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Gender Mainstreaming: What is it (About) and Should we Continue Doing it?

Prudence Woodford-Berger

1 Introduction on, and to a significant extent grounded in, feminist mainstreaming is rapidly assuming rather theoretical frameworks. Therefore, as a myth, gender mythic proportions in the development industry.1 mainstreaming can also be used strategically – Purporting to counter “gender neutral development potentially at least – to promote political ends. As planning”, the myth behind the myth is that gender a fable, however, it is coming under a great deal of mainstreaming exists more or less independently of attack from a number of directions – including international politics, power hierarchies and some feminist ones – on the grounds that it is persistent ideas about human nature that drive the nebulous, elusive and has unclear goals, and that modernisation paradigms and theories that define it demands too little in terms of commitment, what development is, without becoming, as it were, analytical skill and resources from those who are tainted itself. At the same time, the way gender supposed to carry it out. Even more damning are mainstreaming comes to be talked about within charges that gender mainstreaming is not development also contains elements of a fable in the performing well in the service of advancing the form of a moralising edict concerning virtuous situation of many, if not most women, especially behaviour in bureaucrats and others in development women in subaltern structural positions due to as they work to promote and ethnicity, class and/or colonial histories or to sexual empowerment for women. orientation and choice of a partner. Those who are The powerful appeal of the notion of gender sceptical of gender mainstreaming on such grounds mainstreaming lies, I think, in the spirit, politics see it as proof that modernising, Euro-centric and promise of its early intentions: to imbue all development paradigms and theories are alive and systems, structures and institutionalised cultures well and continue to reign to the exclusion of other with awareness of gender-based biases and frameworks. injustices, and to remove them. The Platform My own experiences as an immigrant in Sweden for Action points to the promotion of women’s as well as from several periods of ethnographic empowerment and equality between women and research on matrilineal kinship, reproduction and men through, among other measures, the perceptions of gender in another cultural setting – establishment of “national machineries” to ensure Ghana from 1973 to 1993 – have influenced my the mainstreaming of gender perspectives in all own , as has nearly 25 years of work as a spheres of society ( 2001: 26, italics development consultant with gender equality issues added). However, mainstreaming also involves at the core. I readily admit that these have been a efforts to make attention to gender issues the boon as well as a source of discontent. They have concern and responsibility of everyone in been a boon because they have informed my work development organisations, as opposed to being as principal trainer for Sida’s gender training only those of specialist persons, units, teams or programme since 1990, and my work at the Swedish “machineries”. Ministry for Foreign Affairs as special adviser since For many of us with feminist backgrounds and 2002. The discontent stems from the fact that I have convictions of one sort or another who have found contributed to and been complicit in the ourselves in various social policy contexts, the “objectification” and relay of certain kinds of appeal of gender mainstreaming is that it is founded knowledge in “diluted” form in order to coax better

65 IDS Bulletin 35.4 Repositioning in Development development results and effects in the form of better indeed, continues to compete with earlier praxis conditions and opportunities for women and and modes of thought that focused generically on in the countries we work with. women, Women in Development (WID) In this article, I draw on these experiences to frameworks and on separate measures for explore the question of whether gender compensating women for disadvantages and mainstreaming as an idea and as a prescribed course experienced by them in of action can be extracted from the specific contexts development. Since the 1995 Beijing conference, and forces from which its dominant forms emerged, gender mainstreaming has increasingly gained and whether it can continue to be sustained, and currency at the higher levels of national and usefully converted and applied to other contexts. international policy-making. At the meetings and It draws on exciting recent work on the negotiations of the 47th Session of the UN anthropology of policy (Porter 1995; Shore and subsidiary body, the Commission on the Status of Wright 1997; Mosse 2002) to analyse a specific case Women (CSW) in March 2003, a resolution was of feminist politics – those of Sweden, where gender adopted concerning the mainstreaming of a gender mainstreaming has been on the policy agenda since perspective into all policies and programmes of the the 1980s – to explore a particular rationale, UN system. Likewise, a similar resolution was interpretation and set of tools. It focuses in particular proposed for adoption by the meetings of the UN on the gender analytical frameworks, so central to Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in 2003 gender mainstreaming, that are employed in the and 2004. Both resolutions define gender project of transforming power structures and mainstreaming as a critical, globally accepted relationships in the work of international strategy for the promotion of gender equality, and development organisations. both provide indications of how it should be implemented. Examples of measures include 2 Gender mainstreaming and formulating and implementing gender equality development policy policies and strategies; developing and using data Gender mainstreaming can be defined in a number disaggregated by sex; gender-specific studies and of ways, all of which are contested in one way or information; gender analyses of budgets where another (e.g. see March et al. 1999: 10). The most relevant; establishing or strengthening institutional common usage in Sweden is as a long-term strategy mechanisms, such as gender units/focal points, or systematic institutional approach for networks and task forces; and strengthening staff promoting/producing gender equality as a policy skills and capacity to integrate gender perspectives outcome. Although there is a great deal of confusion into policies and programmes. and contestation surrounding the concept itself These measures may be seen as comprising (e.g. see Sida 1996: 1), there appears to be a specific kinds of concrete practices that lend relatively high degree of agreement about its aim. substance and give meaning to the creation or Gender mainstreaming seeks to produce production of “gender equality”. The assumption transformatory processes and practices that will is that these and other activities and practices are concern, engage and benefit women and men affirming to policy as well as to particular models equally by systematically integrating explicit of social change that are to be encouraged. The attention to issues of sex and gender into all aspects hope or conviction is that carrying them out, for of an organisation’s work. Gender analytical example, in development planning and through frameworks are used to impose tangibility and various models for intervention design, the goal of procedurability on what is ultimately a political gender equality will be promoted. Thus, they project based on certain theoretical underpinnings. become elements in institutional and personal Such frameworks are usually designed to fit into practice, and as such, are products of policy. At the the planning requirements and routines of same time, they also work to produce, protect and development bureaucracies, used in training courses legitimise policy (and therefore themselves). To a and “gender sensitisation” or “gender awareness- significant extent, the emphasis on mainstreaming raising” exercises to marshal support for specific in planning at the expense of mainstreaming for values and interpretations. social transformation (it is necessary to work with Gender mainstreaming was slow to take off, and both) is due largely perhaps to the complexity of

66 Gender Mainstreaming: What is it (About) and Should we Continue Doing it? policy-making and the correspondingly perilous engagement – activism, academia, development translation of policy into manifestations of assistance/cooperation – may become involved in operational practice. struggles over meanings and pragmatic measures In recent years, less emphasis appears to have both within and between themselves, in order to been put on affecting the “mainstream” of societal determine courses of action and pursue specific structures, processes, organisational cultures and gains. In this context, myth-making with regard to politics through gender mainstreaming as socially gender may be the result of these communities’ transformative, while more is being put on the each jockeying to get the most out of an idea, so to “mainstream” of development administration’s speak, by settling for “thin” or “thick” (Fraser 1989: policies, planning routines and processes, 163) descriptive concepts, themes, labels or tropes programmes and projects, i.e. through gender so as to legitimise claims to and the mobilisation mainstreaming as an instrumental technique. The of resources, and a range of phenomena or courses increasing demand for useful, usable practical tools of action. At the same time, there is no denying that or frameworks and for accessible reference materials such myth-making contributes to the dilution of has led to a considerable number of these. Recent concepts and the generalisation of meta-narratives years have also seen a renewed and enhanced based on rather narrow universes of experiences emphasis on rights-based frameworks as well as a and interests, rendering them considerably less revival of “efficiency dimensions” of promoting useful than they could be. gender equality.2 Women’s human rights are focused In any event, in the case of gender mainstreaming and this focus has been greatly enhanced since the gallant efforts have been made to make practical introduction of language concerning sexual and use of theoretical developments and research in the programmes of action findings in the fields of feminist and from the 1994 UN International Conference on that emerged during the 1980s and 1990s after the Population and Development and the 1995 Fourth relative dearth of such materials during earlier years. World Conference on Women.3 These are used to inform, or are translated into Policy can of course be forcibly imposed, but concentrated or distilled forms in inter alia gender more commonly is dependent upon some sort of analytical frameworks. Contrary then to accusations rationale to be credible and at least minimally of “theory-lessness” directed at some areas of implementable. The substantiation, reification, or development cooperation work, we neither lack “objectification” of policy in Shore and Wright’s nor ignore mental models, theories or empirical terminology (1997: 5), involves actions, events, data that can inform gender equality policies and discourse and processes of interpretation and the gender analytical frameworks currently in use. instrumentalisation to make policy ‘real’ through However, it is clear that these by and large are the gradual establishment of practices to implement formulated in terms of the inputs–outcomes it. The transformation of policy into practice, and planning models common to the “mainstream” of through practice into specified products or other social and development policy and organisational results, occurs in turn by means of institutional contexts. mechanisms that are perceived to be legitimate, and that supersede the will and agency of 3 Swedish approaches to gender individuals. In the context of gender equality and equality policy other cross-cutting development goals, As Rabo (1997) points out, gender equality policy “objectification” involves not just top-down provides a way for the Swedish state, the social governance and political decision-making, but also democratic government and its historical legacy of the use of emotive idioms and metaphors to translate safeguarding a comprehensive welfare system, to political activism and advocacy, academic theory- organise, direct and control the pursuit of gender building and development assistance norms, values equality in Sweden. Sweden has a history of “social and practices into popularised communication and engineering”, a form of social planning stemming actions. from the 1930s that combines research, politics In the objectification process, the various and an aesthetics of rationality in order to create knowledge, interests and “interpretive communities” “the good society” (det goda samhället) and produce of actors (Porter 1995) in these three fields of a particular kind of new, aware and socially desirable

67 IDS Bulletin 35.4 Repositioning Feminisms in Development person or citizen (den nya människan; den nya exclusive categories of adult “women” and “men”, medborgaren). Present-day gender equality policy Hirdman’s work has been used to analyse not only in Sweden is also the result of allying research with employment, working life conditions, and labour politics and a firm belief in and commitment to the markets in Sweden, but also education, leadership production of gender equality and the achievement and family life. Her analytical framework is used of political goals through legislation, top-down as a foundation for the construction of gender directives and the adoption of gender analytical frameworks, used to mainstream attention mainstreaming as the government’s official strategy. to gender in national policy contexts as well as in Gender equality as fable in Sweden is illustrative the practice of gender mainstreaming in of notions and manifestations of cultural belonging international work. that are closely bound up with Swedish identity and notions of justice and social equality. 4 Doing “gender” in Swedish In the context of Sweden, gender mainstreaming international development work involves a process of objectification in which How do representations of sex, gender, “women” virtue/virtuous behaviour is demonstrated through and “men” in the gender analytical frameworks the rather ritualistic use of “gender analysis” as a currently used in Swedish international tool to bring about gender mainstreaming as practice development work fit with the realities of particular and as a kind of craftsmanship in pursuit of the goal women and men in non-Swedish cultural settings? of gender equality. The most common measures for And how can we better understand and implementing gender mainstreaming in terms of communicate complex realities and situated the dimension mentioned above as ‘strengthening knowledges so as to make sense of inequalities and staff skills and capacity to integrate gender injustices and mobilise support for the purpose of perspectives into policies and programmes’4 takes doing away with them? To a considerable extent, place through “gender” training courses aimed at both of these points concern bodies of theory and awareness-raising and at relaying the basics of practice that involve so-called identity politics, the gender analysis. During such courses, information politics of difference, and the political pursuit of is provided on reference materials, manuals and justice and genuine empowerment by handbooks, checklists and guidelines. Gender disadvantaged or oppressed groups through mainstreaming is also supported through “recognition” and inclusiveness, and/or organisational adjustments such as the creation of “redistribution” of goods, ideas, positions and power special units or “focal point” positions. (Young 1990, 2000; Fraser 1997). The evidence is The theoretical underpinnings of Sweden’s that in many respects, we are clearly gaining ground gender equality policy and of gender mainstreaming as far as our claims for “recognition” and women’s as a strategy to address gender inequalities are to inclusion is concerned, while progress continues be found in the works of inter alia Swedish feminist to be slow with regard to “redistribution” and true researchers such as Y. Hirdman (1988). empowerment. Contributing to a major breakthrough in feminist What assumptions might we be making about research and analytical thinking about gendered the way societies are organised and the way “gender structures in the Swedish national historical work” is best done, that are stopping us from making contexts, Hirdman posited the existence of an more of a difference? How might Swedish ideas intractable, hierarchical sex-based power order about “gender equality” and the kinds of notions (könsmaktsordning). This was based on two of “gender” that are supposed to be “mainstreamed” principles: the principle of absolute separation of be perceived from the standpoint of women and the sexes (isärhållningens princip), and the primacy men in a very different cultural setting? For example, of “man”/“men” as the norm (den manliga normens that of the Dormaa District of the Brong-Ahafu primat), standard and yardstick for valuation and region of Ghana, where I conducted ethnographic evaluation of human behaviour and entitlement. research into such issues as descent, residence, the In this perspective, men are superordinate/superior “domestic” domain and reproduction, and notions (överordnad) and women are subordinate/inferior of personhood, female collective identities and (underordnad) in terms of power and authority. interests, connectedness and solidarity (Woodford- Based on two opposing and seemingly mutually Berger 1981, 1997)?

68 Gender Mainstreaming: What is it (About) and Should we Continue Doing it?

In Dormaa, the creation and mediation of social structural inequalities and biases. These are reflected and gendered identities takes place through the Brong in gender-based disparities – sometimes extreme Akan matrilineal kinship system. Domestic – in indicators such as literacy and education levels, arrangements are in effect matrilineage sub-systems morbidity and health status, livelihood security, characterised by duo-local residence for most married human security and vulnerability to various kinds people. Living and nurturing arrangements can be of violence, and poverty (ROG and UNICEF 1990). dispersed over a number of different residences, The most common models for gender analysis particularly for children and young men. Brong Akan used in Swedish gender mainstreaming would face motherhood is a highly idealised condition and difficulties in capturing the complexities of gendered culturally elaborated process and a primary status life in Dormaa. Conventional definitions of the marker for women. Female-ness is strongly associated “household” that continue to be employed, despite with hard physical work, with the provision of food our awareness of their limited usefulness, would and care, as well as with prowess in economic have little relevance in this setting. The representation ventures in ways that male-ness is not. Women and of female-headed households as particularly children do the bulk of the farming and collecting impoverished (see Chant, this IDS Bulletin; see also work that provides the bases for people’s livelihoods, Moghadam 1997; World Bank 2001) equally finds and women by and large usually have adequate access little place. The assumed oppositional positions of to cultivable land through their matrilineage, whether women and men in the social, economic, political or not they are married. and ritual order, the very basis of gender frameworks Despite clear distinctions between conceptions and of the kind of gender thinking that is so much of female-ness (in Twi béré) and male-ness (nyin or part of Swedish gender equality work, simply does nini), these are for the most part not firmly attached not match the Dormaa reality. What they work to to physiological sex, or to particular duties, ways of obscure is the way in which women mobilise being or behaving. Neither do “female” and “male” resources, their affective as well as economic bonds categories or persons necessarily embody notions with the men in their lives and the cross-sex alliances of dichotomous relations or dually constructed social of various kinds, especially amongst kin, that can persons considered to be the exact opposites of one be so critical a part of women’s livelihoods. another. “Gender identity” can shift over the life Critiques of the kind of ideas on which Swedish course as well as with respect to specific existential gender equality work has been based have been situations, conditions and requirements. In terms part of mainstream gender theory for over a decade. of power relations, women should defer to men. Swedish anthropologists, writing in Swedish, have However, although authority is associated with male- taken Hirdman to task for her ethnocentric and ness, it is also associated with positionality, for static portrayal of gendered relations, her example with royals, with ritual specialists and with presentation of “gender orders” as clear-cut and wealthy people regardless of sex. unambiguous and of “sex” and “gender” as being Conjugality is an important strategic basis for unmediated by other differences such as ethnicity resource mobilisation, as well as affection, for both and class and on the basis that she simply ignores women and men. Both women and men strive to patterns of differences among women and girls and achieve personal economic wealth and among men and boys as well as similarities between independence, as well as a personal base power different categories of females and males (see and the exercise of authority represented in house Gemzõe et al. 1989; Thurén 1996; Gemzõe 2003). headship during their lifetimes. Women consciously Researchers in Sweden from various non-Swedish form various kinds of alliances with men as brothers, ethnic origins have, equally, drawn attention to fathers, ’ brothers, husbands, sons and some of the shortcomings of Hirdman’s assumptions sisters’ sons. The degree of actual or potential and the binaries on which they are based (see de “equality” in these relationships varies a great deal, los Reyes et al. 2002). Yet Hirdman’s work remains although women have a stake even in unequal the mainstay of Swedish government policy for the alliances and are well aware of this. At the same promotion of gender equality and for gender time, there are clear differences in opportunities mainstreaming. and circumstances between most women and most Why is it, we might ask, that gender analytical men due to history and to rigid, underlying frameworks have not developed apace with, for

69 IDS Bulletin 35.4 Repositioning Feminisms in Development example, the recent research on men and their use must be accompanied by measures to masculinities (Connell 1995, 2002; Cornwall 2000), promote attitudinal change and contextual sensitivity, or with post-colonial research that calls attention and for the systematic use of research and other to differences of being, power and privilege among more thoroughgoing sources of data. We already women and among men (Hill Collins 1990; know this. It is also essential that the frameworks McClaurin 2001; Mohanty 1991; Imam et al. 1997; themselves be used in such a manner that also their Kolawole 1998; Mikell 1997)? Why is it that they own underlying assumptions are critically examined. pay such scant attention to other socially This we appear to be reluctant to realise. constructed bases for inequality such as ethnicity, The challenge we face is not only to discover class, age, creed, sexual orientation or historical ways to capture the imaginations and will of non- background and their significance for the feminist, well-meaning but not-at-all-oriented construction and dynamics of gender identities and development bureaucrats when it comes to working gender ascriptions (Bourdieu 1984; Butler 1990; with gender issues. Nor is it only to introduce 1993)? Analytically, the point that Connell makes accountability for gender mainstreaming into – that we are dealing with not a single, but multiple, planning and reporting systems. It also lies in different, gender regimes and orders – appears to maintaining a constructive dialogue with those who have been overlooked or perhaps even ignored by should be allies. This is difficult to do where those those who continued to promote the fixed, who promote gender equality insist on adhering to essentialised models of gender on which much gender analytic frameworks in which “women” and gender mainstreaming has tended to be based. “men”, “girls” and “boys” are represented as mutually exclusive categories, and continue to focus on the 5 Repositioning “gender” in differences between “the sexes”. This makes it development policy and practice: difficult for the project of “gender mainstreaming” in search of the mainstream(s) to identify and work operationally with cross-sex Despite decades of struggle, large parts of “the alliances, across different gender identities, let alone mainstream” in all our societies, including their with people whose gender identities may be more androcentrism and male-bias, remain stubbornly ambiguous or ambivalent, or non-normative. intact. In fact, many of us fear that the most To persevere and to continue to be self-critical is misogynist and oppressive structures have indeed difficult. There is a tendency to shy away from been reinforced, gaining strength from an troublesome, complicating insights ostensibly for increasingly militarised and polarised world the sake of pursuing the higher cause of equality community, and the effects of conservatism and of between women and men. But we must become neo-liberal economic reformism. So how then do better at daring to incorporate nuances, and to resist we go about discovering the mainstream of situations simplifications that generalise, homogenise and we want to change with regard to the promotion of sterilise realities. We need to get beyond the gender equality? An important step, I think, is to “consensus” processes that dry up dialogue and leave revive the focus on defining and addressing the us unable to explore, let alone debate, commonalities mainstream of the situation that is the focus of in our concerns amidst the complexity of difference. change. This may involve the identification of several Essentialising relationships between women and “mainstreams”, in terms of the “gender regimes” and men, by overemphasising differences and “gender orders” in the societal and political situation representing women and men as oppositional under scrutiny (Connell 1987). categories, makes little sense of the complexity of Nonetheless I would claim, along with March et our own identifications and relationships, let alone al. (1999: 15), that gender analytical frameworks those of others. Not taking into account different are not in themselves doomed to remain mere kinds of alliances and cooperational arrangements superficial, technical and token devices that are between and among various categories of women totally without the potential for addressing gender and men comprises nothing less than a denial of the inequalities and injustices in society. Used creatively, many lessons we have learned over the years. And they can be political instruments by encouraging this is the ultimate disservice not just to ourselves, attention to and dialogue on inequalities for the but ultimately to those who gender mainstreaming promotion of transformative change. Obviously, is intended to benefit.

70 Gender Mainstreaming: What is it (About) and Should we Continue Doing it?

Notes 3. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of 1. In Sida’s Action Programme for Promoting equality between Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) from 1979, Women and Men in Partner Countries (1997), gender the major human rights instrument relating to women, mainstreaming is defined as ensuring that attention to does not include sexual rights. the conditions and relative situations of women and men 4. United Nations Economic and Social Council, Document pervades all development policies, strategies and E/CN.6/2004/L.6, Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective interventions. All personnel are expected to have basic Into all Policies and Programmes in the United Nations System. competence in gender mainstreaming in relation to the specific issues they are working on. 2. Promoting gender equality as a means of improving the likelihood of reducing poverty is the theme of the World Bank volume Engendering Development (2001).

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