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Archaeology of dance in Java: interpreting the past through iconography

Alessandra Iyer traces reliejs of the Siva Temple at the Prambanan Complex in Indonesia to reconstruct dance movements of an ancient art form focus

y starting point is a con- Is sculptural/pictorial evi- I would question the notion of cept of reconstruction dence admissible as a methodologi- preserving a "conflict-free" her- broader than that nor- cal tool, within this framework, for itage in constant need of being kept mally used in dance research. I reconstructing a dance style? alive. Reconstruction cannot and work with reconstruction in rela- Opinion is divided. There are those should not exist only as revival of tion to dance styles and techniques who are prepared to consider a petrified heritage in the name of of body manipulation which were iconography as reliable evidence preservation of antiquity and au- once used in a performance con- and those who are not. The latter thenticity of tradition. Rather, it text but are now obsolete. seem to be caught up in a way of should strive for recognition of its Reconstruction is an interpre- thinking which automatically independent status from tradition tative act and for wide acceptance privileges and bestows authentic- and heritage, as a form of intellec- and credibility it requires the hall- ity to the written text alone. tual enquiry inscribed in the mark of authenticity. More recent The specific case study pre- present. research trends in the field of ar- sented will be my recent investiga- These are the issues I would chaeology have highlighted the tion of some dance reliefs from like to raise for discussion. In the Central Java, following pages I will focus spe- Indonesia, cifically on my reconstruction whose dance work, limiting myself to initiating movement the debate. content I have identi- The Prambanan temple complex fied and re- In the village of Prambanan, about constructed 15 kilometres from Yogyakarta, in in practice, Central Java, Indonesia, there is a using a large Saivite (pertaining to Saivism model based or Siva) complex , which is one of on an obso- the largest in Asia. lete dance The complex, believed to be- ambiguous nature of a notion of technique of body manipulation long to the early part of the 9th reconstruction based on concepts which seems to have been linked century A.D.(1), is made up of a of absolute objectivity, re-evaluat- with Saivism (cult of the god Siva) series of concentric courts which ing subjectivity of interpretation. and its growth. The paper is, how- contained some 224 minor sur- The data is a "network of re- ever, not concerned with the move- rounding temples and 8 temples sistance" against which the act of ment reconstruction alone; there in the inner court. Only these interpretation is measured. Meth- are other issues worth exploring. temples in the inner court have odology becomes crucial. The rela- What happens when a dance re- been restored. Among them, there tionship of the interpretation (and construction (say, a style or a spe- are three tall architectural struc- interpreter) with the "network of cific work) is accepted as authen- tures, the most important temples resistance" is defined by the re- tic? What is the actual relationship (candi) of the complex. These are finement and contextual sensitiv- between reconstruction and con- candi S i v a in the centre, with candi ity/appropriateness of the meth- temporary dance practice? Is re- Brahma to the right and candi odology. This will also define construction to be seen only as a Visnu to the left. The temples are authenticity. tool for preservation? so named because the main stat-

6 SPAFA Journal Vol. 7 No. 3 Candi Siva, Prambanan complex Photo: Alessandra Iyer focus

ues in the celias represent these representation of a karana move- umentation of dance forms which gods. Candi Siva is more popu- ment. A karana is a small move- may no longer be in use is not larly known as candi Loro ment sequence which forms the universally accepted as a valid Jonggrang, after a legendary local basic unit of an obsolete technique methodology, either in the context princess identified withDurga, of dance described in the Sanskrit of Western or in that of non-West- whose statue is enshrined in the text Nätyasastra, the foremost ern dance research. Questions temple in the North-facing cham- work on dance, music and drama have been asked on how accurate ber. of India. Although I am not the static visual representations can be The three temples are rich in first to suggest that the dance re- in recording dance movements and iconography, and the inner side of liefs at Prambanan are karana (or also whether these movements can the balustrade of candi Siva and related to karana)(2), no one had be authentically recreated from a candi Brahma is covered with re- identified them as karana on the practical point of view(4). Reliabil- liefs depicting the story of Rama. basis of movement analysis, prior ity of the dance image as record is On the inner balustrade of candi to this present attempt. Such an questioned because it is thought Visnu, one can see episodes from identification would not have been that its narrative, devotional or the life of Krsna, one of the heroes possible without the previous re- symbolic function would automati- of the Mahabharata epic. The search on the karana seen on In- cally exclude a relationship with outer walls of all the three candi reality, (on scrutiny, this is clearly are covered with a variety of orna- If the iconographic only an assumption which has mental motifs showing flowers, evidence is further unfortunately prompted some animals, and minor celestials. On corroborated by other writers to dismiss dance images as the outer balustrade of candi Siva, uncertain evidence). Yet there is sources, such as there are 62 reliefs showing danc- no reason why these images would ers and musicians, together with manuals, literary not have taken their cue from forms another 70 reliefs showing groups works, extant practices known to the artists and craftsmen of three celestial beings in stand- in living traditions and through living performance prac- ing postures, which are known so on, then clearly one tices while also having a function as the apsari/vidyãdhara cannot dismiss the other than realistic representation (gandharva) groups. These reliefs possibility that such of dance. are usually thought to be decora- images do reflect was If the iconographie evidence tive but there are reasons to be- what dance practice is further corroborated by other lieve that mere decoration was not sources, such as manuals, literary their raison d'etre. I do not think dian temples that Subrahmanyam works, extant practices in living there can be any dispute that these carried out. It is his reconstruction traditions and so on, then clearly are dance scenes. But what kind of the karana of the Nãtyasastra one cannot dismiss the possibility of dance is represented? Although which I have used as a model to that such images do reflect what at this stage one cannot comment which the reliefs could be com- was dance practice. The question on the dance represented therein pared, for reasons I am about to of reliability becomes then a meth- in terms of choreography, one can explain(3). odological issue: the degree of ac- certainly present a formal analysis Can one reconstruct a dance curacy in 'reading' the dance im- of the dance movements portrayed. technique fromiconographicevi- age and reconstructing the It is now possible to identify dence? Reliance on iconographic movement will depend entirely on each one of the dance reliefs as a representations of dance as doc- the approach.

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There have been different one so wished, for choreographic Prambanan had either been models of karana reconstruction purposes. glossed over or dismissed as rep- proposed over the years but It was a widely held view, resentations of some old dance Subrahmanyam's has the advan- when I began my investigation, form of which nothing was known. tage of being practically oriented, that the dance reliefs of Prambanan I would like here to give some that is, not merely based on trans- could not be representations of examples of the analysis carried lations of the chapter on karana karana because no relief is exactly out in order to arrive at an iden- found in the Nãtyasãstra. Ulti- identical with an existing relief tification of the movements shown mately, what makes one recon- seen in India - in struction more acceptable than temples such as another is entirely determined by the Brhadisvara whether it allows us to make at Tanjore or the better sense of the data. Natarãja temple Subrahmanyam's reconstruction at Chidambaram fulfills this requirement. Her which are well model is based on a correlated known for their study of textual material and sculp- identified karana tural evidence from all over the representations. subcontinent. The textual mate- Those who held rial consists of the Nãtyasãstra and this opinion its variant manuscripts, and the viewed the tenth/eleventh century commen- karana as static Dance reliefs and trio figures in niches, candi Siva tary to it written by Abhinavagupta poses, without Photo: Alessandra Iyer (deemed by all scholars who have realising that worked on the Nãtyasãstra to be each karana is a movement and as in all the reliefs. I have selected the essential tool for an under- such, any portion of that move- relief P14, P22, P49 (the P here standing of the work), as well as a ment can be visually rendered in standing for Prambanan) corre- number of other texts, written in a pictorial or a sculptural repre- sponding to K 24 (Bhujañga post-Nãtyasãstra times. sentation. Significantly, represen- Trasita), K 27 (Mattalli), K 25 Subrahmanyam's reconstruc- tation allows for multiple visual (Urdhvajãnu). K refers to the tion in its perfected and polished interpretations which can greatly karana in the Nãtyasastra list. form was completed only by the differ from one another because The drawings I have used to end of the 1980s. Recording the different sections of that particular accompany the photographs of the reconstructed karana with all their movement sequence may be fo- Prambanan reliefs were prepared variants, obtained from alternative cussed upon by the artists. How- by Subrahmanyam when she was readings of the manuscripts that ever, if the whole movement se- commissioned to design a new set were consulted, was equivalent to quence of each karana is known, it of karana reliefs for the newly built creating a template, a pool of move- is not at all difficult to relate the Siva temple at Satara, in Western ment patterns of an obsolete dance different portions seen in different India. These drawings are helpful technique which could then be sculptures (or paintings) to each because they convey the main used for comparative purposes in other. So, due to the fact that moments of the reconstruction, dance analysis and research or, if adequate movement analysis had using the animation principle. Two not been carried out, the reliefs at figures, Devi and Siva, portray dif-

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ferent portions of the movement sequence prescribed for each karana/ going from right to left (of the viewer). In the Prambanan reliefs we find that animation is shown through three figures which indicate different portions of the same karana. Sometimes the ani- mation works from left to right, sometimes from right to left. In the reliefs, the most important fig- ure, both iconographically and in terms of movement, is the one in the centre foreground, (see glos- sary for definitions of technical terms)

P14 Bhujangatrãsita K24 Candi Siva, relief n. 14 Figure (relief no. 14) has the right Photo: Alessandra Iyer knee crossed and lifted on the left. The hands in abhaya and varada show the beginning of dolanrtta hasta, which involves an oscilla- tory movement. The centre figure has the right hand gracefully stretched on the left and the left hand held high near the head. The right foot, partly damaged, is at the front in kuñcita pada. The third figure (in relief no. 14) is also quite damaged. Only the chest and part of the legs are visible. The right hand is in hamsapaksa near the chest. The movement performed by this figure equates the very Karana Bhujangatrãsita n. 24 beginning of the karana sequence. Drawing, courtesy :DrPadma Subrahmanyam In the reconstruction drawing the movement phases are as follows: Devi's action follows that of fig- ure (relief no. 14) in the Prambanan relief and Siva's is immediately consecutive to that of the central figure in the relief.

10 SPAFA Journal Vol. 7 No. 3 Candi Siva, relief n. 22 Photo: Alessandra Iyer

P22 Mattalli K27 The Nãtyasãstra specifies that the two hands must be in udvestita and apaviddha. Udvestita is an outward movement of the hand/wrist led by the index finger and apaviddha is an in-out movement of the arms. Here, the main figure (relief n. 22 above) is clearly seen in mandala sthãna (a wide stance, with outwardly rotated and bent knees) with the right foot as kuñcita at the back. The waist is raised on the right side. This is in consonance with the style of depiction seen in the Devi figure of the reconstruction drawing. In the reconstruction of the action, the waist is raised on the opposite side of the foot that is planted on the ground. In other words, the waist is raised on the side of the kuñcita foot. This is what is called ãbhasa bhanga. The sculpture portrays a part of the movement and not a static posture, hence the body lines do not show the "normal" shift of weight but instead emphasise the dynamism of the concept. Here, the centre figure has the left palm turned in near the waist while the right hand is lifted near the shoulder. Together they portray the nitamba nrtta hasta (a combination of udvestita and apaviddha) re- quired by this karana. Unfortunately the other two figures are damaged.

Karana mattalli n. 27 Drawing, courtesy: Dr Padma Subrahmanyam

SPAFA Journal Vol. 7 No. 3 11 P 49 Urdhvajanu K 25 Figure 1 (relief n. 49 above) has been beautifully mended. The right leg is in suci pada about to be lifted. The right hand is raised to the level of the shoulder in kuñcita for avyävartaaction. The head is tilted to the right and the hip is also raised. Figure 2 (centre foreground of relief no. 49) is in urdhvajanu, like the Devi figure in the reconstruction drawing. Even the shifting of the torso on the left is similar. The left hand is in the process of being rotated towards the chest. Figure 3 (right of viewer) has only one leg visible, extended in front of figure 2. The adjacent slab on the left proper has only traces of face and hands, yet this is enough to surmise that the urdhvajanu movement here is performed sideways.

Karana urdhvajanu n. 25 Drawing, courtesy: Dr Padma Subrahmanyam

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Karana sculptures and worship of the god Siva. Añgahara This does not imply that the con- cultural/artistic recycling: is linked to the different Tãndava cept of karana was not known in implications for a study of that he dances. This is a temple India before Prambanan nor that the cultural history of dedicated to Siva. It is only fitting the Nãtyasastra is of Javanese ori- Southeast Asia that the cosmic dance of the lord gin nor that karana may not have should be represented on its outer already been a part of the dance There is a number of issues con- balustrade. practice of Cola times prior to nected with my study of the There is also the question of their rendering in stone on the Prambanan reliefs which need to the identity of the performers in Brhadisvara. Nor does it mean that be discussed. Among these is the the reliefs. Could the dancers - all isolated karana had never been problem of the sequential order of of them male - be Siva himself sculpted in India prior to either the reliefs, which in many ways dancing his cosmic dance? The the Prambanan or the Tanjore com- relates to their purpose and func- figures in each relief usually show plex. tion. For one thing, the present three dancers, all identical, which I am simply suggesting that sequence is not the original one. could well be a device deployed to the idea of putting karana in a The S i v a temple was restored from show the unfolding of the karana sculpted series of some sort may a state of utter ruin and decay in movement through time, with the have originated in Java(7), and the first half of the century, and "performers" being in fact only would call this an instance of recy- old photographs from the Dutch one. Identification of the per- cling. The inevitable question is: Archaeological Service in Indone- formers and establishing the pur- were there other instances of recy- sia, taken between 1893 and 1937, pose of the sequence are still un- cling such as this? It would ap- show very clearly that the reliefs settled issues and are clearly pear, from studies carried out in were not in place when the resto- related to an investigation of the other fields, that this was a strong ration work began(5). Was the se- cultural/religious background of possibility, with a greater likeli- quence meant to be made up of all ancient Java. If Saivism was part- hood than the supposition of a the 108 karana listed in the icularly strong in this area, why parallel development.(8) Nãtyasastra - in which case some was it? There are no ready-made The question of Indian influ- are missing - or was it meant to answers. ence in Southeast Asia, whether it portray an añgahara (a string of Intriguingly, the early ninth- is the now outmoded concept of karana) out of the 32 mentioned in century Prambanan karana series "Indianisation" or the more mod- the Sanskrit text? Further research is about 100 to 200 years older than ern one of "localisation" of Indian is needed to clarify this point. It the first known karana series in influence, needs rethinking. The is, however, very obvious that since India, seen at the Cola Brhadisvara travelling of people - and of ideas the reliefs show a dance sequence temple in Tanjore. It is thus very - must have been a two-way traf- of some sort (perhaps an likely that there were no specific fic. Present political boundaries angahâra), their presence was not prototypes or samples for the cannot be projected on to past for a decorative purpose. karana of Prambanan - the images history. The cultural recycling and The cosmic dance of Siva, can be regarded as a local concept. relaying that took place among the known as Tãndava, is articulated Is it a case of parallel development Hindu-ised Southeast Asian re- through karana. Its significance is or could the idea of representing gions - here Hindu-ised refers to profound and it encapsulates the karana in a serial order in Cola(6) both Hinduism and Buddhism - (9) main concepts of Saivism, a branch times have been taken back to may well have involved India. of Hinduism which centres on the India after Prambanan was carved? Sedyawati, in her research on

SPAFA Journal Vol. 7 No. 3 13 Ganesa, statuary of the Kadiri and is eliminated, it is possible to live apaviddha Singhasari periods in Java, with its multiple interpretations, the arms move away from emphasises the existence of a "facing the contradictions of our the chest in a circular way. multi-centred international cul- contemporary relation with the ãviddha an ture(10). The phenomenon of cul- past, unravelling but not resolv- aerial cari. From a tural recycling within Asia should ing"(11). Within this framework, it svastika the foot is lifted thus be investigated further. is clear that concepts of truth, truth- obliquely as kuñcita and fulness and authenticity lose their then brought to its own Reconstruction and living absolute value. side and placed on the dance practices If reconstruction is a re-in- ground as añcita beside scribing of the past in the present, the other heel. Feet are in Another important issue is that of it follows that reconstructing the pãrsva and do not touch the relationship between recon- karana of Prambanan may lead to each other when they are structed dance techniques and liv- recreating the technique in the in svastika. ing dance practices, which an ex- present, as a living practice of bhujangatrãsita ercise such as the one presented Javanese dance(12). This does not, an aerial cari. The kuñcita inevitably raises. It involves a de- however, necessarily imply or give foot is raised to the other bate on questions of authenticity, a guarantee of a 'better' or more thigh and the heel faces tradition, interpretation and the 'authentic' way to dance and cho- the hip. The knee must way the past is conceived of in reograph. There cannot be such be lifted on the opposite relation to the present. guarantees, only the possibility of side and the body must Recreation has often been exploring another way to be cre- not be turned. Then the presented as heritage. Different ative. • foot is folded in to touch meanings and interpretations its own thigh, the leg thus have been given to the concept of bent is stretched out from "tradition", but it is clear that the knee and turned to its tradition is constantly reinvented Glossary of dance technical own side. During the through subtle shifts which are terminology twist the sole is upturned. not usually immediately detected. abhaya cari Indeed, it is this apparent state a hand gesture denoting a movement of the lower (shifts in tradition that are not protection, with the raised limbs. detected) which reinforces the fic- palm facing outward. dola (nrtta) hasta tion of a constant, unchanging tra- ancita the shoulders are slack- dition. 1. movement of the foot ened and the hands hang Archaeological reconstruction in which the foot rests on down in patâkã by the is based on interpretation and is its heel. sides. inscribed in the present. There is 2. bend of the arms with hamsapãksa no separate objective past which the elbows pointing out- a soft, open palm. can be presented in glass cases. The ward. karana past in glass cases is indeed the 3. side bend of the head. small movement se- result of selection and therefore angahara quence which forms the once more an act of interpretation. a dance phrase made up basic unit of an obsolete Once the fiction of an objective past of at least four karanas technique of dance de-

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scribed in the Sanskrit text svastika ancient Javanese dance' RIMA 16, 2: Nãtyasastra. a crossing movement of 59-82 and K. Vatsyayan 1977 'Dance kuñcita either lower or upper sculptures of Lara Djonggrang 1. pointed foot with con- limbs. (Prambanan)' Quarterly Journal of the National Centre for the Performing tracted toes contacting the tâla Arts , VI 91):1- 14 floor. measurement equivalent 2. arms folded with the to a palm. (3) Dr Padma Subrahmanyam, dancer elbows facing the corners. udvestita and scholar, began her study of the Nàtyasàstra outward movement of the karana of the Nãtya-sãstra in the early the foremost work on hand and wrist beginning 1960s. She was a student of Professor dance, music and drama with the index finger. T.N. Ramachandran, the then Director of India. ùrdhvajânu General of the Archaeological Survey nitamba erect (high) knee: the knee of India, who had specifically worked the wrists are circled at is raised, folding the on the karana of the Brhadisvara shoulder level and the shank over the thigh. temple, discovered in the 1950s by K. arms are brought down vaisnava Srinivasan. Her work culminated in a two-volume doctoral dissertation, at hip level, to the sides, a stance involving the dis- Karana in Indian sculpture (Unpub- where the wrist move- tance of 2 and 1/2 tala lished 1978, Annamalai University) and ment is repeated, bring- between the legs. in a documentary serial, Bharatiya ing the arms u p again at varada Nãtyasãstra, which was produced by shoulder level. a gesture denoting "giv- V. Balakrishnan and broadcasted by pada ing", performed by show- the Indian National Network foot. ing the palm of the hand, "Doordarshan" in 1992. pârsva palm pointing down- side (sideways). wards (4) Sharon Fermor 1987 "On the ques- pataka vyàvarta tion of pictorial 'evidence' for fifteenth- a gesture of the hand the fingers are turned in- century dance technique" Dance Re- showing the extended ward starting from the search V, 2 Autumn:18-32 (London) palm little finger. and also C. Brakel -Papenhuyzen 1976 The court dances of Central Java and sthâna their relationship to classical Indian stance. dance' Archipel 11:165-167. Brakel suci Notes believes that the reliefs on Javanese 1. a position of the foot candi do not provide sufficient evi- with the tips of the toes (1) Roy E. Jordaan 1993 Imagine Bud- dence on the type of dancing in vogue touching the ground. dha in Prambanan. Reconsidering the in Java at the time. 2. a cari in which the foot Buddhist background of the Loro is lifted as kuñcita and is Jonggrang temple complex. Leiden: (5) See Alessandra Iyer 1996 then stretched to the level Vakgroep Talen en Culturen van 'Prambanan revisited: a fresh per- of the other thigh (or Zuidoost-Azie en Oceanië, spective on the dance sculptures of knee). Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden [Semaian 7] candi Siwa', Bulletin de l'Ecole Française d'Extrême Orient 83 and also (2) See Edi Hadimulyo Sedyawati 1982 1997 Prambanan: scuplture and dance "The question of Indian influence on in ancient Java. A study in dance ico-

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nography Bangkok: White Lotus. The centuries Singapore/ Canberra: Insti- Biographical note reports of the former Dutch Archaeo- tute of Southeast Asian Studies/Aus- logical Service (Oudheidkundige tralian National University Alessandra Iyer lectures and writes on Dienst) also make it very clear that dance, dance iconography and the vi- Prambanan and candi Siva, in particu- (10) Edi Sedyawati 1994 Ganesa statu- sual arts of South and Southeast Asia. lar, underwent a number of restora- ary of the Kadiri and Singhasari peri- She obtained her PhD in Art and Ar- tions, during which the reliefs were ods Leiden: KITLV Press, p. 257 chaeology in 1990, from the School of shifted around several times, as can be Oriental and African Studies, Univer- seen from photos taken from 1926 to (11) Shanks, M and Tilley, C. 1992 Re- sity of London. From 1991 to 1994, 1937. constructing archaeology: theory and Alessandra worked on a project involv- practice, London/New York: ing the identification and reconstruc- (6) Name of a South Indian dynasty. Routledge, p.28 tion of the movements seen in the dance reliefs of the Prambanan temple com- (7) It has recently come to my notice (12) I am not aware, to date, of any of plex in Central Java, Indonesia. She that a group of karana can be seen on such attempts in Java but I can think has just completed a book on the the upapitha at Bahur, near of a parallel in India, where Prambanan dance reliefs, published by Pondicherry, a temple built in 965 A.D. Subrahmanyam has revived the karana White Lotus, Bangkok, (see page 47) by the rulers of Mankhed. See Dhaky, in dance practice, creating the Bharata M.A. 1983 Bahur in M.W. Meister and Nrityam style, as distinct from Bharata M.A. Dhaky eds. Encyclopaedia of In- Natyam. dian temple architecture South India, Lower Dravidadesa 200 BC - AD 1324 New Delhi: Oxford University Press/ Heritage and Habitat 6-8 April 1998 Penang, Malaysia University of Pennsylvania Press [American Institute of Indian Studies] The Technical University of Darmstadt 'Housing in Historic City Centres of (THD) will stage a round-table sympo- p.219 plate 265. This would strengthen Southeast Asia', the intent of the sym- sium entitled 'Heritage and Habitat: The posium is to get a better understanding the argument of a recycling into India Context of Sustainable Development in of today's urban planning needs, of meth- after Prambanan. Historic City Centres' on the current ods, phasing and priorities in this com- situation in Penang and the wider re- plex field, ranging from conservation to gion of Southeast Asia. This forum for renewal. In this context the Darmstadt (8) Stuart Robson (from Monash Uni- debate will be co-ordinated by Mr. Lim group will present their research find- versity and at present engaged in re- Hooi Siang, Ar&T Heritage Consultancy ings, focusing on four case-studies, Sdn. Bhd. There will be four panels: search on the location of ancient Penang, Singapore, Yogyakarta, and Hanoi, Designed to promote intensive Srivijaya) is a world authority on Old 1. Public and Private sectors - Conflict- debate, this meeting is open only to a Javanese language, literature and cul- ing Approaches? Urban management limited number of participants. ture. He recently pointed out to me a and planning; local administration; work by Jan Schoterman (Indonesische legal frame work; renewal policy: part- For further information: nerships in implementation. PROF. ARNOLD KOERTE sporen in Tibet, 1986) in which it is 2. Values and Urban identity Conserva- Department of Architecture shown that the cult of the goddess Tara tion and preservation; nostalgia, local Technische Hochschule was taken back to the subcontinent sentiment; re-invention of history; Darmstadt guiding visions ('Leitbilder'). EI-Lissitzski Str.l (Tibet and Nepal) from Southeast Asia 3. Housing and Working in Inner-City 64287 Darmstadt (pers.comm. 1997). Unfortunately, I Areas Traffic patterns; gentrification; Germany have no access to Schoterman's work. development pressure; rising land Fax: +49-6151-163937 prices; neighbourhood structure, E-mail: [email protected] community character. darmstadt.de (9) See Wang Gungwu 1986 'Introduc- http://www.th-darmstadt.de/ tion' in D.G. Marr and A. C. Milner eds Following a previous workshop in -koerte Southeast Asia in the 9th to the 14th Darmstadt in 1993 on the topic of

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