 59 all music is ritual and cannot be altered to convey Human societies are filled with struggles, which take particular messages. Boycotting performances (and a variety of forms. Social life is characterized as much attending other performances) is probably common in by conflict as by harmony. Virtually every social group societies where attending an event is considered to is cxjmposed of smaller groups with different access to indicate group membership or common cause with the important resources and different power to constrain organizers and performers. others — crucial differences that generate tensions and Yet in societies with a fair degree of individualism, conflict. In some societies the main contrasts may be where musical composition and performances are age and gender. In other societies divisions may fall considered to be voluntaiy acts, the use of music in along ethnic lines; in yet others they may be formed by .staiggles seems likely to appear. birth, naming, or the inheritance of scarce knowledge or Protest music especially written for a certain struggle resources. In nearly every society some members of the can take a number of different approaches. They may groups so formed attempt to escape from these con- simply state "we are here, and we endure." They may straints or at least to create areas where constraints do emphasize the common identity of group feeling or not a-pply. relate information and spread recent news (like aural Some types of conflict are constant within a society, newspapers) or recall past events that exemplify the others appear from time to time, and yet others are very struggle (like stories of massacres or victories), or specific and occur only once in a while. Some of the commemorate movement heroes and even other song- most obvious forms of conflict appear between age and writers. They may refer to ethical values and evoke gender groups, within occupations, in political disputes, emotions by describing a tense situation with humor or between culturally defined groups, and in international irony (often present in topical songs), or by making fun events. of powerful opponents — supervi,sors, teachers, politi- cians, a church. By commemorating the past and Domestic Struggles singing about heroes, songs can relate a local stmggle Not all struggles involve ethnic groups, political to a larger social movement, endowing local events with parties, or labor unions. Some struggles occur in the a wider historical significance. Conversely, a larger home, between parents and children and between men movement may make more sense when its i.ssues are and women. Conflicts between parents and children exemplified by references to local events. and between an age group and its nearby age groups are Music of struggle is often functional and disposable. common in many societies. There is often more When the situation changes, the music will be changed. harmony between more distantly related people — A topical song may have a dramatic relevance one grandparents and grandchildren, older and much younger moment and be swiftly forgotten as other i.s.sues arise. — than between adjacent groups. In the United States The subtle relationship of music and text may be the family is an arena of considerable conflict. Children's forgotten when the music no longer has the same struggles with their parents are amply documented in associations. On the other hand, songs long dormant popular music, which may become the object of paren- may be revived, changed, and used again, gaining and tal protest — witness the furor over Madonna's song conferring cumulative historical significance. "Papa Don't Preach." The performances presented in the 1990 Festival of Relations between men and women define another American Folklife all commemorate recent movements, area of considerable conflict in many societies. Rela- or movements which are frequently recalled. Yet some tions between men and women have been a topic of of their .songs have a long history. songs for centuries. An old lament goes: Oh hard is the fortune of all ivomenkind Investigating Musics of Always controlled and always confined Struggle Controlled by their parents until they are wives nen slaves to their husbands the rest of their lives. Many different kinds of struggle have musical expres- If that has changed, it has been through individual, sion. The best way to approach the subject is to examine collective, and legislative struggles. The women's rights first the nature of the struggle and then the way its movements of the 20th century have stimulated many participants use and interpret music, if they do so at all. excellent songwriters. Struggle can be defined as "A continued effort to U.S. popular music tends to highlight the difticulties resist force or free oneself from constraint" (Oxford confronted in relationships with members of the oppo- English Dictionary). It can be contrasted with "protest" site sex in musical forms produced for dancing with which means to make a public declaration against them. Many country music lyrics speak of loneliness something. Struggles include protests, but struggles are and isolation. Often decried for ignoring larger social the larger social process which actually oppose particu- lar social practices. cont. page 63 60 Kurds Jcicqiielin C. Peters Kurdistan — "land of the Kurds" — a fertile area women have had throughout Kurdish history. The rich in oil, chrome, copper, iron and lignite, occupies poetic message of the songs, sometimes .strong, an expanse of land only slightly smaller than the state sometimes subtle, is dangerous rhetoric or high art of Texas, but it cannot be found on standard maps according to the listener's perspective. today. For thousands of years, Kurds have inhabited the Zagros and Taurus mountains of eastern Anatolia, which span parts of present day Iraq, Iran, Syria, Tur- Citations and Further Readings key, and Soviet Armenia. Kurdish attempts to assert Bois, Th. V. Minorsky and D.N. MacKenzie. 1960. political autonomy have been opposed — often Kurds, Kurdistan. Ihe Encyclopedia ofIslam (new violently — by the edition). Leiden, The governments of sur- Nethedands: E.J. Brill. rounding countries. Kurd. 198S. ne Continuing clashes New Encyclopedia Bh- between the Kurds taunica. 7:40. and the national Laber, Jeri (S; Lois powers have devas- Whiteman. 1988. tated and displaced Destroying Ell.uiic their population. Identity: The Kurds of Deported and sub- Turkey: A Helsinki jected to chemical Watch Report. March warfare in Iraq, the 1988. New York: Kurds have been es- Human Rights Watch. pecially hard hit in the ne Proliferation of 1980s. The assault on Chemical Warfare: Tlye Wcdiitin Hiiliiiihi! t/rcss. Ki(n/s ceiehrate .Xeiiro: (.Xeie )ears> mi this ethnic group takes ilarch 2-4. IWO Tlu'se material, ceremnnuil ami cultural exlnessuDis nj Holocaust at Halahja. on cultural aspects in •thiiK identity are frirhicliletJ hy gon riiDieuls •ecl-ui.ii ta ii\si,)itlate nr 1988. 'Washington, DC: Umnuite the Kurds tPhnln coiiite.s]r Kurdish .Xtitimutl ( nuvrc^s) Syria and in Iran, People for a Just Peace. where traditional clothing and holidays, such as the Woodson, LeRoy, Jr. I97S. We Who Face Death. Newroz (New Year's Day), have been declared National Geoi>raphic. l47(3):364-387. illegal. In the hands of artists such as Shivan Perwer, Feqiye Teyra and Temo Ezzadin, the tambour — a Suggested Listening traditional instrument with three sets of doubled Chants et Miisiqiies dii Kurdistan: Croupe Kama strings — makes music that is perceived as a threat Zozan. Arion ARN 33719. by the countries they fled. Said Gabari, a musician Kurdish Folk Musicfrom Western Iran. Recorded who resided in Syria, is said to have been blinded ten by Dieter and Nerthus Christensen. Ethnic Folkways years ago as a result of his musical themes. Other Library FE 4301. renown Kurdish singers living in exile include Naser Kurdish Folk Songs and Dances. Recorded by Razzazi, who performed for the Kurdish Newroz Ralph S. Solecki. Ethnic Folkways Library FE -n(39. celebration sponsored by the D.C. chapter of the Kur- Temo, Barde du Kurdistan: la tradition et Te.xil. dish National Congress, and Sherin, who employs na- Ocora. Radio France 588 573, MU 218. tionalistic themes and exemplifies the prominent role Feqiye Teyra. Kurdistan 1988. Gema GVL 31126. 61 The Gallaudet "Deaf President Now Movement Jaccjuelii! C. Peters Gallaudet University students galvanized the deaf 4 rhythm of impromptu percussionists at DPN dem- community and revolutionized global perceptions of on.strations the way that a dance class or a cheerlead- deaf people in their "Deaf President Now" (DPN) ing practice at Gallaudet moves to a drummed beat. Movement in March, 1988. "The time is now" was The Friday "Deaf Pride Day" march on the Capitol, their rallying cry, which held implications for deaf which attracted 3,000 marchers from all over the U.S., pride, self-assertion, and civil rights extending be- was headed by a banner borrowed from the Crispus yond the DPN issue. Attucks Museum emblazoned with the message "We Gallaudet University, founded by President Lin- Still Have a Dream"; the same banner had been used coln in 1864 and funded primarily through Congres- in a niarch to have Dr. King's birthday decreed a sional appropriations, educates deaf students from national holiday. The "Deaf Pride Day" march and pre-school age through graduate school. When the denranstration on the National Mall took place as sixth president. Dr. Jerry Lee, announced that he was planned despite Zinser's previous resignation, as the retiring, there was optimism on campus that, for the strikers waited for the response to their other de- first time in the University's 124-year history, one of mands. Using sign language and lip synchronization, for the the two qualified deaf candidates. Dr. Harvey J. students of the Model Secondary School Deaf Corson or Dr. L Kingjordan, would be voted into the (MSSD) presented "The Time is Now," composed by vacated position by the Board theater teacher and play- of Trustees. When the Chair wright Tim McCarthy. of the 21 -member board, only The words the deaf world five of whom were deaf, had been waiting for came announced the board's choice on Sunday, March 13, when of Dr. Elisabeth Zinser — a Dr. L Kingjordan was voted hearing educator who knew in as the eighth president of no sign language — initial Gallaudet University. A shock, anger and disbelief majority' deaf task force was gave way to student mobili- named to formulate a major- zation and strike from March ity deaf board. LUtimately 6 through 13, 1988. there were no reprisals The "Deaf Pivsident Now" Movement drew inspircilu- Four student leaders — against the strikers. A sur- from other struggles involving civil rights. (Cartoon h\ Greg Hlibok, Jerry Covell, Mike Keefe of the Denver Post) prisingly peaceful scene Bridgetta Bourne, and Tim awaited President Jordon on Rarus — together stood at the helm as organizers, Monday, .March l4, when he arrived on campus to spokespersons and morale boosters. On the first day begin his administration. of the strike, 500 students set out to shut down the campus after a stormy meeting with the university ad- ministration. While the school remained open, students claimed that 90 percent of the campus CITATIONS AND FURTHER READINGS community participated in the strike. Campus en- Bruske, Ed. 1988. Protest Gained Sympathy trances were blockaded with shuttle busses after the Nationwide. Washington Post. March 10. tires were flattened. The faculty voted 147 to 5 to Gallaudet Faculty' Backs Students. 1988. Washing- back the students. ton Post. March 10. The civil rights movements of other groups, such Gannon, Jack. 1989. Tlie Day Voe World Heard as African Americans, South Africans and women, Gallaudet. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University served as points of comparison and reference in the Press. DPN struggle. During the campus rallies, student Kannapell, Barbara M. 1985. Orientation to Deaf- leader and cheerleader Bridgetta Bourne led sign ness: A Handbook and Resource Guide. Washington, Graphic Services. language chants such as "Deaf Power! " "Deaf Presi- DC: Gallaudet College Printing and dent Now!" and "Zinser Out!" to keep spirits high as Sanchez, Carlos and Martin Weil. 1988. Zinser the freedom songs did in the Civil Rights Movement Quits Gallaudet Amid Student Uproar. Washington of the 1960s. A waving sea of hands signed to the 4/ Post. March 11. 62 ' coiit. fn/i)i page 60 related to union organizing have become the archetype issues, U.S. popular music does focus on a few of the for songs of struggle in the United States. common experiences faced by parts of the population. The U.S. labor movement has a long, bitter, and A musical genre itself may become an emblem of an embattled history. Certain industries have seen pro- age group, and an expression of its protest again.st the kjnged strife over union organizing, strikes, and retali- standards of another group. This may happen in any ation by company owners often supported by local, country, and often involves the adoption of a nex\- state, and even national authorities. The eastern coal niusical form bv a certain class or age group. In the mining industry is one of the most famous of these United States during the 20th century almo.st ever\" industries. Difficult, dangerous, and unhealthy working generation has been identified with an emerging musi- conditions, the fluctuating markets for coal, the rural cal style (although its members may listen to many location oi mines, and changing mining technology different kinds of music). One group will support the have resulted in long and violent conflicts, of which the sr>'le, another group will oppose it, and the arguments recently settled Pitt.ston Coal strike is only the most will be waged at the dining room table, on the pages of recent example. Some of the most famous union Billboard Magazine, People Magazine and sometimes organizing songs, such as "Which Side Are You On?" in the halls of Congress. The I'nited States has a long (They say in Harlan county/There are no neutrals there./ history of attempting to ban music and dance as Either you're a union man/Or a thug for J.H. Blair.) lascivious and dangerous to the public good. At times originated in mining strife. musical performance itself becomes the battlefield, Many songs about work and labor unrest are com- rather than simply the expression of a larger conflict posed about particular events and then forgotten when over .self determination and authority. The original the crisis passes, perhaps to be replaced by another social condition is not remedied, but instead song song about something el.se. John Greenway notes, content about it is censored (a point reiterated by many except for the very simple ones (""We Shall Not Be of the defenders of the music industiy again.st the Moved") and the very best ones ("Union M.iid") censorship of offensive texts). [songs of protest] are likely to become forgotten School is one of the first experiences many children quickly because it is easier to set to the basic tune have with authority beyond the family, and one would new words more relevant to immediate issues expect experience in schools to contribute to some and circumstances than it is to remember the old. rather pithy songs. A "Talking Homework Blues" I (John Greenway 1953:C)) wrote in 7th grade is an example of a song that describes To Greenway 's comment one can add Pete Seeger's a child's stmggle at school but does not propose a observation that "almost every old song can teach you remedy (except perhaps not falling behind in the first good things, but it can also teach you bad things, and place). Given how important teachers are to their you have to balance the two when you sing i\..."(Sing students at all levels, it is surprising that there is no Out! 29 (3): 4) Songs are not only replaced because bibliography on children's songs about school. they are forgotten, but also because they are not entirely appropriate to a new situation. Work Struggles Professional musicians have taken some songs from kxal communities and made them part of the national Many kinds of work inxohe hierarchical organiza- repertory. The song "Which Side Are You On?" (men- tion, inequality, and often outright exploitation of some tioned above) was forgtJtten in its home community people by others. The struggles to survive with low wJiile it was being revived as a union song in other wages, to grow enough crops to pay back borrowed places. Pete Seeger recalls: money, to improve working conditions, to organize In 1940 I learned the song "'Which Side Are You On?" workers to negotiate with, contend against, or escape from a folklorist who had been researching in eastern from their supervisors, bosses, middlemen, or owners Kentucky in 1932. Later, I met Mrs. Reece, who wrote (in the case of slavery) have fostered hundreds of songs the song. At that time it was unknown except in the over the decades. memories of her family and a few miners of Harlan Some occupational songs are fitted to the work itself: count>' who heard her daughters sing it in the 1932 woodcutting songs and sail-raising songs coordinate union meetings. (P. Seeger 1972: 76) collective activities while long ballads may help pass Partly because of Pete Seeger's use of "'Which Side away tedious hours spent in repetitive tasks. Other Are You On?" in the union movement and later in the songs describe a worker's life and the difficulties of surviving under harsh discipline on low wages. Songs co)it. page 66 - U.S. popular music fias often been criticized for its di.stance from the social and political realities of people's lives. Regardless of what it does mil portray, what it does select is an important part of American culture There are no cx.imples ot family and generational .struggle with the music program this year, but e.xamples should be familiar to anyone acqLiainted with the popular music scene. 63 South Africa Jacquelin C. Peters Since the Dutch first settled at the Cape of Good 35 million African people from their homes between Hope in 1652, South Africa's bountiful land and min- 1960 and 1980. The government also insured that eral riches have been sources of conflict. Over the Africans would continue to have inferior education course of several centuries, Dutch (now the Afrikan- by structuring a school system that favored European ers) and British settlers were able to seize land from children. The government allocates $296 for the the indigenous African peoples. By the end of the schooling of each African child compared to $1,194 19th century, the Europeans dominated over 90 per- for each European child (Williams, 1990:23). cent of the territory. When diamonds and gold were African leaders and organizations have challenged discovered in the late 19th century, European settlers the injustices and inequities of colonial mle at every prevented Africans from sharing in the land's wealth step. A leading organization representing Black and transformed them into a opinion has been the African tightly controlled, poorly paid National Congress (ANC), labor force. founded in 1912. Along with When the Union of South other African protest and trad'e Africa came into existence in union groups, the ANC chal- 1910, the new settler-run lenged colonial rule through government held absolute non-violent strategies until the political and economic power. government outlawed the Segregation was the order of opposition in I960, and banned the day and, with few excep- the ANC, Pan African Con- tions, Africans could not par- gress (PAC) and the Commu- ticipate in political decisions. nist Party. The bannings and They were allowed to hold failed attempts to effect a jobs only as unskilled, cheaj:) peaceful .settlement led the laborers. ANC and the PAC to turn to Since 1948, the Nationalist armed .struggle. Government Party has been in power. It repression of Black dissent has promoted a policy called has been forceful in recent apartheid (separateness), decades, but political, church, which built on and intensified community, student and trade European domination through union groups have sustained a vast array of laws and edicts. the struggle and captured The Population Registration woridwide attention. Act categorized people into In Febaiary, 1990, the gov- Music and daiici' were ritcil componeiils (ij'thc different racial groups; the reception welcoming Nelson Mandela to Lusaka. ernment lifted its bannings on Zambia. (Photo by D. Cheers, courtesy African Groups Areas Act separated Michael Black opposition movements Studies and Research Program. Howard Uniivrsily) different racial groups in the and released ANC leader Nel- urban areas; the Abolition of Pa.sses and Coordina- son Mandela, who had been in prison for 27 years. tion of Documents Act forced all Africans above the But despite the release of Mandela and other anti- age of 16 to carry passes which controlled their apartheid leaders, many more political prisoners residence and movement. The government's ulti- remain in jail. Despite the legalizing of organizations mate objective was to consign African people, 75 per- such as the ANC and the PAC, the State of Emergency cent of South Africa's population, to bits of impover- remains in effect. Despite the government statement ished land called Bantustans or homelands, on about that exiles may return to South Africa, they may still 13 percent of its poorest land. In order to achieve face prosecution and jail for their political acts. that, the government forcibly removed an estimated Moreover, Blacks do not have the vote, and the three 64 - " key apartheid laws — the Natives Land Act, the Popu- Mbube songs expressing political protest against lation Registration Act, and the Group Areas Act — exploitation were often heard on the South African still endure. The government has done away with Broadcasting Corporation until the late 1940s, when some discriminatory laws, but apartheid is still in stringent monitoring became the aile. " Viikani force. Mauvthii" ("Wake Up, My People"), a well-known Music of struggle in South Africa has many forms makwaya song, frightened radio censors with its and performance contexts. It is based on a variety of potential to mobilize Africans. And until recently it regional styles including unaccompanied polyphonic was illegal even to hum the ANC anthem "Nkosi singing, which is an integral part of everyday life. Sikelel' iAfhka" ("God Bless Africa"), although this Another regional influence on music used in struggle has not prevented people around the world from is praise poetry, often a rap-like poetic recitative that learning the song. The circumvention of censorship affirms the cultural significance of particular people continues to be a challenge to South African musi- and events. Such poetr)' is found today among urban cians and composers; South African music has served laborers who use the genre to express their physical as a means of defining opposition to colonial rule and prowess and to give voice to problems they face far affirming African identity and unit)-. from their families. Amahubo, clan identity anthems with slow, synchronized movements and high kicks, CITATIONS AND FURTHER READINGS is another traditional ha.se for men's stings and dance steps performed in the setting of workers' com- Baker, Pauline. 1989. Tlje United States and South pounds. Africa: The Reafian Years. New York: Foreign Policy South African music of .struggle also has had Association. sources in European musics and in the musics of Bracker, Milton. K)(il. African Rallies Marked by touring choirs and musical reviews. Influences on Song. Sing Out! 11:(3). South African composers and arrangers during the Coplan, David. 19 ' "Action .song" is accompanied by controlled mo\'ements allowing a phy.sical response to mu.s short of dancing, which was forbid- den b\- the church fathers. - Contemporary major exponents include the Boyoyo Boys, whose singing fir.st caught Paul Simon's ear. leading to the success of Lady.smith Black Mambazo outside of Africa. "Ladysmith" serenades its international following — with .i non-political repertory — i English as well as Zulu. 65 Williams, Juan. 1990. At the Gates of Freedom. Let TIjeir Voices Be Heard: Traditional Singing in The Washington Post Magazine. South Africa. Rounder Records 5024. Manka Le Phallang, Manonyana A Moama, Se- bata Sebata. Sheshwe: The Sound of the Mines. SUGGESTED LISTENING Rounder Records 5031 .\maduduzo. Siyahaniukela. Rounder Records Music ofLesotho. Recorded and annotated by Bill 5043. Wood. Smithsonian/Folkways 4224. Boyoyo Boys. Back in Town. Rounder Records Radio Freedom: Voice ofthe African National Con- 5026. gress and the People's Army Umkhonto We Sizwe. Harry Belafonte and Minam Makeba. An Eve- Rounder Records 4019. ning with Belafonte and Makeba. RCA LSP3420. South Africa)! Freedom Songs. Smithsonian/Folk- Ladysmith Black Mambazo, African Zulu Male ways EP601. Choir, others. Mhuhe Roots: Zulu Choral Musicfrom South African Trade Lhiion WorkerChoirs. Rounder 5020. South Africa, I930's-60's . Rounder Records 5025. Records cont. from page 63 (see Hobsbawm and Ranger 1983). The traditions may Civil Rights Movement, the .song has been a part of include national songs (national anthems are such a musical performances in a variety of struggles. As in form), national dress composed of an amalgamation of other areas, professional musicians play important roles regional dre.ss forms, and a national identity based on a by bringing (often arranged ) versions of local traditions variety of .symbolic forms such as celebrations of to wider, sometimes international, audiences. Many independence, the birthdays of heroes, and stories people not directly involved in a .struggle may hear about the founding of the state that establish its identity about it first through songs. as a nation and downplay regional differences and Smithsonian/Folkways Records has issued two re- conflicts. cordings in time for the Festival that deal with labor While national in.stitutions create their own sense of struggles and union organizing: "Don't Mourn — Or- tradition, groups within the nation often struggle to ganize! Songs of Labor Songwriter Joe Hill" (SF40026) assert a degree of autonomy. This is often done through and Woody Guthrie's "Struggle" (SF40025). One of the language, dress, religious affiliation, and music. The richest areas of American protest music, union songs controversies over whether schools should be under have a vast bibliography and discography. local control, whether English should be the sole U.S. national language and the square dance the official U.S. Struggles For Political national dance, and other issues of ethnic identity raise issues here in the United States that are similar to those Autonomy being raised in Eastern Europe. African Americans, The political boundaries of modern natic^ns are very Polish Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, and often shaped more by wars, treaties, and colonization many other groups have asserted cultural autonomy by than by cultural homogeneity. Most nations today perpetuating particular secular and religious traditions contain many different cultural or ethnic groups within through music. their borders. Ethnic strife in Ireland, the USSR, Several performers at the Festival of American Folklife Ea.stern Europe, and the United States provide represent regional populations that are struggling for an examples of the difficulties states have in dealing with independent identity within states largely controlled by culturally different populations within a single state. members of other groups. These include the Kurds and The heterogeneity of modern states has led to two the Palestinians, among many others that might have related social processes that have both used music: 1) appeared. the forging of a "national identity" out of (or over) a variety of local identities and 2) the creation and Political Issues maintenance of local identities in the face of a (forged) Participants in political conflicts have long used national identity that does not usually recognize local songs to spread their messages and to create unity differences. among their compatriots. Recent examples include the Faced with heterogeneous populations and the movement against the Vietnam war in the 1960s, the necessity of defending political btjrders. many nations have "created traditions" to establish a national unity cont. page 69 66 ) U.S. Civil Rights Movement Jacqiieli)! C. Peters In the early 1950s the continuing struggle of Afri- James Farmer of the Congress of Racial Equality can Americans for basic human rights was directed (CORE) led the Freedom Riders on a Greyhound bus toward winning crucial liberties long denied them — from Washington, D.C. on a perilous journey through a good education and the vote. The NAACP .sought Alabama and Mississippi. On "Bloody Sunday," to challenge the laws limiting educational opportuni- March 7 1965 the nation witnessed on television the ties by enlisting the legal strategies of African Ameri- assault of hundreds ot peaceful demonstrators by can attorneys such as the late Wiley Branton, who was to become Dean of the Howard Universiry Law School, and Thurgood Marshall, currently a Chief Justice on the U.S. Supreme Court. The U.S. Supreme Court's Brown vs. Board of Education decision rendered in 1954 cited the sociological and psycho- logical findings of Dr. Kenneth Clark and others who maintained that the Plessy vs. Ferguson "separate but equal" doctrine instituted in 1896 was harmful to both Black and White students. The justices ordered in 1955 that all children be admitted to tax-supported public schools "on a racially non-discriminatory basis Spinls iiiv /ijy/i III Ihi-. c in/ n^iihh nil/v in mi .Uulhiiiui with all deliberate speed." church FtVCllnlll '.nHi;s sirciij^lhciicl Ihc ICnllV nj llnll-nnlt'll/ Close on the heels of the Brown decision came a denioiistnitiiis. iihn iivrc piv/kirrJ hi ciumnilcr lici\cciilioii and imprisunmi'iil (Phulii hy Jue .-ilpcr. coiinesy Dr Bennce series of events which jolted the Civil Rights Move- Johnson Reagon) ment into the nation's consciousness. Mrs, Rosa Parks' arrest for violating the bus segregation ordi- Alabama state troopers. One week later, the Johnson nance in Montgomery, Alabama, sparked the administration presented a voting rights bill before Montgomery Bus Boycott on December 5, 1955, four Congress. On August 6, 1965, President Lyndon B. days after her detention. Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act. then 26 years old, was elected president of the Song and eloquent oratory are integral to African Montgomery' Improvement Association, the organi- American religious expression, and they were perva- zation which organized the boycott. It took 386 days, sive, spiritually sustaining elements of the U.S. Civil but the city officials were finally convinced that inte- Rights Movement. In emotionally tense or physically gration of the buses was crucial to their economic threatening situations, the standard of non-violence health, and the bus boycott was discontinued. Three and a serene attitude were maintained through song, weeks later, the Southern Christian Leadership Con- prayer, and words of encouragement. Massive ference (SCLC) was founded with Dr. King as presi- church rallies, picketing demonstrations and even jail dent, and the forces that would guide his destiny as houses echoed with the sounds of resolve, declaring, a charismatic leader and a national hero gained mo- "Just like a tree standing by the water,/ We shall not mentum. be moved." When four black college students .staged the first Sacred African American music provided the basis sit-in on February 1, 1960 at a Woolworth's lunch for many freedom songs. One such spiritual, "I Will counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, a wave of Be All Right," has evolved to become the universal similar student protests followed, sweeping the Deep anthem of protest, "We Shall Overcome." Tech- South. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Com- niques such as call and response, "worrying the line" mittee (SNCC), which provided many "foot soldiers" (using melismatic vocal embellishments), or "lining in the desegregation and voter registration efforts.was out" a hymn (the song leader's singing or reciting the founded at Shaw University on April 15, I960. next line of verse before the end of the previous one 67 are other retentions from traditional African Ameri- Hickerson.JosephC, compiler. 1974. A Brief List can song. of Material Relating to Freedom Songs of the Civil Important contributions to tiie repertory of free- Rights Movement. Washington, D.C; Archive of dom songs were made by composers wiiose music Folk Culture, Library of Congress. sprang out of the Movement. The gifted Bertha Ploski, Harry and James Williams, eds. 1989. The Gober, one of the most prolific composers, some- Negro Almanac: A Reference Work on the African times received her inspirations while actively in- American. New York; Gale Research, Inc. volved in demonstrations or while sitting in a jail cell; Reagon, Bernice. 1987. Let the Church Sing memories of those who were martyrs for the move- "Freedom". Black Music Research Journal 7. in collaboration with Dr. Doris ment also provided histories for Ms. Gober and many , others to put to music. Social contexts were estab- McGinty. 1980. Liner notes for Voices of the Civil lished in song lyrics by naming the protagonists, Rights Movement. Smithsonian Collection of Record- antagonists, or locations where conflict was intense. ings R023. Grounded in the tradition of Black congregational The Words of Martin Luther King. Jr. 1984. Se- song, choral quartets and ensembles transmitted the lected by Coretta Scott King. New York; Newmarket Movement's musical message to audiences far from Press. the locale of the stmggle. The Montgomery Gospel Walker, Wyatt T. 1979. Somebody's Calling My Trio, the American Baptist Theological Seminary Name: Black SacredMusic and Social Change. Valley Quartet — also known as the Nashville Quartet — Forge, PA; Judson Press. and the CORE Singers proved to be solid songleading Williams, Juan. 1986. Eyes on the Prize: America 's groups. Civil Rights Years: 1954-1965. New York; Viking Nationwide support was garnered for SKCC through Press. the works of four singers; Rutha Harris, Bernice Johnson, Charles Neblett, and Cordell Reagon, who organized the group known as the original SNCC SUGGESTED LISTENING Freedom Singers. Reagon delivered most of the Been in the Storm So Long. Smithsonian/Folkways interpretive information in performances which made SF 40031. the world sit up and take notice. Two other Voices of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Ameri- configurations of this group emerged; another group can Freedom Songs. 1960-1965. Smithsonian Collec- of Freedom Singers, followed by the Freedom Voices. tion of Recordings R023. This year's music stage features the original SNCC SingforFreedom. Smithsonian Folkways SF 40032. Freedom Singers with Ms. Bettie Mae Pikes standing in, as she has in the past, for Dr. Bernice Johnson Reagon. Ms. Fikes, originally of Selma. Alabama, is known as one of the strongest song leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. CITATIONS AND FURTHER READINGS Carawan, Guy and Candi, recorders and editors. 1989. Ain't you Got a Right to the Tree of Life: The People offohns Island. South Carolina, Their Faces, Their Words and TIjeir Songs. Athens: University of Georgia Press. . 1990. Sing For Freedom. Bethlehem, PA: Sing Out! Singing freedom songs, marchers led by Stevie Wonder braved the elements in Washington. D.C. everyJanuary 15th Meier, eds. 1982. Franklin, John Hope and August until Congress passed a hill making Dr. Martin Luther King. Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century. Urbana; Jr s birthday a legal holiday in 1983. (Photo by Sharon Farmer) University of Illinois Press. Garrow. DavidJ. 1986. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, fr. and the Southern Christian Leader- ship Conference. New York: William Morrow. cont. from page 66 Greenway book is a classic; and Sing Out! magazine songs of soldiers who served in Vietnam, the opposition provides the words and music to many contemporary to nuclear power in the 1970s and 1980s, the Feminist songs. movement, and the Latin American popular political music Nueva Cancion, among many others. The United Denisoff, R. Serge. 1973. Songs ofProtest, War and States can boast of a long history of political songs, from Peace: A Bibliography and Discograpby. Santa Barbara: the early 19th century up to the present. From Jefferson ABC-Clio. through Gerald Ford, with some notable examples from Denselow, Robin. 19S9. When the Music's Over: the Roosevelt years, political songs were published in ne Stoiy cfPolitical Pop. London & Boston: Faberand newspapers and had the kind of exposure we now Faber. associate with mass media. The songs themselves were Elbourne. Roger. 1980. Music afid Tradition in Early a direct expression of attempts to sway public opinion Industrial Lancashire 1 780-1840. The Folklore Society and votes by creating positive images of the candidates Mistletoe Series. Suffolk: D.S. Brewer; Totowa, NJ: and supporting their policies (Folkways Records has Roman and Littlefield. several recordings of political songs from different eras). Green, Archie. 1972. Only a Miner Urbana: Many songs of the Civil Rights Movement were based Liniversity of Illinois Press. on African American church music. Some, like "We Greenway. John. 1953- Anwricau Folksongs of Shall Overcome" were only slightly altered hymns Protest. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. familiar to many of the participants. The performance Hobsbawm, Eric and Terence Ranger. 1983. The style, audience participation, and importance of music Iiwention ofTradition. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- in the Civil Rights Movement owed a great deal to the sity Press. African American churches from which were derived Rousseau. Jean-Jacques. 1975 [1779]. A Complete much of the movement's organization and power, and Dictionaiy ofMusic. Reprint of the 1779 edition. New also to the kind of mass actions in which the movement ^'ork: AMS Press. was engaged. Although the Civil Rights Movement Seeger, Pete. 1972. 'Ihe Incompleat Folksinger. adopted a doctrine of non-violent mass protest from Edited by Jo Metcalf Schwartz. New York: Simon & Gandhi's non-violent independence movement in In- Schuster. dia, the Indian movement itself was not a particulariy musical one. Church music was a cultural resource Suggested Listening available in the U.S. Civil Rights Movement that was not A complete list of over 50 Folkways recordings available in multi-ethnic India. related to this theme is available from the Office of Folklife Programs. The following are faidy easily Conclusion available examples of a large discography: Come All You Coal Miners. Rounder Records 4005. Musical performances can be a part of social move- Doji't Mourn - Organize.' Songs ofLabor Songwriter ments in a number of different ways. From marked Joe Hill. Smithsonian/Folkways Records 40026. silence through the revival of old musical forms to the Sheshwe: Tlje Sound of Ihe Mi)ies. Rounder Records composition of new genres, musical performances have 5031. both expressed and created feelings of community, Sing For Freedom. Smithsonian/Folkways Records have defined central concerns and aspirations, knit 40032. small communities together and projected messages to Rebel Voices. Songs of the hidustrial Workeis of the large international audiences. Music can be an effective World. Flying Fish 484. resource for social movements because of the variety of So)jgs of Struggle and Celebrati(»i by Guy Carawan. ways it can be used — with subtlety or bluntness — and Flying Fish 27272. its ability to be heard in spite of censorship. Forged, Woody Guthrie: Struggle. Smithsonian/Folkways transformed, and even abandoned in the crucible of Records 40025. struggle, music is part of the complex web of sounds and signs with which we experience and make history. Citations and Further Readings Here are just a few references. The Denisoff bibliog- raphy is a good guide to the older sources; Pete Seeger's book includes many observations of a participant in a number of social movements; Elbourne's book is the best historical study of music I have run across; the 69 Israelis and Palestinians Amy Horowitz Amy Horowitz, a Ph.D. candidate iti Folklore at the University ofPennsylvania, received a grantfrom the D.C. Community Humanities Council in 1986 to dofive radio shows on culture in disputed territoriesfeaturing Israeli and Palestinian protest artists. Amy has workedforSweet Honey in the Rock since 1977 as artist representative. Situated at the crossroad of East and West, the The dispute was intensified after Nazi annihilation of Middle East has been the site of staiggle for miUenium. European Jews (1936-1945) resulted in greater num- For over 3,000 years, the land between the Mediter- bers of Jews seeking refuge in Palestine. Arab and ranean, the Jordan River and beyond, which now Palestinian nationalism increased in response to Jew- occupies the center of controversy for Israelis, Pales- ish immigration and efforts to create a Jewish state. tinians, Arabs and Jews has been called by many After World War II, the United Nations Partition names, claimed by many peoples and occupied by Plan divided the area (the size of New Jersey), into countless foreign rulers. Many Israelis date their contiguous Palestinian and Israeli nations. Jewish claim back to the Hebrew Kingdoms of Israel and leaders accepted the plan and the State of Israel was Judea(722B.C. -70A.D.) proclaimed in 1948. and even beyond. Pales- Palestinians rejected any tinians point to indige- plan which established a nous inhabitants living in Jewish state on Palestin- the area throughout his- ian land. The result of tory as well as a continu- this dispute was the 1948 ous Muslim majority since Arab-Israeli War. Fol- the 7th century A.D. lowing Arab defeat, Is- In the 19th century, rael expanded its terri- during Ottoman Rule tory' allotted under parti- (1500-1917 A.D.), Euro- tion, VxjusiiDils World War I, Arab nationalists resisted European tries. Those Palestinians who remained became dominance and sought to create a unified Arab world Israeli citizens. At the same time, thousands ofJews, under the banner of the Arabic language and a escaping oppression in Europe and Arab countries common regional heritage. For European Jewry, the arrived in Israel. The stage was set for continuing nationalistic trend emerged in the form of Zionism conflict. calling for a return to their Biblical homeland. They Subsequent Ai-ab-Israeli wars (1956, 1967, 1973, hoped that in their historical birthplace self-determi- 1982) have intensified ho.stilities and further altered nation would replace centuries of exile and victimi- geo-political borders. Portions of Jordan and Egypt zation. came under Israeli occupation after the 1967 war. These two incompatible movements clashed dur- These territories — the West Bank and Gaza — are ing the British occupation of Palestine (1917-1948). the site of the current Palestinian uprising. 70 Aj/jrw;? ("patience"), formed in 1980 and based in eastern Jeai.salem, has been making music under conditions of Israeli occupation. Since 1987, the be- ginning of the Intifada — the uprising organized by Palestinians against the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza — the band members report that it has been more difficult to acquire space for rehears- als, recording sessions, and performances. After they made sacrifices to finance the production of their two cassettes, sales on the West Bank were restricted by laws enacted to prevent trade between Palestinians in Jerusalem and in the other occupied territories. "We are not a direct threat to the authorities, because our .songs are indirect in their message, but we are one of the threads that ties the Palestinian people together, so in that sense we are a threat" (Lems 1990). The growing numbers and enthusiastic response of their audiences in Jerusalem, the United States and Europe seem to nevertheless confirm the power of music to extend beyond governmentally imposed boundaries. Israeli Fcilesrinuin singer perpiniis a /iciuc smig in Hehivw Traditional music and poetic forms of Arabian and and Arabic at the "Women Go For Peiuc ( mifciciice. Janiiaty. 1990 The conference was orgcinizetl hy Icii i\h iiiul Palestinian Middle Ea.stern cultures provide the backbone for Isnielis /hull ihe "Women's Peiite Mi iicnieiit in ^inijiinction what they call their Palestinian "new song." Tradi- iiilh '.rirnil Palestinian women s un>aiii:iition-. in the Occu- pii;l Icrniciie^ Vie agenda uas peai.e/nl L 71 affirms the inclusiveness and unity ot the culture they viction that for Palestinian and Israeli the solution champion. "We are creating tomorrow's folk songs must be "two peoples, two states, one future. " In the and traditions," remarks bozuk player Oden Tunijman. song "My Brother and I" she says: Although the music calls for a response in move- Thousands ofyears ago ment, the poetic imagery demands contemplation: Between the waves ofsand and the palm trees, I tell the world, I tell. We led our sheep together to the water. About the house whose lamp is broken. Since the water hasflowed in the Jordan. About the axe which destroyed a lily. We have been bom brother and sister. 'e About the fire that burned a braid. . . Blessed by the sea and by the shade ofthe olii tree. (from "The Smoke of Volcanoes," written by It is said that without roots the tree dies. Samih al-Qassem) It is said that without hope the heart stops. A verse from a different song employs the symbol- ... How much time, how much blood ism of the fertile land and affirms, "The valley will Must be spilled until we learn become full with new clusters of wheat." Both lam- Toforget ourpast eirors andfind the road topeace? entation and celebration have the aim of making a Sara's musical heritage combines folk melodies in- "cultural contribution to the morale and education of herited from her Turkish mother and Eastern Euro- their people" (Lems 1990). pean traditions from her Rumanian father with tradi- Sara (Shuv) Alexander, born in Jerusalem, Pales- tional and contemporary Arabic and Jewish influ- tine before the creation of Israel in 1948, rai.sed on a ences of her childhood in Palestine and Israel. These kibbutz near Haifa, half Sephardic, half Ashkenazi, are blended with western elements to create a music exliibited both a musical and independent spirit from combining traditional and contemporary ingredients. a young age. She began playing the accordion at age Sara performs with guitar and accordion and sings in thirteen. The same fiery spirit carried her through her six languages: Hebrew, French, Arabic, Yiddish, service with the Nahal Entertainment Troupe of the English and Spanish. Israel Defense Forces. Alexander is an Israeli peace activist and singer/ composer. In the 1960s, she was one of the first CITATIONS AND FURTHER READINGS Israeli Jews to lend her voice to protest her country's Binur, Yoram. 1989. My Enemy. My Self New policies regarding the Palestinian question. In the York: Doubleday. 1984. Civilization the 1970s, "banned from the airwaves " in Israel, she left Eban. Abba. Heritage: and to live in France. She considers herself a member of Jews. New York: Summit Books. the Israeli "Peace Now" group and travels to Israel to Elmessiri, A.M., collector and translator. 1982. We perform and participate in dialogue and demonstra- Palestinian Wedding: A Bilingual Anthology ofCon- tions. "There are no good occupations" she says. temporary^ Palestinian Resistance Poetry. 'Washing- About the confiscation of Palestinian land she sings ton. D.C.: Three Continents Press. the song of the almond trees that cry, "For such a long Lems, Kristin. 1990. Sabreen — Palestinian New time the tears of the Arab people have watered the Song. Sassafras: the Journal of the People's Music earth, it does not surprise us that the fruits are bitter." Network for Songs of Freedom and Struggle. Janu- At the same time, Alexander addresses the oppres- ary(17). sion and persecution of Jewish people throughout McDowall, David. 1989- Palestine and Israel. The history. Uprisingand Beyond. Berkeley: University of Califor- Sara has helped to organize Jewish-Arab music nia Press. festivals in Europe and has performed with Palestin- Morris, Benny. 1988. Tl.ie Bii1h (fthe Palestinian ian musician Imad Saleh in the United States. She Refugee Problem. 1947-1949. New \'ork: Cam- says, "It is necessary that Israelis and Palestinians bridge University Press. recognize each other at last. The dialogue is essen- Muslih, Muhammad Y. 1988. The Origins ofPal- tial." estinian Nationalism. New York: Columbia Univer- Her songs and poems draw on historical refer- sity Press. ences to Arabs and Jews, personal experience with Palestine. 1985. ne New Encyclopedia Britan- Palestinians and Israelis, and images of her native nica. 9:81-82. land. In this way they are similar to Palestinian pro- Said, Edward. 1985. After the Last Sky: Palestin- test poetry that also draws heavily on natural imagery ian Lives. New York: Pantheon Books. of the region. The song texts give voice to her con- Shehadeh, Raja. 1984. Samed: Journal of a West 72 Bcuik Pcileslinicm New ^'cirk: Adama Books. SUGGESTED LISTENING Songs for Peace and Justice in tiie Middle East. Palestine Liresf Songs from the Stniggle of the 1985. Broadside: ne \atioiuil Topical Soiifi Maga- People of Palestine. Paredon P 1022. zine. Febaiary( 159). Sara Alexander. Peace. Shalom. Salam. Paix. Sapem Sap 212. Silence as Protest Singing an Old Song Silence. Not all .societies have protest songs. Some In New Circumstances use silence. Silence doesn't express much unless Members of a social group engaged in political everyone else is making noise. But there are some struggle sometimes perform traditional songs without situations (singing a national anthem, a school song, a changing them at all — neither lyrics nor music refer required chorus) when silence can be a statement of directly to their struggle. It is rather the larger context opposition. In some societies silence is more elabo- of the performance that lends political significance to rately used. the event and makes the unaltered traditional music a Among the Suya Indians of central Brazil, dissatisfac- music of struggle. Many American Indian communities tion was often expressed by non-participation. Living maintain traditional musical styles in spite of intense among them for two years, I never heard a lullaby or a political and cultural pressures. Few if any protest song work song, much less a protest song. Even direct verbal movements grow out of their traditional musical forms. confrontation was relatively rare — anger was ex- Instead the songs are sung as they have been. Perform- pressed through silence. All music was ceremonial; all ing traditional music and speaking local languages not song texts were said to be "revealed" rather than only recalls a past when that was normal, but can be a composed by human beings. Cc^mplete community strong statement that the present situation is wrong and participation in ceremonies was considered "beautiful" that the future should embody continuities from the past and good. But if a person was angry (and anger was in these and other ways. sometimes related to politics) he could sing along Unaltered traditions performed in situations of very without enthusiasm (a weak but public form of protest ), severe oppression attest that simply maintaining an old go out fishing when everyone else was singing (a tradition is itself part of a larger struggle for survival. To stronger form of protest), or sit silently and refuse to sing many North and South American Indian communities, at all (a strong public declaration of anger). Each of whose social, political, and religious institutions have these attitudes would be noticed and mentioned. Si- been supressed for centuries, the musical performances lence was protest in this society where music itself was have complex meanings. But to people outside the only used as a statement of commimity. society the message is often, "we continue to survive" and "we are not completely members (jf the surround- ing society." 73 QUICHUA Jacqueluj C. Peters Chimborazo, the 20,000 foot apex of the Andes reforestation projects have proliferated thanks to collective efforts. Mountain range in Ecuador, is an extinct volcano in Feria Educativa's the center of the country. On this mountain live an Music and skits have been used to foster a dia- indigenous people known as the Quichua. Indige- logue with campesinos during the more than 750 nous empires (Cara, Inca), the Spanish colonial rule community tours that Feria Educativa has been in- (from 1526 to 1830), and long-standing border dis- vited to undertake in the last 1 1 years. Singing in their language wearing tradi- putes with Peru, which sits east and south of Ecua- indigenous Quichua and dor, have come and gone. Enduring are the camppsh tional clothing, the members of the troupe perform to nos of Chimborazo Province. A quarter of a million encourage creation of and participation in a commu- people, they are the largest group of Native .Ameri- nity defined by shared culture. After this, the business collectively cans in the country. of identi- They are also among fying and solving prob- the most poverty- lems begins. One skit that striken peoples in South draws nods of America. recognition from the They have endured crowd enacts the di- exploitation for genera- lemma of an un- tions through a haci- schooled campesino enda system which has unable to read an important letter and resulted in general illit- eracy, financial de- dependent on an un- pendence, and social scrupulous person marginalization. Efforts who misinterprets the information. Follow- by national and inter- a skit depicting campesinos ndmg on a Feria Educativa performs ing the performance, organizations in national hits. Music and drama are used to engage Quichua communities to improve these con- discussions on development needs and strategies. (Photo by Julia an enthusiastic com- Weise-Vargas, courtesy Inter-American Foundation) ditions have not always munity usually hosts been successful, especially when they have failed to the visiting group until the wee hours of the morning. take into account the social and cultural contexts of development. Productive efforts to assist the cam- CITATIONS AND FURTHER READINGS pesinos have been spawned by grassroots organiza- Ecuador. 1985. The Neiv Encyclopedia Bhtannica. w-ith a deeper perception of what w as needed tions 4:360-361. and how best to communicate with their compatriots. Feria Educativa. 1986. Apreticlamos Suestra Mii- Feria Educativa, "Educational Fair," was a seminal sica. Quito: CEPID. group in these latter development efforts. Formed in Ittdigenas en . 1986. Los Alzamientos 1974, the Feria formulated an agenda of goals iden- la Andiencia de Quito. Quito: Abya Yala. tified by the campesinos themselves. The Feria's Harrison, Regina. 1989. Signs, songs and tnenio- training programs have included some 100 musical ries in the Andes. Austin: University of Texas Press. performance groups; the Feria has sponsored four Instituto Otavaleno de Antropologia. 1979. Len- festivals of traditional music and dance, produced giia y Cidtura en el Ecuador. Otavalo, Ecuador: In- three cassettes, and generated many pamphlets on stituto Otavaleno de Antropologia. local folk arts and historical lore. Bakeries, the Kleymeyer, Charles and Carios Moreno. 1988. La artisan-managed workshops, community' centers, and 74 Feria Educativa; A Wellspring ot Ideas and CliI- SUGGESTED LISTENING tural Pride. Grassroots Development: Joiinuil of the La Feria Educativa. 1986. Nuestro Ca>!to es Re- Inter-American Foundation. 12(2). belde. Whitten, Norman E., Jr. 198!. Cultural Transfor- , 1990. Rucanchij Taqui. mations and Ethnicity in Modem Ecuador. Urbana: . 1990. Pinay Taqui.. University' of Illinois Press. Joe Hill: Union Organizing a great number of workers who are too unintelligent or too indifferent to read a pamphlet or an editorial Some of the most famous songs of struggle in the on economic science. United States were written during labor conflicts from There is one thing that is necessary in order to hold the mid 19th century up to the present. the old members and to get the would-be members Joe Hill (1879-1915) was a songwriter for the Indus- interested in the class struggle and that is entertain- trial Workers of the World (I.W.W.), a radical movement ment. November 29, 1914. in the early 20th century committed to the formation of Seventy-five years after his death, the name Joe Hill a worldwide workers' organization: One Big Union. is not as widely known as his influence is felt. But Joe His songs described struggles with strikebreakers ( "Casey Hill remains an inspiration and a model for many song- Jones — The Union Scab"), the plight of the homeless writers and performers who organize through music. and unemployed ("The Tramp"), the economic base of Smithsonian/Folkways Records, in conjunction with prostitution ("The White Slave"), and charity organiza- the 1990 Festival of American Folklife and the Joe Hill tions that help support an oppressive status quo ("The Organizing Committee of Salt Lake City, Utah, has Preacher and the Slave"). His execution in Utah on issued an album of songs by and about Joe Hill that November 19, 1915, for murder, a charge his supporters illustrates his skill as a songwriter and shows his considered a class-oriented conspiracy, raised Joe Hill influence on the international labor movement: Don't to powerfi.ll symbolic status within the labor movement. Mourn — Organize! Songs ofLabor Songwriter foe Hill Many songs and poems were subsequently written (SF 40026, available on CD, LP and cassette). about him, among them, "Joe Hill," "Joe Hill's Ashes," and "Joe Hill Listens to the Praying." Both as a song- writer and as the subject of songs, Joe Hill continues to Anthony Seeger is curator of the Folkivays Collection be an important figure in United States labor history. and Director ofFolkways Records in the Office ofFolklife In a letter to the editor of the I.W.W. newspaper Programs. He teas previously employed at the Miiseu Solidarity, from the Salt Lake County Jail, Joe Hill told Nacional in Rio dejafieiro (1975-1982) and Indiana why he wrote songs as tools for organizing: University (1982-1988). Anthropologist, ethnomusi- A pamphlet, no matter how good, is never read more cologist and archivist, Dr. Seeger is the author of three than once, but a song is learned by heart and hooks and many articles on the social organization, repeated over and over; and I maintain that if a per- cosmology and musicalperformances of the Suyd Indi- son can put a few cold, common sense facts into a ans ofBrazil. He was exposed to musics ofstrugglefrom song, and dress them up in a cloak of humor to take early childhood and has performed them as part of his the dryness off of them, he will succeed in reaching participation in a number of social processes. 75 'The Troubles" in Ireland Jacqiieli)i C. Peters Tis Ireland, my comilry. the hirlhpkice of heroes. Moore, whose reputation in Ireland is comparable to The home of the patriot, ucirrior ami sage. that oi the late Woody Guthrie in America, has Of bards and of chieftains, whose names lire in written a wealth of .songs on many social issues. story, Frank Harte, the All-Ireland Champion singer from May they live forever, on hi^loiy's page. Chapelizod in Dublin, has a repertory of over 8,000 You once were a proud and glorious nation. songs. Son of a "pub" proprietor and an architect by Yourname and yourfame were kuow)i all over ibe profession, Mr. Harte was introduced to traditional world, Irish songs by a fateful encounter with a man selling 'Til misfortune came o 'eryou and sad desolation. sheet music at a fair. This began a life-long passion Your moral banner in slarery lav unfurled, for collecting .songs and for the culture that goes with (excerpt from "My Own Native Land" a tradi- them. song) tional CITATIONS AND FURTHER READINGS "The troubles" is the eupliemism used in Ireland Coi^derv', James R. 1990. Tlje Melodic Tradition (f to refer to the host of prob- Ireland. Kent: The Kent lems attending the conflict State University Press. over British presence in Ireland. 1985. The New that land. Irish history pro- T) I c] 'dopedia Brita ini ica. vides ample themes for 6:378-382. music of struggle sung in Kelly, K. 1982. 'The the scan-nos ("old") style. Longest War- Northern Ire- There is much historical land and the IRA. Dingle, commentary on politics, Westport and London. persecution and the love Moore, Christy. 1984. and longing for the land; The Christy Moore Song- but there is also a wealth oi hook. Dover, New Hamp- contemporary expressions shire: Brandon Book Pub- that address the tragedies lishers. Tnulilional Insb inusiL and dance uviv pcijuniwd at ii of occupation and civil war, Harte, Frank, ed. (In benefit concert in .\etr York City in Fehniaiy. 1990 Performin,i> the loss of family mem- are (left to right): Myron Brelholz — lx)dliran (Irishi dnim). press). Songs of Dul)lin. MarkSimos — guitar. Jerry O'Sidlivan — uillcan pi^e5, Seamiis bers, and the corruption of Cork, Ireland: Ossian Pub- Connolly — fiddle. James Keane — Irish accordion. (Photo by childhood innocence. .Sarah Towle) lishers. The old repertory, never abandoned and therefore never subjected to a "re- SUGGESTED IISTENING vival," provides historical context for the new songs Harte, Frank. Daybreak and a Candle-End. that chronicle current events destined to become part SPIN 99S. of traditional lore. . And Listen to My Song. SPIN Musicians who compose and perform traditional 994. Irish songs of struggle include Paddy Tunney, a mas- Men of No Property. Ireland: We Final terful singer and participant at the 1976 Festival of Struggle Paredon P 1039. American Folklife; Tommy Sands, renown song- Moloney, Mick, Robbie O'Connell iS; Jimmy writer who expresses reconciliatory themes; Dermot Keane. Kilkelly. Green Linnet Records CSIF 1072. Henry, a singer of "rebel songs" now residing in New Moloney, Mick, Jimmy Keane, Robbie York; and Cathie Ryan-Henry, also based in New O'Connell, and Liz Carroll. There Were Roses. York and possessed of an excellent voice and trained Green Linnet Records CSIF 1057. by her parents in the old style. Composer Christy 76 " Chicano Farm Workers' Movement JaccjiiL'iiii C. Peters The San Joaquin Valley of California is a major born of migrant farmworkers in Torreon Coahuila, agricultural center. Its abundant harvests are enjoyed Mexico, spending his first years in Torreon, Juarez, by many Americans unaware of the substandard Texas and New Mexico. By the time he was seven, working and living conditions endured by migrant his family had settled in the San Joaquin Valley. His workers who gather the crops. The many undocu- eariy education took place on the migrant path, and mented immigrants from Mexico included in the formal musical training began in high school, .^fter ranks of the farmworkers refrained from complaining leaving El Teatro Campesino in 1969, Lira took an and risking arrest and deportation. The children of independent direction. He established four other these farmworkers were caught in a situation in theater groups before El Teatro de la Tierra, which he which they could not get an adequate education, if began in East Los Angeles and incorporated later in they went to school at all; they were destined to rural Fresno, California in 1974. Together with his remain in a cycle of poverty which their parents had group. Alma, Lira presents the stcjry of the Chicano come to America to escape. experience in song and narrative. This situation prompted the campaign to organize the workers and the strike headed by Ceasar Chavez CITATIONS AND FURTHER READINGS of the United Farmworkers of America in the 1960s. Levy, Jack. 197S. Ceasar Chcwez: Autobiography Americans were informed about the plight of these of La Causa. New \brk: 'W. 'W. Norton & Co. workers and were urged to boycott California pro- Ross, Fred. 1990. Conquering the Lioir Keene, duce until employers of migrant workers provided CA: United Farmworkers of America. better living and working conditions. The beginning of the strike was depressing to the workers. Picket- ing families faced having even fewer resources to SUGGESTED LISTENING support themselves. Ramon "Chunky" Sanchez of Los Alacranes. Picando. Alacran Publishing 1989. the music group, Los Alacranes, related how he, his El Teatro Campesino. Hiielga En General! Songs brother and a few other musicians brought their gui- of the United Farm Workers. El Centro Campesino tars with them to the picket lines one day and played Cultural TC 1352. old tunes to cheer up their fellow strikers. Seeing the rousing effect music had, they decided to bring their instalments every day, but they soon tired of playing Jacquelin Celeste Peters was an Aiis Adiiiiiiistra- the same songs. This led to their improvising lyrics tion Fellowfor the National Endowmentfor the Arts, about the boycott. and has served as an evaliialor for NEA s Folk Arts The Valdez Brothers — Luis and Daniel — co- and Expansion Arts programs. She is a consultant founded El Teatro Campesino with Agustin Lira dur- scholarforthe D.C. Community Humanities Council, ing the Great Delano Grape Strike in 1965. Together and compiled the premier edition of the Africa)! they led the artistic component of the farmworkers' American FolkloristsDirecloiy "for the Office ofFolklife movement, writing songs and plays about the boy- Programs. cott, and winning the Off Broadway "Obie" award for As an indepoideni radio producer she received "creating a worker's theatre to demonstrate the poli- grantsfrom NEA andfrom National Public Radio's tics of survival. Satellite Program Development Fund to produce Lira, a featured artist at this year's Festival, was programs on popular African music. 77 1990 festival of American folklife JUNE 27-JULY 1/JULY4-JULY 8 Smithsonian Institution/National Park Service Mall. The Health Units in the Muse- des volontaires. Si un membre de General ums of American History and Natural famille est perdu, veuillez vous History are open from 10:00 a.m. to adresser a la tente des volontaires. 5:30 p.m. Information Metro Stations Primeros Auxilios Metro trains will be running every Una unidad de primeros auxilios se day of the Festival. The Festival site is Festival Hours instalara cerca del area de la Adminis- easily accessible to either the Smith- Opening ceremonies for the Festi- tracion. Las unidades de salud en los sonian or Federal Triangle stations on val will be held on the Main Music museos de Historia Norteamericana y the Blue and Orange lines. Stage in the Musics of Struggle area at de Historia Natural estaran abiertos 11:00 a.m. Wednesday, June 27th. desde las 10:00 a.m.hasta las 5:30 p.m. Services for Disabled Thereafter, Festival hours will be Visitors 11:00 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. daily, with POSTES DE SeCOURS dance parties every evening 5:30 to Two sign-language interpreters are Une unite mobile des postes de 7:00 p.m., except July 4th. on site every day at the Festival. secours sera situee pres de Check the printed schedule and signs I'Administration. Les services de sante for interpreted programs. Oral inter- HORARIO DEL FESTIVAL des Musee de I'Histoire America ine et preters are available for individuals if La ceremonia de apertura al Festi- I'Histoire Naturelle sont ouverts dc a request is made three full days in val se celebrara en el escenario del lOh. a 17h.30. advance. Call (202) 357-1696 (TDD) Programa de "Musics of Struggle," el or (202) 357-1697 (voice). An audio- 27 de junio a las 11:00 A.M. A partir Rest Rooms/ loop amplification system for people de ese dia, las horas del Festival seran who are hard of hearing is installed at de 11:00 a.m. a las 5:30 p.m. diari- Telephones the Music Stage of the Musics of amente, con baile cada noche, ex- There are outdoor facilities for the Struggle area. cepto el 4 de julio, de 5:30 p.m. a 7:00 public and disabled visitors located Large-print copies of the daily P.M. all of the program areas on the near schedule and audiocassette versions Mall. Additional rest room facilities of the program book and schedule are are available in each of the museum HoRAiRE Du Festival available free of charge at Festival in- buildings during visiting hours. Les ceremoniesd'ouverture du Fes- formation kiosks and the Volunteer Public telephones are available on tival auront lieu sur la scene musicale lent. the site, opposite the Museums of principale de "Musics of Struggle," a Wheelchairs are available at the American History and Natural History, llh., mercredi, le 27 juin. Apres cela, Festival Volunteer tent. Volunteers and inside the Museums. les heures du Festival seront de llh. a are on call to a.ssi.st wheelchair users 17h.30 chaque jour, avec des soirees and to guide visually handicapped dan.santes de 17h.30 a 19h., sauf le 4 Lost and Found/Lost visitors. There are a few designated juillet. Children and Parents parking spaces for disabled visitors along both Mall drives. These spaces Lost items may be turned in or have three hour time restrictions. Sales retrieved at the Volunteer tent in the Traditional food from Senegal and area. Lost family mem- Administration Parties the U.S. Virgin Islands and traditional bers may be claimed at the Volunteer Evening Dance Memphis bar-b-que will be sold. See tent also. Musical groups playing traditional the site map for locations. dance music will perform every eve- A variety' of crafts, books and Personas y Objetos ning, 5:30-7:00 p.m., except July 4th, Smithsonian/Folkways Records relat- at the Music Stage in the Musics of ing to the 1990 Festival programs will Perdido Struggle area. be sold in Museum Shops areas on Las personas que hayan perdido a the Festival site. sus ninos o a familiares pueden pasar Program Book para voluntarios, en el por la carpa Background information on the area de la Administracion por ellos. Press cultural traditions of Senegal, the Los objetos encontrados o extraviados Visiting members of the press folklife of the U.S. Virgin Islands and podran entregarse o reclamarse en should register at the Festival Press Musics of Struggle is available in the dicha carpa. tent on the Mall near Madison Drive Festival ofAmerican Folklife Program and 12th Street. Book, on sale for $2.00 at the Festival Objet Perdus/ site or by mail from the Office of First Aid Personnes Perdues Folklife Programs, Smithsonian Institu- tion, 955 UEnfant Plaza, S.W., Suite A first aid station will be available Les objets trouves ou perdus peu- 2600, Washington, D.C. 20560. near the Administration area on the vent etre remis ou reclames a la tente Participants in the 1990 Festival oe American folkliee United States Clement Cain Magras, stoiytelling - George Fachete, dancing - St. Thomas Frederiksted, St. Croix Virgin Islands John McCleverty, moko jttmhie - Gordon Finch, dancing - Frederiksted, St. Thomas St. Croix Performance Traditions Patricia Fomp, dancing - Frederiksted, Blinkv 6- ne Rnadmasters - Scratch Milo Band Anthony Crooke, bass - St. Thomas Prudence Morris, dancing - Anselmo Clarke, squash - Emile "Milo" Francis, keyboards/ Frederiksted, St. CroLx Frederiksted, St. CroLx leader - St. Thomas Marcus Mulligan, dancing - Norman Edwards, trap drums - Nya "Cocky" Francis, drums - Frederiksted, St. Croix Frederiksted, St. Croix St. Thomas Robert Pennyfellow, dancing - Milton "Meg" Gordon, bass guitar - James Gerard, vocals/bass - Frederiksted, St. Croix Frederiksted, St. CroLx St. Thomas Craig Wells, dancing - Frederik.sted, Isidor "I.G." Griles, triangle - Hennan Lynch, congo - St. Thomas St. Croix Frederiksted, St. Croix Roy Malone, guitar - St. Thomas Yvonne Williams, dancing - Cyprian "Zip" King, guitar - Kingshill, Ira "Dr. Sax" Meyers, saxophone - Frederiksted, St. Croix St. Croix St. Thomas Patricia Willson, dancing - Sylvester "Blinky" Mcintosh Sr., alto Rudolph Thomas, vocals - St. Thomas Frederiksted, St. Croix saxophone - Frederiksted, Collins Wesselhoft, trumpet - St. Croix St. Thomas Stoiytellers - Ira "Baker/Dormis ' Samuel, alto saxo- Delta Dorsch. storytelling phone - Frederiksted, St. Croix Pleneros de Santa Cniz - Plena Frederiksted, St. Croix Lloyd "Perico" Thomas, conga - Nicolas "Colilla" Encarnacion, guitar - Eulalie Rivera, storytelling - Frederiksted, St. Croix Fredriksted, St. Croix Frederiksted, St. Croix Amador Felix, bongo - Chri.stiansted, Ector Roebuck, storytelling/games - Calypsouiaus St. Croix St. Thomas Kenneth "Lord Blakie" Blake, calypso/ Salvador "Salva" Fragosa, citatro - Elmo Roebuck, storytelling/games - composer - St. Thomas Kingshill, St. Croix St. Thomas Ashley "Ashanti" George, calypso/ Guillermo Mufioz, guitar/ <;7/c//ro - Rufus Vanderpool, oral histories - agriculturist - St. Thomas St. Croix North Star Village, St. Thomas - Camille "King Derby" Macedon Jr., Francisco Sanchez, pandereta banjo uke - St. CroLx Kingshill, St. Croix Ten Sleepless Nights - Scratch Band Marceleno Santiago, pandereta - and Quadrille Cariso Singers St. Croix Kenneth Buntin, guitar - Kingshill, Ethel Mcintosh - St. Croix St. Crobc Leona Watson - Frederik,sted, St. Croix St. Croix Heritage Dancers - Quadrille Eldred "Edgie" Christian, banjo/vocals Bradley Christian, quadrille calling/ - Kingshill, St. Croix Carnival Traditions masquerading - Frederiksted, Stanley "Escascolay" Jacobs, flute/ Cecile "Dallars" George, diumming/ St. Croix saxophone - Christiansted, carpentry - St. Thomas Theresa Douglas, dancing - St. Croix Willard John, inoko jumbie - Frederiksted, St. Croix Robert "Bobby" Jacobs, conga - Frederik.sted, St. Croix Ann Doute, dancing - Frederiksted, Christiansted, St. Croix St. Croix Lawrence "Thmshy" Mason, squash - Evarista Santiago, Puerto Rican cook- Marietou N'Diaye, dancing/cooking - Kingshill, St. Croix ing - Kingshill, St. Croix Kaolack - Serer Beneth Smith, bass - Kingshill, El Oumar Thiam, drums - Kaolack - St. Croix Carnival Troupes Wolof Christian "Te" Thompson, triangle/ Birds in Ecstasy, University of the steel - Christiansted, St. Croix Virgin Islands Feede Ganni Cool Session Brass Amayel M'Baye, yela/hzk braiding - Occupational Traditions Elskoe and Associates, Let's Dance Dakar - Toucouleur Kenneth Broome, carpentry/furniture Hugga Bunch Boudy Seek, vocals/dancing/cooking - making - Charlotte Axnalie, Imagination Brass Dakar - Toucouleur St. Thomas Jesters as Mask Array Souadou Seek, yela - Dakar - Reginald Callwood, stone masonry - Moko Jumbi 'n' Fren Dem Toucouleur Cruz Bay, St. John Mungo Niles Cultural Dancers, Inc. Fily Sock, vocah/dnncing/foudann - Richard Callwood, woodcarving/can- Out of the Woodwork Dakar - Toucouleur ing/toy making - St. Thomas The Racketeers James Dalmida, fishing - Coral Bay, Lambe Wrestling St. John Mamadou M'Baye Diouf, lambe wres- Anthon Emanuel, broom making/ Senegal tling/building construction - masonry - St. Thomas Thies - Serer Elmira Farrell, herbal medicine - Sidy Sary, lambe wrestling/building St. Thomas Performance Traditions constaiction - Fatick - Serer Eddie Foy, gardening/charcoal making Bassari Ensemble - Coral Bay, St. John Gaherademy Bindia, dancing/doll Wolof Sabar Drumming & Dance Arnaldo Kennings, carpentry/construc- making/bead working - Kedougou Serigne M'Baye, dancing - Dakar - tion - Charlotte Amalie, - Bassari Wolof St. Thomas Thiandenine Bindia, musician/danc- Abdou N'Diaye, drums/dancing - - Joe LaPlace, fishing - St. Thomas ing/doll making/bead working Dakar - Wolof Oscar McGregor, fishing/fishpot mak- Kedougou - Bassari Ibra Seek, dancing/drums - Dakar - ing - Christiansted, St. CroLx Indego Bowang, dancing/doll mak- Wolof Wendell Nibbs, herbal medicine - ing/bead working - Kedougou - St. Thomas Bassari Griots (Oral History and Praise lantha Peets, herbal medicine - St. Singing): Thomas Bobo Balde Ensemble Cire Yene Demba Doro Ba, hoddu Arona Petersen, herbal medicine/oral Bobo Balde, riti (violin)/vocals - (lute)/vocaIs - Kolda - Peul histories - Ft. Lauderdale, Florida Kolda - Peul Amadou N'Diaye Samb, voca.\s/ halam Gabriel St. Jules, charcoal making/ Boure Balde, nY/ (violin) - Kolda - (lute) - Dakar - Wolof gardening - Frederiksted, St. Croix Peul Sanderilla Thomas, market woman/ Tala Kande, dancing - Kolda - Peul Mandtng Kara Ensemble: storytelling - Charlotte Amalie, Amadou Sabaly, riti (violinVdancing - Mama Cissokho, vocals/cooking - St. Thomas Kolda - Peul Ziguinchor - Manding Will Thurland, carpentry/inlaying/' Ibrahima Diebate, kora - M'Bour, caning - Christiansted, St. Croix Diola-Balante Ensemble Thies Fatou Diatta, dancing - Dakar - Diola Kemo Diebate, griot/kora - Ziguinchor Crafts Landing Diatta. dancing - Dakar - - Manding Felicia Caines, basketry/herbalist - Diola Mame Yaye Kanoute, ^ora/vocals - Coral Bay, St. John Bakary Diedhiou, drums - Ziguinchor Dakar - Manding Dorothy Danet, basketry/hat weaving - Diola - St. Thomas Bourama Mane, balaphon - Kolda - Yande Codou Ensemble. Aline Kean, toymaking - Charlotte Bija Balante Khady Dione, vocals/dancing - Amalie, St. Thomas Lamine Mane, vocais/dancing/'netmak- Kaolack - Serer Louisa Kean, crochet/embroidery - ing - Dakar - Diola Fatou Gningue, vocals/dancing - Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas Mamadou Mansaly, drums/dancing - Kaolack - Serer Hillary "Baga" Rezende, steelpan mak- Dakar - Bija Balante Adama M'Baye, vocals/dancing - ing - Christiansted, St. CroLx Kaolack - Serer El Oumar Thiam Aida M'Baye, vocals/dancing - Foodways Arona Ba, drums - Kaolack - Toucoul- Kaolack - Serer Helmie Leonard, baking/cooking - eur Tabasky M'Baye, drums - Kaolack - St. Thomas Aissatou Dieng, dancing - Kaolack - Serer Louise Samuel, native foods/bever- Toucouleur Yande Codou Sene, vocals - Kaolack - ages - Frederiksted, St. Croix Samba Diop, drums - Kaolack - Serer Serer Crafts Gerald Covell, storytelling - Marshall Wilborn, bass - Winchester, Astou Adje, hair braiding - New York Washington, D.C. Virginia - Lebou Mary Maizkuhn, storytelling - New Earl Yager, bass - Codorus, Salamba Adje, hair braiding - New CarroUton, Maryland Pennsylvania York - Lebou Barbara Riggs, storytelling - Greenbelt, Amadou Lamine Diba, tailoring/em- Maryland Irish Music broidery - Dakar - Wolof Steve Ryan, storytelling - College Park, Frank Harte, vocals - Chapelizod, Albino Gomis, weaving - Dakar - Maryland Dublin Manjack Mick Moloney, guitar - Philadelphia, Dame Gueye, glass painting/carpen- Feria Educativa - Quichua Music Pennsylvania try/doll making - Dakar - Wolof Carlos Ajitimbay Cruz, cuerdas/^er- Demba Guisse, basket making - Dakar cussion - Riobamba, Ecuador Israeli Music - Wolof Maria Natividad Ajitimbay Cruz, gui- Sarah Alexander, accordion/guitar/ Khadydiatou Samassa, dyeing/cooking tar/vocals - Riobamba, Ecuador vocals - Paris, France - Dakar - Soninke Juan Pablo Aucancela, cuerdas/pev- Victor Sagna, weaving - Dakar - cussion - Riobamba, Ecuador Kurdish Music Manjack Jose Manuel Leon Bastidas, percus- Temo Ezzadin, tamhour/voaAs - Paris, Abdoulaye "Gadiaga" Sene, woodcarv- sion/guitar/ c^arango - France ing - Dakar - Laobe/Peul Riobamba, Ecuador Kliadidiatou Sow, perfumery - Dakar - Victor Manuel Leon Bastidas, ciierdas/ Sabreen - Palestinian Music Laobe/Peul percussion - Riobamba, Ecuador Yacoub Abou Arafeh, percussion - Mandjata Tandian, dyeing - Dakar - Manuel Morochco Gualan, ciierdas/ Jerusalem, Israel Soninke viento/percussion - Riobamba, Issa Freij, guitar - Jenisalem, Israel Cheikh Thiam, leather working - Ecuador Kamilya Jubran, vocals/zither - Dakar - Wolof Pedro Pablo Cayambe Morocho, Jerusalem, Israel Masseyni Thiam, blacksmithing - viento/ ciierdas/ percussion - Said Murad, composer/lute - Dakar - Wolof Riobamba, Ecuador Jerusalem, Israel Nima Thiam, blacksmithing - St. Louis - Paula Paca Simbana, percussion/ Raed Saadeh, manager - Jerusalem, Soninke vocals - Riobamba, Ecuador Israel Foodways Odeh Turjman, houzouki - Jerusalem, Anta Diop, cooking - New York - Freedom Singers - Music of the U.S. Israel Wolof Civil Rights Movement Maimouna N'Diaye, cooking/dancing/ Bettie Mae Fikes, vocals/tambourine - South African Double Quartet Music foudann - Fatick - Wolof Carson, California Sipho Bavuma, idiophone/vocals - Rutha Harris, vocals/tambourine - Jersey City, New Jersey Albany, Georgia Linda Bukhosini, idiophone/vocals - Musics of Struggle Charles Neblett, vocals/tambourine - New York, New York Russellville, Kentucky Jerry Mofokeng, idiophone/vocals - Cordell Reagon, vocals/tambourine - New York, New York Agustin Lira & "Alma " - Chicano Berkeley, California Tsepo Mokone, idiophone/vocals - Music New York, New York David Gomez, percussion - Fresno, Hazel Dickens & Friends - U.S. Coal Thandi Pase, idiophone/vocals - California Miners' Music New York, New York Agustin Lira, rhythm guitar/lead vocals Tom Adams, banjo - Westminster, Sizakele Mtimkulu Seheri, idiophone/ - Fresno, California Maryland vocals - New York, New York Mike Madrigal, upright bass - Dudley Connell, guitar - Germantown, Silindile Sokutu, idiophone/vocals - Redwood City, California Maryland New York, New York Harold Muniz, congas/timbales - Hazel Dickens, guitar/vocals - Mbongiseni "Champ" Tshabalala, idio- Sacramento, California Washington, D.C. phone/vocals - Jersey City, Lsmael Rodriguez, percussion/vocals - Tad Marks, fiddle - Ellicott City, New Jersey Oakland, California Maryland Patricia Wells Solorzano, guitar/vocals Dave McLaughlin, mandolin - Carolanne Carawan, workshops - - Fresno, California Winchester, Virginia New Market, Tennessee Barry Mitterhoff, mandolin - Paterson, Guy Carawan, workshops - New Mar- "Deaf President Now" Movement - New Jersey ket, Tennessee Music of the Hearing hnpaired Richard LInderwood, banjo - Bridgetta Bourne, storytelling - RockvUle, Maryland Walkersville, Maryland Contributing Sponsors Florida Department of Citrus, M.A. Bruder & Sons, Inc., Broomall, Lakeland, Florida Pennsylvania Good Food Company, Arlington, Marie Selby Botanical Gardens, The U.S. Virgin Islands program Virginia Sarasota, Florida has been made possible by the Hon- Herrs Food, Inc., Laurel, Maryland Miller Manor, St. Thomas Governor Alexander A. Far- orable J.R. Brooks and Son, Inc., Homestead, National Arboretum, Washington, D.C. the relly, the Office of the Governor, Florida Our Town Frederiksted, St. Croix Virgin Islands, 18th Legislature of the Limeco, Inc., Princeton, Florida Pink Fancy Hotel, St. Croix the Department of Economic Devel- Melitta U.S.A., Inc., Cherry Hill, Point Pleasant Resort, St. Thomas Agriculture, Division of opment and New Jersey Publicity Inc., St. Thomas Tourism, Department of Planning and Old Tyme Soft Drink, Inc., Pompton Southern Tropical, Boca Raton, Natural Resources, the Virgin Islands Place, New Jersey Florida Council on The Arts, Paradise Motors, Pepperidge Farm, Inc., Norwalk, Stouffer Grand Beach Resort, Virgin Inc., Little Switzerland, Islands Connecticut St. Thomas AT&T, West Indian Company Ltd., Popeye's Fried Chicken, Washington, U.S. Department of Agriculture - Caribbean Host, Caribbean Safewater D.C. Beltsville Agricultural Research Lab., Caribbean Shell Seekers, Sea Rudy Foods, Inc., Washington, D.C. Center, Beltsville, Maryland Breeze Car Rental, Tropex, Inc., and Sholl's Colonial Cafeteria, Washington, University of the Virgin Islands Coop- other corporate sponsors. D.C. erative Extension Service Snyder of Hanover, Hanover, Villa Morales Restaurant, St. Croix The Senegal program has been Pennsylvania Virgin Islands Rum Industries Ltd., Presi- made possible, in part, by the Sol Salins, Inc., Washington, D.C. Frederiksted, St. CroLx dent of the Republic of Senegal, Ab- Steel and Wire Co., Baltimore, dou Diouf, the Office of the President, Maryland Senegal the Ministry of Culture and Communi- Sugar Association, Inc., Washington, American Textile Manufacturers In.sti- cation, the Ministry of Tourism and D.C. tute, Washington, D.C. Environment, the Senegalese Embassy Sunshine Packaging Co., Hialeah, Cash Grocer Natural Foods, Alexan- to the United States, the American Florida dria, Virginia Embassy to Senegal, the American Uncle Ben's, Inc., Houston, Texas Chevy Chase Glass Company, Inc., Cultural Center in Senegal, Universite Utz Quality Foods, Inc., Hanover, Bethesda, Maryland Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar - Institut Pennsylvania Coleman Peanuts Co., Carson, Virginia Fondamental de I'Afrique Noire, and Wilkins Coffee, Capitol Heights, J. P. Stevens, New York, New York administrative authorities in Dakar Maryland Lanscot Arlen Fabrics, Inc., New York, and in the various regions of Senegal. William B. Riley Coffee Company, New York Baltimore, Maryland M. Polaner, Inc., Roseland, The Musics of Struggle program has Yours Naturally, Inc., Washington, New Jersey been made possible, in part, by the DC. Organic Farms, Beltsville, Maryland Music Perfonnance Trust Funds, the Pier I Imports, Fort Worth, Texas Inter-American Foundation and the U.S. Virgin Islands Planters Life Savers Company, Win- Arab American Cultural Foundation. American Airlines ston Salem, North Carolina Bacardi Imports, Miami, Florida Rubbermaid, Inc., Wooster, Ohio Belle Haven Pharmacy, Alexandria, In Kind Contributors Virginia Bittersweet Hill Nurseries, Davidsville, Special Thanks AND Donors Maryland Bustelo Coffee Roasting Co., Bronx, General Festival General Festival Support New York extend special thanks to all the Ben Jerry's Ice Cream, Washington, We & Carambola Beach Resort, St. Croix volunteers at this year's Festival. Only D.C. Eastern Airlines with their assistance are we able to Cele.stial Seasonings, Inc., Boulder, Frederik.sted Fort, St. Croix present the programs of the 1990 Colorado Frenchman's Reef Beach Resort, Festival of American Folklife. Delmonte Fresh Fruit Co., Coral St. Thomas Gables, Florida Hechinger Company, Landover, U.S. Virgin Islands Embassy High's Dairy, Waldorf, Maryland V.S. Virgin Islands Department of Eco- Maryland House of Seagram, Baltimore, nomic Development & Agriculture: Enrico's Pizza, Washington, DC. Maryland Executive Commissioner Eric E. Dawson Sandwich Shop, Los Caris Marble, Inc., Washington, Leona Bryant, Director of Tourism Washington, D.C. D.C. Florida Avocado and Limes, Aaron Benjamin, Assistant Director Homestead, Florida of Tourism for St. Thomas/St. John Flora Boynes-Spencer, Washington, Anastasia M. Doward Sydney Knight D.C. Regional Director Cassandra Dunn Colville C. Lewis Anna Mae Brown-Comment, Execu- Dorothy Elskoe Clement Magras tive Assistant to the Commissioner Gene K. Emanuel Gerald Nicholson Jane John, Director of Administration Lorelie E. Esannason Isidor Paiewonsky & Management Ruth C.H. Frank Leslie Payton Leslie Payton, Legal Council Denise M. Georges Henry Richardson Vivian Lewis, Secretary Barbara Hagan-Smith Treganza Roach Leslie Graham, Senior Sales Repre- Mathilda Harvey Richard Schrader sentative Lois Hassell-Habteyes Gail Shulterbrandt-Rivera Linda Brodhurst, Sales Representa- Verne Hodge Juanita Small tive Myron D. Jackson Magda Smith Ivy John, Administrative Assistant Willard John Betty Speker E. Bough, Assistant Commissioner, Helen Marsh Johnson Walter Springette Div. of Agriculture Delores Jowers Derick Otis Steinmann Coleville Lewis, Assistant Commis- John Jowers Bruce Tilden sioner, Div. of Agriculture Bernie Kemp Charles Turnbull Errol Chichester, Horticulturist, Div. Marilyn Krigger George F. Tyson Jr. of Agriculture June A.V. Lindquist Lito Vails U.S. Virgin Islands Agricultural Experi- Betty L. Mahoney Olga Vanderpool ment Station and Cooperative Ex- Ruth Moolenaar Chades Weikert tension Service: Leslie Reovan D.S. Padda, Vice President Verne I. Richards U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS Raquel Santiago Eulalie C. Rivera CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ARCHIVES: Rudy O'Reilly Claire L. Roker Vanessa Abbot Christopher Ramcharan Karen Samuel Stedmon Adams U.S. Virgin Islands Council on the Ans Lucy Smith Rudolph Allamby U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Gilbert A. Sprauve Maude Andreas Conservation and Cultural Affairs Maurice M. Thomas Ari Arie U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Morty Thompson Irene Armstrong Education Rufus W. Vanderpool Ivan Armstrong U.S. Virgin Islands Division of Librar- Carol Wakefield Victor Baltimore ies, Archives and Museums Edmund Blaize U.S. Virgin Islands Humanities Council RESOURCE PEOPLE: Marvin Bonelli Enid M. Baa Library Enid Baa James Boynes Elaine lone Sprauve Library/Museum Calvin Bastian James Brewester Fort Christian Ruth Beagles Leopold Brome Fort Christiansvaern Guy Benjamin Christian Brow Fort Fredrick Lawrence Benjamin Edith Quetel Bryan National Park Service Eric Bough Roberto Carmona St. Croix Landmark Society Irvin Brown Wilfredo Carmona University of the Virgin Islands Leona Bryant William Carroll University of the Virgin Islands - Aimery Caron Frank Charles Cooperative Extension Service, William Cissell Winston Charles St. Thomas: Monique Clendinden Kelly Charleswell Louis Petersen Diego Conde Roy Chesterfield Toni Thomas Donna de Yongh Wallace Chinnery Robert de Yongh Art Turo Christian Vera Hyatt Isaac Dookhan Esther Christian Adrianne Dudley Etheldred Christopher ADVISORY GROUP: Gerard Emanual William F. Cissell Violet A. Bough E. Aracelis Francis Angel Corneiro Flora Boynes-Spencer Joel Gardner Angel F. Corneiro Anna Mae Brown-Comment Kathy Griggs Phillip Corneiro Janet Burton Geraldo Guirty James Dalmida Pearl Callwood Jerome Gumbs Rachael Dangdeben Andromeda Childs Verne Hodge Gaveston David Bradley E. Christian Orville Kean Daphney Davis Jacquelyn D. Clendinen Edward Killerbrew Linda Degh Delta M. Dor.sch Ena Knight Earl Demming Alma Doward Herman H. Prince Archives Culturelles du Senegal: Charles Emanuel Kenneth Reovan Madina Ow Seek, Directrice Jean Esanasson Phillip Rhymer Samba Demba Ba Joseph Fahie Lionel Richards Jean Paul Thiar Thiar Bidia Marcellus Flores Verne I. Richards Badara Cissokho Eva Fracois Walter Richards Yaya Leonard Diatta Ray Francis Alfred Richardson Mamadou Sane Glanville Fraser Leroy E. Richardson Centre d'Etudes des Civilisation: Ivan Frazer Tregenza Roach M. Keba N'Diaye, Directeur Curt Freeman Lucille V. Roberts Mamadou Barry Ethelyn Freeman Gerda Roebuck Ouleye Diarra Simon Frett Juana Saldana Babacar Diop Trevor Friday Avalino Samuel Mamgor Faye Albion George Ella J. Samuel Alioune M'Boup Donald George Ambrose Schmidt Fulgence Sagna Elaine George Antonio Sewer Universite Cheikh Anta Diop de Paul Gibbs Larry Sewer Dakar-IFAN: Jerome Gill Louise Sewer Abdoulaye Bara Diop, Directeur Shadrach Gill Zedliar E. Sewer Abdou Sylla Lionel Gumbs Burnett Smith Masamba Lam Theodore "Chino" Hansen James Smith Office of the Mayor of Dakar: Kenneth Harrigan Eunice Sprauve Mayor Mamadou Diop • Tehara Harris Hilton Sprauve Mary Dieng Emil Harrison Julius Sprauve Yakyeh N'Douye Leroy Henry Edgar Steele American Embassy to Senegal: Humphrey Herman "Diggy" Thomas His Excellency George Moose, Beryl E. Hill Elridge Thomas Ambassador Kelvin Curtis Hill Pauline Louise Thomas Prudence Bushnell Remi Illis Unoh Turnbull U.S. Slate Department: Emelda Jacobs Olga Vanderpool Steve Kelley Gerard James II Sammy Watts U.S. Information Service: Francisco Jarvis Celestino White Robert Palmed Calvin Jones George White Boussoura Diop ' Eliza Kean Curtis Williams Fatou KhoUe Edward Killeiarew Josephus Williams Samieh Wizani Darwin King Odand Wilson Alioune Diop Mervin Kitnurse Lancelot Wiltshire Jess Baily Pierre La Place Khalil Gueye Steven La Place Senegal Program Adara Diallo Robert A. Leonard Office of the President of the Republic Ousmane Coulibaly Rudy Leonard of Senegal, Abdou Diouf: Mariene Seek Elaine Lynch Ousmane Tenor Dieng, Director of Leslie High Walter Macedon the President's Cabinet Elhadj Sarr Gerda Nathalie Marsh Ministry of Culture and Communica- Jerome Faye Monique Melliams tions - Government of Senegal: Louise Diagne Nathaniel Meyers Minister Moustafa Ka Dieynaba Bocoum Olanzo Meyers Abdoulaye Camara Mbaye Sow Murillo Millin M'Baye Bassine Dieng Thierry Pina Lionel Mulraine Ousmane Sow Huchard Ibrahima Toure Cyril Murphy Cheikh Na Sankara Ousmane Mboup Donald C. Nelthropp, Sr. Ministry of Tourism and Protection of Elisabeth Diallo Vincent Normil the Environment - Government of U.S. Information Agency: Genaro Ortiz Senegal: Cynthia Farrell P. Julia Pankey Minister Jacques Baudin Senegal Support Society Wilford Pedro El Hadj Malick Sy Hotel de la Croix du Sud de Dakar Idalia Henrietta Penn Elimane N'Diaye Senegal: Anselmo Peters Senegalese Embassy to the United Tidiane Diop Louis Petersen States: Leah Pickering His Excellency Ibra Deguene Ka, Felix Pittersen Ambassador Arven Powell Amadou Gaye, Cultural Attache New York State Council on the Arts: Inta Carpenter Mweli Mzizi, South African Now Mary Hays, Director Joyce Cauther Duma Ndlovu Al Ben- Paul Chin Bruno Netd Robert Baron Dieter Christensen, Columbia Mary Lou Nouitsky, "Deaf Mosaic" Helen Hubbard Marr University Bill Nowlin, Rounder Records Chase Manhatten Bank: Michael Chyet Lisa Null Joy Rogers, VP Division Executive Larry Coleman, Gallaudet University Njeri Num, Gallaudet University Ida Borroto David Ccjpeland Josef Pacholczyk, University of Christine Maggiore Ellen Dennis, Murray Street Maryland Michael West Enterprises Leslie Page, Model Secondary School City Lore: The New York Center for Don DeVito, CBS Records for the Deaf Urban Folk Culture Lama Djani, Arab American Cultural Manuel Pena Foundation Lilian Perez, D.C. Commission for Keith E. Baird Robert Edgar, Howard University the Arts Hannah Baldwin Yilderai Erdner Ivey Pittle, Gallaudet University Press Philip Burnham John Franklin, Jr. Janet Place Vernon Case Marcia Freeman, Model Secondary Kaya Ploss Martha Cooper School for the Deaf Mario Posas Gerald Croney Jack Gannon, Gallaudet University' Frank Proschan Patricia Croney Jalil Ghani, Voice of America Leslie Proctor, Gallaudet University El Hadj Dia, INTRASAHEL Magdalena Gilinski Ethel Raim, Ethnic Folk Arts Center Magaye Diaw Diane Green Bernice Johnson Reagon Nene Diouf Rayna Green Pete Reiniger Amadou Demba Keita Violet Gwangwa Buri Rhea, Rabbit Ridge Pea Pickers Phyllis May-Machunda Chariotte Heth Ralph Rinzler Mamadou N'Diaye Mi Hlatshwayo, COSATU Bart Rousseve Modou N'Diaye Thamsangu Hlatshwayo Vera Saeedpour, Kurdish Library, N'Deye Anta Seek Donald lenner. President, CBS Brooklyn David Shear, Friends oi Senegal Records Jane Sapp, Highlander Institute Felipe Tejeda Iqbal Jane Sapp, Smithsonian Press M'Baye Thiam Hali Jalali Carlottia Scott, Office of Congressman Pat Jasper Dellums Musics ofSlntggle Program Richard Keeling, UCLA Keith Secola African National Congress Fana Kekana, South Africa Now Anthony Seeger James Culp Productions Michael Kemp, Gallaudet University Beth Shaw Guadaloupe Cultural Arts Center Richard Kennedy Daniel Sheehy, Folk Arts Program, Irish Tourist Board Niani Kilkenny National Endowment for the Arts Kurdish National Congress Rick Kirby Paul Sherman-Allen, Alliance of Chi- The Old Town School of Folk Music Helen Kivnick nese Patriots in U.S.A. Charles Kleymeyer, Inter-American Zerro Shirwani Gabriel Abdalla, Manager, Arab Foundation Crystal Sloan Tourist Agency Martin Koenig, Ethnic Folk Arts Center Willie Smyth Kamran Ali Mario Lamo Holly Syrrakos, United Mine Workers Marin Allen Julian Lang Journal Jacqueline Alper Anna Leah de Leon, Women's Media Piotr Szuminski JoAllyn Archambault Circle, Manila Jane Treat John Baily, Columbia University Rosemary Leonard Rick Trimillos Howell Beagle, Rhythm and Blues Guntif Liepinf Robyn Twito, Gallaudet University Foundation Lindiwe Mabuza, African National Press Harry Belafonte Congress Daniel Valdez, Teatro Campesino Steve Berkowitz, CBS Records Tim McCarthy, Model Secondary Clayton Valli, Gallaudet University Laurel Blaydes, Labor Heritage School for the Deaf Ricardas Vidutis Foundation Mary Lynn McElroy Matt Walters, Rounder Records Elena Bradunas Stephen Mokesi, K-Team Steve Wattenmaker Joel Brokaw, The Brokaw Company Michael Moore, KTNN-AM, Window Deb Weiner, Gallaudet University Robert Browning, Wodd Music Rock, Arizona Press Institute Roddy Moore Norman Whitten, Jr. Camila Bryce-Laporte Hugo Morales, Radio Bilingue Marshall Wong, D.C. Mayor's Office of Ed Cabbell Carlos Moreno Asian & Pacific Island Affairs Olivia Cadaval Debbie Morris, AFL-CIO David Yang, Asian American Artists Simon Cannel and Media ^ ^ ^ ^ Festival Site Map Madison Drive ^ I 1 'SARI ^usicA Musics of 1L-J^^,„^ (2> DANCE ! j^ Struggle-' STAGE LEATHERL AREA WORKER\ L 3 T SONG ^ a (^ collecting/V BLACKSMITH / O O — 1 »- CD® PRESS ! |®(5) n MUSEUM SALES VOLUNTEER M. Musics of Struggle MUSIC STAGE METRO M SMITHSONIAN (The Mall) 1 FOLKLORE INSTITUTE [ )iU. .n Sackler African Art Gallery Museum Festival Site Map Madison Drive U.S. Virgin Islands r^ LEARNING CENTER O STORY TELLING GAMES CRAFTS S^E @ BIG YARD L^ FOOD WAYS DANCE HALL IS CARNIVAL CRAFTS Festival Staff Information/Accessibility Coordinator: Davis, Delta Dorsch, Anastasia Betty Belanus Doward, Cassandra Dunn, Dorothy Interns: Lisa Fisher, Jean Mitchell Elskoe, Gene Emanuel, Lorelie Acting Director, Office ofFolklife Pro- Sign Language Interpreters: Jean Esannason, Denise Georges, Lois grams: Richard Kurin Lindquist, Diane Mele-Beaudoin. Hassell-Habteyes, Catherine Festival Director: Diana Parker Hank Young Hiebert-Kerst, Myron Jackson, Acting Administrative Officer: Volunteer Coordinator: Caroline Stanley Jacobs, Ruth Moolenaar, Barbara Strickland Cleaves Mario Picayo, Leslie Reovan. Program Book Editor: Peter Seitel Assistant Volunteer Coordinator: Dan Verne Richards, Eulalie Rivera, Sign Editor: Thomas Vennum, Jr. Burgess Jewel Ross Sage, Karen Samuel, Designer: Carol Hardy Chief Volunteers: Wilette Carlton, Daniel Sheehy, Mary Jane Soule, Design Advisor: Daphne Shuttlewoith Mary Cliff, Priscilla Flowers, Maurice Thomas, Rufus Vander- Assistant Designers: Jennifer Marilyn Gaston, J.R. Glover, pool, Leona Brady Watson Nicholson, Suzanne Segalla, Andras Virginia McCauley, Sokhna N'Doye, Presenters: Violet Bough, Irvin Goldinger Johari Rashad, Martin Snyderman, "Brownie" Brown, Leona Bryant, Calligrapbers: Susan Auerhan, Allyn Neville Waters Janet Burton, Bradley Christian, An- Kurin Folkways Recordings Director: drew Connors, Delta Dorsch, Publication Review: Arlene L. Anthony Seeger Anastasia Doward, Dorothy Elskoe, Reiniger Documentation Coordinator: Jeff Gene Emanuel, Lois Hassell- Technical Coordinator: Fred Place Habteyes, Catherine Hiebert-Kerst, Nahwooksy, Jr. Lntems: Doug Bell, Robert Foreman Myron Jackson, Ruth Moolenaar, Technical Specialists: Lisa Fricano, Video Documentation: Daphne Karen Samuel, Daniel Sheehy, Connie Lane Shuttleworth Gilbert Sprauve, Rufus Vanderpool Technical Crew Chiefs: Linley Logan, Photographers: Richard Hofmeister, Senegal Lisa Ogonowski Eric Long, Laurie Minor, Dane Program Curator: Diana N'Diaye Lead Carpenter: Kevin Mutchler Penland, Richard Strauss, Jeff Program Coordinators: Barbara Lau, Technical Crew: Arthur Brown, John Tinsley, Rick Vargas Gorgui N'Diaye Lowery, Terrance Meniefield, Special Events Coordinator Maria Program Consultant: John Franklin, Jr. Yancy Redcorn, Holly Wright Parisi Foodways Coordinators: Virginia Creiv Assistant: Ellen Garrett Public Information: Mary Combs, McCauley, Sokhna N'Doye Technical Crew Clerk/Typists: Rory Katherine Kirlin Festival Aide: Frank Gaskin Brennan, Cecilia Coats Intern: Lou Ann Reed Fieldworkers: Samba Demba Ba, Supply Coordinator: Doris Dietrich U.S. Virgin Islands Jean-Paul Thiar-Thiar Bidia, Yaya Assistant Supply Coordinator: Nelson Program Curator: Olivia Cadaval Leonard Diatta, Amadou Lamine Antoniuk U.S. Virgin Islands Supervisor- Flora Drame, Oumar Gueye, El Hadj Logistics Coordinator: Dorothy Boynes-Spencer Malick M'Baye, Mour Paye, Neumann U.S. Virgin Islands Coordinator- Anna Mamadou Sane, Mame Fadoum Sy Sound Production Coordinator: Tim Mae Brown-Comment Presenters: Abdou Rahmane Cisse, Kidwell St. Croix Liaison: Claire Roker Aminata Gaskin, Samba Ka, Mama Sound Technicians: Eric Annis, Steve Program Coordinator- Betz Robb Konte, El Hadj Malick M'Baye, Edwards, Steve Fischer, Gregg Program Assistant: Larry Larsen Aristedes Perrera, Salli Diallo Lamping, Jens McVoy, Liston Mon- Festival Aide: Sekou Richardson Petersen santo, Moira Shea Learning Center Coordinator: Interns: Robert Clyne, Derek Stage Managers: Enrique Aviles, Neil Catherine Hiebert-Kerst Kauneckis Carrington, Mathieu Chabert, Tom Crafts Coordinator: Andrew Connors Program Book Translator Winifred Gartland, John Kemper, Susan Levi- Big Yard Area Coordinator: Lidya Lambrecht tas, Al McKenney, John Milcharik, Montes Musics of Struggle Ed Williams Big Yard Stage Coordinator Celia Heil Program Curator- Jacquelin Peters Substitute Engineer: Dean Langwell Interns: Guylene Desir, Rhonda Program Consultant: Anthony Seeger Sound Creiv: Andrew Finkle, Chuck Green, Carla Mendiola, Paula Program Assistant: Arlene L. Reiniger Peters, Barney Vable Tassara Song Collection Coordinator Lori Acting Festival Services Manager- U.S. Virgin Islands National Park Taylor Claudia Telliho Service Festival Aide: Daniel Easington Fiscal Technician: Claude Steinberg Assistant Coordinators: Jacquelyn Presenters: Barry Bergey, Nahida Clerk/Typist: Minu Tahmassebi Clendinen, Denise Georges Dajani, Amy Horowitz, Merhdad Participant Coordinator: Cilista General Advisor and Researcher: Izady, Worth Long, Mick Moloney, Eberle Gilbert Sprauve Menzi Plaatje, Maria Isabel Prieto Assistant Participant Coordinators: Fieldtvorkers: Edna Mae Belardo, Vio- Translators: Celia Heil, Suzanne Hope Connors, Marjorie Copson, let Bough, Janet Burton, Brent Holder Yulette George Cantrell, Andromeda Childs, Bra- Interns: Caroline Cohen, Mandisa Housing Coordinator: John Leahy dley Christian, Jacquelyn Maya Concessions Coordinator: Susan Clendinen, Glenn "Kwabena" Fowler Folklore Summer Smithsonian Bureau Office of the Assistant Secretaiyfor External Institute Affairs AND Office Support Office of Membership and Development Important folklore research and Office of Congressional Relations Office of the Secretary: presentation in the United States are Office of International Relations often carried out by local researchers Office of Special Events Office of the Undersecretaiy and community-based scholars, many Office of Telecommunications without formal academic training. Office of the Assistant Secretaryfor The Folklore Summer Institute for Office of the Assistant Secretaryfor Ad- Public Setvice Community Scholars (July 2-16), now ministration Office of Elementary & Secondary in its second year, is intended to rec- Communications Management Divi- Education ognize and encourage these local sion, Office of Information Re- Latino Working Committee folklorists, to enhance their skills, and source Management Office of Public Affairs to establish contact with folklore Office of Design & Constaiction Visitor Information & Associates' Re- scholars and professionals. Duplicating Branch ception Center Health Services Division This program is made possible by Mail Service Center Office of the Assistant Secretaiyfor supportfrom the Smithsonian Educa- Office of Personnel Administration Research tional Outreach Fund, the L.J. Skaggs Office of Planning and Budget Department of Anthropology, National and Man' C. Skaggs Foundation, the Office of Plant Services Museum of Natural History Ruth Matt Fund, the American Folk- Office of Printing and Photographic Office of Fellowships and Grants lore Society. Indiana University, Services Office of Interdisciplinary Studies Rutgers University and the Polaroid Office of Procurement and Property Office of Quincentenary Programs Foundation. Management National Zoological Park Office of Protection Services Betty Belanus, Director Security Services Division Office of the Assistant Secretary for Kamran Asdar Ali, Coordinator Travel Services Office Museums Cynthia Thorn, Intern American Indian Program, National Rina Deth, Intern Office of the Gener-al Counsel Museum of American History African American Culaire Program, Faculty Office of the Inspector Gener-al National Museum of Charies Camp - Maryland Arts Council Arnerican History William D. Chin - Chinatown History Office of the Treasurer Office of Exhibits Central Project Office of Accounting and Financial Office of Horticulture Gerald Davis - Rutgers University Services Susan Dyal - Santa Monica, California Office of Risk Management Von Martin - Caribbeana Arts Office of Sponsored Projects Katherine Anne Phipps - Indiana Uni- versity Nancy Sweezy - Refugee Arts Group Fellows Roxana Adams - Ketchikan, Alaska Fleanor Arnold - Rushville, Indiana No Postage Richard - Brown Portland, Oregon Official Business Necessary - Penalty for Debra S. Eatman Eutaw, Alabama Private Use $300 If Mailed In The Juan Gutierrez - New York, New York United States Alfred Yama Kina - Honolulu, Hawaii Marta Lagos - Detroit, Michigan Business Reply Mail Giang Le - Raleigh, North Carolina First Class Permit No 12915 Wasfimgton, D C Andi Owens - New York, New York Postage will be paid Agnes Palanuk - Dickinson, North by Smithsonian Institution Dakota SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Gary Tom - Cedar City, Utah Office of Folklife Programs 955 L'Enfant Plaza S.W , Suite 2600 Washington, DC 20277-2915 I. .1,1 I.II...II.mI..I.II,I II, 1,1. ,1.1. 1 SMITHSONIAN FOLKWAYS FOLKWAYS Folkways Records, founded by Moses Asch in 1947, was acquired by the Smithsonian Institution in 1987 to ensure that all the recordings remain available as a service to scholars, musicians and the general public. Distribution of the nearly 2,200 recordings is divided between mail order titles and those available in record stores. Many titles will be issued on CD; all titles are available on high quality audio cassettes, with their original documentation, through the Office of Folklife Programs. Recent reissues are listed below. For a complete catalogue of available titles, please write your address on the card below and mail it to us Smithsonian/Folkways The Folkways Vision - Other Reissues and Recordings Issued for Three Related Record- New RELEASES: This Year's Festival: ings Sold Individually: Recording issued for the 1988 Festival of American Folklife: * * Musics of the Don't Mourn - Organize! Songs of Folkways: A Vision Shared A Soviet Union (SF 40002) labor songwriterJoe Hill Historical Grammy Award winning benefit al- and contemporary recordings of songs bum containing songs written by- Recordings issued for the 1989 Festi- and poems by and about Joe Hill Woody Guthrie and Huddie Ledbetter val of American Folklife: featuring: Billy Bragg, Hazel Dickens, (Leadbelly) and interpreted by con- * Puerto Rican Music in Hawai'i: Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, Joe Glazer, temporary musicians. Issued by CBS Kachi-Kachi (SF 40014) IWW Entertainment Workers lU 630, Records. * Hula Daim Dance Chants: Music Si Kahn, Haywire Mac, Utah Phillips, and Power in Time (SF 40015) Paul Robeson, Earl Robinson, Pete A Vision Shared A videotape includ- * Musics of Hawai'i (SF 40016) Seeger and others. (SF 40026, avail- ing footage of the majority of the mu- able on CD, LP and cassette) sicians on the CBS album. Issued by Other recordings: Columbia Music Videos. * The Country' Gentlemen: Country Woody Guthrie - Struggle A reissue songs, old and new (SF 40004) of Moses Asch's compilation of Folkways: The Original Vision (SF * Cajun Social Music: Nathan Abshire, Woody Guthrie's songs originally 40001) Contains the same songs as the Mark Savoy, Hector Duhon and others issued for the United States Bicenten- CBS album, but in the original ver- (SF 40006) nial in 1976. Woody Guthrie sings sions recorded in the 1940's by * Phil Ochs "The Broadside Tapes 1" songs commemorating labor staiggles Woody Guthrie and Leadbelly. Three (SF 40008) and the hard times of working people never before released cuts appear on * Elizabeth Gotten: Freight Train and everywhere. (SF 40025, available on this album. other North Carolina folk songs and CD, LP and cassette) aines (SF 40009) * Leadbelly Sings Folk Songs Various recordings relating to Senegal, (SF 40010) the Caribbean and Musics of Struggle * Brownie McGhee and Sonny Terry are also available for purchase. Sing (SF 40011) * Tuva: Voices from the Center of Asia n (SF 40017) All the new Smithsonian/Folkways issues, in addition to many other Folkways * Big Bill Broonzy Sings Folk Songs titles are available in the Museum Shops sales areas at the Festival site. Many are (SF 40023) also distributed through Rounder Records. If you are unable to find Folkways " Pete Seeger "Traditional Christmas records at your local record store, write for a free catalogue and order forms to: Carols" (SF 40024) Smithsonian/Folkways Recordings * Been in the Storm So Long (SF Office of Folklife Programs 40031) 955 L'Enfant Plaza, Suite 2600 * Sing for Freedom (SF 40032) Washington, D.C., 20560 * Pete Seeger "Abiyoyo" (SF 45001) * Ella Jenkins "You'll Sing a Song and Please send me a catalogue of Folkways Records. I would like information on 111 (SF the following kinds of recordings: Sing a Song" 45010) * Ella Jenkins "Adventures in Rhythm" (SF 45007) and many other Ella Jen- kins recordings. Name . Address - Smithsonian Folkways Program Specialist: Contributing Dudley Connell Institution Quincentenaiy A.Vista iN: Sponsors Secrelaiy Robert .NkC Adams Celia Meil The L'.S. \'irgin Islands prngrdm Under Sec ivtciry Film Fdilor (aiha .Shank.ir has been made po.ssible b\' the Dean Anderson Assistant Archivist: Office of the Governor, the LSth Acting Assiskdit Sec reUiiyfor Fori Tavlor Pub- Fegislature of the Virgin Islands, lic Seri'ice: James Early Assistant to the Director the Department of Economic De- Assistant Stxretci for kcsccirch: •Maria Parisi ij \'elopment and Agriculture. Di\'i- Robert Hoffmann I'olkivays Assistant. sion of Tourism. Department of Assistdiil Sccivlary Jar MiiscHDis Suzanne Holder Planning and Natural Resources, Tom FrcLidenlicim Clerk Typists: Lidya .VIontes. .\linu the Virgin Islands Council on The Assistunt Sccn-tiiry for lixlenuil 'Fahmassebi Arts. Paradise Motors. Inc.. Fittle Affairs: Thomas Lo\cioy Switzerland. Virgin Islands .VF6iT, Assistant Sccri'tary far Folklife Advisoiy Council: Roger West Indian Compan\ Ftd. and histitiilKDhil linluitiivs: .Abrahams. Richard Baiiman. Henrv other corporate sponsors Alice Htirnette Classic. Rayna Green. John Assistant Secretary Ail ti\\altne\. Charlotte fur numstni Heth. .Vdrienne Fhe .SV;/et;((/ program has been turn [-', Kaeppler. John Jameson han Karp. Bernice made possible, in part, by the Assistcnil Secretary l-juerilus Reagon. John Tchen. Carlos Velez- Office of the President of the Re- Ibane/ Ralph Rin7ler public of Senegal, the Ministiy of Culture and Communication, the Office of Folklife National Park Ministrs' of Tourism and Environ- ment, the Senegalese Embassy to Programs Service the F'nited States, the American Actnig Director Riehaixl Kiirin .Secretary of the Interior Embassy to Senegal, the American Acliiiinistratiiv Officer Manuel Fujan, Jr. Cultural Center in Senegal. Cheikh Jewell l)ulane\ Director )dmes M. RidenoLir .Anta Diop - Institut Fondamental Acting Aclniinislratiie ( )fficer- Regional T)irector. .\atioiial Cipital de l'Afric|ue Noire, and administra- Barbara Stritklaiul Region: Robert G. .Stanton tive authorities in Dakar and in the Feslncil Director: Diana Parker Deputy Regional Director. \arious regions of Senegal. Senior Folklorist: Peter Seitel Sational Capital Region: Curator. Folkivays Records: Ronald Wne Musics of Struggle has been made Anthoin Seeder Associate Regional Director. I'lihlic possible, in part, by the .Music Senior F.llnionnisicologist: Affairs Sandra A Allev Performance Frust Funds, the Thomas Xenniim. Jr Chief. I lilted Slates Park Inter-American Foundation and Director. (Jnniceiileiiary Polue Fynn Herring the Arab American Cultural Founda- Projects: ( )li\ la ("adaxal Assistant Chief I iiited States Park tion. Program Analyst Police Robert F, Fangston Richard KenneLh- Comnuinder. Special Forces: Education .Specialist Mai.Carl R. Holmberg Betty Belanus Superintendoit. Sational Curators: Diana N'Dia\e. Capital Parks - Central. Jacquelin Peters Arnold .M. Goldstein Research Associates: Marjorie Hnnt, Chief Maintenance. Xational Ed O'Reilly. Frank Proschan. Capital Parks - Central: Nicholas Spit/er William F Newman. Ir. Technical Coordinator Reaves .V//(' .Manager Sational Mall Fred Nahwooksy, Jr. Fe\>- Kelly Program Specialist: Employees of the National C^aj^Jital Arlene L. Reiniger Region and the F'nited States Acting Festival Services Park Police Manager: Claudia Telliho Desig)ier: Daphne Shuttleworth Archivist: Jeffrey Place SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES 3 9088 01476 4591