Ft Capable and Sensible Men

QUARTERLY REPORT

CARNEGIE CORPORATION OF NEW YORK ©

V O L . IV April, 1956 NO . 1

ft Capable and Sensible Men...

“ Men are men before they are lawyers or physicians or burdened technical student? The American Society manufacturers; and if you make them capable and sensible for Engineering Education (ASEE) has been deeply men, they will make themselves capable and sensible lawyers concerned with this question. Some ten years ago it or physicians.” sponsored what became a landmark in studies of In this sentence John Stuart Mill defined the prin technical education, the Hammond report, which ciple that has dominated liberal education. Mill stressed the importance of the liberal arts for engi wrote in a simpler day, when technology was in its neers. Just this month it published another important infancy, when the borders of all study, which is in effect a sequel to knowledge were narrower, when the Hammond report. Conducted the demand for specialized training by a committee under the chair was less compelling. To the scien manship of Edwin S. Burdell of the tist or technician today, whose ca Cooper Union, this, like the Ham reer demands the most rigorous mond study, was supported by specialization, a liberal education Carnegie Corporation. George A. in the broadest sense has seemed Gullette of North Carolina State almost out of reach. Yet today more College’s department of social stud / than ever before the scientist and ies directed the project. engineer find themselves in posi The latest report t-akes a look at tions involving great social respon how the humanities and social sci sibility. More than ever before they ences are faring in our technical need a wisdom and perspective be schools. It is based on many talks yond the reach of their technology. with engineering and liberal arts How can a meaningful introduc educators, and visits to some 60 tion to the humanities and social engineering schools. As might be sciences be given to the heavily- expected, members of the committee resisted to the death,” a liberal arts department head told a member of the ASEE committee. “If the engineers want culture they can come and take what the arts college offers.” The engineers retort that there is good reason for their plea for special treatment precisely because most of the courses are designed by arts men for arts men. For instance, a course titled “An Introduction to English Literature” is exactly that, they point out; it is an introduction to the subject for a man who is find enormous variety in both the amount and the going on to years of study in the same field. Most quality of liberal education being offered. engineers are seeking to learn, in a year of literature They find many valuable examples of imaginative or philosophy or psychology, simply what the intelli experimentation. They also find, however, that in gent layman ought to know about the subject. A school after school what pose as the liberal arts offer course suitable for them, they claim, could and should ings turn out to be a few courses in elementary be different from that designed for people with a English and a year of business economics. Very few primary interest in that field. of the engineering schools allow the 20% of time for The ASEE committee acknowledges justice on the humanities and social sciences that the Hammond both sides of this controversy. The courses in “ Engi report considered essential; on the other hand, others neering English,” “ Engineering Economics,” “ Engi provide up to 25%. Some schools, while supposedly neering Psychology,” etc., that sprang up about 15 or maintaining certain requirements in the liberal arts, 20 years ago did, in many cases, represent attempts allow ROTC classwork and business courses for to “water down the subject and soften up the grad liberal arts credit. One extreme example of such ing” for the sake of engineers. distortion of definition is in the school which charges a The committee vigorously opposes any effort to course in mechanical engineering taken by an elec devise courses that do not meet the highest academic trical engineer to the liberal arts requirement! standards. It believes, however, that there is a place for courses for engineers that are equally rigorous but Cooperation between the Faculties possibly different in content and presentation from One major section of the report deals with the those developed for liberal arts majors. relationships between those traditional arch-foes, the In the relatively few hours set aside for the liberal engineering and liberal arts faculties. They are often arts, which of the many possible subjects should be separated physically as well as spiritually, and the included? The committee believes that two basic seemingly interminable war between them is still principles should govern the selection. waged with energy on a number of campuses. Where this is true, the programs and the students suffer. Maintaining a Balance On the other hand, in that growing number of One is that business training must not be confused institutions in which there is close cooperation and with the humanistic and social studies. There is un mutual respect between the faculties, the good spirit doubtedly a place in the technical schools for courses is manifested both in better programs and in more in accounting, business administration, business law, student interest in the nontechnical courses. etc., but they cannot be considered part of the liberal One source of the split between the faculties is an arts. They serve very different educational purposes. issue that has been fought over for years: whether the The second principle is that a roughly equal bal liberal arts departments should develop special courses ance should be maintained between work in the for engineers. Most engineers want special courses; humanities and work in the social sciences. The most arts people do not. “Any request for courses engineering schools tend to weight their programs in other than those developed by the arts departments favor of the social sciences; the committee believes for arts men is a request for adulteration and is to be that a conscious attempt should be made to provide But even when there is general agreement that students should have, for instance, history, philoso phy, literature, and economics, other questions loom. What history? American, European, World? Ancient or modern? Cultural or political? What literature, and taught with what emphasis? The teaching of world history has always presented staggering problems in terms of the mass of material to be covered. Several institutions have been experi uncouth engineer, covering him with a light veneer of menting with a method, inelegantly called the “ block “ cultivation” and providing him with conversational and gap” or “ posthole” approach, in which several gambits for use in polite society. On the other hand, crucial periods in history are studied intensively. For the committee reports that “the objectives which instance, one may start with Athens in the Golden some schools profess to accomplish in courses involv Age, jump to Europe in the 13th century, then to ing 21 to 24 semester hours would appear to rival, or 16th century England, 18th century France, and end even to outstrip, what might be expected from a full up with 20th century America. four-year liberal arts program.” In the humanities, certain predispositions on the More common is the tendency to justify the hu part of many engineers might be utilized to their manistic and social studies on narrow utilitarian benefit. Literature courses that emphasize ideas and grounds. Some schools have sought—frequently at values, as opposed to those that emphasize form (such the urging of the liberal arts departments themselves as poetry) or historical significance, appeal more to — to promote such studies on the argument that they engineers. Moreover, engineers seem to have an contribute to professional competence. Certainly it is exceptional interest in and understanding of music, true that the engineer, like any other professional, can and the visual arts, such as painting, appeal to them operate more efficiently if he writes well, speaks effec more than literature. Music and art are both intrinsic tively, understands something of human psychology, parts of the humanities, and there is no reason why and knows economic principles. The committee agrees the engineers’ feeling for them should not be exploited. that the humanities and social sciences are, “in a deeply serious sense, practical and useful.” But it Courses in Sequence objects to an “ essentially frivolous definition of prac The question of how courses are to be arranged is ticality that limits its attention to the development of as crucial as what their content should be. The ASEE a few surface skills.” committee strongly reaffirms one of the recommenda Such a definition does serious injustice both to the tions of the Hammond report: that there should be a engineer and to the humanities and social sciences. designed sequence of courses extending through the The report emphasizes that engineers, in common four undergraduate years. In this way, the human with other scientists and technicians, have respon ities and social studies become an integral part of sible roles to play in society. They have risen to posi every engineer’s total experience— not just a few tions of authority in industry and government. Their requirements to get out of the way in the first year responsibilities call for breadth and depth of knowl or two. edge and understanding, and a deep awareness of the The committee believes that cooperation between ultimate problems, values, and goals of human exist the engineering and liberal arts faculties is absolutely ence. As responsible professional members of society essential to the formulation of sound programs. The — but even above this, as men— they are entitled to objectives of these programs must not be defined too share in all that our colleges can give them of such narrowly and superficially or, at the other extreme, understanding and awareness. too grandiosely. Copies of full report, General Education in Engineering, available from On the picayune side is the belief that the humani W. Leighton Collins (ASEE), Univ. of Illinois, Urbana; 25^ each, ties should teach “manners” to the traditionally less for quantity orders. that of business and public administra tion, are by definition committed to vocational objectives. In addition, a THE SEARCH FOR high proportion of the students in the college of liberal arts and sciences are taking preprofessional training, for LIBERAL EDUCATION medicine, dentistry, etc. They too are permitted a very high degree of spe cialization in line with their vocational This issue of the Quarterly Report describes a few of the many interests. projects in liberal education that Carnegie Corporation has While recognizing their responsibil supported. ity to provide the sort of professional and occupational training which the The concern for a sound and vital liberal or general education majority of their students demand, the is widespread throughout our colleges and universities today. faculty and administration of Temple Faculties are engaged in lively and useful arguments over the believe that the university’s function meaning of liberal education, the differences (if any) between must be more broadly conceived. It liberal and general education, the relation of the liberal arts to includes “ the adequate training of specialized training, and many similar questions. In such a time students for vocational competence and the education of men and women of reappraisal and debate, the experience of one institution may as human beings, as citizens, and as prove useful to others. The Corporation has sought to encourage leaders. All the evidence suggests that such interchange of experience through the program of intern in a modern, complex society these ships described on the last page of this report and the brief objectives, including vocational com accounts of other interesting experiments published here. petence, require a broad, general edu cation.” This conviction prompted Temple’s recent request to Carnegie Corporation for support of a program to strengthen liberal education in the university. Under the Carnegie grant, the uni versity assigned committees of faculty members, drawn from the humanities and fine arts, natural sciences, and Adventure in Urban Education social sciences, to draw up a plan of general education suited to Temple’s N dozens of American cities, hun proportion of Temple students who special needs. Committee members I dreds of thousands of students are work in business or industry while have gone to ten other universities to pursuing higher education in environ attending school is one of the highest see how they handle their general edu ments remote in character, if not dis in any institution of higher learning. cation programs, and representatives tance, from the sequestered college The character of Temple’s student of Harvard and Columbia Universities campuses of tradition. Temple Univer body serves to heighten a tendency and the University of Pittsburgh have sity, in the heart of Philadelphia, common to many universities: to de visited Temple. Tentative recommen exemplifies the problems of a number velop curricula designed chiefly to dations for curriculum changes have of our great urban universities in relat promote vocational competence or spe already been presented to the faculties ing liberal education to demands for cialized knowledge. Economic and of Temple’s three schools, and are now early specialization. social pressures cause many students to being discussed in faculty sessions. O f Temple’s 4500 undergraduates, concentrate heavily upon courses which An important feature of the study is more than 80% commute to classes teach skills needed for particular kinds that it may have implications not only from their homes in or around Phila of work. for Temple but for other universities delphia. About two out of five list one Two of Temple’s three undergrad which are dedicated to serving the or both parents as foreign-born. The uate schools, the teachers college and needs of an urban community. The new series of courses is called that the able student must be chal Accent on Ideas “The Identification and Criticism of lenged immediately upon entrance. Ideas” (IC). In each class, study is cen More and more freshmen and sopho

o s t textbooks are hardly worth tered upon several classic books chosen mores approach the deans with in M reading; if not barren of ideas, from the humanities, social sciences, or quiries about graduate work. At the they are impoverished in that respect.” natural sciences. Not that the students dining tables and on other social occa Words to this effect have escaped the are restricted to reading these few sions, more of the talk is about aca lips of many students but few educa books! It had been hoped that these demic matters than at any earlier time. tors. Yet it was a distinguished presi would stimulate the students to greater The main complaint about the courses, dent of a distinguished university— outside reading, and the hopes have in fact, has come from the upperclass Henry Wriston of Brown—who wrote been amply justified. Just a year after men, who are disappointed because that sentence three years ago in an the new curriculum was adopted li they have not been permitted to t?ike nouncing a new curriculum at Brown. brary circulation among freshmen and them. The experiment is a new adventure sophomores had increased by at least in education for Brown students. It 20 per cent. changes the teaching emphasis in the The new program is optional (the standard curriculum is still offered also), and open only to freshmen and sophomores. Twenty-four courses la beled “ IC ” are offered. “ History IC ,” The faculty reaction, too, has been instead of being the conventional sur interesting. Despite the heavy burdens vey of world history from prehistoric such courses place on teachers— “ it is times to the H-bomb, is devoted to the much harder to conduct a lively dis first two years from the traditional growth of the modern state, and is cussion than a lively lecture,” as Mr. lecture-recitation method to one of based on reading of Burke, Paine, and Wriston said— most of those participat independent study, group discussion, Mill. An “ IC ” course in political econ ing in the new courses are excited by and critical writing, reading, and omy is concentrated on study of Adam them. Many of the teachers, even those thinking. Textbooks are abandoned; Smith’s Wealth of Nations. One of the who have been graduate instructors, lectures rare. The burden of learning “ Classics IC ” courses is devoted to the say they had never realized the capac rests, where it ultimately must under treatment of man’s destiny in Virgil’s ity of their underclassmen, and have any system, on the student. Aeneid. found that they can require a great “ The greatest mistake that has ever deal more of them than they had ever been made in American education at believed possible. all levels, from kindergarten to Ph.D., Brown’s experiment in general edu is underestimating the capacity of the cation, which was based on a five-year student,” Mr. Wriston had said. Be grant of $250,000 from Carnegie Cor cause there is a strong tendency to use poration, is now in its third year. The the first college year mainly for reme The Brown administration finds that faculty and administration continue to dial work, the interest of freshmen is many more students choose the new evaluate and revise some of the offer blunted rather than sharpened. This is curriculum than might have been pre ings. But whatever the final form of the particularly true of the brighter stu dicted. And, from the student point of “ IC ” curriculum, and whatever effects dents, who come to college expecting a view, the courses seem to be a solid it may have on American education as new and challenging intellectual expe success. Most of the freshmen perform a whole, it has certainly had a marked rience and then often suffer through better than they had been expected to effect on the character of undergrad rehashes of high school courses. do. In the past, Brown, like other col uate teaching at Brown. Barnaby Keeney, Mr. Wriston’s suc leges, had a rather high percentage of cessor as president of Brown Univer students who ended their first year in sity, is enthusiastic about the program. the bottom quarter of their class when As dean, he played a key role in launch their academic aptitude indicated that ing the new venture, and as president they should have ranked near the top. he continues to follow it critically and This percentage has been markedly sympathetically. reduced—proving the Brown thesis PERSONS & PLACES

Mr. Wolff reviews the politics, eco Eugene I. Burdock, who had been The Purpose of the Church nomics, social, and cultural life of four an executive assistant since 1953, re This month, Harper and Brothers pub Balkan nations—Rumania, Bulgaria, signed last month to accept a position lished H. Richard Niebuhr’s The Pur Yugoslavia, and Albania. For centu as associate research scientist in bio pose of the Church and Its Ministry, a ries these countries have figured large metrics research, a new program initi survey and analysis of the aims of on the world scene because of their ated by the Department of Mental theological education in a democracy. strategic location between East and Hygiene of New York State to assist in In the minds of many educators—and West. Long coveted by Russia, Im evaluating therapeutic procedures for of many ministers— the specific pur perial as well as Soviet, all these na mental patients. pose of the ministry and its functions tions fell under Russian sway in the are ill defined. Yet, as Mr. Niebuhr postwar years. Three of them remain points out, hundreds of schools in the satellites, while the fourth, Yugoslavia, United States and Canada make it has divorced itself from the Soviet CARNEGIE CORPORATION their business to educate men and sphere while remaining Communist. OF NEW YORK

women for the Christian ministry. Although he treats the early history 589 FIFTH AVENUE NEW YORK N. Y. “ Doing splendid, indifferent, or woe and later development of each of the fully inadequate work, these ministers Balkan nations, Mr. Wolff devotes Carnegie Corporation of New York is a phil anthropic foundation created by Andrew and the schools that train them are particular detail to the way in which the Carnegie in 1911 for the advancement and subject to praise and blame by them Communist regimes were established. diffusion of knowledge and understanding. It selves, the churches, and the environ Mr. Wolff gives two chapters to post has a basic endowment of $135 million and ing society.” war events in Yugoslavia and the rise its present assets, reckoned at cost value, are approximately $178 million. The income Recently, more than a hundred Prot of Titoism. He analyzes the background from $ 12 million of this fund may be used in estant theological schools agreed to of the split between the onetime satellite certain British Commonwealth areas; all examine themselves and the status of and the Soviet Union, and describes other income must be spent in the United theological education in general, and it the internal politics, foreign relations, States. The Corporation has a continuing interest is the result of their self-questioning that and economy of Yugoslavia since its in improving higher education. Grants are Mr. Niebuhr has formulated in his book. break with the Cominform. made to colleges and universities, professional He discusses the purpose of the church; associations, and other educational organiza the emerging new conception of the tions for specific programs. Such programs include basic research as well as more effec ministry; and the vitality, character Staff News tive use of the results of research, increased and purpose of a theological school as Jeanne L. Brand joined the Corpora understanding of international affairs, better classroom and as community. tion staff last month in the newly preparation of teachers, and new teaching Two other books based on the created position of research assistant. programs. Detailed descriptions of the Corporation’s theological study, which was conducted A native of New York City, Miss activities are contained in its annual reports, under a grant from Carnegie Corpora Brand received the A.B. from St. Law which usually are published in December. tion, will be published within the next rence University, the M.A. from the year. University of Rochester, and the Ph.D. Board of Trustees: M o r r i s H a d l e y , Chairman of the Board; W. Randolph Burgess; John W. G a r d in social history from the University ner; C aryl P. Haskins; Deveredx C. Josephs; Nicholas K elley; R. C. Leffingw ell; M argaret of London. She also was a fellow in Carnegie M iller; Frederick Osborn; Arthur New Book on The Balkans history at Radcliffe College, and was a W. Page; Gwilym A. Price; Elihu Root, Jr.; Charles M. Spofford; Charles Allen Thomas. The Balkans in Our Time, by Robert Fulbright and Leverhulme scholar in Administration: John W. Gardner, President; Lee Wolff, is another new book report England. James A. Perkins, Vice President; F l o r e n c e A n d e r s o n , Secretary; C. H erbert Lee, Treasurer; ing research conducted with Corpora Miss Brand came to the Corporation Stephen H. Stackpole, Executive Associate, British tion funds. It is one in a series of books from the National Foundation for In Dominions and Colonies Program; E u g e n e I. B u r d o c k , Executive Assistant; Frederick H. Jackson, produced by members of the Russian fantile Paralysis. She served earlier Executive Assistant; William W. M arvel, Execu tive Assistant; Robert J. W ert, Executive Assistant; Research Center at Harvard Univer with the United States Mission to the Alan Pifer, Executive Assistant, British Dominions sity, and was recently published by the United Nations, and was in the and Colonies Program; James W. Cam pbell, Assist ant Treasurer; M argaret E. Mahoney, Assistant Harvard University Press. WAVES during World War II. Secretary; Charles Dollard, Consultant. Oberlin College, for experimental tion in the natural sciences, $45,000. NEW GRANTS courses in mathematics for freshmen, The grant will be used to retrain scien $9,300. Faculty members plan to pre tific specialists in the philosophy of Grants amounting to $414,300 were sent the general freshman mathematics science so that they may teach a new announced by Carnegie Corporation topics in terms of significant problems introductory course, a philosophic in trustees during the last quarter. These drawn from the social and natural troduction to the study of science, grants were made from income for the sciences. developed by the Saint Francis Xavier fiscal year 1955-56, now estimated at Social Science Research Council, for faculty. 58,577,000. From this sum, $2,271,000 studies and conferences on national Western Reserve University, for re has been set aside to meet commit security policies, 1939-1955. $75>000- search and experimentation on educa ments, including those for teachers’ The appropriation will be used to tion for librarianship, $50,000. The pensions, incurred in previous years. It further the work of the SSR C’s com director of Western Reserve’s school of is the Corporation’s policy to spend all mittee on civil-military relations, which library science will undertake a thor income in the year in which it is has been supported by an earlier Car ough examination of education for received. negie grant. librarians and, on the basis of this Included among the grants voted Saint Francis Xavier College for research, develop a model curriculum during the last quarter are those listed Women, for the improvement of instruc at Western Reserve. below:

United States THE CORPORATION TRUSTEES Columbia University, for support of an American Assembly on representa Charles Allen Thomas tion of the United States abroad, $85,000. About 50 leaders of business, labor, government, and education will Committee in 1942-43. He is a co gather at Arden House in Harriman, author of the “Acheson-Lilienthal New York, from M ay 3-6, to discuss Report,” which outlined a master plan problems of U.S. representation over for the international control of atomic seas in the economic, informational energy. and cultural, and military fields; par Born in Kentucky, Mr. Thomas ticipation in international organiza received the A.B. from Transylvania tions; and coordination of overseas College. He then went on for the M.S. representation. Carnegie Corporation from the Massachusetts Institute of supported the last American Assembly, Technology. In addition to his earned which was on problems of state degrees he has received honorary de government. grees from several colleges and univer George Peabody College for Teach sities. ers, for fellowships and strengthening Mr. Thomas became president of the liberal arts curriculum, $150,000. Charles Allen Thomas, president of Monsanto Chemical in 1951. He was Two-thirds of the grant will be used to the Monsanto Chemical Company in the 1955 winner of the highest honor continue for five more years a fellow St. Louis, has been a trustee of Car in American chemistry, the Priestley ship program, undertaken with Car negie Corporation since 1951. Medal, given by the American Chem negie funds, to encourage liberal arts One of the country’s principal atomic ical Society, of which he is a former graduates to go on to high school scientists, Mr. Thomas was awarded president. A fellow of the American teaching careers. Twenty fellowships a the Medal of Merit by President Tru Association for the Advancement of year are awarded to graduates of man in 1946. In 1943 he became a Science, Mr. Thomas holds many U.S. Southern liberal arts colleges who plan member of the Manhattan Project, and patents. He is intensely interested in their life work as teachers or school was in charge of the Clinton Labora the early identification and encourage administrators. In addition to the tories at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, from ment of creative individuals and in money for fellowships, the present grant 1945 to 1948. He served as deputy ways of fostering their talent, primarily includes funds for general strengthen chief of the National Defense Research in the sciences but also in other fields. ing of the liberal arts at Peabody. INTERNS IN EDUCATION

Three interns visit each of the host visiting. And as Dean Lawrence H. schools for a full academic year. They Chamberlain of Columbia College do not merely observe, but actually points out, all the host schools have participate, in the educational pro had to re-examine their own general grams. A young humanities teacher education practices in trying to ex from Wheaton College, for example, plain, rationalize, and justify them to became a “Visiting Fellow in Gen their visitors. In addition, at the an eral Education” at Harvard for a year. nual Arden House conferences the nternships of a new kind have been Although he was allowed plenty of staffs of the various programs are established at five of the nation’s time for study, discussion, and ob bombarded by questions from their I most distinguished universities. The servation, he also taught a section of a opposite numbers at other schools as interns serving there wear no uniforms, humanities course, “ Crisis and the well as from the interns. but if they did they would be gowns of Individual.” As he later wrote: “I This self-examination on the part of academic black rather than medical found actually participating in the the schools is noticed with approval by white. For they are “ interns in general teaching of a course far more reward the interns too. One of them at Chi education.” ing and instructive than mere observ cago wrote: “ As good as the courses “General education” is a phrase ing could possibly have been.” Having and the program are, there is scarcely that gained popularity toward the end seen at first hand the problems and anyone in the College who thinks that of the last war. Its supporters share the rewards of that kind of teaching, he they are as good as they should be. conviction that there is a certain core felt he could go on to observe more . . . The instructors are not in a state of understanding in the humanities, intelligently and fruitfully. of lethargic agreement about content social sciences, and natural sciences and method. There is a steady and thor that is of central importance to the Active Participation ough re-examination of the courses.” education of every student. Instead of And observe he did. He watched Another wrote: “An intern soon expecting underclassmen to take a other humanities courses in action, learns, if he never knew it before, that sampling of elementary courses in a participated in staff meetings, and a general education program is not number of subjects, the colleges pro attended general education discussions something a faculty decides to have in viding general education try to com at which he learned about the aims of July, writes about in September, and bine and relate important elements similar courses in the social and physi puts into effect in October. . . . It is from various fields into basic courses cal sciences as well. Toward the end of an academic program with organic required of all students or a series of his year at Harvard, he joined with all unity, a unity that can come only after specially designed courses from which the other interns at a three-day meet years of experience, thought, trial and the student may choose. These courses ing at Arden House, Columbia Uni error.” vary immensely, but all have the com versity’s off-campus conference center. Five years of experience with the mon purpose of providing fundamental There he shared his experiences with internship program is being used by training in the broad areas of human other interns and heard representa Dean Chamberlain in a review he is knowledge. tives of the five host schools explain making of the philosophy and prac Certain of our institutions have been how their programs differed from each tices of general education. Carnegie pioneers in developing imaginative and other. Corporation made a grant for this vigorous programs of general educa The young man from Wheaton study as a means of assessing the im tion. So that other schools could share found that his experience at Arden pact of general education on under the benefit of their experiences, six House gave emphasis to the fact that graduate instruction. years ago Carnegie Corporation initi “ general education is not, and should ated a program under which young not be, a religion with one creed. It has instructors from schools throughout the no boundaries. It can be carried on in country could spend a year on the as many different ways as there are campuses of Chicago, Columbia, Har institutions, courses, or instructors.” vard, and Yale. Recently, Brown Uni The interns often come forward with versity was added to the roster. suggestions for the schools they are

Collection Number: AD1715

SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS (SAIRR), 1892-1974

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