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Guidebook to Studies of Land Subsidence Due to Ground-Water Withdrawal

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Guidebook to Studies of Land Subsidence Due to Ground-Water Withdrawal Guidebook to studies of land subsidence due to ground-water withdrawal Prepared for the International Hydrological Programme, Working Group 8.4 Joseph F. Poland, Chairman and Editor The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the publishers concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities, or concerning the frontiers of any country or territory Published in 1984 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris Printed under the direction of the American Geophysical Union, by Book Crafters, Chelsea, Michigan ISBN 92-3-102213-X Unesco 1984 Printed in the United States of America Preface Although the total amount of water on earth is generally assumed to have remained virtually constant, the rapid growth of population, together with the extension of irrigated agriculture and industrial development, are stressing the quantity and quality aspects of the natural system. Because of the increasing problems, man has begun to realize that he can no longer follow a "use and discard philosophy--either with water resources or any other natural resource. As a result, the need for a consistent policy of rational management of water resources has become evident. Rational water management, however, should be founded upon a thorough understanding of water availability and movement. Thus, as a contribution to the solution of the world's water problems, Unesco, in 1965, began the first world-wide programme of studies of the hydrological cycle--the International Hydrological Decade (IHD). The research programme was complemented by a major effort in the field of hydrological education and training. The activities undertaken during the Decade proved to be of great interest and value to Member States. By the end of that period, a majority of Unesco's Member States had formed IHD National Committees to carry out relevant national activities and to participate in regional and international co-operation within the IHD programme. The knowledge of the world's water resources had substantially improved. Hydrology became widely recognized as an independent professional option and facilities for the training of hydrologists had been developed. Conscious of the need to expand upon the efforts initiated during the International Hydrological Decade and, following the recommendations of Member States, Unesco, in 1975, launched a new long-term intergovernmental programme, the International Hydrological Programme (IHP), to follow the Decade. Although the IHP is basically a scientific and educational programme, Unesco has been aware from the beginning of a need to direct its activities toward the practical solutions of the world's very real water resources problems. Accordingly, and in line with the recommendations of the 1977 United Nations Water Conference, the objectives of the International Hydrological Programme have been gradually expanded in order to cover not only hydrological processes considered in interrelationship with the environment and human activities, but also the scientific aspects of multi-purpose utilization and conservation of water resources to meet the needs of economic and social development. Thus, while maintaining IHP's scientific concept, the objectives have shifted perceptibly towards a multidisciplinary approach to the assessment, planning, and rational management of water resources. As part of Unesco's contribution to the objectives of the IHP, two publication series are issued: "Studies and Reports in Hydrology" and "Technical Papers in Hydrology." In addition to these publications, and in order to expedite exchange of information in the areas in which it is most needed, works of a preliminary nature are issued in the form of Technical Documents. The purpose of the continuing series “Studies and Reports in Hydrology” to which this volume belongs, is to present data collected and the main results of hydrological studies, as well as to provide information on hydrological research techniques. The proceedings of symposia are also sometimes included. It is hoped that these volumes will furnish material of both practical and theoretical interest to water resources scientists and also to those involved in water resources assessments and the planning for rational water resources management. iii Joseph F. Poland of U.S. Geological Survey stands near bench mark S661 southwest of Mendota in the San Joaquin Valley, California. The bench mark site subsided 9m from 1925 to 1977, because of intensive withdrawal of ground water. Signs on the power pole indicate the respective positions of the land surface in 1925, 1955, and 1977. Contents Preface iii Part I Manual. The occurrence, measurement, mechanics, prediction, and control of subsidence 1 1 Introduction, by Working Group 8.4, International Hydrological Programme 3 1.1 Background information 3 1.2 Purpose and scope of guidebook 3 1.3 Occurrence of subsidence 4 1.4 Geological environments of occurrence 11 1.5 Problems and remedial steps 12 1.6 Acknowledgments 12 1.7 References 12 2 Field measurement of deformation, by Joseph F. Poland, Soki Yamamoto, and Working Group 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Vertical displacement 17 2.2.1 Precise leveling by spirit leveling 17 2.2.2 Other techniques for measuring land-surface displacement 20 2.2.3 Extensometer wells 20 2.2.3.1 Single and double pipe extensometers 20 2.2.3.2 Anchored-cable and pipe extensometers 22 2.2.3.3 Slip joints 28 2.2.3.4 Telescopic extensometer 28 2.2.3.5 Extensometer records 29 2.2.4 Other techniques of subsurface measurement 29 2.2.4.1 General 29 2.2-4.2 Casing-collar logging 30 2.2.4.3 Radioactive-bullet logging 31 2.3 Horizontal displacement 33 2.3.1 Land-surface displacement 33 2.3.2 Subsurface displacement 33 2.4 References 33 3 Mechanics of land subsidence due to fluid withdrawal, by Joseph F. Poland and Working Group 37 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Theory of aquifer-system compaction 38 3.3 Analysis of stresses causing subsidence 41 3.3.1 Types of stresses 41 3.3.2 Computation of stress change 43 3.4 Compressibility and storage characteristics 45 3.4.1 Stress-strain analysis 45 3.4.2 Soil-mechanics techniques 49 3.4.3 The compressibility environment 52 3.5 References 53 v Guidebook to studies of land subsidence due to ground-water withdrawal 4 Laboratory tests for properties of sediments in subsiding areas, by A. I. Johnson and Working Group 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 Field sampling 55 4.3 Composite logs of core holes 56 4.4 Methods of laboratory analysis 57 4.4.1 Particle-size distribution 58 4.4.2 Permeability 60 4.4.3 Unit weight 60 4.4.4 Specific gravity of solids 61 4.4.5 Porosity and void ratio 62 4.4.6 Moisture content 63 4.4.7 Atterberg limits 63 4.4.7.1 Liquid limit 64 4.4.7.2 Plastic limit 65 4.4.8 Consolidation 65 4.5 Results of laboratory analyses 67 4.5.1 Particle-size distribution 67 4.5.2 Sediment classification triangles 70 4.5.3 Statistical measures 70 4.5.4 Permeability 73 4.5.5 Specific gravity, unit weight, and porosity 74 4.5.6 Atterberg limits and indices 75 4.5.7 Consolidation 78 4.5.7.1 Estimating the compression index 78 4.5.7.2 Correlation of compression indices 82 4.5.7.3 Estimating coefficients of consolidation 82 4.5-7.4 Effect of soil classification 82 4.5.7.5 Relationship of consolidation characteristics and liquid limits 82 4.6 References 85 5 Techniques for prediction of subsidence, by Germán Figueroa Vega, Soki Yamamoto, and Working Group (Section 5.3.6 by Donald C. Helm) 89 5.1 Empirical methods 89 5.1.1 Extrapolation of data by naked eye 89 5.1.2 Application of some suitable curve: Nonlinear extrapolation 89 5.2 Semi-theoretical approach 93 5.2.1 Wadachi's (1939) model 93 5.2.2 Ratio of subsidence volume to liquid withdrawal 94 5.2.3 Ratio of subsidence to head decline 96 5.2.4 Clay content-subsidence relation 100 5.3 Theoretical approach 100 5.3.1 General remarks 100 5.3.2 Compressibility relationships and total potential subsidence 101 5.3.3 Differential equations of ground-water flow in an aquifer-aquitard system 102 5.3.4 Uncoupling the system and solving a simpler problem 103 5.3.5 Simplified subsidence modeling 105 5.3.6 Other types of subsidence models 106 5.3.6.1 Depth-porosity model 107 5.3.6.2 Aquitard-drainage model 110 5.3.6.3 Influence of material within the unpumped overburden 112 5.4 References 114 6 Economic and social impacts and legal considerations, by Joseph F. Poland, Laura Carbognin, Soki Yamamoto, and Working Group 119 6.1 General comments 119 6.2 Italy 119 vi Contents 6 Economic and social impacts and legal considerations, by Joseph F. Poland, Laura Carbognin, and Soki Yamamoto--Continued 6.3 Japan 120 6.3.1 Socioeconomic impacts 120 6.3.2 Ground-water law in Japan 121 6.4 United States 122 6.4.1 Economic and social impacts 122 6.4.1.1 Houston-Galveston area, Texas 122 6.4-1.2 San Joaquin and Santa Clara Valleys, California 123 6.4.2 Legal developments in California and Texas 123 6.5 References 125 7 Review of methods to control or arrest subsidence, by Joseph F. Poland and Working Group 127 7.1 Summary of available methods 127 7.1.1 General statement 127 7.1.2 Reduction of pumping draft 127 7.1.3 Artificial recharge of aquifers from the land surface 127 7.1.4 Repressuring of aquifers through wells 128 7.2 Review of methods used 128 7.2.1 Summary statement 128 7.2.2 Shanghai, China 129 7.2.3 Venice, Italy 129 7.2.4 Japan 129 7.2.5 United States 130 7.3 References 130 Part II Case histories of land subsidence due to ground-water withdrawal 8 Types of land subsidence, by Alice S.
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