IAWA Journal, Vol. 17 (3),1996: 231-268

AFRO-EUROPEAN WOOD ANATOMY SYMPOSIUM An international symposium organized by the Linnean Society of London, the IAWA, and S 5.01 (Wood Quality) of IUFRO 2-4 October 1996, London and Kew, U.K. Conveners: David Cutler and Peter Gasson

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS AND POSTERS

H. ABEl, 1. OHTANI2, R. FUNADA2 & K. FUKAZAWA2: IWood Technology Division, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba Norin, Ibaraki 305, Japan; 2Department of Forest Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060, Japan. - Orientation of cellulose microfibrils in the cell wall of conifer tra• cheids. - (Poster) The arrangements of cellulose microfibrils (Mfs) deposited on the innermost sur• face of cell walls in differentiating tracheids of Abies sacha linens is Masters, Larix lep• tolepis Gordon, Picea jezoensis Carr. and Picea abies Karst. were examined by field• emission scanning electron microscopy. The Mfs deposited during formation of the primary walls were not well ordered, and their predominant orientation changed from longitudinal to transverse to the cell axis. The orientation of Mfs in the outermost part of the SI layer was in an S-helix, and changed rotationally in a clockwise direction, viewed from the lumen side, from the outermost to the innermost SI layer. The orien• tation of Mfs in the S 2 layer was in a steep Z-helix, and no change in the orientation of Mfs was observed within the S 2 layer. On the other hand, the orientation of Mfs in the S3 layer changed rotationally in a counterclockwise direction, from the outermost to the innermost S 3 layer. The orientation of the innermost S 3 layer was in an S-helix with a deviation. From these results, we propose a model for the orientation of Mfs in the cell wall of conifer tracheids.

HARRY A. ALDEN I, REGIS B. MILLERI & EDWIN J. BURKE2: IUSDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Center for Wood Anatomy Research, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53705-2398, U. S. A.; 2School of Forestry, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59812-1063, U.S.A. - Diagnostic features for sepa• rating the wood oflodgepole (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.) and ponderosa (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) pine. - (Poster) Foresters, loggers, and workers at sawmills have little difficulty identifying lodgepole (Pinus contorta) and ponderosa (Pinus ponderosa) pine in the forest or as logs with bark. However, once the bark is removed, the wood of these two is sometimes difficult to distinguish. Although the literature reports several diagnostic features for distinguishing these pines, the features are often not as distinct as presented. In addi• tion, no detailed study has supported their diagnostic value. The separation of these two species is important because the heartwood and transition wood of either species cannot be adequately treated with preservatives, and the heartwood and/ or transition wood of lodgepole pine is easily mistaken for the sapwood of ponderosa pine.

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We examined samples of both species from various localities. These samples in• cluded old and secondary growth, large and small diameters, and narrow and wide growth rings. We found that heartwood colour is only diagnostic if it represents the typical light reddish or orange-brown colour of ponderosa pine. The size, distribution, and abundance of dimples is variable within and between trees of the same species. The typical pattern described in most textbooks can be somewhat diagnostic, but only if used in combination with other features. Axial resin ducts tend to be larger in pondero• sa pine, but when the values are plotted, there is some overlap. It is also critical that resin duct diameter is measured consistently. Generally this means that the thin-walled epithelium cells are not included since they are often torn or destroyed in sectioning. Ray parenchyma continuity can be diagnostic, but again critical methodology must be followed. Radial sections must be cut to expose as much of the height of the ray as pos• sible. Many rays must be examined and scored to determine the most frequent occur• rence. The wood of lodgepole and ponderosa pine can be accurately distinguished, but only if the piece is large and mature enough to show heartwood and dimples and the sample is examined microscopically to determine the average axial resin duct tangen• tial diameter and ray parenchyma continuity. Only by using these features in combina• tion can these species be distinguished with accuracy.

1. P. ANDRE: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), 45 Boulevard du Cap, B.P. 2078, 06606, Antibes, France. - Investigations on circular vessels, by ap• plication of the vascular microcasting method. - (Poster) Circular vessels have been known for about a century; but hypotheses on their for• mation are no more than 15 years old. Except for two groups of specialists (Sachs, Cohen, Lev-Yadun, Aloni, and Hejnowicz, Kurczynska), these anatomical structures seem relatively poorly known to wood anatomists. Circular vessels are closed endless vessel rings, enclosed in an open loop of a nor• mal vessel. If the loop has a sufficient diameter, it often encloses numerous concentric circular vessels. The closing of such a circular vessel results from the opening of a perforation between two vessel elements, which are distant in their cell file, but are in contact as edges of a quasicircular loop of their file. Circular vessels frequently form naturally at branch junctions. To understand this process, it is useful to remember that: "The location of the separating line formed between grain patterns of different size branches is determined by the relative vigour of branches." (Lev-Yadun & Aloni 1989). At the cambial level, this separating line tangentially waves and loops, particularly at its median and upper sides, under the in• fluence of variable fluxes coming from stem and branches. Consequently, on each side of this line, large strips of parallel cambial cell files have a similar wavy and looped form. In each wood ring, the trace of these developmental irregularities is kept by the location of the vascular cell files, allowing the reconstruction in space and time of past cambial activity. When a branch dies or is cut, the cambial separating line slowly moves toward this branch, the base of which is progressively covered by protection wood (Larsen 1995).

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Under these different conditions, some loops of cambial files often close and pro• duce circular wood structures and vessels. Vessel casting allows an easy and reliable method of investigating these three-di• mensional circular patterns.

J.P. ANDRE: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (lNRA), 45 Boulevard du Cap, B. P. 2078, 06606, Antibes, France. - Investigations on the vascular organiza• tion of the bamboos (Phyllostachys sp.) by application of the microcasting method. - (Poster) The main outlines of the bundles and vessel organization of the bamboos are pres• ently known; but it is obvious that classical histological methods (serial sections) hardly give a clear idea of such an extensive three-dimensional structure. "The general structure of the internode, the composition of the vascular bundle, ( ... ) have been intensively investigated. (. .. ) The composition and structural details of the node, however, were hardly analyzed so far. (. .. ) Difficulties in the preparation of the material and the complex anatomical structure may have caused this negligence." (Ding & Liese 1996, in press). Under certain conditions, the vascular microcasting method achieves this goal. It allows one to visualize all vessels of a culm segment both over a wide range and with a remarkable accuracy, and to examine the vascular cell files in their original mutual arrangement. Some interesting results have already been obtained using this method, for Phyllostachys sp.: I) All vessel ends may be localized in the nodes and internodes. 2) A probable trace of the intercalary meristem is observed at the base of each mature internode of the culm: every pitted metaxylem vessel exhibits a short helically thick• ened segment (5 elements, in average) approximately at the level of the nodal ridge. 3) In the node, where each metaxylem vessel bends more or less, according to its radial location in the wall, clusters of numerous little conducting cells are connected to the concave side of each vessel bend.

TATYANA V. ARSENJEVA: The Botanical Museum, Komarov Botanical Institute, Prof. Popov Str. 2, St. Petersburg 197376, Russia. - Trends of adaptation of the wood of Pinus sylvestris L. and Picea obovata Ledeb. growing in the industrial districts of the Kola Peninsula. - (Paper) The technical progress taking place in all the countries of the world has made the problem of productivity and preserving forest ecosystems, especially coniferous ones, very urgent. Understanding the laws of adaptation of the water-conductivity complex of the trees to different environmental conditions including the influence of industrial waste is a very important precondition for formulating schemes for regulating the pro• ductivity of forest ecosystems. This is the aim of the present work, using Pinus sylvestris and Picea obovata as examples. Samples of Pinus sylvestris and Picea obovata were collected in the Monchegorsk region of the Kola Peninsula in Pinetum cladinosum and Pinetum sphagnosum forests affected by atmospheric pollution. The wood of stem, root and branch was investi-

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access 234 IAWA Journal, Vol. 17 (3), 1996 gated. Preparation and morphometrical measurements were carried out by the method usually used in xylotomy (Jatzenko-Khmelevsky 1954). Only quantitative shifts in indices of wood anatomical structure occur as a result of changes in environmental conditions, in particular, air pollution. In this case the wood of branches was found to be more sensitive than the wood of stem and root. Different adaptive reactions of these trees - great fluctuations in pine growth and less considerable fluctuations in fir growth - was strongly expressed in conditions of environmental deterioration (dry and damp provenances). In air-polluted environments growth of both species was depressed. This was characteristic of all the secondary xylem features of pine and most of them for fir, except diameters of vertical and hori• zontal resin ducts, partial volumes and length of rays with resin duct. The values of these for fir wood increased with increasing dampness: that is, in Pinetum sphagnosum. Growth ring width, thickness of tangential walls of tracheids oflatewood and earlywood, size of tracheid lumina of earlywood and diameter of vertical resin ducts can be con• sidered as indices of the state of a tree. This list can be continued by diameter of horizontal resin ducts and height of uniseriate rays and rays with resin ducts for the fir wood, and by length of tracheids for the pine wood. Neither the pine nor the fir had consistent differences in partia 1 volumes of rays in any of the directions studied: there• fore this cannot be used as a diagnostic indicator for the condition of a tree.

PIETER BAAS 1 & ELISABETH A. WHEELER2: 1 Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, P. O. Box 9514, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands; 2Department of Wood & Paper Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, N.C. 27695-8005, U.S.A. - Parallellism and reversibility in xylem evolution. - (Paper) The irreversibility of the major trends of xylem evolution such as the origin of ves• sels in primitive angiosperms with long fusiform initials, the shift from scalariform to simple perforations, and from tracheids to libriform fibres has long been accepted by wood anatomists. Parallel development of these and other xylem features is generally accepted. Some recent phylogenetic analyses of seed suggest that there have been some reversals in these general trends. By analysing a number of published hy• potheses on the phylogenetic relationships within wood anatomically diverse major clades of angiosperms, and within some individual families, the likelihood and extent of parallel origins and reversions of the major trends in xylem specialization are ex• plored. Functional adaptations to efficient and safe hydraulic architecture can largely explain the high incidence of parallel xylem evolution.

C. F. BARROS & c. H. CALLADO: Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. - Wood anatomical plasticity of Huberia glazioviana Cogn. (Melastomataceae) in differ• ent successional stages in the tropical rain forest. - (Poster) Huberia glazioviana is endemic to the Reserva Biol6gica de Macae de Cima - Rio de Janeiro where it occurs in both well-preserved areas and in areas at different succes• sional stages. The wood samples were collected in three different areas: a primary forest site, a secondary forest site and a site of secondary forest at the beginning of the regeneration stage. The wood anatomy shows: diffuse porosity; vessels solitary or in

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access Afro-European Wood Anatomy Symposium, London/Kew, 1996 -Abstracts 235 radial multiples of 2 or 3 or clusters of 3 or 4 elements; simple perforation plates; alternate and vestured intervessel pits; axial parenchyma absent or extremely rare; uniseriate rays; libriform, septate and gelatinous fibres. The differences between the specimens related to water transport are: vessels per square millimetre, element length and tangential diameter; rays per millimetre, ratio of tissues and the presence of tracheids. These characteristics show that the samples are from different environmental condi• tions which directly influence the wood structure.

JOSEF BAUCH, JORGEN PULS & RUDIGER KLUPSCH: Institute for Wood Biology, Ham• burg University, and Institute for Wood Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products, Leuschnerstrasse 91, D-21031 Ham• burg, Germany. - On the formation and wood characteristics of included sapwood of Juniperus virginiana L. - (Paper) The purplish red heartwood of Juniperus virginiana L. contains irregularly distrib• uted and longitudinally orientated streaks of light wood, described as 'included sap• wood'. A histological study revealed that a blockage of the rays, which is caused by tiny shakes, knots or eccentric growth, may lead to this anomaly. Chemical analyses of the petrol ether, diethyl ether, acetone, and ethanol/water extracts of sapwood, 'in• cluded sapwood', and heartwood showed that the heartwood compounds cedrol, alpha• cedren, widdrol, thujopsen, and cuparen occur both in 'included sapwood', as well as in heartwood. In contrast to the reddish compounds, these sesquiterpenes in a bioassay turned out to be highly toxic against fungi. In addition, a standard durability test on wood samples showed high resistance of 'included sapwood' and heartwood. These findings justify the change of the term 'included sapwood' to 'heartwood anomaly', as the important wood characteristics of this anomaly do not differ from heartwood. This light heartwood anomaly should no longer be a reason to reject the wood for use.

HANS BEECKMAN: Royal Museum for Central Africa, Leuvense Steenweg 13, B-3080 Tervuren, Belgium. - Wood anatomical spectra of forest types of the Kivu-Zaire watershed; preliminary observations. - (Paper) Lignified tissues are considered as important data loggers for environmental vari• ables. Decoding of this stored information depends on xylotomy. Both high resolution (e. g. dendrochronology) and low resolution (e. g. vegetation reconstructions with charcoal findings) climatological evaluations are made possible by wood anatomy. Low resolution methods rely mainly on identification of botanical taxa in an archaeological wood or charcoal assortment and the estimation of their eco• logical indicator value. The wood anatomical identification process can nevertheless be seriously hampered by deficiencies of diagnostic features, lack of reference samples and observational constraints relative to small wood or charcoal fragments. Identification obstacles can be avoided by basing environmental reconstruction at• tempts on knowledge about tendencies in wood anatomical spectra of different vegeta• tion types.

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In order to be exploited by future vegetation reconstructions, wood anatomical spec• tra are being established for six different forest types from the Zaire-Kivu watershed: I) forest of high altitude (> 2000 m), 2) mountainous forest (1600-2000 m), 3) low mountainous forest (1200-1600 m), 4) foothill forest (750-1200 m), 5) Gilbertioden• dron dewevrei forest « 1000 m), and 6) lowland forest with Scorodophloeus zenkeri.

ALICE BENZECRY: Department of Natural and Applied Sciences, LaGuardia Com• munity College / CUNY, LIC, New York 11101, U. S. A. - Wood and bark anatomy of four tropical Bignoniaceae lianas. - (Poster) Wood and bark structures were studied to contribute to a better understanding of the general anatomy and of bignoniaceous lianas (woody vines). This study was based on stem samples of four tropical species: Amphilophium pannosium, Arra• bidaea verrucosa, Lundia corrynlifera, and Mussatia hyacinthina. All four species exhibit the basic wood anatomical characteristics for the tribe Bignonieae: growth rings distinct; vessels of two distinct sizes, usually solitary, in pairs or in clusters up to 12; fibres are septate and thin- to thick-walled; axial parenchyma initial, scanty paratracheal or confluent; rays mainly heterocellular, 1-16 cells wide (Gasson & Dobbins 1991). As in other genera of this tribe, a cambial variant occurs in the form of phloem fur• rows: four furrows for Arrabidaea verrucosa, eight furrows for Lundia corrynlifera, eight to sixteen furrows for Amphilophium pannosium, and sixteen to thirty-two fur• rows for Mussatia hyacinthina. The bark of all four species is regularly stratified. In the phloem, strata are formed by multi seriate tangential bands of parenchyma and con• ducting cells alternating with rows of fibres. Phloem furrows differ among the species in the number and size of the conducting elements, as well as the number of fibres in each band. Variation in the anatomy of the phloem furrows is a character that may be important in species identification of the bignoniaceous lianas.

GENKA BLUSKOVA1, JORGEN SELL2, TANJA ZIMMERMANN2 & PEKKA SARANPAA3: 1University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria; 2EMPA, Dubendorf, Switzerland; 3METLA, VANTAA, Finland. - Cell wall structure and properties of juvenile wood of Pinus peuce Gris. - (Paper) Variation of cell wall thickness, microfibrillar angle, tracheid length, basic density and swelling was investigated in the juvenile wood of Roumelian pine (Pinus peuce Gris.). Samples were taken at the base, at breast height and at 30% height of six stems from a ten-year-old plantation at 1000 m altitude in Bulgaria. At breast height the average cell wall thickness of the early- and latewood tracheids was 4.0 and 5.6 f.Ull, respectively. The S rlayer of juvenile tracheids was rather thick, varying between 0.25 and 0.7 f.Ull. The average microfibrillar angle of the Srlayer was 47.5°, which was considerably larger than in mature wood. Fibril agglomerations of the S 2 -layer showed a specific orientation. Longitudinal swelling increased with an increase in the microfibrillar angle (r = 0.85). Both microfibrillar angle and longitudinal swelling in• creased from the base to breast height and from the bark to the pith of stems. Basic density, tangential swelling and tracheid length decreased with an increasing height in the stem. There was an inverse relationship between tracheid length and microfibrillar

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access Afro-European Wood Anatomy Symposium, London/Kew, 1996 -Abstracts 237 angle (r == -0.92). The properties of juvenile wood of Pinus peuce were different from those of mature wood. Juvenile wood showed a higher basic density and a larger lon• gitudinal swelling than mature wood. Tracheids were very short and tangential swell• ing was less in juvenile wood. High density and large longitudinal swelling may be related to the higher percentage of compression tracheids in early and in late juvenile Roumelian pine wood.

C.H. CALLADO, C.F. BARROS, M. CUNHA, O. MARQUETE & e.G. COSTA: Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. - Woods of the Atlantic rain forest of Rio de Janeiro-Brasil. - (Poster) This work is part of an integrated study of the Atlantic rain forest performed in Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. The wood samples were collected at Reserva Ecol6gica de Macae de Cima (14 species) and Reserva Biol6gica de Po<;o das Antas (16 species). Wood anatomy descriptions of 30 species are presented. This information with quanti• tative data and photomicrographs of each species will form a wood catalogue of the main representative species of the two sites which will contribute to studies to con• serve the Atlantic rain forest and for the wood anatomical identification of the Brazil• ian species. e.H. CALLADOl, M. CUNHAl, U. LINS2 & e.G. COSTAl: lJardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro; 2Instituto de Microbiologia, UFRJ, Brazil. - Siliceous inclusions in the sec• ondary xylem in Beilschmiedia taubertiana (Schw. et Mez) Kosterm. (Lauraceae). - (Poster) Beilschmiedia taubertiana was collected from Esta<;iio Ecol6gica do Parafso, Rio de Janeiro and processed using the usual technique of light and scanning electron micro• scopy and X-ray spectroscopy. Siliceous compounds in wood may be found as dense masses lining or even filling the cell cavity, or as individual bodies in cell lumina, located in ray parenchyma, axial parenchyma, fibres and vessel tyloses. The silica bodies are important in diagnosis and influence the natural resistance and workability; however, the ecological significance of the siliceous compounds is as yet unknown, but a relationship with genetic factors and soil composition may be surmized. Beil• schmiedia taubertiana contains silica deposits in the ray cells and encrusted in the cell wall, which probably contribute to an increase in the natural durability of the wood.

CAROLINE CARTWRIGHT I, JOHN PARKINGTON2 & RICHARD COWLING3: lDepartment of Scientific Research, British Museum, London WCIB 3DG, U.K.; 2Department of Archaeology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape 7700, South Africa; 3Insti• tute for Conservation, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape 7700, South Africa. - The wood charcoal assemblages from Elands Bay Cave, Western Cape, South Africa: reconstructing past environments. - (Paper) Some 200 km north of Cape Town along the Atlantic coast is Elands Bay Cave. The archaeological deposits in the cave show that the site has been used regularly, although episodically, by stone age hunter gatherers for more than 40,000 years. The preserva-

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access 238 IAWA Journal, Vol. 17 (3), 1996 tion of shell, bone and plant remains is generally good, but deteriorates rapidly below levels about 13,600 years old; thereafter wood charcoal fragments are the most abun• dant remains. The wood charcoal discussed in this paper was recovered from episodic deposition dated from the terminal Holocene about 300 years ago, to an early part of the Late Pleistocene beyond the range of radiocarbon dating. The sequence of terminal Pleistocene sediments including those dated to the last glacial maximum and the tran• sition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene is of particular interest. Animal bones from these levels have previously been interpreted as suggesting substantial changes in the surrounding vegetation, but the wood charcoal offers a more direct perspective of the woody vegetation growing within collecting distance of the site through these critical millennia. The western Cape (32 0 S) is strategically placed to reflect changes in the oceanic and atmospheric circulation patterns of the southern hemisphere. Any such changes during the Holocene and later Pleistocene would have an impact on climate and vege• tation of the Cape and result in shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species. Many archaeological sites in the Cape contain rich assemblages of molluscan, plant and faunal remains which can act as proxy measures of changes in rainfall, tempera• ture and oceanic conditions. Archaeological sites have the potential to provide fine reso• lution since the relatively rapid deposition, if well dated by radiocarbon or other meth• ods, means that brief time intervals can be sampled in proper chronological sequence. This paper examines some of the complexities encountered in the establishment of an lAWA-based methodology for the identification of the archaeological wood char• coal from Elands Bay Cave and the collection, documentation and preparation of reference material. It outlines preliminary interpretations of the results in the wider context of reconstruction of former vegetational communities and climate. As wood charcoals are likely to be present on the archaeological site as a consequence of a complex mixture of natural and anthropogenic factors, reference is made to the meth• ods being adopted to recognize the processes involved.

N.J. CHAFFEyl, J. R. BARNETT 1 & P.W. BARLOw 2 : 1 Department of Botany, School of Plant Sciences, The University of Reading, Whiteknights, P.O. Box 221, Reading RG6 2AS, U. K.; 2IACR-Long Ashton Research Station, Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Bristol, Long Ashton, Bristol BSl8 9AF, U.K. - Secondary growth in Aesculus hippocastanum L. (Hippocastanaceae): a cytoskeletal perspec• tive. - (Paper) The role of the cytoskeleton during differentiation of derivatives of the vascular cambium of Aesculus hippocastanum L. has been investigated using a correlative ap• proach employing indirect immunofluorescence of a-tubulin and F-actin on 6 J..IIl1 sec• tions and transmission electron microscopy of ultrathin sections. In fusiform cambial cells, microtubules (MTs) are randomly arranged in a reticulate pattern; in axial de• rivatives, the MTs adopt a helical arrangement. This shift in MT orientation is inter• preted as an indication of cambial cell commitment to differentiation.

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Microfilament bundles are axially orientated in fusiform cambial cells and retain this orientation during early stages of differentiation of the derivatives. During the later stages of differentiation of secondary xylem cells, the helical arrangement of MTs changes to reflect their involvement with deposition ofthe cell wall and the formation of bordered pits, perforation plates and tertiary wall thickenings. In developing sec• ondary phloem cells, the MTs retain their helical arrangement throughout. The role of the cytoskeleton in vascular cambial cell determination and differentiation will be dis• cussed in the light of these observations.

GEOFFREY T. CREBERI & JANE E. FRANCIS2: I Geology Department, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 OEX, U.K; 2Department of Earth Sci• ences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K. - Analysis of secondary wood growth in Glossopteris of late Early Permian age in Antarctica. - (Poster) The Weller Coal Measures of late Early Permian age at Allan Hills, southern Vic• toria Land, Transantarctic Mountains contain fossil wood found in coals and fluvial sediments as permineralized stumps and drifted trunks in association with Glossopteris leaves and Vertebraria rootlets. Growth rings in the wood are wide, uniform and show no sign of frost damage. Microscopic study shows that there are as many as 200 tracheids across a single ring. The cumulative sum of the deviations from the mean tracheid diameter increases to a maximum in the middle of the growing season and declines steadily afterwards. This effect suggests that the ring growth was controlled by the polar solar regime which goes through the same rise from, and fall to, zero during the annual Antarctic light period. During the laUer, the trees would have received the same total hours of daylight in the year as any other location on Earth. The ambient tem• perature would have been enhanced both by a carbon dioxide greenhouse effect and also by the low albedo of a land surface with much less ice than at the present day. The totality of all these effects enabled the trees to produce growth rings up to 10 mm wide.

E. CROWl 2, R.J. MURPHY I & D.E CUTLER2: I Department of Biology, Imperial Col• lege, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2BB, U.K.; 2Jodrell Laboratory, Royal Bo• tanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3DS, U.K. - Early development of fibres in Phyllostachys viridi-glaucescens. - (Poster) Light microscope studies are revealing the ontogeny and maturation of bundle sheaths in culms of Phyliostachys viridi-glaucescens. Fibres appear to be initiated from cells immediately adjacent to the differentiating vascular elements. Longitudinal sections of maturing culms often show a sharp gradation in cell form at the periphery of the fibre bundle from the tapered fibre cell to the rectangular cell of the ground tissue. In transverse sections, the peripheral cells usually have multi-layered cell walls similar to those of the surrounding ground tissue. Within the fibre bundle, fibre cells having this high degree of cell waUlayering are less frequent.

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KATARINA CUFAR 1, TOM LEVANIC 1 & ANTON VELUSCEK2: 1 Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Wood Science and Technology, pp 95,1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia; 2Sci• entific Research Centre of the Slovene Academy of Sciences and Arts, Institute of Archaeology, Gosposka 13, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. - Identification of wood and dendrochronological investigations in three prehistoric pile dwellings from the Ljubljana moor. - (Paper) Over 20 prehistoric pile dwellings dated by radiocarbon from the 5th to the 2nd millennium BC have been discovered in the moor of Ljubljana in Slovenia. The wood found during the excavations has never been dendrochronologically investigated and therefore the exact relative and absolute dating of the settlements was not possible. The aim of this study was to identify the wood from three prehistoric sites and to evaluate the possibility of its dendrochronological dating. The selected prehistoric sites were: 1) Zaloznica (syn Kamnik pod Krimom), 2) Hocevarica and 3) Veliko mostisce. Discs of wood were taken from the pilings which were vertical in the ground. In 1) and 2) the pilings were found after the clearing of drainage ditches which transected the remains of the prehistoric settlements. In 3) the wood was submerged in the River Izica, where the cultural layer had been com• pletely destroyed by the water current. For this study, 31 samples from 1), 85 from 2), and 629 from 3) were archaeologically documented and collected. The microscopic wood identifications and the tree-ring analyses have been made in accordance with standard procedures. Most woods belonged to the genera Fraxinus and Quercus in the region represented by the European ash (F. excelsior L.), manna ash (F. ornus L.), sessile oak (Q. petraea Liebl.), pedunculate oak (Q. robur L.), and Turkey oak (Q. cerris L.). In 1),2), and 3) the percentages of ash were 31 %,68% and 23% and those of oak 3%, 15% and 70%. Other species determined were: Abies alba Mill., Acer sp., Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn., Carpinus betulus L., Fagus sylvatica L., Populus sp., Salix sp., and Ulmus sp. The ash and oak samples containing more than 30 tree rings were dendrochronologically inves• tigated and floating chronologies established. The possibility of dating the chronolo• gies is discussed.

D.F. CUTLER, H.P. WILKINSON, M. GREGORY, I.B. DICKIE & P.E. GASSON: lodrell Laboratory, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3DS, U.K. - Anatomy of the dicotyledons. - (Poster) A revision of Metcalfe and Chalk's classic reference work is being undertaken at Kew, with contributors throughout the world. It is published by Oxford University Press. Volumes I and II form a general introduction, covering all aspects of leaf, stem and wood anatomy, and lists of diagnostic characters in dicot families. Further vol• umes deal with groups of related families according to Takhtajan's system. Orders Magnoliales, Illiciales and Laurales are described in Volume III, written mainly by C. R. Metcalfe with photographs by HPW. Family accounts are fuller than in the first edition, based on original research and a literature survey from the lodrell plant anatomy database.

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A diverse assemblage of 25 families is dealt with in Volume IV, many not now thought to be closely related, They range from Cunoniaceae to Saxifragaceae (by R 1. Gornall, Leicester University), Droseraceae, Pittosporaceae and Gunneraceae, the last of uncertain taxonomic position, Volume V, , includes Penaeaceae, Rhizophoraceae (in collaboration with M, Baranova, Komarov Institute, St Petersburg), and families studied at the Rijks• herbarium, Leiden, e,g" Melastomataceae (H, Mentink & p, Baas) and Lythraceae (p'M, Esser), Volume VI, Urticales to Fagales, has contributors in Utrecht and Japan, The poster will illustrate this work with SEM and light microscope photographs,

XIUMING DIAO, TAKESHI FURUNO & TOHRU UEHARA: Department of Natural Re• sources Process Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Shimane Univer• sity, Matsue, Shimane 690, Japan, - Quantitative analyses of vessel arrangement and shape using image processing. - (Paper) The purpose of this study was to: 1) evaluate the characteristics of vessel element arrangement quantitatively using two-dimensional fast Fourier transforms (FFT), and 2) determine the circular index of vessel elements with conventional image process• ing, Samples from 80 Japanese hardwoods were used in this study, A digitizing pro• gram, Ofoto V2 (Light Source Computer Images Inc,) and a public domain image analysis program NIH Image VL54 (National Institute of Health, USA) and NIH Im• age V 1,28 with FFT were then installed on the hard disc of an 8100/ 80AV Macintosh personal computer. Photomicrographs were input into the computer and digitized us• ing a Canon IX-4015 image scanner, The distributions of grey level as the function of angle or frequency for power spec• tral patterns were used to analyze the periodicity and homogeneity of vessel arrange• ments, From the threshold image, the area, circumference, and ratio of short and long diameters of vessel elements, were measured automatically, and the circular index was calculated, The periodicity and homogeneity of vessel arrangements were found to be different among the species, Generally, the arrangement periodicity, in a tangential direction for diffuse-porous woods, was greater than that of ring-porous woods, However, there were some weak periodicities resulting from the pore mUltiples in the latewood of ring• porous woods, For the vessel distances, there was a good agreement between the fre• quency distribution function and the microscopic measurement for diffuse-porous woods, but greater variation in ring-porous woods, Diffuse-porous and ring-porous woods were identified based on the circular index of vessel elements, There were differences in circular index and ratio of long and short diameters of vessel elements among the species of the same family, Frequency distri• bution allowed the ratio of pore multiples to be understood,

L A DONALDSON: New Zealand Forest Research Institute Ltd, PB 3020 Rotorua, New Zealand. - Effect of physiological age and site on microfibril angle in Pinus radiata D. Don. - (Paper)

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The effect of physiological age (age at propagation), and site on microfibril angle was examined for Pinus radiata D. Don. Two trials were examined by measuring microfibril angle in alternate growth rings on breast height discs. In the first trial, two sites were compared for seedlings, and cuttings of comparable genotype, at 0 and 5 years physiological age respectively. In the second trial, a single site was examined comparing open pollinated seedlings, and cuttings physiologically aged by 12-16 years, originating from 10 clones. In each trial there was a significant effect of physiological age for microfibril angle in the first 9 growth rings with a greater effect in the trees of greater physiological age. Physiological aging produced a significant decrease in microfibril angles in the corewood, on average reducing microfibril angle to values below 35° in trees aged by 12-16 years. Corewood size, as indicated by the point at which microfibril angle gradient changes, was reduced by an average of two rings in both sets of aged cuttings examined. There was no effect of site in the material exam• ined. Differences were consistent among seedling / ramet pairs of similar genotype. The use of aged cuttings rather than seedlings should result in increased stiffness of the corewood and reduced longitudinal shrinkage. However, other changes associated with physiological aging, such as reduced basic density and growth rate, may affect the practicality of using highly aged planting stock as part of general forestry practice in New Zealand.

ARSENIO B. ELLA & JOSEA. MENIADO: Materials and Properties Evaluation Division, FPRDI-DOST, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines. - Comparative wood anatomy of Philippine Dipterocarpus spp. (Apitong group). - (Paper) Anatomical study of the wood of nine Philippine Dipterocarpus species (Apitong group) revealed the following: axial intercellular canals (resin ducts) surrounded by axial parenchyma, scattered singly or in pairs and sometimes in short tangential series of 2-7; vessels almost exclusively solitary, typically large, ranging from 220-466 j..Ull in tangential diameter, but rather small (96 j..Ull) in D. caudatus Foxw. subsp. caudatus; parenchyma typically both paratracheal (scanty, vasicentric to slightly aliform) and apotracheal (diffuse and in uniseriate bands) in addition to that surrounding intercel• lular canals; multiseriate rays heterocellular with sheath cells, mostly 4 cells wide in D. validus Blume and D. grandiflorus Blanco, 4 or 5 cells wide in D. hasseltii Blume, D. philippinensis Foxw. and D. kunstleri King, 5 cells wide in D. gracilis Blume, and 3 cells wide in D. caudatus; fibres thick-walled (average 7.4-10.3 j..Ull).

A.A. EL-SETTAWY & M.M. MEGAHED: Department of Forestry and Wood Technol• ogy, Faculty of Agriculture, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt. - Anatomical characteristics and their relationship with wood specific gravity in some wattle Acacia species planted in Egypt. - (Poster) Five species of Australian wattle acacias have been introduced to Egypt since 1988 for planting in reclaimed desert regions. These species are Acacia ampliceps, A. cyclops, A. saligna, A. stenophyUa and A. victoriae. The wood anatomy of these species is de• scribed using qualitative and quantitative characters.

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The general characteristics of these species were found to be similar to other Acacia species. Fibre length ranged from 0.83 mm in A. cyclops to 1.02 mm in A. stenophylla. The percentages of axial parenchyma and vessel tissues were estimated in the cross sections by using stereo logical techniques for microscopic images on a projection mi• croscope screen. The axial parenchyma tissue ranged from 68% inA. sa ligna to 34.66% inA. victoriae. The vessel tissue ranged from 6.23% inA. saligna to 11 % inA. ampliceps. Statistical analysis revealed that there are significant differences among the species in vessel diameter, vessel tissue percentage, fibre length, fibre diameter, fibre wall thickness, axial parenchyma tissue percentage, ray width and number of chambered axial parenchyma cells with crystals per mm 2. The relationships between specific grav• ity, axial parenchyma percentage and vessel tissue percentage were established and discussed.

F. FARRUGGIA, S. ZOHOUN, P. PERRE & R. KELLER: Forest Products Team, ENGREF• INRA, 14, Rue Girardet, 54042 Nancy Cedex, France. - Use of image analysis and homogenisation to predict the mass diffusivity and the elastic properties of wood from its anatomical structure. - (Poster) Recent developments gained in the prediction of some physical properties of wood from its anatomical structure are presented. Our approach is to grab an image from an optical microscope (anatomical sections or polished solid wood samples), to extract the required information from this image (for example a numerical mesh) and then, to perform calculation using the general techniques of homogenisation to obtain the val• ues of the physical parameters. Finally, these values are compared with measurements. Concerning the diffusion of vapour in wood, the numerical model allowed us to propose, for an arrangement of cells, a quite simple relation between the mass diffusiv• ity and the specific gravity. Nevertheless, measurements carried out at the macroscopic scale depict important deviations, even in the tangential direction, which can only be referred to the non-homogeneity of the structural pattern. To account for this pattern, we plan to perform homogenisation in one annual ring. The anisotropy and mechanical behaviour of wood is affected by its molecular con• stituents, the cell wall structure and the non-homogeneous cellular structure of wood. Several models have been developed to analyse the elastic properties of wood [Gillis (1972, Wood Sci. Techn. 6: 138-156), Bodig & Jayne (1988, Mechanics of wood and wood composites, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Inc.) and Gibson & Ashby (1988, Cel• lular solids - structure and properties, Pergamon Press)]. The mathematical technique of homogenisation has been used to estimate the elastic properties of a regular honey• comb structure. The solution of this kind of problem is obtained from a finite element formulation. On the other hand, the mechanical properties of zones containing around 50 tracheids were measured by tensile tests under microscope. The calculation of the strain field is based on a global comparison of the grey levels between a deformed image and the initial image. Radial and tangential elastic moduli and Poisson's ratios were measured for earlywood of Spruce. Now, we build the numerical meshes directly from the image by constructing an element from each pixel located in the cell wall. The aim is to perform

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access 244 IAWA Journal, Vol. 17 (3),1996 the homogenisation calculation at the exact location of the mechanical tests. The re• sults are very promising; the calculated anisotropy ratio for the Young's moduli (around 4) in the transverse plane as well as the Poisson's ratios (0.3 and 1.2 for tensile tests in T and R directions respectively) are very close to the measurements.

JANE FRANCIS: Earth Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, U. K. - Fossil wood from the ?Pliocene Sirius Group in Antarctica. - (Poster) Fossil leaves and small twigs have been found within a sequence of glacial sediments in the Sirius Formation, Transantarctic Mountains. They have been identified as Notho• fagus (southern beech), similar to species growing today in the mountains of and South America. Despite the small size of the twigs (diameters from 0.5 to 1.3 cm) they contain a large number of rings, indicating that they are not young shoots but mature branches up to 50 years old. The rings are extremely narrow (70-340 /lffi in width) indicating very slow growth in harsh conditions. Another unusual aspect is that all twigs exhibit markedly asymmetric growth around the central pith, a feature found in branches grow• ing in horizontal orientations. Together this suggests that these were slow growing dwarf trees with a prostrate habit, similar to that of polar arctic willows and high alti• tude dwarf trees in South America and Tasmania. These fossils, of possible Pliocene age, are the topic of a controversial debate on the history of Cenozoic glaciation in Antarctica. Their presence implies temperate sum• mer conditions and ground free of glaciers, but this contradicts geomorphologists' interpretations that extensive ice sheets covered the whole of Antarctica during the Pliocene.

HVOVES FRERE, MARC HERMAN & TOMAS AVELLA-SHAW: Unite des Eaux et Forets, Universite Catholique de Louvain, Place Croix du Sud 2, bte 9, B-1348 Louvain-la• Neuve, Belgium. - On the use of quantitative anatomy to discriminate the wood of sessile (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) and pedunculate oaks (Quercus robur L.). - (Poster) In Europe, oak is common, and important from a silvicultural and technological point of view. The distinction between sessile and pedunculate oaks on the basis of dendrological criteria is not easy, nevertheless numerous researches have made it pos• sible to isolate some reliable identification criteria. In addition, it is well known that the ecological requirements of these two species are also very different. These dendrological and ecological differences have been too little considered and have led to the introduction of a species in a stand where the ecology does not suit its requirements. To confirm the results of a dendrological distinction, it is interesting to differentiate the species on the basis of anatomical criteria. This could also be important in research on the dieback of oak, for instance in the identification of a dead tree following dieback. So far, no research has been able to identify differences between the two species based on their wood anatomical characteristics. Using image analysis, quantitative methods have now been developed to help solve this problem.

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This poster proposes a new approach to the wood anatomical differentiation of spe• cies of European oak based on the lumen area of vessels. This study deals with the following items: 1) frequency distribution oflumen area; the variability of the surface parameters in a given growth ring; a comparison of the distribution of lumen areas between the species; 2) an analysis of the spatial distribu• tion of vessels in each species. The preliminary results of an analysis of cumulative area distribution will also be presented because they provide a particularly interesting way to differentiate the two species anatomically.

TOMOYUKI FUJII 1 & Y ASUNORI HATANo2: 1Wood Anatomy Laboratory, 2Adhesion Laboratory, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba Norin, P. O. Box 16, Ibaraki 305, Japan. - A modified resin-casting method with the application of thermoplastic resin. - (Poster) Our resin-casting method was improved by the use of low density polyethylene (LDPE) as a casting medium. The thermoplastic characteristics of LDPE were analyzed and found to be suitable for resin-casting of vessels. Handling of the casts was easy. The crystal structure in the polymer was poor and disintegrated around 102°C. The glass transition point was very low (-20°C) in comparison to polystyrene (l05°C). The viscosity decreased exponentially as the temperature was raised. Column sample blocks of Pterocarya rhoifolia (Juglandaceae) and some other spe• cies were finished on both ends with a microtome, fixed in tubes, and heated in a mantle heater. At 21O-220°C, melted LDPE was sucked into them for I and 2 minutes with a rotary pump. Then, the sample blocks were treated successively with hydrogen peroxide / acetic acid solution and concentrated sulphuric acid to remove cell wall ma• terials completely. The resin casts obtained were dissected by a thin steel knife for SEM observation. The depth of LDPE sucked into the vessel lumina varied depending on sucking time and the diameter of vessels. Resin casts after 2 minutes sucking showed almost double the length of those after 1 minutes sucking and those of narrower ves• sels were correspondingly shorter. The resin-casts obtained were almost entirely of vessels and showed clearly the three-dimensional arrangements and network, because melted LDPE was not so vis• cous as to impregnate through pit membranes connecting fibres and parenchyma cells but did penetrate through perforations connecting vessel elements longitudinally. Long casts of vessels were obtained, usually not accompanied by casts of vasicentric ele• ments. Resin-casts of fibres, tracheids and parenchyma cells were observed only at the base. Cell wall sculpturing such as pits, helical thickenings and warty layers were observed in detail at the same level as in polystyrene casts.

TOMOYUKI FUJII 1 & ANDREW TUKAU SALANG2: 1 Wood Anatomy Laboratory, For• estry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba Norin, P. O. Box 16, Ibaraki 305, Japan; 2 Wood Anatomy Laboratory, Timber Research and Technical Training Centre, Km 10, Airport Road, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. - Seasonal changes of xylem development in Shorea spp. (Dipterocarpaceae) growing in Sarawak. - (Paper)

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The xylem differentiating zone of six Shorea species (Dipterocarpaceae) and three fast-grown species growing in a natural hill forest in Sarawak was analyzed to investi• gate the rate of xylem formation in relation to the climate. Fresh sample blocks includ• ing cambium and xylem developing zone were collected 6 times from September 1994 to February 1996 and embedded in epoxy resin. Thin cross sections were stained with safranin and crystal violet and observed using polarizing light microscopy. The width of the developing xylem zone, from cambial initial to the outermost fibre with S i and S 3 layers of secondary wall, was measured and the numbers of cells were counted in several radial files free from vessel elements. In S. pinanga the developing xylem zone was narrowest in the sample collected in June (middle of rather dry and sunny season: precipitation 320 mm/month, sunshine 6.0 hrs/day). The primary wall zone was wide in samples taken in September and October 1994, the early rainy and cloudy season (270 and 340 mm/month and 3.0 and 3.9 hrs/day) respectively, and also in February 1995 (mid rainy season, 616 mm/ month and 3.4 hrs/day), but the secondary wall developing zone was wide in Septem• ber and October 1994 and conspicuously narrow in February and June 1995. In Antho• cephalus cadamba the developing xylem zone was narrowest (65-80 /lffi and 6-8 cells in primary wall zone) in September, October 1994, February and June 1995, and wide (320 /lffi and 23 cells in primary wall zone) in November 1995. The range of width of primary wall zone in whole samples was 65-430 /lffi and 6-27 cells depend• ing on species and collections, and did not show any common tendency to increase or decrease among samples. These results suggest that xylem development in these tim• ber species was independent of the climate variables such as precipitation and sunshine.

YOSHITAKE FUJISAWAi, SADAAKI OHTA2, KEIJI NISHIMURAi & MASAHIRO TAJIMAi: i Forest Tree Breeding Center, 3809-1 Ishi, Taga, Ibaraki 319-13, Japan; 2Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, P. O. Box 16, Ibaraki 305, Japan. - Genetic and environmental variation in wood properties ofsugi (Cryptomeriajaponica D. Don). - (Poster) Japanese sugi cedar is the most important coniferous species in Japan, and is util• ized for various purposes, especially as a construction material. However, a high vari• ability in wood properties is a recognized problem when the wood is used as a raw material. We determined the magnitude of the within-clone (i.e. genetic) and among-site (i.e. environmental) variation in dynamic modulus of elasticity (Ed) in sugi plantations. Ed of log samples was measured by the tapping method using a fast fourier transformer analyzer, and annual ring components at breast height were also evaluated by X-ray densitometry. Materials were collected from six sites in Kyushu, south-west Japan. These sites, scattered in the region over a distance up to 195 km, represented a range of northern latitudes, temperature, precipitation, soil type and so on. Overall mean of Ed for each clone (over the six sites) varied from 34.2 x 103 kgfl cm 2 to 65.2 x 103 kgflcm2. Overall mean of Ed for each stand (over the 12 clones) varied from 44.3 x 103 kgf/cm2 to 53.1 x 103 kgflcm2. Thus, the among-site varia• tion (in terms of range between max. and min. values) was one third of the value of the

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access Afro-European Wood Anatomy Symposium, London/Kew, 1996 - Abstracts 247 among-clone variation. Variance of Ed was divided into each variance component by analysis of variance using a complete randomized block design combining the six sites. The variance component of the clone effect explained 65% of the total variation. Therefore it is considered that the variation in Ed was strongly affected by the clone effect, and no attention needs to be paid to the environmental effect. On the other hand each clone showed characteristic variation in wood density within an annual ring.

KAZUHIKO FUKUSHIMA I, SAYURI TAGUCHII, SEIICHIYASUDAI, KAZUO HAYASHI2 & TATSUO SWEDA 1 : I Faculty of Agriculture, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-01, Japan;

2 Faculty of Agriculture, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan. I Present address: Labora• toire de Chimie Biologique, Institut National Agronomique, INRA, Centre de Grignon, 78850 Thiverval-Grignon, France. - Characterization of Tertiary mummified hard• wood. - (Paper) A fossil hardwood excavated from the Early Tertiary layer (c. 50 million years BP) in Canadian Arctic Axel Heiberg Island was characterized by chemical and anatomi• cal analyses. This fossil had remained woody and the ash content was very low (6.3%). Klason lignin content was very high (59.0%) compared with recent hardwood. On the other hand, holocellulose content was very low. Brown amorphous materials (BAM) were present in fibre lumina, vessels and ray cells. They were dissolved easily with 1% NaOH. BAM yielded considerable quantities of vanillin and syringaldehyde on alka• line nitrobenzene oxidation, but a very small amount of degradation products on thioacidolysis. On acid-hydrolysis, BAM released a small amount of hemicellulose constituting sugars (i.e. glucose, arabinose, xylose and mannose). The cell wall frac• tion after extraction of BAM released a high quantity of glucose. These results suggest that BAM in the lumen originated from the cell wall, perhaps lignin-hemicellulose matrix in the secondary wall, with destruction and structural changes of the lignin side chain and hemicellulose over 50 million years.

R. FUNADAi, O. FURUSAWAI, H. ABE2, H. IMAIZUMI3, K. FUKAZAWAI & 1. OHTANIi: I Department of Forest Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060, Japan; 2 Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba Norin, P. O. Box 16, Ibaraki 305, Japan; 3 Hokkaido Forest Products Research Institute, Nishikagura, Asahikawa 071-01, Japan. - Dynamic changes in the orientation of cortical micro• tubules in differentiating ray parenchyma cells of conifers. - (Paper) The orientation of cortical microtubules (MTs) on the radial walls in differentiating ray parenchyma cells of Abies sachalinensis was examined by confocal laser scanning microscopy after immunofluorescent staining. The arrays of MTs were originally orientated transversely to the cell axis. As cells radially elongated, the predominant orientation of Mts changed from transverse to oblique or longitudinal. In further differentiated ray parenchyma cells, predominantly ordered MTs with a high density were observed. They were orientated transversely to the cell axis. In further differentiated ray parenchyma cells, the MTs were fewer in number and fragmented. These observations indicate that the orientation of MTs in ray parenchyma cells changes dynamically during differentiativn.

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O. FURUSAWA, R. FUNADA & J. OHTANI: Department of Forest Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060, Japan. - The arrangement of cor• tical microtubules visualized by confocal microscopy in compression wood tracheids. - (Poster) The arrangement of cortical micro tubules in differentiating tracheids of compres• sion wood, formed on the lower side of the artificially inclined stem of Taxus cuspidata was examined by immunofluorescent staining and confocal laser scanning microscopy. A series of confocal images was processed to construct a stereo-pair image, thereby enabling three-dimensional observation. During secondary wall formation, the corti• cal microtubules were well ordered and changed their orientation progressively from a flat helix to an angle of about 45° in a Z-helix. At the final stage of differentiation, the bands of cortical microtubules which were oriented at an angle of about 45° in a Z-helix appeared. After this, the cortical microtubules disappeared. The orientation of cortical microtubules at each differentiating stage was similar to that of newly depos• ited cellulose microfibrils on the innermost surface of cell walls as shown in previ• ously published papers. These results support the hypothesis that the cortical microtubules control the ori• entation of cellulose microfibrils also in compression wood.

LENA B. GOLOVNEVA 1 & LEV A. NESSOv 2 : 1Komarov Botanical Institute, St. Peters• burg 197376, Russia; 2 Institute of Earth's Crust, St. Petersburg University, 199034, Russia. - On the origin of fossil forests in the Late Cretaceous deposits of the Byssekty formation (Central Kizylkum Desert, Uzbekistan). - (Paper) Fossil forests buried in situ were found in the Turonian-Coniacian deposits of the Byssekty Formation in Dzhyrakuduk (Central Kizylkum Desert, Uzbekistan). They are represented by several groups of vertical trunks up to 2-4 m in height. Only hol• low tube-like concretions, which formed around trunks and roots, are preserved. These concretions consist of sandstone, cemented by oxides and hydroxides of iron, and are situated on a ferriferous plate (about 0.5-1.0 m thick), which is fossil soil and forest mat. Primarily the concretions and plate were cemented by siderite. The disposition of trees (diameter of trunks about 7-15 cm, very rarely up to 30 cm; distance between the centres of trunks usually about 10-40 cm) indicates that these forests were very dense, probably young. The leaves of Platanus, 'Viburnum', 'Diospyros', Mursinophyllum, 'Magnolia' and 'Laurophyllum' were found near bases of the trunks in fossil soil. Among them the small leaves (3-8 cm) of Platanus pseudoquiellelmae Krass. are dominant (90%). It seems that the fossil forest consisted mainly of young Platanus trees, growing on sandy banks near channels in surrounding swampy lowlands. The small sizes of Platanus leaves and trunks possibly indicate slightly salty soil. A rich vertebrate fauna was found by L.A. Nessov between trunks and in other parts of Byssekty Formation. Many of these animals, e. g., giant pterosaurs, nonflying birds, small dinosaurs and primitive mammals could live in the plane-tree forests. Sedimentological study indicated that the fossil forests were buried in water basins as the result of fast tectonic drop by 2-4 m and subsequent rapid covering by sedi• ments.

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Besides forests, numerous allochthonous silicified woods were found in the Byssekty Formation. Among them the representatives of Platanaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Taxo• diaceae and Podocarpaceae are dominant. The majority of these trunks probably came from inland areas, and not only from coastal lowlands with plane-tree forests. Co• existence of two types of mineralization (siderite and silicified wood) is unusual, be• cause silicon and iron migrate in dissolved form under different chemical conditions. Siderite indicates a mainly reducing acid environment during its formation. Possibly fossil forests were mineralized on the bottom of the basins, where they were buried. Underground water coming from paludal areas provided iron and decaying wood pro• vided carbon dioxide and carbonate. Silicon compounds have the highest mobility in alkaline environments. Probably the silicification of wood occurred in environments with a large amount of sodium ions (provided by estuarine brackish water). It seems that horizontal wood trunks were mineralized on the marshes and beaches in soft sedi• ment, after upward and downward filtration of underground alkaline solutions which contained silicon.

IAN D. GOURLAY: Oxford Forestry Institute, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3RB, u.K. - Some physical character• istics and properties of wood in Leucaena species. - (Poster) Over the last 20 years Leucaena leucocephala has been planted widely throughout the tropics as a fast growing exotic agroforestry tree, largely for its fodder and fuel wood potential. Little is known about the wood quality of other Leucaena species and the majority have not been grown outside their native ranges. A field trial in the state of Comayagua in Honduras represents one of the largest collections of Leucaena in exist• ence. Wood samples were collected from 36 Leucaena taxa and wood anatomy, density and fibre length were examined in order to study variation between species, varieties and! or sUbspecies. Growth rings! zones and heartwood! sapwood occurrence were also studied. The density values were high for young trees growing in semi-arid conditions, with several species exceeding density values of 0.8 g!cm 3 (at 12% rh). In general there was little anatomical variation between species! varieties! subspecies, whilst there was a high occurrence of heartwood in most samples, for young trees (7 years old). Annual radial increment was around 5.0 mm across all samples examined. Mean fibre length across all the samples examined was 0.97 mm.

M. GRABNER, K. PEYER, R. WIMMER & G. HALBWACHS: Center for Environmental Studies, University of Agriculture, Gregor Mendel-Strasse 33,A-1180Vienna,Austria. - Horizontal and vertical patterns of selected anatomical parameters within a spruce tree [Picea abies (L.) Karst.]. - (Poster) Variability of wood parameters in a tree is sometimes a rather nebulous concept since variability is evident within single cells, from early- to latewood, from pith to bark and from stem base to the top of a tree. So far, stem analyses have been done using a restricted number of parameters, mostly ring width. This study analyzes a

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access 250 IAWA Journal, Vol. 17 (3), 1996 number of parameters from a single tree. An 80-year-old spruce tree was felled and internodal disks were taken from each annual shoot. All tree rings in each disk were measured and a stem analysis was completed for the following parameters: ring width, latewood percentage, earlywoodllatewood transition, intra-annual density variations, occurrence of compression wood, numbers of resin ducts per tree ring, resin duct den• sity, position of resin ducts within growth rings, annual shoot length, and foliation reconstruction using vascular bundles. We have found significant patterns for a number of parameters as they vary hori• zontally and vertically. Series correlations were calculated to show relationships be• tween parameters for the two directions. Compression wood formation at various tree positions and relationships to the other parameters have also been evaluated. The re• sults give helpful ideas for the discussion of how cores or disks taken from breast height represent the entire tree.

DIETGER GROSSER & KLAUS VOGEL: Institut fUr Holzforschung, University of Mu• nich, Winzererstrasse 45, D-80797 Munich, Germany. - A critical revision of the 'classical' cross-field pit types in softwoods and a proposal for a modified typifi• cation. - (Paper) Cross-field pitting is one of the most important anatomical features used for identi• fication of coniferous timbers. As early as in the last century these pits were used in ana• tomical descriptions of coniferous wood, although, at the time, there was no listing of pit types. The first scientist to describe and find terms for pit types in wood rays at the beginning of this century was Gothan (1905), subsequently called 'cross-field pits' by Vierhapper in 1910. In the standard literature on wood anatomy, references almost ex• clusively use the five 'classical' cross-field pit types published by Phillips (1941, 1948). As part of a large-scale investigation, the cross-field pit types mentioned in the stan• dard literature were compared with pit forms observed under the microscope in an attempt to elaborate generally valid and objective descriptions and definitions. More• over, a study was made to see whether further pit types other than the five described by Phillips [i. e. large = window-like or fenestriform; pinoid; piceoid; cupressoid and taxo• dioid] could be elucidated and in what manner this pitting is arranged in the different taxa. A total of 86 species from 56 genera of the class Pinatae were investigated with the light microscope and scanning electron microscope following a detailed catalogue of features. This led to the following results: 1) Half-bordered pit pairs occur only in the Pinaceae, whereas the cross-field pits of all the other families were found to be blind bordered pits. 2) The great variety in cross-field pit form can be divided into eight newly defined pit types. In contrast to Phillips' method, they are no longer de• scribed by a single characteristic pit form, but by a group of several forms.

PATRICK S. HERENDEEN: Department of Geology, The Field Museum, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605, U.S.A. - Angiosperm phylogenetic sys• tematics: is there a role for wood anatomical data in cladistic analyses? - (Paper) Wood anatomy is often viewed as a source of independent data that may be used to assess evolutionary relationships among angiosperms, particularly dicotyledonous taxa.

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Comparative wood anatomical studies have documented suites of correlated charac• ters that have been interpreted as evidence of general evolutionary trends, at least some of which have been asserted to be irreversible, Paleobotanical data compiled by Wheeler and Baas appear to provide chronological corroboration of some wood anatomical trends proposed by Bailey and others, such as evolution from scalariform to simple perforation plates and long to short vessel elements, However, the focus on trends rather than on evolutionary patterns in a phylogenetic context obscures a more detailed understanding of the evolution of anatomical features. Patterns of character evolution, including the assertions of irreversibility, need to be tested in a cladistic phylogenetic context. Although many characters are difficult to incorporate into cladistic analyses because they are essentially continuous quantitative features, others can be utilized relatively easily. As a preliminary means of testing these evolutionary hypotheses wood anatomical data have been compiled from families of Magnoliidae and selected 'lower' Hamamelididae and then mapped onto previously published cladograms. The implica• tions from this exercise are that many wood anatomical characters have evolved both in accord with, and counter to the previously hypothesized evolutionary trends in dif• ferent groups of flowering plants. A more rigorous test would include wood anatomi• cal characters together with other characters in original cladistic analyses. However, in either approach there are significant sources of ambiguity that compromise the results and their interpretation, especially in family-level analyses in which several characters are polymorphic within many families. One solution to the ambiguity introduced by polymorphisms is to score the poly• morphic taxa based on an understanding of the plesiomorphic condition in each group. Such information might come from a more detailed analysis of phylogenetic relation• ships within a family, or possibly from the early fossil record of the family. While this approach should be implemented with caution, it is an area where palaeontological data have the potential to make a significant contribution to the development of phylo• genetic hypotheses and the understanding of evolution of wood structure. In the few cases where fossil woods have been linked to fossil reproductive structures, the woods have provided a better understanding of wood anatomy in early members of families such as Lauraceae and Platanaceae. Thus, fossil woods have the greatest potential to impact phylogenetic analyses where they can be linked to other fossil organs, espe• cially reproductive structures. Like all other sources of phylogenetic information, re• gardless of whether it is morphology, anatomy, or molecules, wood anatomical data from living and fossil flowering plants can playa significant role in phylogenetic sys• tematics when the characters are selected judiciously and are employed in comprehen• sive, methodologically rigorous cladistic analyses.

MARC HERMAN 1, PIERRE DUTILLEUL2 & TOMAS A VELLA-SHAW 1: 1Unite des Eaux et Forets, Universite Catholique de Louvain, Place Croix du Sud 2, bte 9, B-1348 Louvain• la-Neuve, Belgium; 2 Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, 21, 111 Lakeshore Road, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec H9X 3V9, Canada. - Intra-ring distribution and inter-ring evolution oftracheid length in fast-grown versus slow-grown Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). - (Paper)

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Over the last two decades, fast-growing softwood stands managed by heavy thin• ning, fertilisation or large spacing plantation, have spread worldwide. As a result, the raw material base for forest products and paper mills is shifting from old-growth to short-rotation plantation stocks containing trees that grow more rapidly. By acting on the growth process, stimulation of the tree growth rate affects the formation of wood. A crucial question then arises: "What are the effects of an accele• ration of the growth rate on the main technological wood properties?" In particular, the use of tracheids from such a wood in paper industry can induce significant changes in paper characteristics. Among the variables used to select wood for paper mills, tracheid length is the most important one because of its relationship with the main strength properties of paper as tensile, bursting, tearing, and folding strength. This study was conducted on 40 Norway spruces (Picea abies), classified as 20 fast-grown and 20 slow-grown, from a stand located in the Belgian Ardennes. The effects tested and features investigated were as follows: 1) The effect of increasing the growth rate by heavy thinning on the inter-ring development of the mean tracheid length from pith to bark. 2) The intra-ring distribution of tracheid length and its devel• opment from pith to bark. In particular, the parameters describing the distribution of tracheid length within each growth ring are discussed in relation to growth rate. 3) The relationship between mean tracheid length and annual ring width. Special attention is paid to temporal autocorrelation (lack of independence), heteroscedasticity (heteroge• neity of variance) and nonstationarity (nonconstancy) of the mean in the statistical data analysis.

IRENE HUDSON, LAWRIE WILSON & KIM VAN BEVEREN: Cooperative Research Centre for Hardwood Fibre and Paper Science, School of Forestry and Resource Conserva• tion, University of Melbourne, Creswick 3363, , Australia. - Pith to bark vessel distribution at three percentage heights in a 7 -year-old Eucalyptus globulus tree and a 7-year-old E. nitens tree - spatial analysis and maps. - (Paper) Eucalyptus globulus and E. nitens will be major sources of fibre for the Australian pulp and paper industry after 2000, but their wood anatomy, both in terms of fibre morphology and more so for vessel distribution, is poorly understood on a whole tree basis. It is clear from the literature (Bisset & Dadswell 1950, Austr. For. 14: 17-29; Amos et al. 1950, Austr. J. Sci. Res. 83: 393-412) that while vessel area, shape and distribu• tion are variable there are repeated patterns of variation associated with early- and latewood segments of the annual ring and with distance from the pith. This paper describes sample collection, annual ring identification, histological prepa• ration, image analysis procedures and pith to bark vessel image and data examinations of annual rings at 5%, 10% and 20% height in a 7-year-old E. globulus tree and an E. nitens tree. Individual vessel areas and shapes, and their location with respect to the beginning of the current ring (and pith) were measured. Vessel results are presented for complete annual rings from 1990 to 1993 plus from 1989 latewood and 1994 earlywood. Additional results from intensive analysis of ves• sel and fibre profiles from the 1993 annual ring will be given. We investigate whether

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access Afro-European Wood Anatomy Symposium, London/Kew, 1996 -Abstracts 253 vessel characteristics conform to the same sort of earlywood (EW), midwood (MW) and latewood (LW) segmentation described by Hudson et aL (1995a, Proc. CRCTHF• IUFRO Conf. on Eucalypt plantations, Hobart: 110-115; 1995b, Proc. 49th Appita AGC, Hobart: 363-374) and used to differentiate fibre lengths and other fibre mor• phologies in E. nitens. Results of spatial and statistical analyses show that vessel areas, distributions and shape are very ordered. Individual vessel areas increase and vessel numbers decrease from pith to bark. Total vessel area increases slowly across the disc but is influenced by position within annual rings, decreasing from latewood to first earlywood and then increasing in midwood. EW, MW and LW partitions for vessel dimensions based on fibre morphology were confirmed statistically for the 1993 annual ring. Results point to vessel parameters changing possibly in synchrony with EW, MW and LW transi• tions. There is a highly significant increase in all vessel parameters from EW to MW at 5% height with a (i) 50% increase in area of individual vessels, (ii) lOO% increase in vessel number, (iii) 450% increase in total vessel area. There was a significant decrease in all vessel parameters from MW to LW, at 5% height, with a (i) 30% decrease in individual vessel areas, (ii) 30% decrease in vessel number, (iii) 55% decrease in total vessel area.

STEVEN JANSEN I, ELMAR ROBBRECHT2, HANS BEECKMAN3 & ERIK SMETS I: ILabo• ratory of Plant Systematics, Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven, Belgium; 2 National Bo• tanic Garden of Belgium; 3Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium. - Wood anatomy of the CotTeeae (Rubiaceae-Ixoroideae). - (Paper) According to Robbrecht (1993, Opera Bot. Belg. 6: 173-196) the tribe Coffeeae (Ixoroideae) consists of two genera: Coffea and Psilanthus, each with c. 55 accepted species. Although CojJea arabica and C. canephora are important crops for economy and agriculture, few systematic studies of CojJea and its allied genera have been un• dertaken. Koek-Noorman (1972, Acta Bot. Neerl. 21: 303-320) examined wood of many taxa belonging to the related tribes Gardenieae, Pavetteae and Aulacocalyceae of the same subfamily. She concluded that decisions about classification often could not be made on the basis of the wood anatomical characters. Most of the differences she observed were quantitative and it seemed impossible to indicate distinct limits between the genera. We studied wood of CojJea (13 species), Psilanthus (4 African species) and ArgocojJeopsis (7 species) was studied with LM and SEM. Wood of these genera is characterized by I) exclusively solitary vessels, 2) fibre-tracheids, 3) axial parenchyma apotracheal diffuse to diffuse-in-aggregates or in short and narrow tangential lines, and 4) many to abundant prismatic crystals in the ray cells. A cluster analysis was performed using Systat (Wilkinson 1988, The system for statistics, Evanston, Illinois: Systat, Inc.). The resulting dendrogram shows little dis• tinction between the examined species. In Coffea, only C. arabica, C. [iberica and C. humilis could be recognized by their ray composition and arrangement of axial paren• chyma. The other species have no typical wood anatomical characteristics, and there

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access 254 IAWA Journal, Vol. 17 (3),1996 seems to be considerable overlap between each of them. The Psilanthus is simi• lar in wood anatomy. The genus Argocojfeopsis (Gardenieae-Diplosporinae), how• ever, shows more differences in comparison with Cojfea. The observed variation within the tribe is of little taxonomic significance. As there is (relative) inter- and intraspecific uniformity as well as homogeneity between the genera Cojfea and Psilanthus, wood anatomy alone does not support the delimitation of taxa within the Coffeeae. A further study will therefore be carried out on a higher systematic level examining a sampling from all the tribes of the Ixoroideae including taxa with a problematic position, e.g. Posoqueria and Bertiera.

LAJMINA JOSHI: Department of Plant Resources, Plant Research Division, Godawari, P. O. Box 3708, Lalitpur, Nepal. - Effects of altitude on bark and wood anatomy of bholua () in Nepal. - (Poster) Daphne bholua is one of the most important economic plants in Nepal as its bark is used for paper production. It is distributed throughout a wide altitudinal range in the Himalayas from 1400-3200 metres. Bark and wood samples of D. bholua were col• lected from Central and Eastern Nepal at different altitudes to investigate the anatomi• cal variation of bark and wood structure according to altitude. Bast fibre length and diameter, vessel diameter, vessel element length, fibre-tracheid length and diameter, ray density, ray height and some other characters were measured and compared.

AE KYUNG KANG & SANG JIN PARK: Department of Wood Science & Technology, College of Agriculture, Kyungpook University, Korea. - Scanning electron micro• scopic observation on PEG #4000 and sucrose impregnation of waterlogged ar• chaeological woods. - (Poster) Waterlogged archaeological wood excavated from marine and wet burial sites has a high moisture content and is soft, due to deterioration during burial. Preservation treat• ments for waterlogged wood have been designed mainly to prevent dimensional changes caused by drying. The chemicals PEG #4000 and sucrose are conventionally used for treatment. The present investigation was undertaken in order to reveal differences of impreg• nation between the chemicals, and to help explain the chemicals' migration process within the wood structure. The samples examined include heavily degraded Pinus densiflora, Zelkova serrata and Quercus acutissima as well as slightly degraded Castanea crenata. All samples were cut from log woods 1.5 cm thick, 4 cm wide, and 15 cm in length. The concentra• tion of the impregnation solution started at 10% and was raised to 30%, 50% and 70% after three weeks, respectively. The cell tissue remained unoccluded with degradation cavities in the secondary wall after 10% treatment. The penetration of cell tissue was recognizable when the samples were treated in 30 or 50% solution, and entire infiltration was obtained after treating in 70% solution. The penetration process began with the S2layer within the secondary wall exhibit• ing the first impregnation. Also, latewood was more infiltrated than earlywood. The

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access Afro-European Wood Anatomy Symposium, London/Kew, 1996 -Abstracts 255 ray parenchyma cells appeared more effectively penetrated than tracheids or wood fibres. Then penetration was extended to the cells adjacent to vessels and vessel multi• ples. This is possibly due to migration through the vessel leading to a higher infiltra• tion of the lumen. Finally, the penetration was completed when fibre and vessel lumina were filled with the chemicals. Comparative observations were made concerning the types of deposits of the chemi• cals after treatment. Samples penetrated by PEG #4000 showed cell wall shrinkage and cracks, whereas the majority of the cells and lumina were entirely filled with a crystalline matrix. In contrast to PEG #4000, sucrose-penetrated tissue remained al• most unaltered like sound wood, although penetration was restricted to the cell walls which were filled by an amorphous matrix.

YUKI KONDO I, TOMOYUKI FUJII I & RYOGO NAKADA 2: I Wood Anatomy Laboratory, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba Norin, P.O.Box 16, Ibaraki 305, Japan; 2 National Forest Tree Breeding Center, Ibaraki, Japan. - Knife-marking methods in Eucalyptus dalrympleana () and Liriodendron tulipifera (Magnoliaceae). - (Paper) Traumatic tissues in response to injuring the cambial zone have been used as date• markers in xylem to estimate growth periodicity in trees. Various methods have been applied to injuring the cambial zone with tools such as a pin, nail, knife, increment corer, and electrical stimulation. The knife-marking method was applied in this study, because it was expected that the mark is obvious to the naked eye in a stem cross sec• tion, and also developing xylem cells remain as collapsed tissues (Fujiwara 1992, Ogata 1995). Eucalyptus dalrympleana (Myrtaceae) and Liriodendron tulipifera (Magnoliaceae) growing at the Tree Breeding Center were used for the experiments. Cutting was done with a steel knife 0.4 mm thick every two weeks all year round except mid winter. The cuts were about 10 cm long along the longitudinal axis of the stem at breast height with a space of 3 cm. Cross sections 15 IJIll thick were prepared from areas including the markers. Cross sections 0.5-3 IJIll thick were cut from epoxy embedded samples for detailed investigation using various optical microscope techniques. The position of the cambium in each marker was determined by an undifferentiated band of cells at the periphery (Inomata et al. 1990), and that of the outermost S I -developing fibre was detected under a polarising microscope. The width of the primary wall zone at mark• ing time was measured to estimate cambial activity. The width of the primary wall zone in Liriodendron was very narrow in early May, rapidly increased in June, and was obviously wide in JUly. Then it gradually decreas• ed in August and became so narrow at the end of August as to be dormant. Almost 50% of the growth ring width was completed in July of 1994, but less than 40% in July of 1995. The difference in xylem formation rate was possibly affected by the unusually hot summer in 1994. The width of the primary wall zone in Eucalyptus did not de• crease conspicuously in autumn until the end of November. In 1994, 25 % of the growth ring was formed in August. Xylem formation continued in autumn and although the rate decreased in December, continued throughout the winter.

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LADISLAV J. KUCERAi & GENKA BLUSKOVA2: i Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ZUrich, Switzerland; 2 Universityof Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria. - Wood quality of elm hybrids resistant to Dutch elm disease. - (Paper) This publication presents preliminary results of studies on elm hybrids which showed fast growth and very good resistance to the Dutch elm disease during the last 40 years. At the establishment of plantations of these hybrids, the primary aim is to obtain good wood quality which depends among other things on plantation spacing. Thus, the aim of this presentation is to report on the structure and properties of elm wood from hy• brids grown in Bulgaria, in particular the effect of plantation spacing on wood quality. Seven trees selected from 40-year-old and 5-year-old plantations from two loca• tions in Bulgaria have been studied. The average stem height of 500 trees in the 40- year-old plantation was 16.8 m and the average diameter at breast height was 18 cm. The younger trees had been planted with two spacings: 2.0 x 1.5 m and 1.5 x 0.5 m. Wood samples were collected at breast height, and were examined using the SEM and an image analysing system. The determination of quantitative values followed the recommendations of the lAWA (List of Microscopic Features for Hardwood Identifi• cation 1989). The statistical analysis of variance has shown that plantation spacing had a significant influence on ring width, earlywood percentage and other structural char• acteristics of wood. The basic density of trees was between 507 and 674 kg/m3. It decreased from the bottom to the top of the stems and from the pith to the bark. Closer spacing produces lower wood density, about 91 % of that at wider spacing. The tangential swelling was 10.5%. In seven trees, the correlation coefficient between basic density and ring width was 0.98. There was no statistical correlation between basic density and tangential swelling.

SUNG JAE LEEi, TOMOYUKI Funr2, NAOHIRO KURODA3, YOUKI SUZUKI3: iDepart• ment of Wood Science and Technology, College of Forestry, Kangwon National Uni• versity, Chunchon 200-701, Korea; 2Wood Anatomy Laboratory and 3Wood Physics Laboratory, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba Norin, P. O. Box 16, Ibaraki 305, Japan. - Conductive function of intervessel pits at a growth ring boundary in Machilus thunbergii Sieb. et Zucco - (Poster) Vessels are connected to each other with intervessel pits in radial multiples, possi• bly functioning for radial flow. The network of vessels was investigated focusing on intervessel pitting in radial multiples in relation to the permeability of dry wood sam• ples of Machi/us thunbergii Sieb. et Zucc., a diffuse-porous wood with radial multi• ples adjacent to growth ring boundaries. Results of air permeability measurements of partially sealed specimens suggest the existence of radial flow paths through a growth ring boundary. The flow path in these specimens was stained with a reduced basic fuchsin solution applied under pressure. Observation of serial cross sections showed the flow paths to be vessels and intervessel pits in radial multiples on growth ring boundaries. Resin casts with low-density polyethylene viewed using scanning electron microscopy clearly showed the vessel network near a growth ring boundary and branching of vessels.

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ANN M. LEWIS & ANDREW C. BERG: Department of Forestry and Wildlife Manage• ment, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003-4210, U. S. A. - A status report on intertracheid pits and the initiation of embolisms in the wood of Thuja occidentalis L. - (Poster) As part of an investigation of the air-seeding hypothesis, we have observed the de• velopment of embolisms in dehydrating tracheids of Thuja occidentalis. We observed embolism development by videotaping thin radial sections of wood through a com• pound microscope fitted with long working-distance objectives. Images were recorded on VHS tape and optical disk at normal speed (30 frames / sec) and on VHS tape via a high speed video system at 1000 frames/sec. Even at 1000 frames/sec, the recording speed is not fast enough to capture the initiation of most embolisms. Some bubbles ex• panded in length at rates in the order of 100 mm/ sec. The rapid expansion rates imply a large pressure differential between the bubble interior and the embolizing tracheid lumen. Whenever we could determine the point of initiation, it was a pit. Sometimes the pit connected longitudinal tracheids; sometimes the pit connected a ray tracheid and a longitudinal tracheid. In pits, an air-water interface frequently oscillated as sur• rounding tracheids embolized, which released water, and the water evaporated from the tissue surface. These observations are consistent with the Air-seeding Hypothesis as a mechanism for embolism development; they do not eliminate other possible mecha• nisms for embolism. Continuing work on imaging embolism development will help to clarify the method by which intact trees develop embolisms as a means of coping with water stress.

ELISABETH MAGEL, SIEGFRIED HAUCH & BARBARA HUBNER: Lehrstuhl fUr Physio• logische Okologie der Pflanzen, Eberhard-Karls Universitat Tiibingen, Auf der Morgen• stelle 1, D-72076 Tiibingen, Germany. - Cytological and biochemical changes dur• ing heartwood formation. - (Paper) Heartwood formation is one of the most important secondary differentiation proc• esses in the innermost parts of woody axes. During this process living sapwood cells die and heartwood extractives are accumulated. In this context it is the aim of this paper to describe cytological and biochemical alterations during programmed cell death. In the outer, middle, and inner sapwood of woody axes of Robinia pseudoacacia L., both ray and most of the axial parenchyma cells were rich in cell organelles such as nuclei, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, rough and smooth endoplasmatic reticulum, amyloplasts, ribosomes, and vesicles. Thus both cell types seem to play important roles during physiological changes occurring in these tissues. Cell death in the sapwood• heartwood transition zone starts with vacuolization, followed by a decrease in number of cell organelles. Degradation of mitochondria and amyloplasts is accompanied by newly emerging osmiophilic droplets. In the heartwood proper, it seems likely that highly osmiophilic depositions found on the inner surface of cell walls, middle la• mella, and pits were released from these droplets. Biochemically, the sapwood-heart• wood transition zone is characterized by a decrease of starch and the transient acti• vation of enzymes involved in the cleavage of nonstructural carbohydrates such as amylases, sucrose synthase, and invertase. In addition, a transient expression and acti-

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access 258 IAWA Journal, Vol. 17 (3),1996 vation of key enzymes of the biosynthesis of secondary substances - phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and chalcone synthase - is correlated with the accumulation of heart• wood extractives. From these results it is concluded that the osmiophilic substances found in the droplets represent in situ synthesized heartwood extractives. In cell walls of the heartwood proper these compounds showed patterns of distribution similar to lignin.

ANCY MATHEW & K. M. BHAT: Division of Wood Science, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, India. - Anatomical diversity ofIndian rattans. - (Poster) Rattans (climbing palms) are one of the most economically important non-wood forest products of the tropics. Of the 13 genera and 600 species of the subdivision Calamoideae, only four genera, viz. Calamus, Daemonorops, Korthalsia and Plecto• comia represent the Indian rattans which are found in three major regions: Western Ghats of Peninsular India, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Eastern and Northeast• ern India. A detailed anatomical survey shows considerable differences among the four genera. The vascular bundle in Calamus, Daemonorops and Korthalsia is charac• terized by a solitary metaxylem vessel and two phloem fields, while Plectocomia shows 1 to 2 metaxylem vessels and a single phloem field. The mechanical tissues elucidate diversity in Korthalsia and Plectocomia with sclereids as a 'Yellow cap' on the outerside of fibrous sheaths of vascular bundles. The size of the different cells, especially the metaxylem vessel diameter, appears to be related to species habit, habitat and stem size. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, with equable temperature, high humidity (as high as between 70% and 85%) and heavy rainfall provide the best environment for cane growth. Canes from this region possess the widest vessels with a mean metaxylem vessel diameter 294 J.Ull while the mean is only 210 J.Ull in the northeastern states. Altitudinal influence on vessel diameter appears to be relatively less in rattan palms. With the exception of C. erectus, an erect and thickest stemmed species, the vessel diameter shows positive correlation with the stem diameter (r = .718). In C. erectus, the metaxylem vesssel diameter is only 140 J.Ull. Vessel perforations are mostly simple or rarely scalariform. The climbing palms which grow to enormous heights generally have wider vessels with simple perforations, an adaptation for conductive efficiency. The four genera were described anatomically and relationships of anatomical features with the rattan habit and habitat were discussed.

REGIS B. MILLER: Center for Wood Anatomy Research, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53705-2398, U.S.A. - Xylaria at the Forest Products Laboratory: Past, Present, and Future. - (Paper) What the herbarium is to taxonomists, the wood collection is to systematic wood anatomists and wood identification experts. It is the backbone and life blood of our research and without it, we are scientists without the tools for research and identifica• tion. To continue both research and identification, wood collections such as those at the USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory (FPL) and at other universities and institutes around the world must be maintained and curated.

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This report presents a history of the wood collections housed at FPL (MADw) since 1910, with accounts of the additions ofxylaria from Chicago's Field Museum of Natu• ral History (Fw) and Yale University (Samuel James Record Memorial wood collec• tion, SJRw). Current work on databases for collection management and general statis• tics of the MADw collection (including the Fw collection) are described. The SJRw collection contains 55,000 specimens and the MADw collection, well over 45,000 samples - which means that FPL houses over 100,000 wood specimens. About 14,000 species, 3,000 genera, and 265 families are represented in the MADw collection alone. The future of xylaria around the world is difficult to predict. Downsizing and reor• ganizing based on reduced resources has caused major changes in the management of xylaria, and these forces will continue to play an important role in the future of xylaria. At the moment several major xylaria are not being maintained and others are on the brink of becoming nonfunctional. Over the past 20 years, the staff in the Center for Wood Anatomy Research has been reduced from seven to two. In the future computers will play an important role in the maintenance of wood collections. The MADw col• lection is in database form, and a database for the SJRw collection is in process. Other collections throughout the world have databases or are in the process of developing them. Perhaps we will see the day when information from several collections will be available on·the World Wide Web.

SHUICHI NOSHIRO 1 & PIETER BAAS2: 1Forestry and Forest Products Research Insti• tute, Tsukuba Norin, P.O. Box 16, Ibaraki 305, Japan; 2Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, P. O. Box 9514, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands. - Systematic and phylogenetic wood anatomy of Cornaceae and related families. - (Paper) The circumscription of Comaceae and allies has been in constant dispute since the systematic treatment by Harms (1898). In recent years Cronquist (1981) adopted the family concept of Harms in his Comales and included 17 genera in this order. We adopted his Comales delimitation in order to enable direct comparison with recent analyses of rbcL sequences. The wood anatomy of this alliance has so far been studied independently within families, or comprehensively but using a limited number of twig samples, and the results have previously been analyzed based on classical Baileyean trends. Thus a study covering all the genera and incorporating a cladistic analysis was necessary to determine the relationships within this alliance. Among the alliance, Cornus s.l. has a homogeneous wood structure, but showed clear latitudinal trends in several quantitative characters, such as vessel element length, fibre length, and tangential diameter. The same trends existed in Alangium and Nyssaceae. However, each taxon had a distinct range of variation. On the contrary, bar number had distinct values corresponding to systematic subdivisions, and its variation was irrespective of latitude. Considering these trends, quantitative characters were divided into two or three character states for cladistic analysis of the total alliance. Qualitative characters did not deviate much from the character states in the IAWA list and were divided accordingly.

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For an outgroup, a hypothetical ancestor with a character combination of Cercidiphyllum and Daphniphyllum was employed. These woody genera were the only taxa that produce comparable secondary xylem with the Cornaceae alliance among the outgroups used for the rbcL sequence analysis. However, employment of their charac• ter states as they are lead to unresolved results with too many equally parsimonious trees, and therefore the hypothetical combination was adopted. A heuristic search, equally weighting 22 characters, produced 15 equally parsimo• nious trees. Reweighting by the maximum value of retention indices produced one tree, identical to one of the 15 trees. All trees support monophyly of a clade consisting of Alangium, Cornus, Curtisia, Mastixia, and Nyssaceae, and put the other genera in another clade. This agreed with the results of the rbcL sequence analyses that distin• guished a Cornaceous clade and the other taxa scattered in remote clades. Thus wood anatomy also supports the results of the rbcL sequence analyses in recognizing a nar• row circumscription for Cornaceae in the traditional Cornales.

HIROYA OHBAYASHI, MASAYUKI KITAMURA & TAKAYOSHI SHIOKURA: Laboratory of Wood Science and Technology, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156, Japan. - Anat• omy of Baobab (Adansonia sp.). - (Poster) The Baobab is one of Africa's best known plants, with a number of local uses. In Madagascar there are 8 species of Adansonia, but they are still poorly researched. For that purpose, anatomical and histochemical observations have been undertaken, using visual inspection, microscopic observation, and dissection and measurement of ele• ments. Histochemical observations included staining with safranin and light green, phloroglucinol-hydrochloric acid treatment, and treatment with Maule reagent. In transverse section, the wood consists of broad bands of unlignified parenchyma alternating with lignified tissue. In A. za, the unlignified parenchyma bands are 2-6 mm wide, and there is 1.8 times as much unlignified as lignified parenchyma. The vessel elements and libriform fibres were lignified as expected. Unlignified paren• chyma bands in A. fony are 1-3 mm wide. It is characteristic of Baobab to have a high proportion of parenchyma cells in the wood, which is light in weight. Long fibres in Baobab bark tissue help protect the accumulated water in the parenchyma cells. This structure of Baobab makes it well suited to growth in dry environments.

NAOKI OKADA, TAKESHI FUJIWARA & YASUHIKO HIRAKAWA: Wood Quality Labora• tory, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba Norin, P. O. Box 16, Kenkyu Danchi-nai, Ibaraki 305, Japan. - An application of activable tracers for radial movements of inorganic constituents in stems of Cryptomeria japonica D. Don. - (Poster) Activable tracers (Rb and Eu) were applied to reveal how minerals were translocated to the heartwood of Cryptomeriajaponica D. Don which is known to accumulate high quantities of minerals, such as K and Mg, with heartwood formation. Two tracers were

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access Afro-European Wood Anatomy Symposium, London I Kew, 1996 -Abstracts 261 injected as chloride solutions into the middle of the sapwood region. Treatment was done at breast height during the early and late growing season. Sample trees were cut down after 10, 20, 40 days and several months to detect the tracers by neutron activa• tion analysis. The distribution of Rb and its ratio to K showed that: Rb was translocated quite rapidly into heartwood within 10 days of treatment, trees with wetter heartwood accumulated more Rb, and the process was not by diffusion as it moved against the concentration gradient. This shows that the active radial transport in the stem is prob• ably through ray parenchyma. Eu was not detected in the heartwood and this suggests that ray parenchyma is discriminatory in the process of mineral transport. In conclu• sion, the accumulation of particular elements and its processes have a close relation• ship with heartwood formation of this species. y. ORIBE I & T. KUB02: I Wood Technology Division, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba Norin, P. O. Box 16, Ibaraki 305, Japan; 2Department of Environmental and Natural Resource Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo 183, Japan. - The effect of heat on winter cambial dormancy in evergreen and deciduous conifers. - (Poster) The response of the cambium to heat was recorded in evergreen (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) and deciduous (Larix leptolepis Gord.) conifers during a period of winter cambial dormancy. Heat treatments were carried out three times (14-27 De• cember 1990,18 January-3 February and 27 February-3 March 1991) on C.japonica and four times (12-26 December 1990, 18 January-2 February, 26 February-12 March, 28 March-13 April 1991) on L. leptolepis. Stem surfaces were warmed (25-30 DC) at breast height, mid-tree height and the base of the crown for about two weeks. After treatment, cambia from the treated portions and from untreated portions 1 m above the treated areas were observed by optical microscopy and TEM. In the warmed portions, cambial reactivation had often occurred in C. japonica, but never in L. leptolepis until natural resumption of cambial growth. The results suggested that in evergreen coni• fers, heat directly triggers the breaking of cambial dormancy, whereas in deciduous species other factors besides heat might be responsible for cambial reactivation.

ALEXEI A. OSKOLSKI: Institute of Wood Biology, Hamburg University, Leuschnerstrasse 91, 21031 Hamburg, Germany & Botanical Museum, Komarov Botanical Institute, Prof. Popov Str. 2, St. Petersburg 197376, Russia. - Helical thickenings in ray and axial parenchyma cells of Mackinlaya (Araliaceae). - (Poster) Helical thickenings were observed on the walls of a few ray and axial parenchyma cells in a single wood specimen of Mackinlaya sp. from Australia. Wall sculpturing of this type in ray cells is recorded for the first time. Helical thickenings were observed in both upright! square and procumbent ray cells; the helices wind around the long cell axes. All cells featuring helical thickenings also have pit contact to adjacent vessels; thus the formation of helical thickenings could be considered a by-product of activity of some morphogenetic agents around the differentiating vessel elements. The pres• ence of the helical thickenings in ray and axial parenchyma cells is of no diagnostic value because of its sporadic occurrence.

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A. A. OTENG-AMOAKO: Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, Kumasi, Ghana. - The diagnostic wood anatomy of 14 lesser-used timbers from Ghana. - (Paper) The search for alternative timber species to replace some of the 30 commonly ex• portable commercial timbers of Ghana, calls for intensive research into the techno• logical properties, product development and marketing of hitherto non-commercial timbers. The utilization of these so-called 'Lesser-used' and 'Lesser-known' timbers will increase efficient and sustainable use of forest resources and conserve the biodiversity of the species, including five endangered species (Odum, Hyedua, Utile, Mahogany and Sapele) which have a resource life of 10 to 25 years. Fourteen species classified as 'Lesser-used' timbers from nine families, selected on the basis of their relative abundance in the natural forest, are currently under investigation at the For• estry Research Institute of Ghana, funded by ITTO. Wood anatomy and identification, the first steps in efficient utilization of timber, are an integral part of this project. This paper presents diagnostic anatomical (macro- and microscopic) features of the 14 timbers. They are meant to assist personnel of the timber industry, timber mer• chants, students of forestry and the general public to get used to the species which are expected to form a significant proportion oftomorrow's raw material for Ghana's wood industry. An attempt to promote their utilization as substitutes for the 30 main com• mercial timbers, especially the five endangered species will be explored.

H. G. RICHTER & M. TROCKENBRODT: Institute for Wood Biology and Wood Protec• tion, Leuschnerstrasse 91, 21031 Hamburg, Germany. - Computer-aided wood iden• tification with DELTA I INTKEY - a demonstration. DELTA/INTKEY provides a package of computer programs suitable for the man• agement of taxonomic data and interactive object identification. Based on the IAWA List of Microscopic Features for Hardwood Identification (lAWA 1989) a system for user-friendly interactive wood identification has been generated and incorporated in DELTA/INTKEY. The main features are a character list, a database, currently with coded descriptions of 205 trade timbers, a textbook (character notes) containing the explanatory notes of the IAWA List, and illustrations depicting macroscopic and mi• croscopic characters as well as structural details of individual taxa in the database. An unknown specimen is identified by comparing its attributes with descriptions of taxa stored in the database. Help screens contain basic information on all functions of the program. Textbook and illustrations can be called up at any time during an identifica• tion for immediate comparison with live microscopic images. Equally, all information on physical, chemical and structural characters in the database can be interrogated interactively to confirm or reject possible matches for an unknown specimen. Descrip• tions of selected characters of a taxon or group of taxa (including the unknown speci• men) can be output onscreen for further comparison. The interactive identification program INTKEY is available for MS DOS and MS Windows operating systems. In addition to the command line for manual input the latter can also be operated from a menu (list and dialogue boxes) for more convenient handling of commands and options. Tb facilitate the widespread use of INTKEY for wood identification, all related program and help files are available in English, Ger• man and Spanish language versions.

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CHRISTIANE ROLANDO: Institut Mediterraneen d' Ecologie et Paleoecologie, Case 461, Fac. St-Jerome, 13397, Marseille Cedex 20, France.-Charcoal anatomy of the West• African Combretum. - (Poster) The genus Combretum is well represented in Sahelian and Sudanian West-Africa. The repartition of the main species within these bioclimatic areas, which are character• ized by their ecological requirements, has been mapped out. Charcoal analysis (anthracology) is commonly used by archaeobotanists to recon• struct the woody vegetation of an area and to reflect upon the palaeoclimates. It offers the best spatio-temporal precision for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction: charred woods are the most common plant remains in archaeological sites, they are rarely submitted to transport and the dating is carried out on the sample itself. Precise identi• fication to species of the charred material requires accurate study of the anatomical features of each species belonging to the flora of the region. All of the eight Combretum species studied possess solitary vessels, vestured pits and uniseriate rays. All are devoid of helical thickenings. Exhaustive examination of the different samples has enabled the construction of a key which permits the specific identification of the Combretum charcoal fragments.

PH. ROZENBERGi, A. FRANC2 &A. TRUBUIL3: iINRA, Qualite du bois et amelioration genetique, 45160 Ardon, France; 2ENGREF, Mathematiques appliquees, 19 Avenue du Maine, 75732 Paris Cedex 15, France; 3INRA, Biometrie, Domaine de Vii vert, 78352 Jouy-en-Josas Cedex, France. - Relating wood stiffness and parameters of X-ray density profiles: use of wavelet transformation. - (Poster) It is well known that there is a fairly strong positive relationship between wood stiffness (modulus of elasticity, MOE), and density of wood samples of different shapes and sizes. Some researchers have not found stronger single relationships between wood sample MOE and parameters of X -ray microdensity profiles, like, for example, latewood width (r2 = 0.37, on Douglas fir, Mamdy 1995), latewood density (r2 = 0.45, on Sitka spruce, Gentner 1985) and latewood proportion (r2 = 0.54, Takata & Hirakawa 1994 on Japanese larch and Choi 1986 on Douglas fir). Hence there is a need for a better understanding of the relationships between parameters from density profiles and wood stiffness, which may seem natural as wood properties should be explained by wood anatomy in the long term. Therefore, we studied density variation using discrete wave• let transform of densitometric signal, on the same sample as Mamdy (1995) (20 Doug• las-fir trees, 13 years old, from cuttings). We tried to relate the wood MOE and the pa• rameters from transformed X-ray density profiles. The strongest relationship between a wavelet basis coefficient of the transformed density profiles and the MOE is r2 = 0.62, p < 0.001, compared with 0.37, p < 0.01 in Mamdy (1995, using latewood width). Combining more than one wavelet basis coefficient in multiple linear relationships to explain the MOE, optimizing the model using the stepwise 'efroymson' method, gives the following results: MOE =f (2 wavelet parameters), R2 =0.76; MOE =f (3 wavelet parameters), R2 = 0.84; MOE = f (4 wavelet parameters), R2 = 0.88. Hence, the use of advanced techniques such as wavelet analysis may lead to signifi• cant progress in the utilization of X-ray density profiles. Of course confirmation is

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access 264 IAWA Journal, Vol. 17 (3),1996 needed, as the study sample is small (20 trees). If these results are confirmed, it also means that the natural variability for MOE could be nearly entirely explained using density parameters recorded on non-destructive samples like increment cores.

GRACIELZA DOS SANTOS: Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden, 1500 North College Avenue, Claremont, CA 91711, U.S.A. - Wood anatomy oflianas in Bignonieae (Bignoniaceae): a cladistic approach. - (Paper) The tribe Bignonieae comprises approximately 390 species of lianas in 43 genera. No cladistic analysis has ever been performed for the tribe. These lianas are character• ized by striking stem structure due to specialized patterns of cambial variants. In order to assess the usefulness of wood anatomical characters in generic circumscriptions and further to understand stem structure and particularly cambial variants in lianas of Big• noniaceae, a detailed anatomical study was conducted. Four anatomical groups were found for the 31 genera represented here by 73 species: Group 1, four phloem wedges per stem; Group 2, multiples of four phloem wedges per stem; Group 3, xylem fissured; Group 4, interrupted phloem wedges. These groups are largely congruent with the groups based on morphological characters. Cladistic analyses were performed for all 31 gen• era; however, due to rampant homoplasy no resolution was obtained. Based on nine wood anatomical characters and four morphological characters, cladistic analyses were performed using PAUP for the 13 genera in Group 1 and Tecoma as the outgroup. The single most parsimonious tree, although not fully resolved and not strongly supported, shows greater resolution than that achieved in the analyses of all genera. The topology shows a basal trichotomy with Tynnanthus and two multi generic clades. One clade with five genera is unresolved. The other clade although not strongly supported is better resolved. Arrabidaea and Lundia, with calcium carbonate crystals in vessel ele• ments, form a sister group to the rest of the clade. Two sister clades with stems sub• tetragonal to tetragonal occupy the most advanced position. One contains Paragonia and Xylophragma and the other Pleonotoma and Stizophyllum. Phylogenetic relation• ships proposed here although weakly supported are partially concurrent with the pre• vious hypotheses of relationships among the genera in Group 1.

TOYONOBU SUGAWAI & ANDREW TUKAU SALANG2: IHCA Expert & 2Conservator of Forests, Timber Research and Technical Training Centre, Km 10, Old Airport Road, 93660 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. _. Microscopical identification of Dipterocarp timbers found in Sarawak. - (Paper) The tropical rain forest of Sarawak is largely dominated (65-85%) by tree species from the family Dipterocarpaceae. These Dipterocarps are major species or groups of species marketed throughout the world .. Despite their abundance and popUlarity world• wide there is insufficient information available to identify the species effectively, and to predict their wood properties and utilization potentials. This study was carried out to determine the microscopic structures that were equally important for identification and predicting the properties of the timbers. A total of 10 genera and four subgenera consisting of many Dipterocarpaceae species were selected for this study. The microscopic structures of each species were examined using opti-

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access Afro-European Wood Anatomy Symposium, London/ Kew, 1996 - Abstracts 265 cal and projection microscopes. Micrographs of important microscopic structures were taken for examination, assessment and comparative purposes. The microscopic characteristics used to identify species and to predict their proper• ties were the characteristics of the vessels, rays, parenchyma, intercellular canals (resin canals) and the presence of silica and crystals in rays and parenchyma.

NIKO TORELLI & PRIMOZ OVEN: University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Wood Science and Technology, pp 95, 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia. - Occurrence of suberin in the discoloured wood ('Red Heart') in beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). - (Paper) In 5 red-hearted and 5 'white' beech test trees (Fagus sylvatica) the following loca• tions were tested for suberin: I) dehydrated core, 2) red heart, 3) dry zones surround• ing the red heart, 4) intact sapwood, 5) drill bit wound, 6) protection wood in surface wounds, and 7) protection zone within the bases of dying branches. Suberin was determined under a reflected light fluorescence microscope by using autofluorescence quenching technique, polychromatic stains and extraction procedures. Intracellular suberin was found in the axial and ray parenchyma, vessels and tyloses in all locations except in the intact dehydrated core (I), in dry zones surrounding the red heart (3) and in the intact sapwood (4). The presence of suberin in the red heart (2) and its absence in the intact, non-aerated dehydrated stem core (I), and in dry zones surrounding the red heart (3), indicates that aeration following dehydration is a significant factor in suberization. Suberized tissues on both sides of sapwood could be viewed as sealants limiting the spread of dehydration and aeration. They primarily protect the hydraulic integrity of the tree and thereby the high moisture content of the wood, so indirectly contributing to its antimicrobial defence. The dehydration of the stem core and heartwood formation as special aspects of ab• scission and homeostasis are discussed.

DRAGICA VILOTIC & NENAD STANKOVIC: Faculty of Forestry, 11030 Belgrade, Yugo• slavia. - Comparative anatomical research of two Bitter oak forms in Serbia. - (Poster) Along with beech, oaks are the most widespread deciduous tree species in Serbia. The flora of Serbia consists of ten autochthonous oak species. Bitter oak (Quercus cerris L.), with its two varieties and several forms, holds a significant place as regards representation and frequency in plant communities. It was observed that Quercus cerris var. austriaca is represented in Serbia by its two forms: forma cycloloba Borb. and forma dentatiloba Matyas. The samples for anatomic research were taken from the same site, i.e. the slope of the mountain Rtanj in Serbia, altitude 630 m above sea level The following elements were analyzed: a) annual width of growth rings (percentage of earlywood and latewood) at the height of 1.3 m; b) vessel sizes of each fifth growth ring; c) number of vessels per unit area; d) ray sizes; e) number of rays per unit area; f) sizes of mechanical elements and their number per unit area.

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In addition to morphological characters (leaf characteristics, branching, and bark), it was found that the two forms also differ in the anatomical structure of wood. The following differences were observed between the two forms: growth ring width (f. cycloloba has wider growth rings with a greater percentage of latewood), size and number of rays per unit area. The two forms also differ in the sizes of mechanical ele• ments (f. cycloloba has wider fibres) and in the arrangement and number of vessels. Our research points out that Quercus cerris var. austriaca f. cycloloba has consider• ably better quality wood than f. dentatiloba, so in the growing of this species, it de• serves special attention.

ELISABETH A. WHEELER l, MICHAEL WIEMANN2 & STEVEN R. MANCHESTER 2: 1 De• partment of Wood &Paper Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, N.C. 27695-S005, U.S.A.; 2Department of Natural Sciences, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2035, U. S. A. - Eocene dico• tyledonous woods of western North America. - (Paper) Eocene dicotyledonous woods from the Willwood, Teepee Trail, Wiggis, Aycross, Clarno, Sepulcher, Lamar River, Florissant, and Chadron Formations were examined. Early and Middle Eocene woods of western North America are diverse compared to Paleocene and Late Eocene woods. This time was one of the warmest during the Cenozoic. Most Middle Eocene localities include woods of Platanaceae, Fagaceae, and representatives of the and Leguminosae. Many are related to plants now native to Asia, some are similar to extant genera, others represent extinct forms. The incidence of simple and scalariform perforation plates, vessel diameter and density classes, and septate fibres in these woods are compared to extant woods from different climatic regions, and are used to infer paleoclimate. The few known Late Eocene woods contrast with the Early and Middle Eocene woods, as most are ring-porous, implying marked seasonality, or have many small diameter vessels.

R. WIMMERl, M. GRABNERl, E. SCHAR2 & G. HALBWACHSl: lCenter for Environ• mental Studies, University of Agriculture, Gregor Mendel-Strasse 33, A-11S0 Vienna, Austria; 2Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research, Ziircher• strasse 111, CH-S903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland. - How useful is xylem anatomy as an indicator for S02 pollution? - (Poster) Many parameters that are used to assess air pollution impacts on forest ecosystems are measured in the crown (foliage) and in the soil-root system. Our emphasis was to use xylem anatomy parameters measured in the tree stem as indicators for temporal and spatial changes in tree growth. We chose highly stressed mature spruce trees [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] from the Erz• gebirge in Germany were chosen. Ten trees were cut from a heavily S02polluted site and 10 trees from a less polluted site. Disks were taken from each tree at 4 m above the ground, and were cross-dated and measured using dendrochronological procedures. We micro sectioned across all tree radii and used a light microscope connected to an image analysis system for measuring a set of anatomical parameters in all tree rings from pith to bark. X-ray densitometry for the determination of density parameters in the tree rings was also used.

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We developed parameter series for ring width, latewood proportion, wall thickness in early wood and latewood, wood ray height, resin duct proportion, fibrillar angle and tracheid length in early- and latewood as well as maximum, minimum and mean den• sity of the tree ring. We found no differences in parameter trends between the two sites before the 1980s, but beginning with the 1980s the parameters measured on the heavily polluted site started to decline. Forest management records revealed that around 1980 dead trees were removed from the heavily polluted site. We hypothesize that this removal also took away the shield effect of these trees protecting vital trees further behind. Conse• quently, protected and normally growing trees were exposed to much higher sulphur dioxide concentrations. All the measured parameters responded similarly but to differ• ent extents. Our study proved that xylem anatomy has a high potential for the assess• ment of temporal and spatial changes in forest systems which should be considered in concert with foliage and soil analysis.

R. WIMMER I, B. N. LUCAS 2, T. Y. TSUI3 & W. C. OLIVER 2: I Center for Environmental Studies, University of Agriculture, Gregor Mendel-Strasse 33, A-1180 Vienna, Aus• tria; 2 Nano Instruments, Inc., P.O. Box 14211, Knoxville, Tennessee 37014, U.S.A.; 3Department of Materials Science, Rice University, P. O. Box 1982, Houston, Texas 77251, U. S. A. - Mechanical characterization of cell corners and secondary walls of spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) using new nanoindentation technique. - (Paper) Using a mechanical properties microprobe, measurements of hardness and elastic modulus of cell comers and tracheid walls in the longitudinal direction of spruce wood were obtained by continuously measuring force and displacement as a diamond indenter impressed the woody tissue. Maximum mechanical properties were found at the edges of the walls of angular shaped tracheids. Both the hardness and elastic modulus of latewood cell walls were higher than cell walls in the earlywood. The lignin-rich cell comer regions showed low elastic moduli but hardness was similar to that of sec• ondary walls. The high spatial resolution of this new concept of mechanical testing allows a direct comparison with ultrastructural and microchemical parameters of wood which opens a wider area of applications for the understanding of intrinsic wood prop• erties.

KANA YAMASHITA I, Y ASUHIKO HIRAKAWA I, YOSHIO KIJITANI I, YOSHITAKE FUJISAWA2 & RYOGO NAKADA2: I Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba Norin, P.O. Box 16, Ibaraki 305, Japan; 2 National Forest Tree Breeding Center, Juo, Ibaraki 319-13, Japan. - S2 microfibril angle variations oflatewood tracheids among sugi (Cryptomeriajaponica D. Don) cultivars. - (Poster) Microfibril angle is believed to be one of the causes of wood quality variation. In this study, S2 microfibril angle variations were examined in 19 cultivars (57 trees) of Cryptomeria japonica D. Don. The trees were grown for 30-35 years in the same stand on the campus of the Tree Breeding Center in Mito. The microfibril angles were measured from tangential sections of the outermost latewoods from the 2nd, 5th, 10th, 15th, 20th, 25th and 30th growth rings at different heights 0.2 to 13 m). Variation

Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 12:54:48PM via free access 268 IAWA Journal, Vol. 17 (3),1996 patterns in the radial and vertical directions in the trunk were different among cultivars. These variations may probably be explained by differences in genetic composition of the samples.

KIYOTSUGU YODA I, HITOSHI SUZUKI 1 & MITSUO SUZUKI2: 1 Faculty of Science and Engineering, Ishinomaki Sen shu University, Miyagi, 986-80, Japan; 2Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-77, Japan. - Diurnal variations in the diameter of a tree trunk. - (Paper) Long-term and seasonal thickening growth of tree trunks have been studied in rela• tion to cambial activity, while short-term or diurnal variations of the shrinkage and expansion of the trunk have been analyzed according to water-relations. Abundant data on these phenomena are available. However, most studies have been based on measurements with dendrometers, and the data obtained were only accurate to milli• metres. We have developed an original system based on electrical measurement to investi• gate diurnal variations in trunk diameter. This made it possible to measure trunk diam• eter with accuracy in microns. The installation of this system in a personal computer also made it possible to analyze continuous variation in the diameter. We re-examined the diurnal variation in trunk diameter in Castanospennum australe (Leguminosae). In the laboratory, electrical potential was measured at the basal part of the trunk of a young tree (height = 65 em) planted in a pot. The measurement contin• ued during several days in April, 1996. In the preliminary examination, the electrical potential fluctuated over a range of 200 m V within a minute. This means that the trunk shrinks and expands about 30 /Jill in this time span. This type of fluctuation occurred frequently until noon, but was less marked in the afternoon. The results show that the diameter of a tree trunk seems to change more dynami• cally than was expected.

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