Organspende Und Transplantation Und Ihre Rezension in Der Ethik Der Abrahamitischen Religionen

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Organspende Und Transplantation Und Ihre Rezension in Der Ethik Der Abrahamitischen Religionen Aus dem Universitätsklinikum Münster Institut für Physiologie – Bereich vegetative Physiologie - Univ.-Prof. Dr. phil. nat. R. E. Zimmermann - Organspende und Transplantation und ihre Rezension in der Ethik der abrahamitischen Religionen INAUGURAL-DISSERTATION zur Erlangung des doctor rerum medicinalium der Medizinischen Fakultät der Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität Münster vorgelegt von Thomas Holznienkemper aus Oelde/ Westf. 2003 Gedruckt mit Genehmigung der Medizinischen Fakultät der Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität Münster. Dekan: Univ.-Prof. Dr. med. H. Jürgens 1. Berichterstatter: Univ.-Prof. Dr. phil. nat. R. E. Zimmermann 2. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. med. C. Spieker Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 15. Dezember 2003 Du sollst deinen Nächsten lieben wie dich selbst. (Lev 19, 18) Alles nun, was ihr wollt, dass die Menschen euch tun, das tut auch ihr ihnen ebenso. (Mt 7, 12) Keiner von euch ist ein Gläubiger, solange er nicht seinem Bruder wünscht, was er sich selber wünscht. (An-Nawawi, 40 Hadite (Sprüche Muhammads), Hadit 13) Bruder Körper ist arm ...: da heißt es, reich sein für ihn. Oft war er der Reiche: so sei ihm verziehn das Armsein seiner argen Momente. Wenn er dann tut, als ob er uns kaum noch kennte, darf man ihn leise erinnern an alles Gemeinsame. Freilich wir sind nicht Eines, sondern zwei Einsame: unser Bewusstsein und Er; aber wie vieles, das wir einander weither verdanken, wie Freunde es tun! Und man erfährt im Erkranken: Freunde haben es schwer! (Rainer Maria Rilke, Für Herrn und Frau Verrijn-Stuart, Val-Mont, 1. Mai 1926, in: Hackel, F.-H. (Hrsg.), Rainer Maria Rilke. Gedichte aus den späten Jahren, Frankfurt/Main – Leipzig 1990, 116f.) Aus dem Universitätsklinikum Münster Institut für Physiologie – Bereich vegetative Physiologie Referent: Univ.-Prof. Dr. phil. nat. R. E. Zimmermann Koreferent: Prof. Dr. med. C. Spieker ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Organspende und Transplantation und ihre Rezension in der Ethik der abrahamitischen Religionen Holznienkemper, Thomas Bei aller Faszination für das Machbare und aller Hilfe, die bedürftigen Menschen durch die Transplantationsmedizin und ihrem kontinuierlichen Fortschritt zuteil wird, gilt es dennoch auch, die ethische Dimension der Organspende und Transplantation zu reflektieren und ihre Prinzipien zu bedenken. Der Arbeitskreis Organspende (AKOS) beantwortet jährlich rund 20.000 Fragen zur Organspende. Eine Frage, die dabei immer wieder gestellt wird, betrifft die Einstellung der Religionen zur Organspende. Weil die drei abrahamitischen Weltreligionen – Judentum, Christentum und Islam - Europa kulturell, religiös und ethisch am stärksten beeinflusst haben, fokussiert diese Arbeit ihren Blick auf diese Religionen. In der Begleitung von Patienten und in der Betreuung von Angehörigen bei diagnostiziertem Hirntod spielt das Votum des Arztes, der Pflegekräfte sowie des Krankenhausseelsorgers oft eine wesentliche und vielleicht gar entscheidende Rolle für oder auch gegen eine Entscheidung zur Organspende und Transplantation. Wer zur Organspende und Transplantation überzeugen will, nicht zuletzt um damit auch dem chronischen Organmangel entgegenzuwirken, sollte deshalb auch die ethischen Wurzeln und Überzeugungen seiner Adressaten kennen und verstehen. Deshalb tut Sachkenntnis und Klarheit nicht nur hinsichtlich medizinischer Fragen und medizinethischer Prinzipien, sondern auch bezüglich der jüdischen, christlichen und islamischen Ethik und deren speziellen ethischen Positionen zur Organspende und Transplantation not. Die Zusammenschau lehramtlicher Dokumente und Stellungnahmen der drei abrahamitischen Religionen zur Organspende und Transplantation lässt eine allgemeine Übereinstimmung im Verständnis der Organspende als Akt der Nächstenliebe erkennen. Deutliche Unterschiede sind im Judentum bezüglich der Todesdefinition und hinsichtlich der Akzeptanz des Hirntodkonzeptes zu verzeichnen: Weil konservative Juden den Hirntod nicht als Todeskriterium anerkennen, sind Organspenden, wie im deutschen Transplantationsgesetz beschrieben, nach ihrem Glauben nicht erlaubt. Im Islam unterscheiden sich Sunniten und Schiiten in der praktischen Konsequenz erheblich: Während die Sunniten (in Deutschland ca. drei Millionen) auch bei Nicht-Muslimen als Spender wie als Empfänger in Frage kommen können, dürfen die Schiiten (in Deutschland ca. 100.000) ihre Organe nur einem anderen Muslim spenden. Organe empfangen dürfen sie dagegen auch von Andersgläubigen. In ihrem jeweiligen religiös-geistesgeschichtlichen Kontext sind die Argumentationen der verschiedenen Ansätze durchaus stringent. In der Realität einer multikulturellen Gesellschaft wie etwa Deutschland jedoch birgt die Begegnung der verschiedenen ethischen Positionen einiges Konfliktpotential, das es zu akzeptieren, aber auch zu diskutieren gilt. Religion und Medizin stehen auch heute noch in einem engeren Verhältnis zueinander als dies mancher glauben möchte. Religiöse Gefühle sind bei medizinischen Fragestellungen nicht zu unterschätzende Parameter in den jeweiligen Entscheidungsprozessen. Dies trifft insbesondere dann zu, wenn es sich – wie bei der Organtransplantation – um Fragen im Zusammenhang mit Leben und Tod handelt. Die Grenzen der Medizin werden in Zukunft wohl immer weiter gesteckt werden. Angesichts dessen tut die Medizin gut daran, den Kontakt zu den Religionen jener Menschen, denen sie dient, nicht zu verlieren und ihre religiös motivierte Ethik zu achten. Die (abrahamitischen) Religionen sind herausgefordert, den Dialog mit der modernen Medizin zu pflegen, sich über neue Entwicklungen zu informieren und diese auf dem Hintergrund ihrer ethischen Prinzipien zu analysieren. Dann werden sie auch in der Lage sein, ihren Gläubigen bei neuen Fragestellungen sinn- und hoffnungsstiftende Handlungskonzepte anzubieten, die dem Wohlergehen des Einzelnen wie auch der Gesellschaft verantwortlich dienen. Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 15. Dezember 2003 Inhalt Vorwort 11 I. Grundlagen zur Organspende und Transplantation 15 1. Begriffsklärung 15 2. Historische Entwicklung der Transplantationsmedizin 16 3. Die aktuelle Situation der Organspende 25 4. Spezielle medizinische Aspekte 35 4.1 Histokompatibilität 35 4.2 Abstoßungsreaktionen 36 4.3 Immunsuppression 39 4.4 Hirntod 42 4.4.1 Historische Entwicklung 42 4.4.2 Hirntod als Todeskriterium 46 4.4.2.1 Medizinisch 47 4.4.2.2 Jüdisch 48 4.4.2.3 Christlich 50 4.4.2.4 Islamisch 53 4.4.3 Bedeutung des Hirntod-Konzeptes 55 4.4.4 Diagnose 58 4.4.5 „Non-Heart-Beating-Donors“ 64 5. Juristische Aspekte 70 5.1 Systeme der Einwilligung zur Organspende 70 5.1.1 Die Widerspruchslösung 71 5.1.2 Die Zustimmungslösung 71 5.2 Das deutsche Transplantationsgesetz 72 5.2.1 Die Problematik der Cross-Over-Lebendspende 75 6. Die Praxis der Organspende und Transplantation 79 6.1 Mögliche Spender 79 6.2 Allokation 80 6.3 Transplantation nach Totenspende 82 6.4 Transplantation nach Lebendspende 86 7. Organhandel 90 II. Prinzipien medizinischer Ethik 96 1. Bioethik: Anmerkungen zu einem ‚neuen’ Terminus 96 2. Ontologische Prinzipien 98 2.1 Grundlegendes Prinzip: Menschenwürde 98 2.1.1 Philosophisch 100 2.1.1.1 „Preis“ und „Würde“ 100 2.1.1.2 Menschenwürde und Liebesgebot 101 2.1.2 Theologisch 102 2.1.3 Menschenwürde und menschliches Wohlergehen 104 2.1.4 Notwendiges, aber kein hinreichendes Kriterium 106 2.1.5 Konsequenzen für Organspende und Transplantation 109 2.2 Das Totalitätsprinzip und seine Korrektur 111 3. Anwendungsprinzipien 115 3.1 „Prima-facie“-Prinzipien 115 3.1.1 Voluntas aegroti suprema lex 115 3.1.2 Nil nocere – bonum facere 117 3.1.3 Salus aegroti suprema lex 118 3.1.4 Gerechtigkeit 119 3.2 Tutiorismus 120 3.3. Moralische Prinzipien ‚zweiter Ordnung’ 122 III. Organspende und Transplantation in der Ethik der abrahamitischen Religionen 124 A. Judentum 124 1. Grundzüge jüdischer Ethik 124 1.1 Der Traktat „Pirke Avot“ 125 1.2 Ethische Weisungen nach dem Traktat „Pirke Avot“ 127 1.3 Das Judentum – eine Religion der Tat 127 1.3.1 Der Begriff der „Halacha“ 129 1.4 Frömmigkeit als Nachahmung Gottes 131 1.5 Gott als Partner der Taten des Menschen 133 1.6 Das Ethos der Barmherzigkeit 135 1.7 Liebe und Gerechtigkeit 138 2. Spezielle Aspekte jüdischer Medizinethik 142 2.1 Die Heiligkeit menschlichen Lebens 145 2.2 Der unendliche Wert menschlichen Lebens 145 2.3 Die Rettung menschlichen Lebens als oberstes Gebot 147 3. Organspende und Transplantation im Judentum 149 3.1 Lebendspende 149 3.2 Totenspende 152 3.2.1 Halachische Grundprinzipien im Umgang mit dem Toten 154 3.2.2 Hornhauttransplantation 156 3.2.3 Nierentransplantation 158 3.2.4 Herztransplantation 159 3.3 Zusammenfassung 161 B. Christentum 163 1. Grundzüge christlicher Ethik 163 1.1 Der Mensch als zur Selbstgestaltung berufenes Geschöpf 163 1.2 Die personale Antwort im Gewissensentscheid 164 1.3 Das Doppelgebot der Liebe 166 1.4 Die Liebe als Gesinnung und Tat 170 1.5 Nächstenliebe und Selbstliebe 173 1.6 Die „Goldene Regel“ 179 2. Organspende und Transplantation im Christentum 184 2.1 Der katholische Standpunkt 184 2.2 Die protestantische Position 193 2.3 Die ökumenische Sicht 204 2.3.1 Lebendspende 207 2.3.2 Totenspende 210 2.4 Die orthodoxe Perspektive 215 2.5 Die Sichtweise der Zeugen Jehovas 219 C. Islam 230 1. Grundzüge islamischer Ethik 230 1.1 Ethik, Religion und Gesetz 230 1.2 Das Menschenbild 233 1.3 Offenbarung und Vernunft 234 1.3.1 Quellen der Moral 234 1.3.2 Glaube oder Vernunft? 235 1.3.3 Grundsatz: Alles, was moralisch ist, ist erlaubt 236 1.4 Ziele der Moral 238 1.5 Ethik und Wissenschaft 238 2. Medizinethik aus islamischer Sicht 242 3.
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