^^A^^' FRONT COVER the Production of a Uranium Mine Concentrate from Mined Ore Is the First Stage of Processing in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle

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if "-«.. >i-vi •*"*,.$ TH ^^A^^' FRONT COVER The production of a uranium mine concentrate from mined ore is the first stage of processing in the nuclear fuel cycle. Shown here is Australian produced uranium oxide known as "yellowcake" photographed in a sampling laboratory at the Australian Atomic Energy Commission Research Establishment, Lucas Heights. Jj^AUSTR/U.IA^

AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

TWENTY-SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT

Being the Commission's Report for the Year Ended 30 June 1978 AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC NERGY COMMISSION

Ministerial Responsibility for the Atomic Energy Act 1953 During the Year 1977-78

Minister of State for National Resources The Right Honourable J. D. Anthony, M.P. (To 20 December 1977)

Minister of State for National Development The Honourable Kevin Newman, M.P. (From 20 December 1977)

For administration of Section 41 together with specified matters in relation to Sections 19, 29 and 38 of the Atomic Energy Act 1953

Minister of State for Trade and Resources The Right Honourable J. D. Anthony, M.P. (From 20 December 1977)

Members of the Commission During the Year 1977-78

Chairman Professor D. W. George, B.Sc., B.E., Ph.D., F.T.S., F.I.E.E., F.I.Mech.E., F.I.E.Aust, F.A.I.P.

Deputy Chairman Sir Lenox Hewitt, O.B.E., B.Com., F.A.S.A., F.C.I.S., L.C.A. (To 12 April 1978) A. J. Woods, B.Ec., Barrister-at-Law, A.A.S.A., A.C.I.S. (From 12 April 1978)

Members Professor H. Messel, B.A., B.Sc., Ph.D. Sir Bernard Callinan, C.B.E., D.S.O., M.C., B.C.E. K. F. Alder, M.Sc., F.T.S., F.I.M.

Secretary A. D. Thomas, M.Sc. Australian Atomic Energy Commission

CLIFFBROOK, 45 BEACH STREET, COOGEE, N.S.W. 2034 20 November 1978

To The Honourable Kevin Newman. M.P.. Minister for National Development. Parliament House, Canberra, A.C.T.

Sir,

In accordance with Section 31 of the Atomic Energy Act 1953, we submit the Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission, covering the Commission's operations for the financial year ended 30 June 1978.

Financial accounts for the year, with a report on the accounts by the Auditor-General as required by the Act, are appended to the report. A statement of the Commission's capital assets as at 30 June 1978 is also appended to the accounts.

Yours faithfully,

D. W. GEORGE, Chairman A. J. WOODS, Deputy Chairman. H. MESSEL, Member. B. J. CALLINAN, Member. K. F. ALDER, Member. ADVISOR Y__CO_MM ITTEE

Appointed under Section 20 of the Atomic Energy Act 1953

Safety Review Committee D. J. Stevens, O.B.E., B.Sc., F.R.A.C.R.(Hon.), Hon. F.I.R., Chairman. Dr P. L. T. Ibcry, M.D., B.S., F.R.A.C.R.. F.R.A.C.P.. D.M.R.T. J.A.Tclford,B.Sc.Mct. Dr S. J. Krister. O.St.J.. M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.. D.Ph., D.I.H., F.A.C.M.A.

I'liiiction: To review periodically the licullli and xafciy standards and procedures adopted hy the Commission in the operation of its reactors and in the use of radiation, radioactive snh\tance.\; and toxic materials. ^

WORLD ENERGY REVIEW 9 World Energy Situation 9 Significant Events in Nuclear Power JO Growth of Nuclear Power . . "i5 Other Uses of Nuclear Power 16 Fusion 17 Decommissioning Nuclear Power Stations 18 Australian Energy Situation . . . . 20 Commission Energy Studies 21

2 URANIUM 25 World Uranium Resources 25 Australian Uranium Resources 27 Market for Uranium 27 Current Uranium Production 28 World Uranium and Enrichment Requirements 29 Enrichment 30 Manufacturing Uranium Hexafluoridc ... 30 Development of Enrichment Processes 35 Reprocessing of Spent Fuel 36 Disposal of Radioactive Wastes 41

3 AUSTRALIAN URANIUM 44 The Ranger Uranium Project 44 Australian Government Decisions on Mining and Export of Uranium 46 Legislation 48 The Memorandum of Understanding and Related Agreements .. 51 Agreement Between Northern Land Council and the Commonwealth, and Related Matters 53 Exploration for Uranium 54 Mary Kathleen Uranium Ltd 58 Environmental Impact Statements 59 Commonwealth Stockpile Shipments 59 Western Mining Corporation Ltd 59 Uranium Ore Assay Service 59 Upgrading of Uranium 60

4 REGULATORY, SAFEGUARDS, AND SAFETY ASPECTS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY 61 International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation 61 Nuclear Plant Safety 64 International Collaborative Studies 65 World Developments in Regulatory Control 66 Environment and Public Health 66 Contents

RESEARCH 70 Power and Energy 71 Creep of Reactor Materials 71 Ceramics Research 72 Chemical Conlrol in Nuclear Reactors 73 Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow 73 Flexibility of Pipe Elbows 76 Reactor Analysis 76 Associated Energy Research 77 Uranium Fuel Cycle 78 Chemical Processing 78 Structure of Uranium Chelatcs 79 Materials Research 79 Laser Technology 80 Nuclear Science and Applications Si Development of Analytical Techniques 81 Application of Nuclear Techniques 82 Proton Induced X- and Gamma-Rays " 84 Nuclear Radiation Detectors 86 Radiation Dosimctry Physics 86 Non-Destructive Testing 86 Radioisotopc Standards 88 Environmental Studies 89 Metal Pollutants 89 Field Studies 90 Meteorological Studies 92 Divisional Research 92 Assay of Thorium 92 Electron Microscopy 92 Decomposition of Asbestos 93 Pascal Compiler 94 Patents and Exploitation . 94

6 RADIOISOTOPES AND RADIATION 95 Radioisotopc Applications 95 Mineral Industry 95 Nuclear Hydrology 96 Eradication of Termites 98 Radioisotopc Consulting Service 98 Radiation Research and Applications 99 Radiation Shrinkprool'ing of Wool 99 Radiation in Chemical Research 102 Radiation Sterilisation of Medical Products . 103 Radiation Resistance of Bacterial Spores 104 Radiation Advisory Service 104 Radiation Standards 104 Dosimctry Services 104 — UriLollLO

Radiopharmaceulical Research a nil Development 105 Radioisotopc Production and Services 105 7 RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT OPERATIONS AND SERVICES 109 Nuclear Reactors 109 Moata 109 HI FAR 109 Reactor Design Study 1 1 Scismicily at Lucas Heights 12 Management of Wastes from the Research Establishment 12 Safety 15 Analytical Chemistry Service 16 Computing Services 16 Instrumentation Services 16 Engineering Services 17 Capita] Works 19 Energy Conservation 119 Library , 119 8 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 120 OECD Nuclcur Energy Agency 120 International Atomic Energy Agency 122 Overseas Visits and Attachments 123 9 GENERAL . (25 Ministerial Changes 125 Amendment of the Atomic Energy Act 1953 125 Membership of the Commission 126 Senior Stall' Changes 126 Administrative Reorganisation 127 Stall'Numbers 128 Industrial Relations 128 Medical Health Survey 129 Safely Review Committee 130 Information Services 131 Apprenticeship Prizes . . 132 Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering 132 Australian School of Nuclear Technology . 136 Finance ... . . 136 APPENDICES A Financial Accounts 138 B Auditor-General's Report 144 C Organisation of the Commission 145 D A A EC Research Programs 148 E AAEC Research Contracts . 149 F AINSE Grants for Research and Training 150 G Technical Papers by Commission Stall' 155 H AAEC Patent Applications . 162 1 WORLD ENERGY REVIEW

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WORLD I-NERCiV SITUATION

World oil production rose by 4.4 per cent in 1977 lo almost 3 gigatonnc* a year. At the same time, it was disturbing to note that proved oil reserves increased by only 1 per cent to cSS gigatonnc. Since 1970, proved oil reserves have been reviewed upwards by about 6 per cent, while annual oil production has increased by 33 per cent. These figures support the findings, published in the World Energy Conference-Conservation Commission Report on Oil Resources, 1985-2020 (August 1977), that the annual rate of growth of world oil reserves is decreasing. World oil production is expected to peak at 4 to 5 gigatonnc a year by 1990, declining to 3.4-4 gigatonnc a year by 2000. Since oil currently meets almost half the world's total energy needs, by any reasonable estimates for world economic growth a serious shortfall in world energy supply can be expected before 2000. Consequently, all recent major reports on the world energy outlook have pointed out that the future balancing of energy supply and demand will require: • Major conservation efforts to reduce the ratio that now exists between the growth of demand for energy and growth of the economy, and • A very extensive changeover to coal and nuclear power. A second publication, the World Energy Conference-Conservation Commission Report on Coal Resources, 1985-2020 (August 1977), states that coal could contribute substantially to future energy supplies and that world coal production is expected to more than double by 2000. However, the World Energy Conference expects that less than one-tenth of the production will be exported by producing countries. In thermal values, this export trade will be equivalent to about one quarter of the world's present oil trade. It would seem, in consequence, that

* Giualonne = one thousand million tonnes. coal imports arc unlikely lo become a major source of energy in countries wflh no economic coal reserves of ihcir own. It should be noted llial known coal deposits arc not distributed evenly — collectively, ten countries possess a total of 92 per cent of the world's economic coal reserves. The proportion of primary energy needs met by both natural gas and renewable energy sources is expected to remain constant during the next few decades. Also in this period no major contribution is expected from alternative energy sources, such as solar, wave and tidal power. As with coal, known uranium deposits are unevenly distributed around the world. On the other hand, a very large amount of energy can be transported in a small volume of nuclear fuel and this feature will facilitate international trade in uranium. Nuclear power is expected lo account for more than one-third of the world's total electricity generation by 2000. By then the proportion of primary energy used to generate electricity will increase from the present figure of one- quarter to about one-third. Nuclear energy from fission is regarded at present as the most promising source of energy for the future. This is re-affirmed in one of the main conclusions drawn by the Commission of the European Communities from evidence submitted to the public debates on nuclear energy in Brussels. November 1977 and January 1978, as follows: "The development of nuclear energy from fission appears to be an inescapable necessity, if we adopt the hypothesis of moderate growth in a society of a type similar to that in which we live at present and if we consider the probable trend of world energy demand over the coming decades. Certainly, such development must be subject to a number of conditions: • Nuclear energy must be considered as one among various forms of energy, i.e. a form of energy to which an excessive role should not be assigned pending the development and possible use of energy sources of another type, like renewable and environmentally acceptable energy sources. It must therefore be developed in line with the needs created by reasonable economic growth. • Safety requirements must continue to be subjected to attentive and constant scrutiny. • Decisions on the use and siting of nuclear installations should be taken in accordance with democratic rules, i.e. the Parliaments and elected assemblies in general — and the European Parliament in particular — should play an important part in the decision-making process."

SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN NUCLEAR POWER During 1977, electrical energy generated by nuclear power increased by 21 per cent in the Western World and by 30 per cent in the USA. While these figures arc encouraging for the nuclear power industry, they are a consequence of previous commitments and do not reflect the less optimistic outlook existing today. 10 In general, the rale of ordering both nuclear and fossil-fuelled plant during 1977-78 remained at the low level of the two preceding years. Several factors contributed to this situation, namely, uncertainly in forecasts of electricity demand due to the slowdown in world economic activity, licensing diHicultie.-,. changes in the political situation in some countries and public concern over environmental matters. Fifteen nuclear power reactors were brought into commercial operation during the year and a further ten units achieved first critiealily. Table 1 shows the number of nuclear power reactors greater than 30 MW* capacity now in commercial operation, under construction or on order throughout the world. At 30 June 1978, there was a total commitment of 514 reactors totalling 395 G\V* in 34 countries. This was made up of 199 reactors of total capacity 99 GW in operation in 21 countries, and a further 315 units of 296 G\V capacity on order or under construction. In the USA, President Carter's anti-proliferation policies led to a moratorium on commercial fuel reprocessing, greater emphasis on research to find more acceptable means of radioactive waste disposal, and lower emphasis placed on the fast breeder reactor development program. These proposed changes in policy have created a general uncertainty within the industry. Taken in conjunction with positive action to reform and stabilise the licensing process, and coupled with the actions of some Stales in delaying plant authorisa- tions (particularly in California), many utilities have found it difficult at this time to justify nuclear plant purchases. There are some signs, however, that the advantages of nuclear generation in reducing oil imports and of providing an elfcctivc alternative to coal (as demonstrated during the US coal strike in Winter 1978), together with its proven lower total generating costs, will eventually improve nuclear power industry prospects. A study released recently by the US Atomic Industrial Forum showed that the total average power costs in the USA for 1977 for nuclear, coal and oil were 1.5, 2 and 3.9 cents per kilowatt hour respectively. The US administration is hoping to pass a licensing reform bill which is intended lo expedite the licensing process. In addition, the US Supreme Court recently handed down a decision that will effectively limit the extent lo which licensing issues can be contested before the courts. The West German (FRG) nuclear power program is also experiencing difficulties and no new orders were placed during 1977. The West German Government decided not to issue any further licences for new plants until sufficient progress had been made towards establishment of a nuclear waste management plant. This may mean a moratorium for two to three years until a construction permit for the first part of the plant has been issued. Construction on some plants also has been stalled by local court action. Some relief may be forthcoming, however, through construction of two proposed interim fuel storage facilities and the reprocessing of some fuel outside the country. In addition, there is a growing awareness that nuclear power is essential to prevent the development of a substantial energy gap that could lead lo economic downturn and increased unemployment. Taking all these factors into consideration, the West German Government recently revised its estimate of installed nuclear capacity in 1985 clown to 24 GW, substantially lower than the 45 GW forecast by it two years ago. The future of Sweden's nuclear program remains unclear with the present Government finding it more dillicull to implement its policy of curtailment. An

:" MW (megawatts = \

Under Country In Operation^ Construction^' On OrdcrW Total No. MW<4> No. M\v«> No. ! M\V<» No. MWM> Argentina 1 319 1 600 — — 2 919 Austria — — 1 692 — — 1 692 Belgium 3 1,650 2 1,855 2 2,000 ! 7 , 5,505 Brazil — — 3 3,116 — — : 3 i 3,116 Bulgaria 2 820 2 820 _ _ • 4 1.640 Canada 8 3,980 8 4,819 4 3,076 20 11,875 Cuba — 1 — 410 — — 1 410 Czechoslovakia 1 110 6 2,460 — — 7 2,570 Finland I 420 3 1,740 1 953 : 5 3,113 France 12 4,703 21 1 9,660 9 9,350 42 33,713 Germany DR 4 1,305 1 410 — — 5 1,715 Germany FR 10 6,094 14 14,872 3 3,332 27 1,247 Hungary — 2 — 2 24,298 — 820 India 3 582 5 1,082 — i 8 820 Iran — 2 —2 1,850 4 1,664 — 2,480 Italy 3 608 t 880 4 3,868 i 9 4,330 Japan 15 8,386 9 7,722 4 3,219 28 5,356 Korea RO 1 564 2 1,234 2 1,800 5 19,327 Luxembourg — — 1,247 1 3,598 — — 1 Mexico — — 2 1,308 — 2 1,308 Netherlands 2 502 — — 2 502 Pakistan 1 125 — — — — i 1 600 — Philippines — — —1 600 1 125 Poland — 41—0 410 — — 1 — 1 Romania — — —2 820 2 820 South Africa — — — — 2 1,844 1,844 — — 2 Spain 3 1,073 7 6,342 5 4,740 15 12,155 Sweden 6 3,74! 4 3,624 2 2,120 12 9,485 Switzetlaiul 3 1 ,006 3 2,787 — 6 3,793 Taiwan — 3,110 2 — 4.960 — 4 1,850 6 United Kingdom 33 8,094 6 3,700 — 39 11,794 USA 66 47,260 75 79,864 60 68,42—2 201 195,546 USSR 21 7,743 21 17,828 — 25,57 1 — 42 Yugoslavia — — 1 632 — — 1 632 TOTAL 199 99,085 209 185,277 106 1 1 1 ,09 1 514 J395,453

(1) In Operation = Commercial operation approved. (2) Under Construction = Finance available and construction permit issued. (3) On Order = Firm order placed. (4) MW = Capacity in net eleclrical mefawalls (I0r' walls). 12 all-party commission set up to study energy policy has recommended that the nuclear program should not be phased out but continued, with completion of at least the four plants now under construction. The commission considered nuclear power stations to be essential since the alternative would be to rely on importing additional coal and oil. Sweden already has the world's highest per capita level of oil imports. The commission called for an eventual switch to alternative energy sources, but pointed out that these could not contribute to the country's needs for at least ten years. Nuclear programs in other major European countries, such as Spain and Italy, arc still in difficulty partly through local resistance and the efforts of anti-nuclear activists. One of the most serious incidents occurred in Spain where the Lcmonix 1 reactor, which is not yet operational, was damaged by a bomb blast. Two construction workers were killed and 14 were injured. Another incident occurred in France at the site of the Supcr-Phenix fast reactor, where one person died and about 100 were injured during a demonstration. In spite of this incident the French Government persevered with its program and ordered live new plants during] 977-78. In France, the nuclear contribution to electricity production is expected to rise to J2 per cent in J978. The program is continuing with permission given to Elcclricite dc France to proceed with orders in 1978 and 1979 for a further 10 GYV of nuclear generating capacity. The Italian Parliament voted on 5 October 1977, by an overwhelming majority, for a balanced and controlled recourse to nuclear power. The plan calls for the completion, as soon as possible, of four 1,000 MW reactors already ordered and immediate calls for tenders for a further four 1,000 M\V units with options for four more reactors. The choice of boiling water reactors (13WR) or pressurised water reactors (PWR) is not specified and the introduction of CANDU (CANadian Deuterium-Uranium) reactors is a strong possibility. The United Kingdom program has been clarified by government authorisation of immediate orders for four advanced gas-cooled reactors (AGR). In addition, the electricity supply industry has indicated a desire to establish the PWR as a valid option. Providing design work is completed satisfactorily and government and other consents and safety clearances obtained, a PWR station could be ordered also. This procedure, which docs not call for an immediate order or letter of intent, is endorsed by the Government. In a Parliamentary Green Paper, the Government considered it prudent to expect 35 GW of nuclear generating capacity by the year 2000, excluding the 5 GW of AGRs commissioned or under construction at present. The first of three 1,250 MW stations would be ordered in 1979 and the program would then expand as the first reactors proved themselves. Design and development on the steam-generating heavy water reactor (SGHWR) has been terminated. Although full agreement has been reached on a nuclear cooperation protocol that would pave the way for sales of six to eight light-water reactors (LWR) to Iran, detailed negotiations arc still required. Meanwhile, the Iranian program is maintaining its schedule with a letter of intent sent to Kraftwcrk Union AC (West Germany) for four 1,200 MW reactors. South Korea is expected to place an order for two new reactors before the end of the year and, in a reversal of policy following a drastic reduction in the nuclear program two years ago, now plans a minimum of 20 reactors by 2000, with a possibility of an even larger number depending upon the rate of power growth achieved. 13 Several countries arc seriously considering the introduction of CANDU reactors. Among these arc Italy, where the Italian company Progcltazioni Mcc- caniche c Nuclear! has a CANDU licence, Romania where negotiations could eventually lead to 15 or 16 CANDU reactors, and Japan where the Electric Power Development Co. plans to start construction of two standard CANDU reactors in 1981. The USSR and East European countries are proceeding with a program to expand their nuclear industries. They have standardised on pressurised water reactors of 440 M\V and 1.000 M\V for smaller installations. For stations above this size, the USSR is installing its unique graphite-moderated, boiling-water-cooled reactor (currently units of 1,500 M\V capacity). Design work is being carried out to expand the unit sizes to 2,000-2,400 M\V. While it appears that the East European countries will not meet their five-year-plan target of 30 GW by 1980, they should reach about 20 G\V which is still a substantial rise over the 8.5 G\V capacity installed at the end of 1976.

NUCLEAR POWER STATION CAPACITY FACTORS The ratio of the power actually produced in a given period to the total maximum amount that could be produced is referred to as the capacity factor for the station. The average capacity factor I'or 1977 for all nuclear power reactors that have reached initial criticalily in the Western World was 58 per cent, or about the same as it has been for the past 12 years. Overall, the highest average capacity factor during 1977 was attained by the pressurised water reactor (PWR) with 64 per cent, followed by the heavy-water reactor (HWR) and the gas-cooled reactor (GCR) at 61 per cent and then the boiling water reactor (BWR) with 50 per cent. The 1977 BWR figure is lower partly because five plants in Japan. Taiwan and West Germany had capacity factors of less than 4 per cent mainly as a result of extensive backfilling and maintenance. The average PWR figure was improved by the markedly heller performance of plants in the USA, increasing from 52 per cent in 1976 to 64 per ccnl in 1977. Figures quoted here arc based on licensed or design ratings and may be lower than similar figures quoted elsewhere based on lower ratings.

FAST BREEDER REACTORS The action of President Carter in moving to modify the US fast breeder reactor program for non-proliferation reasons has not been followed by other countries. France, West Germany and Japan arc still continuing with fast breeder development. The long-term future of the breeder program in the UK is yet to be decided, but the current development program is continuing. The USSR liquid-metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR) program is proceeding and installation of 1,500 MW units is planned by the 1990s. The USA has a stated policy of examining alternative nuclear fuel cycles, such as that with thorium 232- u ran in m 233, but other countries generally have been sceptical, believing their own circumstances will require them to use the more established uraniuin-plutonium fast breeder reactor technology rather than wait for something else to be developed. There was, however, a general revival of interest in the thorium fuel cycle producing uranium 233 I'or power reactors in the longer term. Earlier interest had centred almost entirely on the economics of the thorium-uranium cycle in comparison with the uranium-plulonium cycle and. in most situations, led to 14 conclusions that any economic advantages were probably too small to justify the development investment necessary lo establish the thorium-uranium cycle. Emphasis has now changed as a result of the considerations of non-proliferation within the International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation (1NFCE). Utilisation of the large potential energy source which thorium represents is seen now as having importance beyond that of purely economic considerations. The Commission continued to review all aspects of the use of thorium as a nuclear fuel and its suitability to each type of reactor on grounds of technical problems, economics and efficient use of resources.

GROWTH OF NUCLEAR POWER The Commission's estimates I'or the growth of nuclear power are generally lower this year than those published in the previous report. The present projections were obtained from the most current and authoritative information available on the programs of individual countries. In most cases, this was done by using the best available projections adjusted to be consistent with the current outlook in each country and extrapolated lo the end of the century if necessary.

TA1JLK 2 KSTIiMATKS OF INS'I AIJLKI) NUCl.KAR CAPACITY (GW)

Year ; USA Japan \V. Europe W. World 1977 i 46.5 7.6 26.3 86.0 1980 64.2 14.5 59.7 149 1985 112 26.5 101 272 1990 160-195 40-50 140-200 400- 535 1995 210-280 55-75 1 85-295 565- 820 2000 260-380 ; 75-100 235-400 740-1160

Table 2 shows the resultant projections for countries and groups of particular interest. The high-low figures shown I'or 1990 and beyond illustrate the un- certainties involved in such estimates. The projections for the Western World are also contained in Figure 1 and arc shown in comparison with the ''current trends'" estimate from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Develop- ment Nuclear Energy Agency-International Atomic Energy Agency joint report "Uranium — Resources. Production and Demand" (Paris, December 1977). The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency-IAEA projection falls between the Commission's high and low projections. The changes in the projections given in Table 2. as compared with those published last year by the Commission, can be construed as reductions in the anticipated need for nuclear power or I'or electricity capacity in general. However, they can also be interpreted as a deferral or stretch-out of program in various countries. Moreover, such slippages are relatively common in the construction of generating plants. Thus the overall changes arc in reality due to a combination of these effects. An illustration that nuclear power is accounting I'or a greater percentage of electrical generating capacity installation is given in recent OECD projections. _ 1-j.|. PROJECTED NUCLEAR POWER CAPACITY IN THE WESTERN WORLD'

1000

1 2

100- -/-—

AAEC ESTIMATE OF HIGH GROWTH @ AAEC ESTIMATE OF LOW GROWTH @ OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY - IAEA PROJECTIONS fD-c. 1977)

10 , 1977 1980 1985 1990 1990 2000 YEAR Between 1977 and 1985, more than half of all new capacity in Europe will be nuclear. In this period the growth of nuclear power is expected to be 470 per cent, whereas the growth of fossil stations will be only 24 per cent and hydro-electricity 36 per cent. Growth in nuclear power is not confined to the Western World and similar growth is expected in countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistancc"(COMECON).

I'SI-S 01- Ml VI.I Marine The most significant event for nuclear-powered shipping during 1977 was the decision by the Canadian Government to proceed with the design stage of their proposed 40,000 tonne nuclear-powered icebreaker. The decision whether or not to build the ship will be made in about two years. The incentive to have a nuclear propulsion system for this ship co.iics mainly from its ability to operate for long periods in the Arctic without refuelling. 16 District Heating The Commissariat a I'Encrgie Atomiquc (CEA) in France lias proposed the development of a small reactor to fulfil in ban heating requirements for towns of about 50,000 people. This speeialiscd reactor would be a modified version of. their submarine reactor, but the project awaits budget approval. One of the recommendations of the previously mentioned all-party energy commission in Sweden was to study the possibility of using some of the thermal output from nuclear stations at Forsmark 3, Barscback and Ringhals for district healing near these sites. A joint Swedish-Finnish effort is also working to develop a specialised 200 M\V thermal reactor for district heating. Such developments have been going on for a number of years, but little has been achieved to date. One problem is the high cost of installing the large networks of piping required. However, with the high cost of oil, nuclear district heating schemes are becoming more attractive.

1 I SION In the thermonuclear reaction, fusion occurs between two light nuc!/i when they have sufficient energy to overcome the charge repulsion between them. The energy necessary to overcome this repulsion can be obtained by heating the reacting nuclei to temperatures of 100 million degrees Celsius. At such temperatures the gas is ionised and is termed a plasma. The thermonuclear reaction most favoured is that between deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H) because it offers the highest probability of the fusion reaction at lower temperatures than the alternative reaction — that between two nuclei of deuterium. A prime problem of fusion is to contain this very hot plasma sufficiently long for the thermonuclear reaction to take place. The prominent method of confinement uses strong magnetic fields with a toroidal geometry (a "doughnut''). Such toroidal geometry experiments, called stcllaralors and Tokamaks, dominate the world research scene at present. Their physical size has grown from dimensions of tens of centimetres to metres. Research has been underway since the early 1950s. Steady progress has been made to the extent that many believe that scientific feasibility or breakeven (where the power output from fusion equals power input) may be demonstrated this century. Recent Research Results achieved in the magnetic confinement Tokamak (a toroidal magnetic confinement unit) experiments in the USA (PLT) and the USSR (T10) have sustained the impetus of fusion research. Both became operational in 1976 and significantly advanced the energy confinement time. It has been known for some time that ohmic or resistance heating of the plasma would not produce temperatures sufficient for fusion reactors. Various auxiliary heating means are under investigation and the injection of neutral beams of particles has been used in PLT with some success. With two neutral beam injectors providing more than one megawatt of plasma heating, temperatures of 25 million degrees C were achieved and the ratio of fusion energy output to plasma heating energy input obtained was 0.5 per cent. Doubling the neutral beam heating will still leave conditions far short of those required for fusion reactors. There is still concern as to whether plasma conditions in Tokamaks can be upgraded to meet economic requirements. Materials will be subjected 17 to very difficult environments in fusion reactors and scientists express misuivings as to the likelihood of achieving readily a satisfactory design. The authorisation of the European JET program and the commencement of construction of TFTR in the USA were major decisions for the future of fusion research. Both are anticipated to yield plasma conditions close to those required for power reactors ami lo increase the energy confinement by a factor of three to four. These machines will begin operation in the mid-1980s. Great interest will centre on how their results compare with empirical scaling laws. Significant progress has been achieved towards magnetically confined, controlled fusion, but the major problems which still exist temper any optimism about its role as an energy resource except in the longer term (50-100 years). An alternative approach to thermonuclear fusion power is by inertial confinement, so named because a finite time is required to accelerate the plasma material a significant distance. In this concept, the plasma is healed to above ignition temperatures and compressed to very high densities for a very short lime by t'oeussed. intense, pulsed laser radiation. The first of the two large laser fusion experiments in the USA — SHIVA — has reached the commissioning stage and laser bombardment of fuel pellets should begin during 1978. The second, the NOVA system, which is ten to 100 times more powerful than SHIVA, is not expected to be operational until the mid-1980s.

Commission Involvement The Commission undertook a review of the options available to it for more direct involvement in fusion research. Five members of Physics Division stall were seconded during the year to Flinders University, the University of Sydney and the Australian National University to participate in university research programs. This involvement should provide the Commission with a nucleus of staff for future expansion in this field should it be necessary. The Commission has had several years' experience with small computer- based data acquisition systems similar to those used in fusion research. Staff will make a positive contribution to the collection of experimental data by assisting the universities with the introduction of similar systems, particularly with software support. The Commission organised a small symposium on data acquisition systems lo this end. The symposium arose out of the first meeting of a Fusion Research Advisory Group, established with Commission and university staff representation to study possible collaborative programs and to advise the Commission.

DECOMMISSIONING NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS The nuclear industry has long been aware of the need to decommission and eventually dismantle nuclear reactors. Studies of the ways in which super- seded or retired nuclear power reactors could be dismantled were made many years ago. Recently attention was foeussed on the problem again and several studies have been made. Since no large-scale commercial nuclear power stations have yet become redundant, none have been decommissioned let i'!one dismantled. However, a number of small prototype and research reactors have been shut down and decommissioned and some have been completely dismantled and removed, thus providing substantial experience on a smaller scale.. To date, more 18 than 65 reactors ranging in size from less than 1 M\V thermal to 256 MW thermal have been decommissioned, mothballcd, entombed or dismantled in the USA alone. In its various stages, decommissioning may comprise a combination of mothballing, entombment, and immediate or deferred removal. Mothballing refers to putting the facility into a slate of protective storage. This would require removal of the fuel and any radioactive fluids and wastes from the site. The remainder may be left intact with regular monitoring, surveillance and a security system implemented. Entombment requires all highly radioactive and contaminated materials, remaining after removal of the fuel and radioactive fluids and wastes, to be scaled within a structure which is integral with the reactor biological shield. Monitoring and surveillance procedures would be maintained, but security systems to protect against intrusion are considered to be unnecessary. Dismantling and removal are achieved by removing the fuel, radioactive fluids and wastes when the reactor is first decommissioned, and then immediately or at some prc-delermined lime, culling oilier components into manageable sixes and removing them from the site. In this way, removal can be effected of all materials having activities above that acceptable for unrestricted access. The owner of the plant may then either recycle the remaining structures by putting them to other uses, or demolish them and clear the site completely. Radioactive or contaminated materials removed from the site could be put into interim storage or buried at enclosed sites, depending on their level of activity and their state — liquid or solid. The various studies of (he problems of decommissioning have examined the question of liming, that is when should the reactor be completely dismantled and removed'.' Sonic of the components, such as core structural items and parts of the reactor pressure vessel, could have induced radioactivity which would prevent immediate unshielded working in their vicinity. Major radioactive nuclidcs which would present working haxards are nickel 59. nickel 63 and cobalt 60 from the steel used in reactor components. A period of radioactive decay must be allowed so that working conditions are improved. An optimum time is generally considered to be in the range of 60-100 years. Thus a logical approach to decommissioning would be lo place the reactor in protective storage for about 100 years, and then remove the remaining radioactive components and dispose of them in an approved burial ground. The costs of decommissioning nuclear reactors have been estimated by various groups, but care has to be exercised when these costs are being considered since1, they refer to an operation which will take place 40 to 140 years hence — the working life of the reactor or the reactor life plus a period of entombment. The actual liming of dismantling rests with the utility, bearing in mind that nuclear power reactors occupy prime sites with cooling water supplies, access to major electricity demand areas and seismic stability. By planning for reactor retirement and accumulating funds to pay for decommissioning over the life of the reactor, the impact of the costs can be minimised. There are many different presentations of cost data which depend on the decommissioning option selected, the way in which money is raised, the interest charges and inflation rales assumed. One such estimate* is USS37-43 million (1977 dollars) for immediate dismantling and removal, $38-39 million for mothballing for about 100 years and subsequent

Glauberman and Manion (1977). "Technical anil liconomic Aspects of Nuclear Power Plant Decommissioning." IAI-A-CN-W 16, IAHA Conl'.. Salzburg. May 1977. 19 dismantling and removal, and $32-33 million for entombment for about 100 years followed by dismantling and removal. Figures such as these put the cost of decommissioning a modern 1,200 JV1W nuclear reactor at between 2 and 4 per cent of the initial capital cost. In a prepared statement in the hearings before a Sub-Committee of the Committee on Government Operations (US House of Representatives) in September 1977, Dr C. V. Smith of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) submitted results of an economic analysis of decommissioning costs pertaining to a 1,200 MW boiling water reactor (B\VR) whose operating life would be 1985-2015. The analysis assumed that money would be paid into a sinking fund during the 30 year operating period to cover the costs of decommissioning. Costs associated with the various options arc given in Table 3.

Annual Added Per Cent Payment to Generating Increase in Option Sinking Fund Cost Generating USS'OOOs mils/kWh Cost Mothballing 255 0.04 0.1 Entombment 377 0.06 0.15 Immediate dismantling 1126 0.18 0.5 Mothball & dclaved 255 as for m othballing dismantling Entomb & delayed as for en lombmcnt 0.15 dismantling

Although a reactor of 256 MW thermal has been decommissioned, the largest reactor so far dismantled and removed was the 22 MW Elk River BWR in the USA. The reactor was completely dismantled and all reactor structures and sources of radioactivity removed from the site. Following this, the site was back- filled and paved and is used now for storage and other uses. The nuclear plant turbines arc being used with fossil fuelled boilers. Dismantling and removal cost about US$6 million (1974 dollars). •\I;STRAI IAN I-:NI-:KGY sin ANON Energy Consumption Australian Atomic Energy Commission studies of Australia's energy consumption show that, except for the depression years of 1928-32 and some years during World War II, energy consumption has risen each year. For the 13 years ending 1976-77, Australia's total primary energy consumption increased on average by 5.2 per cent a year. In recent years, however, there have been significant fluctuations caused by changing economic conditions, as shown in Figure 2. This contrasts with countries of the Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development (OECD), such as the USA, the United Kingdom and France, all of which experienced slight reductions in primary energy consumption during 1975. The pattern of consumption has been influenced by availability and relative costs, resulting in changes in the fuel proportions shown diagrammatic-ally in Figure 3. As the Figure shows, there has been a relative decline in the use of 20 1500 1965' 1970' 1975' Figure 2. Australian total consumption oj primary energy. (Source: Processing and Distribution Branch, Department of National Resources.) black coal and wood, but oil and more recently gas have increased their share. Black coal is expected to make some recovery by 1984-85. From these studies it is noted that, in a sense, solar energy already makes a contribution to the Australian energy economy which is not often recognised in energy use tabulations. In 1975-76, the two biomass fuels — wood and bagasse — contributed 93 pclajoules (PJ)* to a total energy consumption of 2.650 PJ (3.5 per cent). In addition, 5,057 kilotonnes of common salt were produced by solar and hot wind evaporation involving about 430 PJ and raising the total Australian primary energy usage to 3,080 PJ. However, the present convention is to exclude from national energy statistics both this particular input and the amount of solar energy used for domestic clothes drying. Energy Reserves Australia as a whole has good reserves of all fossil fuels except crude oil, and recoverable reserves are compared with consumption and production in Table 4. However, these reserves arc not distributed evenly throughout Australia and this is shown State by State in Table 5. From Table 5 it appears that Victoria is the best endowed Slate having substantial reserves of biown coal, oil and gas. In contrast, Western Australia has coal reserves sufficient only for about 50 years, but possesses substantial reserves of gas with associated crude oil and gas liquids. Unfortunately these arc situated well away from the main population centres. COMMISSION 1'NF.RCiY STUDll'-S To compare nuclear power properly with the alternatives, it is essential to have up-to-date information on all energy forms and also to have staff qualified and experienced to make the comparisons. The Commission has some small groups which collect and analyse energy data and assess energy patterns and trends relating to overseas countries as well as Australia. As a result, the Commission is able to maintain direct involvement in a number of important organisations •' 1 I'J = 1()15 joules =: 278 million k\Vh. Text conliiiueil /><(!,'<• 2-4. 21 Total OIL . 181% Energy

WOOD - 15 6% BLACK COAL - 56 1% PJ*

BAGASSE - 1 2% HYDRO . 0 6% BROWN COAL - 7.7%

OIL . 33 1%

BLACK COAL - 47 5% lyl? ",,,,', ' 1042 PJ

WOOD•72% BAGASSE•19% BROWN COAL - 9 4% HYDRO - 09%

OIL . 451\ 1651 PJ

BHOWN COAL . 12.2H HYDRO - 16% , •— NATURAL GAS .<0 01% J I WOOD -30% BAGASSE - 2.0% OIL

BLACK COAL

-OIL- 47.1% 2660 PJ i BROWN COAL BROWN COAL -109% HYDRO - 21% BAGASSE-2 4% / l~ WOOD - 11% / — NATURAL GAS -78% HYDRO

PEMBfrl BAGASSE OIL - 41 1% BLACK COAL • 32 7%

3890 PJ WOOD

NATURAL GAS BHOWN COAL - 10 0% HYDRO - 1.4%, .. NATURAL GAS 12 4% BAGASSE • 19% WOOD - 0 5% — 'PJ = W'iou/cs

Figure 3. Priinc\"y energy use in Australia. (Source: Department oj National Development.)

22 TABLE 4 ESTIMATED AUSTRALIAN CONSUMPTION, PRODUCTION AND PROVEN RECOVERABLE RESERVES OF COAL, OIL AND NATURAL GAS

Proven Recover- Consumption Production able Reserves 1976 1976 at 3 1/1 2/76 Heat Heat Heat Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value EJ* EJ* EJ* Black 31.3xl06t 0.78 84.2xl06t 2.30 20,153xl06t 575 Coal Brown 30.9xlOGt 0.29 30.9x1 06t 0.29 30,200x!0fit 300 Coal Crude 36x1 06m3 1.34 24x1 08m3 0.90 224x1 06m3 8.4 Oil Nat. 6x1 09m3 0.23 6x1 0'm3 0.23 746.x lO'm3 29.3 Gas Gas 0.9x1 06m3 0.02 4xl06m3 0.11 257xlOfim3 6.8 Liq.

TABLE 5 PROVEN RECOVERAIJLE AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL FUEL RESERVES AT DECEMBER 1976 (EJ*)

State Black Brown Crude Natural Gas Total Coal Coat Oil Gas Liquids NSW 250 — — — 250 Victoria 300 7.1—1 S.16 2.30 318 Queensland 30—5 0.01 O.OS 0.01 305 10 — S. Aust. — 0.29 3.68 1.12 15 W. Aust. S — 0.97 17.39 3.42 30 Tasmania 2 2 — — Australia 575 300 8.3—8 29.3—1 6.85 920

* 1 EJ = 1018 joules. (Source: Tables 4 and 5 — ''Towards an Energy Policy for Australia", Institution of Engineers, Australia (1977).) 23 investigating aspects of world energy problems and their possible effect on Australian energy developments. An essential component of this work within the Commission involves the collection of information relevant to national nuclear power programs around the world, including assessments of forward plans. Using this information, requirements of each individual country for uranium supplies can be estimated and. by combining the information with a knowledge of uranium supply contracts already existing, an assessment can be made of Australia's uranium marketing opportunities. Representation on Energy Organisations The Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Commission arc members of the National Energy Advisory Committee (NEAC). Through representation on NEAC Standing Group No. 2 (Energy Economics, Resources, Trade and Forecasting), Commission staff have provided technical assistance on relevant topics and, in November 1977, the Commission hosted a Workshop on Energy Projections sponsored by NEAC. The Workshop also examined various mathematical models and reviewed the adequacy of data on energy and related fields. The Head of the Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, Professor S. T. Butler, was named as a member of the National Energy Research Development and Demonstration Council, established by the Government in 1978. The Commission is represented on the Australian National Committee of the World Energy Conference and contributed to the work of its Subcommittee on Energy which prepared material for the World Energy Conference report on supply and demand aspects of energy resources in the period 1985-2020. The Commission was represented also at the Tenth World Energy Conference at Istanbul in September 1977 and provided a panellist for the Round Table Session on Nuclear and Unconventional Energy Resources. The Institution of Engineers, Australia, invited Commission staff to be members of the Task Force on Energy and to work with its various working parties undertaking wide-ranging studies related to the Australian energy scene and the impact upon it of world energy supply and demand. Such representations on national and international bodies and the consequent direct participation in supporting studies assist the Commission in its overall reviews of energy matters and of the role which nuclear energy will play in helping to meet world energy demand. Energy Modelling Australian interest has developed recently in modelling energy production and consumption using computers. As part of its program of examining the long-term use of energy in Australia, the Commission is acquiring a suite of computer codes designed and developed by the Brookhavcn National Laboratory. USA, and known as the Brookhavcn Energy System Optimisation Model (BESOM). BESOM is an optimisation model of the US energy system producing an optimum fuel mix for a given reference year. The overall criterion can be based on monetary costs, and on environmental or pollution ''costs". This detailed examination of the energy sector can be used in a more general economic model to determine whether the assumed energy costs are valid.

24 2 URANIUM

WORLD URANIUM RESOURCES

The most recent estimates of major world resources of uranium arc summarised in Table 6. These estimates, with the exception of minor updates for the USA and Australia, arc from the report on "Uranium — Resources, Production and Demand", December 1977, published by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD Nuclear Energy Agency) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). This report is the latest of a scries of surveys prepared by a joint OECD Nuclear Energy Agency-IAEA Working Party on Uranium Resources. Commission staff participated in the preparation of this report. The resource classification of "Reasonably Assured Resources" can be considered as reserves in the mining sense. The cost category below US$SO/kg uranium (U) of this classification is considered to be the current economic range for uranium recovery. Exploration is mainly directed towards increasing the size of and confidence in resources in this lower-cost category. Due to rising costs for exploration, development and production, the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency- IAEA Working Party has increased its cost range for this category from less than US$26/kg U (US$10/lb uranium oxide (U:iOO) in 1970 to less than US$80/kg U (US$30/lb U:iO,) in 1977. Between 1970 and 1977, Reasonably Assured Resources in this lower-cost category have almost doubled from 840,000 tonnes U to 1,650,000 tonnes U. The major national contributors to this increase have been Australia, Niger, South Africa and the USA. A program known as the International Uranium Resources Evaluation Project is bsing undertaken by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency-IAEA Steering Group on Uranium Resources. In the first phase of this project, an assessment of the potential for discovering uranium resources beyond those described in the scries of OECD Nuclear Energy Agency-IAEA surveys on uranium resources, production and demand will be published. The Commission represents Australia on this Steering Group. 25 TAHLK 6: KSTIMATKl) WORLD Rl.SOUKCI.S OF 11KAMUM'» (tonnes uranium) Cost Ran«c to Cost Range USS 80/kg" UC) US$80-! 30/kg U») (US$30/lb U.-.O.s) (US$30-50/ib U:,0s) Country Reasonably Estimated Reasonably Estimated Assured Additional Assured Additional Resources13) Resources'4) Resources'3' Resources'4' Algeria 28,000 50,000 — Australia'5' 290,000 47,000 9,OWO —6,000 Canada") 167,000 392,000 15,000 264,000 France 37,000 24,100 14,800 20,000 20,000 5,000 Gabon — 5,000 India 29,800 23,700 160,000 53,000 — — Niger — — South Africa") 306,000 34,000 42,000 38,000 Sweden 1,000 3,000 300,000 — USA'8) 530,000 780,000 155,000 290,000 Other Countries'9) 86,500 43,800 44,900 38,000 TOTAL 1,655,300 1 ,455,600 580,700 661,000

(1) Data for countries other than Australia and USA, from "Uranium — Resources, Produc- tion and Demand", joint report by OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency (Paris, December 1977). No estimates are available for the 71SSR, Eastern Europe and China. (2) USS per kilogram U is the accepted international method for quoting ycllowcakc costs and prices. These cost categories must not be confused with market prices. Previous development costs or profits are not included. US$80 per kilogram U = SA70 per kilogram U approximately. (3) "Reasonably Assured Resources" refers to uranium that occurs in known mineral deposits of such size, grade and configuration that it could be recovered within the given production cost ranges with currently proven mining and processing technology. Estimates of tonnage and grade arc based on specific sample data and measurements of the deposits and on knowledge of deposit characteristics. "Reasonably Assuicd Resources" have a high assurance of existence and in the cost category below US$80/kg U arc considered as "Reserves". (4) "Estimated Additional Resources" refers to uranium in adi'iiion to "Reasonably Assured Resources" expected to occur, mostly on the basis of direct geological evidence, in extensions of well-explored deposits, little explored deposits and undiscovered deposits believed to exist along a well-defined geological trend with known deposits. Such deposits can be identified, delineated and the uranium subsequently recovered, all within the given cost ranges. Estimates of tonnage and grade arc based primarily on knowledge of the deposit characteristics as determined in its best known parts or in similar deposits. Less reliance can be placed on the estimate in this category than for "Reasonably Assured Resources". (5) Data for Australia compiled by AAEC as at 30 June 1978. "Estimated Additional Resources" arc confined to those known uranium deposits where there arc insufficient data to classify the resources as "Reasonably Assured", and to extensions of known deposits beyond the limits of "Reasonably Assured Resources" in those deposits. (6) The resources for Canada arc reported as being mineable at /inVc.v up to US$104/ki: U and between US$104-156/kg U. (7) Includes Namibia. (8) Atomic Encrcy Clearing House, Concrcssional Information Bureau, Inc., Vol. 24, No. 23, Washington, 5 June 1978. (9) Argentina, Auriria, Brazil, Central African Empire, Chile, Denmark (Greenland). Finland, Federal Republic of Germany. Italy, Japan, Korea. Madagascar. Mexico, Philippines, Portugal, Somalia, Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom, Yugoslavia, Zaire. 26 AUSTRALIAN URANIUM RESOURCES Australia's reasonably assured uranium resources recoverable at less than US$80/kg U (i.e. reserves) at 30 June 1978 totalled 290,000 tonnes uranium. This was an increase of 1,000 tonnes on the total of the previous year. No efforts were made in Australia during the year to undertake further exploration to increase the reserves of the major uranium deposits. Significant mineralisation was announced in the Barotc area to the west of Jabiluka in the Northern Territory, but further exploration will be necessary to assess this resource. In South Australia, drilling is continuing at Olympic Dam on Roxby Downs, but more information is required to assess the resource. The total of 290,900 tonnes uranium at 30 June 1978 represents about IS per cent of the Western World's reasonably assured resources recoverable at up to US$80/kg U. The rate at which uranium reserves arc being proved in other countries is reflected in this decrease in the percentage of the Australian reserves. At 30 June 1976, Australia's reserves represented 21 per cent of the Western World's reasonably assured low cost resources, and at 30 June 1977 represented 20 per cent of the total known in the Western World. The reasonably assured resources recoverable in the cost range US$80 to US$130/kg U as at 30 June 1978 now total 9,000 tonnes, an increase of 2,000 tonnes on the previous year. Estimated additional resources recoverable at less than US$80/kg U have increased by 3,000 tonnes to 47,000 tonnes. The Commission's estimates of additional resources arc made as indicated in the notes to Table 6 and as such arc more restrictive than the definition by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency-IAEA. Estimated additional resources in the cost range US$80 to US$130/kg U have been increased by 1,000 tonnes to 6,000 tonnes. MARKET FOR URANIUM During (he year the market was overshadowed by (lie short-term effects of the Canadian embargo on uranium exports, a potential major purchase of uranium by Japan from US Government slocks, the longer-term effects of the Australian Government decisions on uranium export, and by US Government decisions on early feed requirements for enrichment contracts. The Canadian embargo on deliveries of uranium to the European Economic Community (EEC) and Japan has been lifted, but during 1977 it rcsv'tcd in additional spot and short-term sales in the USA to meet immediate requite, ••ents. Non-US uranium buyers arc likely to seek greater diversification in their sources of supply and to increase inventories to minimise the effects of future interruptions to deliveries due to industrial and political instabilities. Because of the continuing imbalance in Japan-US trade, there have been suggestions of a major Japanese purchase of enriched uranium from the US Government. The US nuclear industry is against this possibility claiming it is not in the long-term interests of US domestic uranium needs. Such an advanced sale of enriched uranium could have a destabilising effect on the uranium market. Australia's rale of entry into the market is still uncertain and potential buyers arc monitoring developments concerning mining projects and Government policies relating to the export marketing of uranium. The Commission believes that Australia could contract to supply up to 10,000 tonnes uranium a year by 1985. In early 1976, the Commission estimated the total world requirement in 27 1985 as 80.000-100.000 tonnes of uranium a year and the potential Australian share as 16,000-19,000 tonnes of uranium a year. The revised estimate for supply by Australian producers in 1985 is a reflection of the sales gained in the past two years by alternative producers and the downturn in the market due to the continuing delay in nuclear power programs. Enrichment contracts require the customer to supply uranium feed in a fixed schedule of deliveries commencing well in advance of product delivery. The slippage in nuclear power programs has caused the rescheduling of many enriched uranium deliveries, but early feed deliveries are still enforceable. Supply and direct consumption have been in balance since 1974. Future feed requirements would be drawn partly from industry inventories built up from pre-1974 surplus production and partly from supplies which would become available for delivery in the 1980s. As an indication of the difference in the quantities involved, present enrichment contracts of US utilities call for an additional 30 per cent uranium feed over estimated consumption for the period 1977-85. A major relaxation in the early feed requirement could lead to a decrease in contracting activity with utilities allowing a run-down in inventories. This would have adverse cflccts on price and long-term exploration and production developments. Most utilities have contracted for sufficient uranium supplies to meet their direct requirements to the early 1980s and regard any excess enriched material to which they may be committed as long-term inventory. The net effect could be a steady decrease in market growth through the 1980s. The reported price for uranium sales reached a plateau early in 1976 at US$l()4/kg U (US$40/lb UA). There appear to be sufficient continuing supplies at this level. Current prices in the past year have risen slowly under the influence of short-term market pressures, as discussed above, but have not matched inflation rates. As most sales are quoted in US dollars, the decrease in exchange rate relative to Japanese and major European currencies has resulted in the equivalent of a 15-20 per cent price fall to buyers in these countries. Against this, the lower prices on earlier long-term contracts continue to be renegotiated upwards towards present contracted values. Buyers continued to attempt to minimise uranium costs and to improve security of supply by entering into joint ventures on exploration and production with mining companies. Major long-term contracts were reported during the year between South African producers and French and Iranian buyers at prices substantially below market values. However, these buyers are providing major loans to meet the costs for new and expanded production capacity. Major Canadian domestic sales arc reported as being below market prices, but again with off- setting financial advantages to the suppliers. Recent Canadian export contracts arc reported to be at present market prices. CURRHNT URANIUM PRODUCTION The high growth rate in nuclear power (12 per cent per year) continued to encourage the expansion of world uranium production. In the USA, production for 1977 increased by about 17 per cent to 1 1,460 tonnes uranium. Average ore grade was maintained at 0.15 per cent U-O.s and recovery from ore averaged 92 per cent. A total of about 380 tonnes was recovered from solution mining, phosphates and mine waters. Canadian production for 1977 increased by about 12 per cent to 5,400 tonnes. While major increases in production capability arc being planned (up to 12,000-14,000 tonnes uranium a year in 1985), an environmental and socio- 28 economical study of the effects of mining and milling on the Cluff Lake area of Saskatchewan lias delayed new projects in this region for several years. Ore grades at existing mines arc still decreasing. Dcnison Mines reported a drop in grade to about 0.10 per cent U:;O.s, although an increase in annual milling throughout to 1.9 million tonnes raised output to 1,815 tonnes uranium for 1977. French production from domestic mines was about 2,100 tonnes uranium. Gabon produced about 900 tonnes uranium as prc-conccntrates for final processing in France. Niger produced 1,440 tonnes uranium as concentrate, of which 990 tonnes were delivered to France. Cic. Minierc d'Akouta (COM1NAK) began production in Niger during ihc year. Rated capacity is to be 2,000 tonnes uranium a year by 1980. South African uranium production capacity from gold mines was increased by expansion of plant capacity at Vaal Reefs and resumption of uranium extraction at President Brand. Similar projects arc under development at other gold mines. Future mining is likely to be optimised on the combined value of gold and uranium. The Joint Metallurgical Scheme to recover uranium from old gold tailings has experienced technical problems and recovery rates were below design levels. South Africa produced 3,120 tonnes uranium in 1977. In Namibia, modifications to the Ro'ssing mill were approaching completion, but a major fire has now delayed full production (4.200 tonnes uranium/year) until 1979. Output for 1977 is estimated to be about 2,500 tonnes uranium. Promising indications of other large low-grade deposits have been reported, but the present political instability in the area is likely to retard further development. WORLD URANIUM AND ENRICHMENT REQUIREMENTS For several years the Commission has presented in the Annual Report its most recent forecasts for fuel cycle requirements, based on the nuclear power projections given in Table I (Chapter 1). The assumptions underlying these forecasts may vary between countries and require judgments on matters including the relative numbers and capacity factors of different types of nuclear power reactors to be installed, lead times in the fuel cycle stages from uranium mining to the loading of fabricated fuel into the reactors, the reject uranium 235 assay in tails from enrichment plants and the influence of plans for reprocessing and recycling of fissile material from spent fuel. The only major change lo these assumptions compared with previous presentations involves the recycling of plutonium in light-water reactors. This is not expected lo take place to a significant extent during the period covered by the forecasts. As noted in Chapter 1, the Commission's nuclear power estimates arc produced in terms of the best available published projections for the growth of nuclear power, as well as for "High" and "Low" limits (high and low growth assessments). Forecasts for fuel cycle requirements arc made for each of these three cases and they allow for some variation in underlying assumptions between each case. The justification for this approach is based on the general resource and economic situations which would apply to high or low nuclear growth prospects. For example, a situation in which "High" nuclear growth occurred would lead to a strong demand for uranium and for enrichment services. The latter could cause the raising of tails assays at enrichment plants if there was a shortage of enrichment capacity. 29 The most recent forecasts for fuel cycle requirements, based on the Com- mission's assessment of most probable growth for nuclear power, arc given in Tables 7 and 8 at intervals from 1977 to 1990. Upper and lower limits which could apply to the requirements values and which have been derived respectively from the "High" and "Low"' nuclear power growth rates, are illustrated separately in Figures 4. 5 and 6. The forecasts arc the requirements for direct consumption to generate nuclear power. The market demand, however, is influenced by several other factors and can vary significantly from consumption requirements. ENRICHMENT Contractual commitments for enrichment services during 1977-78 to the Western World outside the USA were divided between the US Department of Energy (DOE) (approximately 70 per cent) and the USSR's exporting organisation, Tcchsnabcxport (approximately 30 per cent). The US Department of Energy (DOE) increased prices on fixed commitment contracts by 22 per cent to USS74.85/SWU* from 29 November 1977. and on requirements contracts by about 19 per cent to US$83.15/SWU or a lower "ceiling" value from 29 March 1978. DOE has now offered existing customers the option to change to an "adjustable" fixed commitment contract, which would offer more flexibility in product delivery schedules and a shorter fixed commitment period. Separative work prices under this contract have not been published. Tcchsnabcxport prices arc set to be equivalent to those charged by DOE. There have been a number of attempts by legislators in the US Congress to bring in legislation to permit DOE to impose "commercial" prices for separative work. None of these attempts has been successful so far. The present "commercial" level is about USS100/SWU, which is somewhat lower than the current (escalated) prices believed to be charged by EUROD1F and URENCO, although neither of these plants is as yet at the stage of full commercial production. Table 9 summarises enrichment contract commitments up (o 1990 by all present and immediately forthcoming enrichment suppliers. iVIANUFACTURE OF URANIUM HEXAFLUORIDE All commercial uranium enrichment plants require feed material to be in gaseous form. Uranium hcxafluoride (UF,,) is the only compound of uranium which is readily gasified, and its manufacture. Icrmcd "conversion", is (he first stage of upgrading the crude uranium oxide product ("ycllowcakc") from uranium mining and milling operations. There arc five commercial producers of uranium hcxafluoridc in the Western World — two in the USA and one each in Canada, France and the UK (sec Table 10). Their total hcxafluoridc production capacity (more than 36,000 tonnes uranium/year) exceeds the current demand by about 50 per cent. Despite plans to increase production capacity, the US Nuclear Assurance Corporation (NAC) forecasts that the growth in nuclear power will lead to a demand for uranium hcxafluoridc which will exceed supply capacity in the USA by 1981, and in the Western World by 1983. This supply-demand imbalance seems likely to be aggravated by further environmental protection regulations. Lead times of about five years have been forecast for new hcxafluoridc plants in the USA, and a plant of 10,000 tonnes uranium/year capacity could cost in the range USS75-100 million (1977 dollars).

* Separative Work Unit. Text continued page 33. 30 TABLE 7

ANNUAL REQUIREMENTS FOR URANIUM, CONVERSION AND ENRICHMENT (AAEC Rest Estimates)

1977 1980 1985 1990 URANIUM — IN THOLIS AND TONNES U/YEAR USA 10.0 13.2 21 31 W. EUROPE 8.9 11.5 IS 28 JAPAN 2.1 2.S 6 7 W. WORLD 23.0 29.8 54 79 CONVERSION SERVICES — IN THOUSAND TONNES U/YEAR USA 10.7 13.0 20 30 W. EUROPE 7.3 9.4 17 27 JAPAN 2.3 2.6 6 8 W. WORLD 20.9 25.4 49 76 ENRICHMENT SERVICES — IN MILLIONS SWU/YEAR USA 6.3 7.9 12 18 W. EUROPE 4.2 4.9 10 16 JAPAN 1.5 1.6 3 5 W. WORLD 12.3 14.6 29 46

TANLK S

CUMULATIVE REQUIREMENTS FROM 1976 FOR URANIUM AND ENRICIIM ENT SERVICES (AAEC Best Estimates)

1977 1980 1985 1990 URANIUM — IN THOUSAND TONNES U USA 10.0 46.1 136 272 W. EUROPE 8.9 44.1 125 246 JAPAN 2.1 10.4 32 66 W. WORLD 23.0 107 324 669 ENRICHMENT SERV1CES — 1NMILLIONS SWU USA 6.3 27.0 79 161 W. EUROPE 4.2 20.1 62 132 JAPAN 1.5 6.6 19 39 W. WORLD 12.3 55.2 170 365 31 200 200 I I I ANNUALI ANNUAL WESTERN WORLD WESTERN WORLD REQUIREMENTS REQUIREMENTS FOR FOR URANIUM CONVERSION TO u 150 150 —|—URANIUM > HEXAFLUORIDE cc cc HI I I ! £ a. "HIGH"ESTIMATE (/) ul 1 100 o a H < U)

I 50 t-

19771980 1985 1990 1995 2000 1977 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Figure 4. Figure 5.

WESTERN WORLD REQUIREMENTS FOR ENRICHMENT SERVICES

1977 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Figure 6. 32 TAI5LE ') SUMMARY OF ENRICHMENT CONTRACT COMMITMENTS (Million S\VU) (excluding US domestic contracts) Annual Quantities Cumulative Supplier 1980 1985 1990 1976-1990 US DOE (exports) 7.6 13.1 151.5 Techsnabcxport 3.4 2.6 ';i 40.2 URENCO 0.6 2.1 2.2 20.2 EURODIF 6.1 10.7 9.6 109.8 TOTAL 17.7 2S.5 26.6 321.7

TABU': 1(1 COMMERCIAL CONVERSION PLANTS IN THE WESTERN WORLD Present Capacity Planned Owner Location (tonnes Expansion U/year) (tonnes U/year) USA Allied Chemicals Metropolis, 111. 12,700 Kcrr-McGcc Scquoyah, Okla. 4,545 9,090 (end 1978) CANADA Eldorado Port Hope, Out. 4,000 10,000 (1981) (Second facility) FRANCE Comurhcx Picrrclattc 8,000 12,000 (1980) UK British Nuclear Springficlds 7,500 9,500 Fuels Ltd (1980)

WORLD URANIUM ENRICHMENT CAPACITY No commitments to build new enrichment facilities were announced during the year. There was, however, some capacity increase in enrichment facilities in. Europe, a start on construction of a Japanese pilot plant, and an announcement by South Africa of its intention to convert its present pilot plant to commercial production. USA The Department of Energy (DOE), which took over the responsibility of the former Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) from October 1977, is expanding its enrichment capacity by the Cascade Improve- ment and Upgrading Programs (C1P and CUP) in gaseous diffusion plants at 33 Oak Ridge, Portsmouth and Paducah. Following President Carter's statement in his Message to Congress on 20 April 1977 that further US enrichment capacity would use the gas centrifuge technology because of its lower energy consumption, it was announced on 11 July 1977 that a gas centrifuge enrichment plant would be built at Portsmouth instead of the previously authorised "add-on" gaseous diffusion plant. This plant will cost US$4.2 to 4.5 billion (1978 dollars). Operation is expected to begin in 1987 when capacity will be 1.1 million SWU/ycar, with commercial production beginning in 1988 when capacity will reach 2.2 million SWU/ycar. Additional capacity will be installed as required by the customers. The production capabilities of the DOE diffusion plants arc limited by the availability of electrical power. US production in the 1977 fiscal year was about 15.4 million SWU, even though capacity had reached 19.3 million SWU/ycar by January 1977. The limited availability of power will continue until 1985 although the full diffusion plant capacity of 28 million SWU/ycar will be installed by 1981. Power is supplied under contracts with the Tennessee Valley Authority and the Ohio Valley Electric Company, although a proportion of this power is available only on a "best effort" basis. There arc plans to negotiate a second contract with the Ohio company through to the 1990s as the present contract extends only to March 1979. Difficulties encountered by the utilities in achieving their planned generating capacities could adversely affect production from the enrichment plants. In addition, DOE has a policy to release power to its suppliers to provide electricity for residential and industrial customers in an emergency. Both of these reasons resulted in reductions in the power supplied for enrichment during the 1977 US financial year. No new plans have been announced by the private industrial groups previously proposing to build additional enrichment capacity. These proposals await the further development of US Government policies.

Europe The first 20 stages of the EURODIF gaseous diffusion plant became operational in February 1978 and the first production of enriched uranium is expected in January 1979. Full production of 10.8 million SWU/ycar is expected at the end of 1981. There has been no commitment with regard to the site or construction date of the COREDIF project. Shares in both EURODIF and COREDIF arc held by government, semi-government and private organisations in France, Italy, Spain, Belgium and Iran. URENCO Ltd announced the inauguration of what it called "the world's first two commercial centrifuge plants" in September and October 1977. These demonstration enrichment plants at Capenhurst, England, and at Almclo, in the Netherlands, will each have a capacity of 200,000 SWU/ycar and arc expected to reach this level in J978. It has been decided lo expand these plants to a total of 2 million SWU/ycar and long-term plans exist for expansion to 10 million SWU/year. URAN1T, a West German company participating in URENCO, has now applied for a permit to build an enrichment facility at Gronau in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) near the Netherlands border. No decision on this application has been announced as yet. The present agreement among the Tripartite Countries (UK, FRG and the Netherlands) will be open for re- negotiation in 1981. 34 Other Countries South Africa announced in February 1978 its decision to convert the enrichment pilot plant at Valindaba into a production plant for supplying South Africa's domestic requirements only, with no immediate provision for export as had been intended originally. The plant uses an "advanced vortex" technology developed in South Africa. No details have been given of the capacity of the plant. Construction began in 1977 on a Japanese centrifuge pilot plant, with an ultimate capacity of 50,000 SWU/ycar. at Ningyo Togc. Partial operation is expected to begin in 1979 with full operation in 1981. Following this, a demonstration plant of 500,000 SWU/ycar is planned for operation in 1984 and a commercial plant of 1 million SWU/ycar by 1988. Consideration will be given to the expansion of this capacity to 5 million SWU/ycar by 1995. Development of centrifuge technology in Japan dates back to 1959 and it was made a national project in 1972. Since then a total of 65 billion Yen has been invested by the Japanese Government. No progress has been announced on the previously reported program lo build a 180,000 SWU/ycar enrichment pilot plant in Brax.il using tlu Becker nozzle process, although details of plant design have been given to Brazil. Con- struction of this plant is part of the agreement on nuclear technology signed in 1975 between Brazil and the FRG. The USSR has contracted to supply enrichment services to Western Europe through Techsnabcxport. Although the USSR's actual enrichment capacity is unknown, it is estimated lo be between 7 and 10 million SWU/ycar. Contracted sales have been reported to total between 2 and 4 million SWU/ycar through to 1990. Comparison with Requirements Production capacity of existing and firmly planned enrichment plants has remained similar lo the previous year, although during the 1978 coal strike the US DOE diffusion plants lost some production which may not be made up. Expected production from enrichment plants in the Western World is shown in Figure 7, where it is compared with the Commission's "Best"' estimate for annual Western World requirements for separative work. These arc the same data as given in Table 7. The apparent excess of production up to 1990 would be dependent on plants actually achieving production targets. It lakes no account of a trend, presently under intensive discussion, for both producers and users lo acquire and maintain substantial stockpiles of enriched uranium cither intentionally or due to nuclear power program slippages. Enrichment suppliers taken into account in this comparison include DOE (expanded diffusion plants plus the proposed centrifuge plant), URENCO (to 2 million SWU/ycar), EUROD1F, and the estimated Tcchsnabcxport supply (o European customers. At this time, no other plants can be taken lo be firmly committed lo actual production.

DEVELOPMENT OE ENRICHMENT PROCESSES CENTRIFUGE TECHNOLOGY The official inauguration of the URENCO demonstration plants at Capcn- hurst and Almclo led to release of some details of the centrifuge cascade designs. Whereas the Almclo plant is composed of centrifuges with individual casings connected by pipework lo form an enriching cascade, the Capcnluirst plant has 35 a group of centrifuges housed in one casing with the result that the interconnecting pipework is apparently reduced significantly. No details of the centrifuge rotor design have been released. Some design details have been made available for a modular plant of 1 million SWU/ycar capacity. The cost of this plant would be from 800 to 1,000 DM* per unit of capacity (SWU/year) and the electric power supply required would be 20 M\V with steady power requirements of about 15 MVV or about 130 k\Vh/S\VU. Compared with the gaseous diffusion process where the power consumption is of the order of 2.500 k\Vh/S\VU, the centrifuge offers considerable savings in energy. The centrifuge design (a different type of machine to the URENCO centrifuge) to be used in the Portsmouth plant in the USA is reported to require 104 M\V for 8.8 million SWU/ycar capacity or 104kWhpcrSWU. France French development of the gaseous diffusion process is continuing. France has claimed that an economic improvement of 2 to 3 per cent per year has been obtained and that a power consumption of 2,100 k\Vh/S\VU may be achieved. Considerable emphasis has been given by France to a chemical exchange process which is said to reduce the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation by its unsuitabilily for production of highly-enriched uranium. This is due to an in- herently long equilibrium time and to criticality problems at high enrichments. The economics of the process arc also claimed to be attractive. It could be possible to build the first production units in the second half of the 1980s.

LASER TECHNOLOGY Research and development are continuing in several countries using lasers to separate uranium isotopes. A major program of research and development continued in the USA, much of it through government-supported work at the Los Alamos and the Lawrence Livcrmore research laboratories. The Exxon Corporation and its Avco-Evcrctt research laboratories have produced 6 per cent enriched uranium 235 by ion extraction after ionisation of uranium vapour with a laser. Application has been made for a licence to construct an experimental facility in 1979 to provide data for a commercial plant which may be built in the mid-1980s. Other laser programs have used molecular uranium, e.g. uranium hexafluoridc, and have required the development of suitable tunable lasers.

REPROCESSING OF SPENT FUEL The implications of reprocessing spent fuel from nuclear power reactors and the disposal of unrcproccsscd spent fuel as a waste material are being examined closely in the International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation (INFCE). Meanwhile, the USA and Europe arc divided in their policies on reprocessing. President Carter has proposed that commercial reprocessing be deferred indefinitely in the USA to minimise the risk of plutonium misuse. In contrast, the European Economic Community (EEC) has emphasised the energy potential in spent fuel which could be realised through reprocessing and reuse of plutonium in fast breeder reactors. This view has been endorsed by the European Parliament, which has approved the further development of the fast breeder and its plutonium

* $AI = DM 2.37 (June 1978). 36 60 I I I WESTERN WORLD ENRICHMENT Comparison of supply and requirements

50 "REASONABLY ASSURED- SUPPLY

ANNUAL SEPARATIVE WORK REQUIREMENTS 10 ("BEST" ESTIMATE)

Figure 7.

1977 1980 1985 1990 fuel cycle, while calling also for improvement in plutonium safeguards and for research into alternative fast breeder technologies with improved anti-proliferation characteristics.

I5f'GNOMIC RFNFI ITS I ROM REPROCFSSINC, Studies in the USA have continued to conclude that there is an economic advantage for reprocessing and recycle of uranium and plutonitim over the "once- through" fuel cycle. The Atomic Industrial Forum assessed that reprocessing and recycle of commercial fuel in the USA would show an accumulated benefit over a once-through cycle of US$23.3 billion (1977 dollars) for a nuclear generation capacity reaching 507 GW by 2000 on the assumption that US uranium reserves were limited to 1.73 million tonnes U;iOs (1.47 million tonnes uranium). Assuming the availability of unlimited reserves of uranium, a benefit of US$40 billion was concluded for reprocessing up to the year 2013. The American Physical Society has concluded that a reduction of about 9 per cent in current fuel cycle costs could result from reprocessing and recycle of uranium and plutonium in light-water reactors. Benefits would be reduced to about 5 per cent by delaying reprocessing and recycle for 10 years. Uranium recycle alone, plus 10-year storage of plutonium, could increase current fuel cycle costs by 2 per cent. A study by the US DOE on alternative reprocessing-rccyclc strategies concluded that reprocessing and recycle of uranium and plutonium could reduce overall fuel cycle costs by US$18 billion and reduce US requirements for fresh 37 uranium to the year 2000 by about 24 per cent. Alternative strategy sludics were reprocessing without recycle or with recycle of uranium only; "coprocessing", in which fission products would be removed but plutoniuin not separated from uranium; and the "tandem cycle", in which spent fuel discharged from light- water reactors might be used for refuelling heavy-water reactors in order to use part of the residual energy content without reprocessing. The alternatives reduced the cost saving to less than US$2 billion. All these comparative estimates are sensitive to assumptions made on the prices of fresh uranium and enrichment services and on costs for reprocessing and recycle operations. The estimates arc consistent in highlighting that any economic benefits which might accrue from reprocessing depend on acceptance of plutonium recycling.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS National developments in reprocessing were as follows. USA The reduction in the reprocessing budget requested for 1979 (US$57 million) to about half of the 1978 allocation reflects the President's proposal for an indefinite deferral of commercial reprocessing. The US General Accounting Office reported that the supply of fresh uranium for domestic use without reprocessing would be adequate at least until 1990, and claimed that a future uranium shortage could be overcome by reprocessing spent fuel held in retrievable storage. DOE is examining options for the future of the abandoned Nuclear Fuels Services Inc. reprocessing plant at West Valley, NY, which was the only commercial reprocessing plant to have been operated in the USA. Plant decommissioning and ultimate disposal of the high-level wastes held in temporary storage on the site may require Federal aid and possibly transfer of ownership. The future of the partially completed Allied General Nuclear Services reprocessing plant at Barnwcll, South Carolina, remains undecided. A preliminary study by DOE has considered Barnwcll's capability for demonstration of anti- proliferation reprocessing technologies and multinational operation, but no recommendations were made. An on-going study of detailed plans for Barnwell is forming part of the US contribution to 1NFCE. Europe The European Economic Community (EEC) has proposed a coordinated development of reprocessing and plutonium reuse to be compatible with safeguards and environment protection requinvncnts. The Community has predicted a shortfall in reprocessing capacity until 1986-89. Belgium is planning to decon- taminate and modify the old Eurochcmic reprocessing plant for operation in the early 1980s. United Kingdom British Nuclear Fuels Ltd (13NFL) has Government approval to refurbish an existing plant built in the early 1960s for reprocessing of spent fuel from the UK gas graphite reactor program. A major public inquiry was held between May and November 1977 into an application by BNFL for permission to construct a new, large-scale reprocessing plant at the Windscale factory. The plant, estimated to cost about £600 million ($A970 million), will be designed to reprocess spent uranium oxide fuel from thermal reactors in Britain and overseas. 3S The Windscalc Inquiry, which was chaired by Mr Justice Parker, heard generic and site specific arguments for and against the proposed Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant (THORP). The Inquiry report, presented to the UK Secretary of State for Environment on 26 January 1978, concluded that reprocessing of domestic and foreign fuels at Windscalc was in accord with national and international interests, and recommended proceeding with the construction of the new plant. The recommendations of the report were supported by the British Government following a Parliamentary debate on 22 March 1978. Construction of the fuel storage ponds for the THORP plant is expected to begin in 1979, followed by work on the main plant in 1982. France France has rccommissioncd the UP2 reprocessing plant at La Hague, which has been modified to accept uranium oxide fuel fiom thermal reactors, with a reprocessing campaign of 60 tonnes of light-water reactor fuel. It is intended to increase plant through-put progressively to about 800 tonnes/year by 1981. The owner-operator of UP2, COGEMA, intends using the plant for reprocessing oxide fuel from domestic reactors and to fulfil a contract for reprocessing 1,600 tonnes of oxide fuel from Japan. COGEMA is also negotiating to reprocess some spent fuel from Europe at UP2. A further plant, UPS, is planned for construction by the late 1980s and will be committed to future overseas reprocessing contracts. Subject to the final approval of the Swedish Government, the Swedish Nuclear Fuel Supply Corp. has contracted with COGEMA for reprocessing 50 tonnes of spent fuel. The contract provides for the ultimate return of radioactive wastes to Sweden. France has supplied Pakistan with reprocessing technology, and construction of a reprocessing plant is believed to be in progress. Proposals by France for modification of the plant to coproccss the fuel (that is not to separate plutonium from uranium in support of non-proliferation objectives) arc reported to have been rejected by the Pakistan Government. West Germany The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) has proposed a site at Gorlcbcn (West Saxony) for a commercial reprocessing plant of 1,400 tonnes uranium/year capacity for spent oxide fuels in the 1990s, but has encountered organised environmental opposition. The West German Reactor Safety Commission and the Radiation Protection Commission have approved this site as technologically feasible and safe. A site for central storage of up to 4,000 tonnes of spent fuel at Ahaus in North Rhine-Westphalia is scheduled for completion by 1983. The FRG Government has announced that no new permits will be granted for export of reprocessing technology or equipment following fulfilment of a contract to supply Brazil with details for construction of a reprocessing plant. Japan Following negotiations with the USA, Japan has commissioned the Tokai Mura reprocessing plant on irradiated fuel. The plant has a design capacity of 210 tonnes a year of spent oxide fuel. The USA initially opposed the use of the Tokai Mura plant for reprocessing of any fuel supplied by the USA, in accordance with the initiatives of President Carter on deferral of commercial reprocessing. Conditions mutually agreed for operation on a two-year interim basis allow Japan to produce pure plutoniuin nitrate for storage. The agreement precludes construction of facilities for conversion of the nitrate into plutonium oxide in the immediate future. 39 Indici India has commissioned the reprocessing plant at Tarapur on irradiated fuel. The plant has a nominal annual capacity of 100 tonnes of uranium as spent oxide fuel and is India's second reprocessing plant. The first was a pilot plant at Bhabha with an annual reprocessing capacity of up to 30 tonnes of uranium metal fuel. A third reprocessing plant, of similar capacity to that at Tarapur, is planned for construction at Kalpakkam by the mid-1980s. PLUTONIUM RECYC.Li-f The recovery of plutonium from spent fuel and its reuse in thermal reactors could increase the available energy from uranium by about JO per cent. Plutonium reuse in fast breeder reactors could increase the energy potential of uranium by up to 60 times. The European Economic Community (EEC), Japan and the USSR regard the development of fast breeder reactors as essential to ensure long-term stability and independence in energy supplies. International misgivings on a commitment to plulonium as an energy com- modity lie in the potential for diversion of plutonium for proliferation of nuclear weapons or theft and misuse by terrorist groups. The International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation (1NFCE) is examining alternatives in nuclear power which could prevent or minimise these risks. It has been claimed that ultimate disposal of unrcproccsscd irradiated fuel might involve the risk of its exhumation for diversion of plulonium. By contrast, fast breeder reactors could be operated to destroy plutonium recovered by reprocessing and produce additional energy. Modified reprocessing plants could be developed to produce plutonium in a denatured form amenable to use in the fuel cycle, but with increased difficulties for diversion and subsequent misuse. Development of non-plutonium reactor systems such as the thorium fuel cycle appear feasible, and might offer advantages in non-proliferation. They would involve reprocessing of spent fuel to recover uranium 233 which could, however, also be used in nuclear explosives. The "CIVEX" Process Reprocessing and recycling of plulonium arc essential features of (he fast breeder reactor fuel cycle. The US Electric Power Research Institute and the UK Atomic Energy Authority have announced the development of a process, termed "CIVEX", which could increase the security against diversion of plutonium during reprocessing of fast breeder reactor fuel. The CIVEX process involves integration of reprocessing and rcfabrication into a single plant. Pure plutonium in any form would not be produced cither as a plant product or within the process. The CIVEX process would treat spent fuel from thermal reactors or fast reactors lo give three streams. A mixture of uranium, plutonium and sclcclcd fission products would be produced in proportions suitable for continuous rcfabricalion into fasl reactor fuel assemblies. A purified uranium stream would be used to construct breeder assemblies, and a waste stream would be vitrified for final disposal. The rcfabricatcd fuel assemblies would be highly radioactive, and would require radiation shielding equivalent to about 1 metre of concrete. Attempts at theft of unshielded assemblies would involve a lethal radiation exposure. The CIVEX plant design would not be capable of producing purified plutonium. Each of the process stages has been demonstrated on a laboratory scale. The CIVEX process was announced in the context of a society in the mid- 21st century in which power was assumed to be generated by fast breeder reactors. 40 The process is expected to receive major attention by INFCE. However, for it to have a major impact on the immediate future, there would need to be a rapid program for installation of fast breeder reactors (o absorb the world stockpile of purified plutonium, construction of new reprocessing plants and conversion of all existing reprocessing plants to a C1VEX type flowsheet. The CIVEX process is primarily effective against plutonium diversion by sub-national groups and could make diversion by Governments liable to earlier detection. DISPOSAl 01- KADIO/UTIVh \\ASTI-S Radioactive wastes resulting from the generation of nuclear power arc disposed of by a combination of three principles — by concentration and containment of long-lived radioactivity, by dilution and dispersion (generally applied to short-lived or very dilute radioactive wastes), and by delay storage of very short- lived wastes which decay rapidly into non-radioactive elements. Disposal operations involving dispersion to the biosphere of gaseous liquid and solid wastes arc monitored to ensure that radiation dose to the public is maintained as low as practicable and within the recommended limits set by the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Chemical wastes containing radioactivity arc produced for disposal at all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle. Radioactive wastes from uranium mining and milling consist of ore residues and process liquors and contain the majority of the natural radioactivity from uranium decay products present in the uranium orebody. These wastes arc impounded in tailings dams at mining sites and ulti- mately arc covered with a rock and soil layer (o minimise release of radon gas and to promote rcvcgctation. (The Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry recommended that ore tailings should be returned to the open cut for rcvcgetation in situ at the completion of mining operations.) Wastes containing much lower quantities of natural radioactivity arc produced during the fuel cycle stages of hcxafluoridc manufacture, enrichment and fabrication of uranium oxide fuels. These wastes arc disposed of by shallow land burial. Substantially all of the radioactivity associated with the nuclear fuel cycle is contained in the highly-radioactive spent fuel discharged from commercial nuclear power reactors. This radioactivity consists of fission products produced during the nuclear reaction and transuranium elements produced by neutron capture in uranium nuclei. Over 99 per cent of this radioactivity is extracted into a "high-level" waste stream during reprocessing operations. Alternatively, if the fuel is not reprocessed it will itself constitute this waste. High-level wastes from nuclear power and also those produced during reprocessing for military programs arc in interim storage in tanks at reprocessing sites or as spent fuel in storage ponds. Reprocessing also gives rise to smaller quantities of radioactivity contained in relatively large volumes, and termed "low-level" wastes. These are disposed of by land burial or by discharge to oceans. HIGH-LEVEL WASTES Public attention has focusscd on the ultimate disposal of high-level wastes and long-lived transuranic wastes stored at reprocessing sites. Processes have been developed in Europe, Canada, the USA and the USSR for conversion of liquid wastes into a nearly insoluble glass (vitrification) or into a ceramic for ultimate burial in deep, stable geologic formations. France has commissioned an industrial scale demonstration plant at Marcoulc for vitrification of waste. This plant has been designed with excess capacity to 41 vitrify all high-level waste arising from the French gas-graphite nuclear power reactor program, together with a backlog of high-level waste held in storage since 1958. The design of this plant has been based on experience gained in the early 1970s from vitrification of wastes from the reprocessing of 800 tonnes of natural uranium fuel. A commercial plant to vitrify high-level waste from oxide fuel is planned for installation at La Hague by the mid-1980s. This plant will use multiple lines of similar technology to that proven at Marcoulc. The FRG has chosen the French vitrification process for incorporation into the future West German reprocessing plant proposed for construction at Gorlcbcn (West Saxony). Completion of the full-scale vitrification facility is programmed for the 1990s. A small-scale waste vitrification pilot plant is under construction at Wind- scale in the UK, based on experience gained at Harwell in the 1960s. Installation of an industrial-scale plant is planned for the early 1980s. Under the policy of indefinite deferral of commercial fuel reprocessing in the USA, no commercial high-level waste solutions would be generated. However, work at Hanford is in progress to operate a demonstration plant to vitrify waste from spent light-water reactor fuel by 1978 on a scale equivalent to the support of 10,000 MW of generating capacity. Vitrification for short periods at this scale was demonstrated in the late 1960s in the Waste Solidification Engineering Pro- totype Plant, using radioactivity extracted from military wastes. Disposal in Deep Geologic Formations Major attention is being given in many countries to identification of national locations for ultimate burial of long-lived, highly-radioactive, solid waste deep below ground level in stable geologic formations such as bedded or domed salt deposits, granite, shales and clays. An International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Advisory Group of Experts on Radioactive Waste Management and Geological Sciences has published a review of factors for consideration in siting of geologic repositories. A Task Force for Review of Nuclear Waste Management in the USA, established as part of President Carter's National Energy Plan, lias reported that the technical basis exists for proceeding with ultimate disposal of highly-radioactive solid wastes into geological containment and that (his step can be achieved in a safe and environmentally acceptable manner. This conclusion reaffirms the conclusion of independent assessments initially made by the National Academy of Sciences in 1957 and recently by the American Physical Society in 1977. These conclusions have been supported by members of (he US Geological Survey. The Task Force for Review of Nuclear Waste Management concluded that 19S8 would be (he earliest possible date for the operation of a National Waste Re- pository for disposal of vitrified high-level wastes or unprocessed spent fuel from about 4,000 GW/ycar of nuclear power. This represents a three-year slippage on the previous target of 1985. The report endorsed the establishment by 1983 of a Waste Isolation Pilot Plant for demonstration of the capability for disposal of up to 1,000 spent fuel assemblies. The pilot plant also would be used to conduct further research and development into the use of salt formations for waste emplacement and for disposal of transuranium wastes from the US defence program. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is developing criteria for evaluation of alternative sites and geologic media for this purpose. The Reactor Safety Commission and the Radiation Protection Commission in the FRG have reported that final disposal of radioactive waste in salt formations 42 is a technologically reliable and favourable solution which can provide permanent screening of wastes from the biosphere. The Commissions concluded that it had been established beyond doubt that salt formations suitable for ultimate disposal of radioactive wastes existed in Northern Germany. The extensive salt formation at Gorleben underlying the site of the proposed reprocessing plant justified test drillings and excavation to confirm confidence in its capability as a waste disposal centre. A study group established in April 1977 in the Canadian Department of Energy, Mines and Resources reported that good prospects were seen for the safe and permanent disposal of reactor wastes and irradiated fuel into geological formations in Canada. Preferred formations which arc being investigated are crystalline igneous rocks, such as deep granite plutons, with salt formations as an alternative. Concern has been expressed recently in the USA regarding the potential for increased rates of leaching of radioactivity from vitrified waste at high temperatures and pressures, and on the long-term stability of salt subjected to heat and radiation. Temperatures and radiation fluxes in a repository may be reduced by several means. These include reducing the concentration of fission products in the vitrified waste product or by allowing the shorter-lived fission products to decay in surface storage before ultimate burial of the vitrified waste, and by increasing the spacing between canisters in a repository. Ceramics with improved properties also are under study in several countries as well as alternatives to salt as geologic media. A novel proposal for incorporation of high-level wastes into specifically formulated compositions of synthetic igneous rocks has been made by researchers at the Australian National University. This work is based on observed properties of some natural minerals for immobilising a range of elements contained in the wastes. It is expected that the environmental impact of proposed repositories and the effect of these factors will be considered in 1NFCE, as well as being considered in national programs aimed at implementing waste disposal methods.

43 3 AUSTRALIAN URANIUM

6S25S3BESESSE8SS8

nil-: KANC;I-:R URANIUM PROJI-CT

The Ranger uranium deposits are situated in the Alligator Rivers Province between Mt Brockrmm and the former Mudginbcrri pastoral lease. Uranium was first discovered in the area by the joint venture partners, Pcko Mines Ltd* (Peko) and Electrolytic Zinc Company of Australasia Ltd (EZ) toward the end of 1969. The in situ resources, as announced by the companies, now stand at 85,100 tonnes uranium (U), of which 43,700 tonnes U (grade 0.25 per cent uranium oxide (UnOs)) is within No. 1 orebody and 41,400 tonnes U (grade 0.22 per cent U:iO,s) is within No. 3 orcbody. Several other anomalies exist in the same general area, but there has been insufficient drilling to date to assess the extent of the resources present. To retain their interest in these deposits, to provide for their future development and to continue exploration after expiration of their Exploration Licence in December 1975, Pcko-EZ applied for a Special Mineral Lease (SMLA 63) on 19 July 1974. This applied to an area of approximately 28.7 km2. However, in J975, the Commonwealth Government agreed under a Memorandum of Under- standing to reserve ..n area of approximately 86 km2 as the Ranger Project Area. This Project Area trended north from Mt Brockman into the south-eastern section of the Mudginbcrri pastoral lease. About half of the area was within the pastoral lease and the remainder, which included the whole of SMLA 63, was south of it. On 30 October 1974, the then Government and Pcko-EZ came to an agreement whereby the Commonwealth would contribute 72.5 per cent of the total capital expenditure incurred in the development of the Project, including necessary infrastructure, and in return would receive the net proceeds from 50 per cent of the uranium concentrates produced. Other points in the Agreement included the use

* The company name was changed from Pcko Mines Lltl to Pcko-Wallsciul Operations Llcl on 15 May 1978. 44 of the Atomic Energy Act 1953 to authorise operations, the scale of operations, the role of Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd and membership of its Board, responsibility for sales of uranium, and export contracts entered into by Peko-EZ prior to 2 December 1972. In April 1975, the Federal Government decided that an Environmental Inquiry should be held in relation to the Project and on 16 July 1975 a Com- mission, with Mr Justice R. W. Fox as the Presiding Commissioner, was appointed to conduct the Inquiry. Public hearings began on 9 September 1975 and ended on 22 February 1977. Two reports were issued (sec page 46). The 1974 Agreement (referred to above) covered broad principles only and gave rise to numerous questions. It was considered desirable therefore to elaborate and supplement this Agreement and to set out agreed understandings to facilitate the early preparation of legal contracts between the parties concerned. A Memorandum of Understanding between the Government and Peko-EZ was concluded on 28 October 1975 (sec page 51). In the Memorandum of Understanding it was foreshadowed that formal definitive and binding contracts would be required to give effect to the Memor- andum but these would not become effective until the Government had allirmcd them following consideration of: (a) the report of the Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry, and (b) a report by the Interim Aboriginal Land Commissioner on any claims by Aboriginals in respect of land within the Ranger Project Area. Following consideration of the Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry reports, the Government announced its decisions on 25 August 1977 regarding the mining and export of uranium in general, and the development of the Ranger Project in particular (sec page 46). It was decided that the Ranger Project should proceed under very strict environmental control and with due regard to the rights of the Aboriginal people. Because of its proximity to Aboriginal sacred sites, the southern boundary of the Ranger Project Area was moved approximately 1.3 km north. This change reduced the Project Area to about 78.6 km- and excluded No. 2 Anomaly which was considered to bz quite promising. The Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry, in accordance with S.I 1 of the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974, also heard claims for and recommended the granting to Aboriginal interests of large areas of unalienatcd Crown land in the Alligator Rivers Region. One of the areas recommended for granting of title to a Land Trust included the southern part of the Ranger Project Area. The Inquiry also recommended that the Mudginbcrri and the Munmarlary pastoral leases be resumed and indicated that if Aboriginal claims were lodged over them they would probably be successful. Subsequently the two pastoral leases were compulsorily resumed under the Land Acquisition Act and this was gazetted on 23 June 1978. The Government's decisions necessitated the enactment of a considerable amount of new legislation (see page 48) and the negotiation of a number of agreements between the Commonwealth, ti.c Northern Land Council (Aboriginal interests), the Australian Atomic Energy Commission (AAEC), Pcko-EZ and Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd, All legislation essential for the Project to proceed 45 was completed prior to 30 June 1978 and the negotiation of agreements is proceeding. The most critical of these agreements is that between the Commonwealth and the Northern Land Council as required under Section 44 of the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976. In accordance with the Memorandum of Understanding and uranium export guidelines laid down by the Government on 1 June 1978, preliminary discussions took pl.'.cc between the AAEC, Peko, EZ and Ranger Export Development Company Ply Ltd on the marketing of the output from Ranger with the object of commencing overseas sales negotiations early in July 1978.

AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT DECISIONS ON MINING AND EXPORT OF URANIUM On 28 October 1976 the Commission appointed to conduct the Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry submitted its first report to the Commonwealth Government and on 17 May 1977 presented its second and final report. The first report dealt with the broader issues relating to the mining and export of Australian uranium per xe. The second report dealt with matters—environmental, social, technical and economic—involved in the mining, milling and treatment of uranium deposits in the Alligator Rivers Region in the Northern Territory, in particular those concerning the Ranger Project at Jabiru. These reports, their findings and recommendations were considered in great detail by those Ministers and Departments primarily concerned, the AAEC and other interested organisations and individuals. On 25 August 1977, the Prime Minister, together with the Minister for National Resources and Minister for Overseas Trade, the Acting Minister for Foreign Afi'airs, the Minister for Health, the Minister for Aboriginal Affairs, and the Minister for Environment, Housing and Community Development announced the Government's decisions in a scries of statements u the Commonwealth Parlia- ment. These announcements were supported and amplified by background papers which were released simultaneously. Briefly, the Government's decision as announced by the Prime Minister was that there should be further development of uranium under strictly-controlled conditions and that uranium development projects would be permitted to proceed only if they satisfied certain conditions: • The mining operations must conform with a mandatory "code of practice" which the Government would progressively prescribe. • The requirements of the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974 must be complied with. 0 The Government must be satisfied as to the acceptability of the development on the environment and on the Aboriginal people—the total level of activity would be taken into account in this regard. • The sales contracts for the uranium produced must conform with the Government's safeguards policy. The Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry made more than 100 recommendations in its reports and, with relatively few exceptions, these recommendations were accepted by the Government. Attention was drawn to those recommendations which were not adopted and explanations were given. 46 The statement by the Minister for National Resources and Minister for Overseas Trade on 25 August 1977 included the following: "The Government has decided that the Ranger Project will proceed on the basis of the Memorandum of Understanding concluded between the \Vhitlam Government and Pcko-EZ. Those companies entered into these arrangements with the former Government in good faith anil the arrangements will be honoured by our Government." "Apart from the relocation of the southern boundary, the Government is prepared to agree that the Ranger Project Area and other elements of the Memorandum of Understanding will remain undisturbed." "Subject to satisfactory completion of the necessary environmental requirements and conclusion of arrangements with the Aboriginal people, the Government will take a decision on development of the Nabarlck deposit by Queensland Mines Ltd. "Decisions on the development of the Jabiluka and Koongarra deposits will b: taken following the completion of the above-mentioned requirements. In the case of Koongarra, it was made clear by the Ranger Inquiry that there would be a considerable amount of planning and investigation to be completed, particularly having in mind the fragility of the environment which could be alTcctcd by development at Koonr 'rra. "The Rangsr Inquiry recommended that there be sequential development of the mines in the Alligator Rivers Region at appropriate intervals. The existing deposits are at different stages of investigation and there will of course be different environmental and other requirements necessary in each case. This will result, in practice, in mines coming into production at different times. The Government therefore sees it as unnecessary to set down a specific timetable of sequential development and it is satisfied that completion of the requirements, which will be a prerequisite for any development in each case, will result in the Ranger Inquiry's recommendations regarding development being satisfied. "Subject to satisfactory completion of the necessary environmental requirements, the Government will also take decisions on the development of projects in the Stales." With regard to exploration in the region the Minister said: ". . . having in mind the very long lead times between successful exploration and bringing resources to the production stage, exploration may proceed in the Region, but only under strictly-controlled conditions. No exploration will be permitted for the time being in the area declared as the first stage of the proposed National Park and future exploration will be carefully controlled in accordance with the park plan of management. In that area to be declared in the subsequent stage of the National Park, exploration will be permitted in the meantime under strictly-controlled conditions to be supervised by the Departments of National Resources, Aboriginal Affairs, Northern Territory, and Environment, Housing and Community Develop- ment." The proposed Kakadu National Park as recommended by the Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry is shown in Figure 8. 47 As part of the administrative arrangements for controlling and regulating uranium developments, the Government agreed to adopt the Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry recommendation regarding the establishment of a Uranium Advisory Council. Its terms of reference, responsibilities and representation were made public in a speech by the Minister for Trade and Resources in the Common- wealth Parliament on 10 April 1978. The primary function of the Council is to advise the Government on matters relating to the export and use of Australian uranium, in particular hazards and problems associated with the production of nuclear energy and the development of uranium mining including exploration in Australia. The Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry also recommended the establishment of a Uranium Marketing Authority, but the Government deferred taking a decision on this matter until the implication of foreign anti-trust laws had been examined fully and until the States had been consulted on the nature and desir- ability of the legislation. In the meantime, the Government proposed to control and regulate the export of uranium under the Customs (Prohibited Exports) Regulations of the Customs Act 1901. The procedures to be adopted were outlined by the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Trade and Resources in a statement, to Parliament on 1 June 1978. In this statement the Minister announced that 'Mary Kathleen Uranium Ltd and the AAEC would be permitted to export uranium, the latter from the Ranger deposit. Approval for the export of uranium from other projects would be given only after full consideration by the Government following the completion of environmental procedures and compliance with the Government's foreign investment policy.

l.l-CilSI.ATlON To give cITcct to the Government's decisions, particularly those relating to the control and regulation of uranium developments, the following legislation was passed by Parliament during May and June 1978. By invitation. Commission ollicers attended interdepartmental meetings and provided constructive comments and other assistance during the various stages of the preparation of the Bills and attended as advisers during their passage through Parliament.

Lnvirunmenl Protection ( Allijjatoi i\'ivt:is l\'ij{;ion) Act 19/H The Environment Protection (Alligator Rivers Region) Act provides for the appointment of a Supervising Scientist and the establishment of a Coordinating Committee and the establishment of a Research Institute for the purpose of protecting the "iivironmcnt in the Alligator Rivers Region of the Northern Territory from the effects of uranium ruining operations, and for other purposes.

National Parks nncl Wildlife Conservation Amendment Act 1978 This amending legislation was enacted to facilitate the declaration of the Kakadu National Park in the Alligator Rivers Region. It provides for the leasing of Aboriginal land in the area to the Director of the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service to become part of the National Park; for the establishment and development of townships within the Park; for the exclusion of certain areas from the Park (these would include the Ranger Project Area and the Pancontinental and Noranda lease areas); for Stage One of the Park to be declared immediately 48 12°—

ARNHEM

NABARLEK*

LAND

, SPECIAL MINERAL LEASE JABILUKA^ ^PLICATION ft : RANGER v..SPECIAL MINERAL LEASE PROJECT^ APPLICATION 64 AREA Jl 'PL 766 :WOOLWONGA •-' !p ANGER ABORIGINAL ABORIGINAL L RESERVE: } TOWNSITE .PL SPECIAL MINERAL LEASE 747 APPLICATION 69 KOONGARRA

_MT. 13°—\ BUNDEY RESERVE PL 561 j

| I KAKAOU GOODPARLA NATIONAL PARK \ i PASTORAL S1AGF I

S LEASE STAfil" I! ^ 612 20km GIMBAT I PL 668

Figure S. Map showing Stages One and Two of the Kukadn National 1'tirk.

49 and for Stage Two to be declared initially as a conservation zone; and for any exploration undertaken in the conservation zone to be under Comir.onwcalth control. Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Amendment Act 1978 The existing Act has been amended inter cilia to give cll'cct to the Govern- ment's decisions on the Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry as far as they affect Aboriginal land rights. In particular, the amending Act provides for the granting of a considerable amount of unalicnatcd Crown land in the region to the traditional Aboriginal land owners, as recommended by Mr Justice Fox in his capacity as an Aboriginal Land Commissioner; for Aboriginal land claims to be granted over land that may have become part of a National Park: for the leasing of Aboriginal land to the Director of the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service; and for the movement of the southern boundary of the Ranger Uranium Project Area away from sacred sites at or near Mt Brockman. The Principal Act was further amended by Amendment Acts Nos. 2 and 3 which provide for (a) mining companies in the Alligator Rivers Region to retain ownership of and access to existing improvements constructed by them when the land on which the facilities were erected becomes Aboriginal land, and (b) the continued operation of the Aboriginal Land Rights Act after the Northern Territory achieves self-government on 1 July 1978. Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1978 The main purpose of the Atomic Energy Amendment Act is to enable the Australian Atomic Energy Commission to participate on behalf of the Commonwealth in the Ranger Project in accordance with the Memorandum of Understanding between a previous Government and Pcko Mines Ltd and Electrolytic Zinc Company of Australasia Ltd. The amending legislation also strengthens and clarifies the legislative basis for the application of nuclear safeguards within Australia in accordance with the Agreement between the International Atomic Energy Agency and Australia in connection with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Environment Protection (Nuclear Codes) Act 1978 The purpose of the Environment Protection (Nuclear Codes) Act is to establish mechanisms for protecting the health and safety of the people and the environment from possible harmful effects of nuclear activities in Australia. It provides for the development of codes of practice, including the setting of standards, and covers the licensing and supervision of all nuclear activities. Their more immediate application will be in connection with mining, milling ar.d treatment of uranium in the Alligator Rivers Region. Environment Protection (Northern Territory Supreme Court) Act 1978 The Environment Protection (Northern Territory Supreme Court) Act gives the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory power to make orders for the enforcement of environmental requirements which arc provided for under laws of the Commonwealth and Northern Territory in relation to uranium mining and treatment in the Alligator Rivers Region at the suit of cither the Director of the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service or the appropriate Aboriginal Land Council. 50 Northern Territory (Self-Government) Act 1978 Under the Northern Territory (Self-Government) Act ilic Northern Territory will, to a large extent, become self-governing as from 1 July 1978 when it acquires the status of a "body politic", named the Northern Territory of Australia, as a further step toward full Statehood. Existing ordinances made under the Northern Territory (Administration) Act 1910 will continue to apply and the Legislative Assembly, with the assent of the Administrator or Governor-General, may enact nesv laws. Most of the State-type activities presently performed by the Common- wealth Government in the Territory will be taken over progressively by the Northern Territory Government with the whole program being completed on 1 July 1979. The Supreme Court, which is a Federal Court, will not be transferred and the Commonwealth will retain control over matters concerning uranium and related issues. For example, the Commonwealth will retain title to uranium and other prescribed substances (as defined under the Atomic Energy Act 1953) although interest in other minerals will be vested in the Territory.

Northern Territory Ordinances In addition to the above Commonwealth legislation, a number of new Northern Territory ordinances or amendments to existing ordinances which place additional restrictions or controls on mining operations in the Northern Territory have been enacted by the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly. This legislation is a consequence of the Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry, the passing of the Federal Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976, and the report of the Joint Parliamentary Committee on Aboriginal Land Rights. Two new ordinances provide for access to Aboriginal land and sea adjacent thereto (the Aboriginal Land Ordinance 1978) and protection of Aboriginal sacred sites (the Aboriginal Sacred Sites Ordinance 1978). The following ordinances were amended: Social Welfare, Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Crown Lands, Special Purposes Leases, Cemeteries, Mining, Petroleum Prospecting and Mining, and Coal.

THE MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING AND RELATED AGREEMENTS The essential elements of the Memorandum of Understanding between the Commonwealth, Pcko and EZ in relation to the Ranger Project insofar as they affect the Australian Atomic Energy Commission arc as follows: 1. The Commission, Peko and EZ shall carry out a joint venture in the Northern Territory for — (a) The development and mining of uranium ore deposits on behalf of the Commonwealth Government in the Ranger Project Area. (b) The construction, operation and maintenance of a treatment plant for the production of uranium concentrate and other agreed mineral products derived from ore mined in the Ranger Project Area. (c) The delivery to the Commission, as agent of the Government, of uranium concentrate produced at the treatment plant. 51 2. The Government shall grant any necessary and appropriate authorities under the Atomic Energy Act 1953. 3. (a) The treatment plant shall be promptly constructed near the Ranger No. 1 orcbody and shall have an initial annual capacity of not less than 2.500 tonnes uranium as uranium concentrate. (b) When commercially practicable the annual capacity shall be increased to 5,000 tonnes uranium. (c) Uranium ore deposits in the Project Area shall be progressively developed and mJncd commencing with Ranger No. 1 orebody. (d) The Ranger Project shall continue in force during the economic life of the uranium ore deposits in the Project Area. 4. (a) Contributions of capital including working capital shall be the Com- mission 72.5 per cent, Pcko 13.75 per cent, and EZ 13.75 per cent. Project assets shall be in the same proportion. (b) The joint venturers shall acquire at cost or at the current market value, whichever is less, the tangible assets of the Peko-EZ joint venture in the Ranger Project Area or otherwise held by Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd. 5. (a) All future sales of uranium concentrate produced by the Ranger Project shall be effected by the Commission as agent for the Government. (b) Subject to stockpile borrowings and contractual obligations already undertaken, Peko and EZ shall each be entitled to receive the net annual proceeds of the sale of 25 per cent of the uranium concentrate produced. (c) Prior to the decision to commence construction of the Project, the Commission shall use its best endeavours to sell sullicicnt uranium concentrate output of the Project to facilitate appropriate financing arrangements by Peko and EZ to enable them to meet their financial obligations. By the time the treatment plant commences commercial production, the planned plant capacity shall, as far as practicable, have already been contracted for sale.

6. (a) There shall be a Ranger Project Committee consisting of four members. Two members shall be appointed by the Commission and one member shall be appointed by each of Pcko and EZ. This committee shall be responsible for making certain fundamental policy decisions such as cessation, curtailment or suspension of construction or operation of the Project and major expansion of treatment plant capacity. (b) The joint venturers shall engage Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd to be the manager of the Ranger Project. Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd shall be responsible for planning, development, construction, operation and maintenance of the Ranger Project and shall, for that purpose, be furnished with all necessary funds by the joint venturers and shall have possession and control (but not ownership) of all joint venture assets. All contracts entered into by Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd in connection with the Project shall be as agent for and to the account of the joint venturers. (c) Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd shall have a board of four directors. Two directors shall be appointed by the Commission and one director shall be appointed by each of Peko and EZ. 52 (cl) Peko and EZ shall ensure that the Memorandum and Articles of Associa- tion of Ranger Uranium Mines Ply Ltd arc amended so that they will be consistent with the 1974 Agreement and with this Memorandum of Understanding. (c) Pcko and EZ shall provide to the Commission as a joint venturer without charge all information and technical data in their possession or in the possession of Ranger Uranium Mines Ply Lid with respect to the Pcko-EZ Rangci joint venture. To give effect to the Memorandum of Understanding it will be necessary for the Commonwealth Government, Pcko, EZ and Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd to execute a number of formal, binding agreements. Three arc proposed at this stage, viz.: (i) An Agreement between the Comonwealth, Pcko and EZ incorporating the provisions of the Memorandum of Understanding and containing also provisions normally found in agreements of this sort covering, for example, arbitration of disputes, governing law and service of notices. (ii) A Joint Venture Agreement between the Commission, Pcko and EZ which again incorporates provisions from the Memorandum of Under- standing and containing also detail on, for example, the way in which the Ranger Project Committee is to function and program and budgetary arrangements. (iii) A Management Agreement between Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd and the Australian Atomic Energy Commission, Peko and EZ, which sets out the terms and conditions under which Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd is to manage the Ranger Project. Draft Agreements have been prepared by the Commonwealth and the Aus- tralian Atomic Energy Commission. The first of these is presently under negotiation with the companies. In addition to these Agreements, the Memorandum and Articles of Association of Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd arc to be amended and registered. To minimise any further delay of the Project while the above detailed agreements arc being negotiated, it was decided to draw up an interim Agreement between the Commonwealth and Pcko-EZ to provide for Commonwealth funding of its share of Project expenditure to 30 June 1979. Under this Agreement the Commonwealth would contribute only to expenditure which had been approved at meetings of directors of Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd, which included the two Commonwealth directors. This interim Agreement was expected to be signed early in July 1978.

AGREEMENT BETWEEN NORTHERN LAND COUNCIL AND THE COMMONWEALTH, AND RELATED MATTERS Under Section 44 of the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act J976, the Commonwealth is required to enter into an Agreement with the Northern Land Council before development of the Ranger Uranium Project can proceed. On 5 October 1977, discussions relating to the development of Ranger took place between representatives of the Northern Land Council, the Commonwealth 53 and the Ranger participants. Following thcso. discussions the Northern Land Council submitted a draft proposed Agreement between the Council and the Commonwealth. Their proposal included numerous conditions to be met before "substantial development" could occur and also stipulated conditions relating to the construction and operation of the Project, the use of infrastructure facilities, employment and training, and payments to be made under Sections 44 and 63 of the Act. The Northern Land Council indicated that its draft proposed Agreement was essentially a document for negotiation. The Commonwealth prepared a counter proposal and negotiations between the Commonwealth and the Northern Land Council took place in Darwin on 8-1 1 May 1978 and again on 12-16 June. The Commonwealth team was led by Mr 13. J. O'Donovan, First Assistant Crown Solicitor, Attorney-General's Department, and comprised olliccrs from the Depart- ments of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Trade and Resources, Aboriginal Affairs, Environment, Housing and Community Development.(Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service), National Development, Treasury, Finance, Northern Terri- tory and Attorney-General's. The Northern Land Council was represented by its Chairman, Mr. G. Yunupingu, Lawyer and Negotiator. Dr S. Zorn, and its Solicitor. Deputy Chairman and Manager. The Australian Atomic Energy Commission. Peko and EZ had observer status as Joint Venturers. Substantial agreement was reached at the second scries of meetings on most matters other than payments. The next scries of negotiations is scheduled to begin in Brisbane on 3 July 1978. Other matters of importance to the Ranger Project and which will be considered in relation to the Section 44 Agreement include: (i) Preparation of an authority under Section 41 of the Atomic Energy Act 1953 and the environmental and other conditions to be observed in relation to this authorisation, (ii) Agreements to cover the lease of Aboriginal land to the Director of the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, fiii) Plan of management of the National Park which will affect the proposed township of Jabiru and other infrastructure outside the Project Area. Preparation is well advanced and preliminary drafts have been discussed with the Northern Land Council.

EXPLORATION FOR URANIUM During 1977-78, exploration for uranium in Australia remained at a relatively low level with exploration companies awaiting the further development of Govern- ment policy and legislation following the announcement of the Government's decision on 25 August 1977 to mine and export uranium. This concerned particularly the Alligator Rivers Province in the Northern Territory, where an increase in uranium exploration is anticipated when exploration is permitted in the area covered by Stage Two of the Kakadu National Park. Following representations from the Northern Land Council, the Prime Minister announced on 9 February 1978 that, until Aboiiginal land claims over land in Stage Two of the proposed Park had been determined, the Government would not permit the granting of mining interests over that land without prior consultation with and agreement of 54 12°—

ARNHEM

.% NABARLEKe

LAND SPECIAL MINERAL LEASE JABILUKA^J NCAPPLICATION ei RANGER ^SPECIAL MINERAL LEASE PROJECTl APPLICATION 64 AREA

WOOLWONGA DANGER ABORIGINAL ABORIGINAL l RESERVE fjOWNSITE PL SPECIAL MINERAL LEASE 747 APPLICATION 69 KOONGARRA

MT. 13 — DUNDEY RESERVE PL 561 I } FAVOURABLE ! URANIUM - BEARING GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS

r1o0 20km GIMBAT | j PL 660

Figure 9. Prospective uranium-bearing formations in the Alligator Rivers Region, Northern Territory.

the Aboriginal people. ]t is expected that if granted to Aboriginals, the land will be leased by the Land Trust to the Director of the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. Any mineral exploration will be subjcet to agreement with the Land Council on behalf of the Aboriginals as well as the park plan of management. Jt is understood that all exploration in the area has stopped since this announcement. Prospective uranium-bearing formations in the Alligator Rivers Region are shown in Figure 9. 55 COMPANY EXPLORATION

Northern Territory Exploration continued in the Alligator Rivers Region, the Ngalia Basin, the Amadcus Basin, the Westmoreland and Tennant Creek areas, and in the Daly River Basin. Most of the Alligator Rivers Region is currently reserved from occupation under Section 147A of the Northern Territory Mining Ordinance and exploration was confined to areas under application for mineral claims, mineral leases, gold mining leases and special mineral leases. In February 1978, the Pcko-EZ joint venture announced the discovery of significant mineralisation in the Barotc Spring area west of Jabiluka. In the Ngalia Basin, exploration conducted by Central Pacific Minerals NL on behalf of a joint venture, of which the Commission is a member, is described later in this Chapter. Exploration licences arc held by a number of other companies over most of the remaining areas of the Basin. In the Amadeus Basin, Urancrz (Australia) Pty Ltd continued exploration and applied for a number of mining leases and special mineral leases over areas of interest. Several other companies were also active in this basin. Kratos Uranium NL continued exploration in the Westmoreland area. Urancrx. (Australia) Pty Ltd was active in the vicinity of Rum Jungle and Tennant Creek. In the Daly River Basin, investigations were conducted by Urangesellschaft Australia Pty Ltd, A.O.G. Minerals Pty Ltd, and C.R.A. Exploration Pty Ltd. Queensland The principal focus of interest in Queensland was again the Upper Palaeozoic acid volcanic-sedimentary rocks of the Townsville-Gcorgctown region. The main areas of activity were at Ben Lomond, Bundock Basin, Newcastle Range and in the vicinity of Georgetown. Exploration continued in the Prc-Cambrian rocks of the Westmoreland area and in the Cretaceous sandstones of the north Eromanga-Carpcntaria Basins in the Cloncurry-Boulia region. Interest was shown also in the previously unexplored Upper Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks in the Drummoncl Basin of Central Queensland.

South Australia Exploration for uranium decreased as a result of the decision by the South Australian Government to prohibit the mining or treatment of uranium at the present t!mc. Exploration was undertaken on the Stunrt Shelf in a search for deposits similar to that discovered on Roxby Downs at Olympic Dam. Exploration was also undertaken on the Eyre Peninsula, in the Frome Embayment, at Tarcoola and in the Olary District.

Western Australia Most of the exploration for uranium in Western Australia was directed to the search for concentrations in calcrctc and in lake sediments on the Yilgarn Block. Investigations were also carried out on Protcrozoic conglomerates in the Fortcscue and Birrindudu Groups, basal Cretaceous sandstones in the Carnarvon Basin, and on mctamorphic rocks in the Rudall and Gascoync Provinces. Uranium mineralisation in calcrcte was reported at Mcnindi Creek near Yinnictharra Station in the Gascoync Province. 56 Victoria Exploration continued in Carboniferous sediments of the Mansfield Basin. The McAlislcr, Avon and Mitchell Basins were also subject to exploration.

New South Wales Uranium exploration was carried out in the Broken Hill area.

Tasmania Exploration was undertaken in the northeastern portion of Tasmania.

NGALIA BASIN EXPLORATION JOINT VENTURE The Commission has an interest in a joint venture with Central Pacific Minerals NL, Agip Nuclcarc Australia Ply Ltd, and Urangcscllschaft Australia Pty Ltd covering exploration for uranium and associated minerals in the Ngalia Basin region of the Northern Territory. Magellan Petroleum Australia Pty Ltd sold its interest to Agip and to Urangcscllschaft Australia Ply Ltd. The interest held by Urangcscllschaft mbH and Co. KG has been transferred to its Australian sub- sidiary. As at 30 June 1978, the Commission had contributed a total of $431.179 to the joint venture and its beneficial interest at that time was 10.7 per cent. During the past year the parties to the joint venture have been negotiating a new Agreement to cover development and further exploration in the Ngalia Basin. It is Government policy that exploration for uranium in the Northern Territory should be a matter for private enterprise and not the AAEC. The Commonwealth Government has not yet made a final decision on continued involvement by the Commission in the Ngalia Basin joint venture. Investigations during the !977 field season were directed primarily to increasing the reserves at Bigrlyi. In December 1977 the operator, Central Pacific Minerals NL, announced that geological reserves at Bigrlyi had been increased from 1,300 tonnes to 1,720 tonnes U:iO,s. The average grade wr.s 3.2 kilograms U:,O,s per tonne. Because the new agreement had not been finalised, the venturers decided that the program for 1978 should be minimal.

BUREAU OF MINERAL RESOURCES The Bureau of Minci ,ii Resources continued mapping in the Pine Creek Gcosynclinc to the south and cast of Darwin. Field work was completed in the Mundogie 1:100,000 Sheet area and continued in the Tippcrary J: 100,000 Sheet area. A detailed study was made of the stratigraphy of the Golden Dyke and Koolpin Formations. The Koolpin Formation has been shown to be younger than the Cahill Formation and is considered to be the equivalent to the upper part of the Golden Dyke Formation. The lower Cahill Formation, which is host to the major uranium deposits of Jabiluka, Ranger, etc., is possibly the equivalent of the lower Golden Dyke Formation which contains the uranium mineralisation in the Rum Jungle area. Studies continued on the assessment of controls of uranium mineralisation in the Pine Creek Gcosynclinc. The study of regional magnetic, gravity and radio- metric data was supplemented by detailed gravity, magnetic and electrical surveys, rock sampling and laboratory measurements. Petrochemical studies of rocks from the region continued. 57 A gcochcmical study was made of rocks associated with the Mary Kathleen deposit. Projects continued in other areas with uranium potential, including the Arunta Block and the Mount Isa, Westmoreland and Georgetown areas. Airborne magnetic and radiomctric surveys were carried out in the Northern Territory over the Urapunga, Hodgson Downs, Mount Young, Roper River and part of the Pcllew 1:250,000 Sheet areas, in Queensland over part of the Glcnormiston 1:250,000 Sheet area and in Western Australia over the Pcmbcrton, Mount Barker and part of the Brcnicr Bay 1:250,000 Sheet areas. The scattering of gamma-rays in the ground, air and in the scintillation detectors was modelled mathematically and the results used to develop techniques for estimating the response of gamma-ray spectrometer systems to terrestrial sources of gamma-radiation. A project was commenced to establish absolute calibration facilities for spectrometer systems installed in survey aircraft. MARY KATHLEEN URANIUM LTD Production by Mary Kathleen Uranium Ltd (MKU) for the year ended 30 June 1978 was 431 tonnes uranium. During the year the company made a number of shipments through the Port of Brisbane to meet its approved export contracts. The total quantity of uranium contained in the concentrates shipped was approximately 425 tonnes, including 115 tonnes to the UK Atomic Energy Authority to repay previously borrowed material. By the end of 1978, MKU expects to have spent about $6 million on various improvements including increased milling capacity, pit redesign and replacement equipment. These modifications have overcome most of the previous technical problems and are expected to increase throughput by 15 to 20 per cent. Financial Situation The legal proceedings instituted in 1976 by Kathleen Investments (Australia) Ltd, concerning the power of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission lo take up shares in Mary Kathleen Uranium Ltd, were discontinued in December 1977 and fresh pioceedings arc not to be brought. The Commission has retained its 41.6 per cent shareholding in MKU. During the year, the company sought financial assistance which was given in the form of loans by the Commonwealth Government and Conzinc Riotinto of Australia Ltd (CRA). The loans were to meet forecasted cash deficiencies and to provide funds necessary to overcome the technical dilliculties of the mine anil treatment plant. In March 1977, a short-term loan of $1.8 million was provided to MKU by the Commonwealth Government and a short-term revolving credit of up to $4.2 million was provided by CRA. In December 1977, these loans were repaid and new financial arrangements were executed involving long-term loans to MKU of $9 million by the Commonwealth and $11 million by CRA. During January and February J97S, shipments of uranium from Australia were suspended while the unions considered their attitude to uranium mining and export. To ensure Mary Kathleen Uranium Ltd of a continuing cash flow, the Commonwealth and CRA agreed to purchase uranium oxide which could not be shipped by MKU during this period. Purchase was in the proportion of 45:55 and to a maximum value of $4.5 million. MKU subsequently repurchased the uranium oxide from the Commonwealth and CRA when shipments resumed in March. On behalf of the Commonwealth, the AAEC carried out the actions necessary for the performance of the Commonwealth's obligations under the Agreement. 58 I-NV1 «U)NMENTAI. 1MPACT STATEMENTS i'ancontinental Mining Ltd published its draft Environmental Impact State- ment for the Jabiluka Uranium Project in June 1977 and Queensland Mines Ltd published its draft Environmental Impact Statement for the Nabarlck Uranium Project in December 1977. in accordance with the requirements of the Environ- ment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974. Both areas arc in the Northern Territory. ( O:\li\K )NWI£ALTH STOCKPILE SHIPMHNTS A number of deliveries of uranium concentrates (ycllowcake) were made during the year from the Commonwealth uranium stockpile located at the Com- mission's Research Establishment, Lucas Heights. A total of about 878 tonnes uranium (1,142 short tons U.-.OO as ycllowcake has been shipped from the stockpile since the first shipment in June 1977. The ycllowcakc was delivered to the United Kingdom. Canada and the USA Re- conversion into uranium hcxafluondc. The uranium hcxafluoride will be enriched in the USA and finally delivered to Japan for fabrication into reactor fuel elements and eventual use in nuclear power stations for the production of electricity. The deliveries were made under the terms of Agreements between the Commonwealth Government and Pcko Mines Ltd, Electrolytic Zinc Company of Australasia Ltd and Queensland Mines Ltd. The granting of access by these corn- panic:-: to the Commonwealth stockpile has enabled the companies to meet early deliveries under approved export contracts. In 1977. at the request of the Minister for National Resources, the Com- mission accepted the Commonwealth's obligations under the above Agreements and, in association with the Australian Safeguards Ollice, ensured that proper and adequate security and safeguards arrangements applied. All arrangements for the shipments were made in accordance with the relevant requirements of the Inter- national Atomic Energy Agency Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials and the NSW Radioactive Substances Regulations. WESTERN M IN11 NO CORPORATION LTD Field investigations at the Yeclirric uranium site, Western Australia, to collect data required for the environmental impact statement for the Ycclirric project have been completed. A report is being prepared by Western Mining Corporation Lid and is expected to be released for public review in July 1978. The company has given consideration to the construction of a pilot plant at Kalgoorlic-Bouldcr rather than at Ycclirric. In January 1978 the company issued a report, "Environmental Review and Management Program for Proposed Metal- lurgical Research Plant at Kalgoorlic Initially for Ycclirric Uranium Ore". This report indicates that two sites for the pilot plant were considered, one on Great Boulder Lease No. 5695E at Fimiston, and the other 6 km north of the Kalgoorlie Post Oilicc outside anc1 adjacent to the Kalgoorlic-Bouldcr townsitc boundary. The second site is preferred by Western Mining Corporation. URANIUM ORE ASSAY SERVICE Since the delayed neutron activation uranium assay service began at Lucas Heights in mid-1974, almost 30,000 samples have been analysed for the Com- mission and outside organisations, 59 The reduction in the total of 7.687 analyses for 1977, as compared with the 1976 total of 13,467, reflects the rundown in exploration activity by the Com- mission's Uranium Branch. Analyses for external organisations increased from 875 in 1976 to 4,516 in 1977 and reached 2.166 for the first quarter of 1978.

UPGRADING OF URANIUM

URANIUM HEXAFLUORIDE Production of pure, natural uranium hexafluoride from crude yellowcakc ore concentrates is the first stage in uranium upgrading and is a necessary preliminary step to uranium enrichment by gas centrifuge and dilTusion processes. The Commission continued to expand its competence in the manufacture and handling of uranium hcxafluoridc through its research program on the Fluorox process. This experience will enable the Commission to examine and advise on any industrial proposals to upgrade uranium in Australia.

URANIUM ENRICHMENT Centrifuge Technology The Commission's research and development program on centrifuge technology continued, with work being maintained on individual machines and components and on experimental cascades. Progress was made in the development of advanced versions of the basic type of machine on which the program is centred. Additional experience has been gained also in the life testing of production prototype machines made by industry to Commission designs. Materials research related to the continuing centrifuge program is reported in Chapter 5. Laser Technology The experimental laser enrichment program continued during the year. Laboratory studies were made of the physical and chemical processes involved in the separation of uranium isotopes using lasers. (Sec Chapter 5.) Japan-Australia Study on Uranium Enrichment Two further meetings of the Japanese and Australian teams of experts took place during the year, with one meeting in Tokyo from 16-18 November 1977, and the second in Sydney from 17-19 April 1978. The Australian team for both meetings consisted of Commission officers led by the General Manager of the Commission, Mr K. F. Alder. The Japanese team was led by Mr S. Tamiya, Executive Director, the Japan Nuclear Enrichment and Reprocessing Group, and included olliccrs from Japanese Government agencies and from private industry. A total of four joint meetings to date has brought the work of the Study to a conclusion. The final report, on which agreement was reached at the fourth meeting, is expected to be issued to both Australian and Japanese Governments during the latter half of 1978. Topics discussed during the joint study included future supply and demand for enriched uranium, availability of raw materials in Australia, energy costs for enrichment in Australia, siting, availability of enrichment technology, and capital requirements. The study, which was proposed initially in 1973 by the Australian Government, was conducted on a no-commitment basis and has achieved a consensus of the views of both teams on the topics studied. 60 REGULATORY, SAFEGUARDS, AND SAFETY ASPECTS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

INTERNATIONAL NlKT.if.AR LULL CYCLE EVALUATION Following the proposal by the USA early in 1977 for an international rc- cvaluation of commercial nuclear fuel cycles in the light of rising concerns over possible nuclear weapons proliferation, an Organising Conference was held in Washington, D.C., 19-21 October 1977. The conference was attended by representatives of 40 countries and four international agencies, and consensus was reached on a number of issues. The conference asserted that nuclear energy for peaceful purposes should be made available widely to assist in meeting the world's energy requirements, and that effective measures could and should be taken to minimise the danger of proliferation of nuclear weapons. The countries reaffirmed their awareness of the vital importance of preventing proliferation. It was agreed that an International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation (INFCE) be conducted to explore the best means of advancing these objectives. It was accepted thai me evaluation would be a technical and analytical study and not a negotiation, that it would be carried out objectively with mutual respect for each country's choices and decisions, and that participants would not be committed to INFCE's results. The conference also recognised that consideration should be given to the special needs of the developing countries. The evaluation was scheduled to be completed within two years.

The study is divided into eight subject areas and countries have been selected to lead the Working Groups rcsponsih;-;. for each area. Two, or more commonly three countries, have been chosen as equal co-chairmen for each working group, membership of the group being open to all countries wishing to contribute to the work. The working groups, and the respective co-chairmen, are as follows: 61 Working Group 1. Fuel and Heavy Water Availability: Canada, Egypt, India. Working Group 2. Enrichment Availability: France, Federal Republic of Germany, Iran. Working Group 3. Assurances of Long-term Supply of Technology. Fuel and Heavy Water and Services in the Interest of National Needs Consistent with Non-Proliferation: Australia, Philippines, Switzerland. Working Group 4. Reprocessing, Plutonium Handling, Recycle: Japan, United Kingdom. Working Group 5. Fast Breeders: Belgium, Italy, USSR. Working Group 6. Spent Fuel Management: Argentina, Spain. Working Group 7. Waste Management and Disposal: Finland, Netherlands, Sweden. Working Group 8. Advanced Fuel Cycle and Reactor Concepts: Republic of Korea, Romania, USA.

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was asked by the Organising Conference to provide secretarial support and assistance, and this has since been agreed by the IAEA Board of Governors. The cost of participation in INFCE is borne by the countries themselves .The cost of IAEA services will be met by a voluntary levy on its members, to which Australia has agreed to contribute. Witli few exceptions, INFCE meetings arc held in Vienna. In addition to the working groups, the co-chairmen constitute a Technical Coordinating Committee which is convened every six months to coordinate the work of the various groups in relation to technical matters. The working groups will report to an INFCE Plenary Meeting to be held each year. The Australian Government's announced policy is (o contribute actively and constructively to relevant aspects of INFCE. As well as accepting co-chairmanship of Working Group 3, Australia holds participant status in all but one of the working groups, namely Working Group 5. Tn this case Australia maintains observer status. The coordinating role for Australia's participation lies with the Department of Foreign Affairs. The Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, the Department of Trade and Resources and the Department of Foreign Affairs arc responsible for policy aspects. Mr Justice Fox led the Australian Delegation to the Organising Conference and continues, as Australia's Ambassador-al-Large for Nuclear Non-Prolifcration and Safeguards, to have a major interest in TNFCE proceedings. However, the task of providing the technical input has fallen largely on the Australian Atomic Energy Commission, and Commission staff arc active in working group discussions. Tn addition, a Commission officer, Dr A. R. W. Wilson, is Australia's co-chairman for Working Group 3. The first phase of INFCE activity was focusscd on defining and allocating tasks within the working groups. The second phase, now underway, involves the collection of data and the preparation of working papers. Tt is generally agreed that the study is progressing satisfactorily, and that all participant countries arc trying to make the study a success. 62 .SAH:A.l.-\R!)S

During the past year steady progress has been achieved in the implementation of Australia's safeguards policy, announced by the Prime Minister in May 1977. The major principles of tlm policy as they relate to the export of uranium arc: • Export for peaceful, non-explosive purposes. • Export only to Non-Nuclcar-Weapon States party to the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and to Nuclear-Weapon States that accept International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards on the supplied uranium. • Full IAEA safeguards to apply from the time the material leaves Australian ownership. • Provision for fall-back safeguards to apply in the event that NPT safeguards cease to apply. • Adequate physical security to be applied to all nuclear industries in the importing country. In addition, Australia will require its prior consent to any rctransfcr of the supplied nuclear material to a third party, its prior consent to the enrichment of supplied uranium beyond 20 per cent uranium 235, and prior consent to reprocessing of supplied nuclear material. These safeguards principles will be contained in agreements concluded between Australia and other interested countries. Draft model agreements were made available during 1977-78 and detailed bilateral negotiations were conducted with a number of countries, including Finland, the UK, Iran, and the Philippines. The US Non-Prolifcration Act became law in the United States during 1978. This Act contains the conditions and criteria under which the US will conduct its international cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The general criteria which the USA will require before exporting nuclear material and equipment arc: IAEA safeguards, non-explosive use guarantee, maintenance of adequate physical security, US consent for retransfcrs, US consent to reprocessing, US consent for enrichment and for rctransfcr, return to the USA of nuclear material if recipient State detonates a nuclear explosive device, and application of all these conditions to any nuclear materials produced through the use of transferred sensitive nuclear technology. This new legislation will necessitate the conclusion of new bilateral agreements incorporating these s ifcguards provisions. The Australia-US Agreement for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy will consequently be revised to this end. During the past year Canada has also been giving attention to the safeguards clauses in its international agreements and has been renegotiating its agreements wifN several countries. In February 1978, Australia announced that it would adhere to the Nuclear Suppliers' Group guidelines on nuclear exports. Australia's announced safeguards policy fully accords with these export guidelines, which arc designed to guard against nuclear exports including material, equipment and technology being used for nuclear explosive or weapons purposes. The guidelines provide that conditions of export include prohibition of nuclear explosive use, the application of IAEA safeguards, physical protection to prevent unauthorised use or handling, prior 63 consent of supplier country before a supplied enrichment plant may be used to enrich material above 20 per cent, supplier's approval for certain rctransfcrs and arrangements for reprocessing. Another international initiative of major significance for the cause of non- proliferation has been the 1NFCE study, which is reported at length above. Australia participated fully in these activities in accordance with its safeguards policy. During 1977-78, arrangements were made for the Australian Safeguards Office to submit its Annual Report to the Minister for National Development for tabling in Parliament. NUCLEAR PLANT SAFETY

REVIEW OF COMMISSION PLANT The Licensing and Regulatory Bureau during the year continued its on-going program of safety reviews of operations at the Commission's Research Establish- ment, Lucas Heights, to ensure that these operations complied with the highest standards of nuclear safety and that risks to public health and safety and to Commission staff were minimal. The Licensing and Regulatory Bureau's safety reviews amount to an independent audit of the safety of operations at Lucas Heights and consist of in-depth assessments of design, construction and operations. Major safely studies carried out by the Bureau during the year included the following: • Continuation of the on-going safety assessment of operations associated with the Commission's 10 MYV research reactor HI FAR. Analytical techniques based on component failure probabilities — developed in Europe and the USA — lire now being included in safety assessments. • A safety review of the design and operating procedures of the Commission's uranium enrichment cascade experiment. • A safety review of the design and operating procedures for a high-pressure water-cooled loop for insertion in the HIFAR core. This loop has been designed for investigating fuel clement performance and contains experimental fuel pellets. • Development of basic safety requirements and criteria for the Commission's design-cost study of a possible replacement reactor for HIFAR. • Reactor operating staff requirements.

NUCLEAR-PROPELLED SHIPS

One nuclear-propelled warship visited Australia during the period under review. Radiological monitoring in the vicinity of the berth used in Melbourne was carried out by a joint Commonwealth and State team led by a Commission radiation protection officer. Commission officers continued to advise both Commonwealth and Slate Government departments on the safety aspects of visits by nuclear-propelled warships and have assisted in establishing emergency organisations and radiological monitoring teams. 64 The Commission, through its membership of Commonwealth interdepartmental committees, continued to provide technical assessments on the procedural and technical aspects of the use of nuclear propulsion for merchant vessels. There arc indications that overseas interest in nuclear-powered merchant ships is growing. However, the requirements and administrative arrangements for their safe passage and entry into ports and territorial waters remain to be resolved. Australia, as a major maritime trading nation, is vitally interested in developments in these fields. The Director of the Commission's Nuclear Plant Safety Unit, Mr D. W. Cranchcr, presented a paper, "Problems Faced by Host Nations in Accepting Visits by Nuclear Powered Merchant Ships", at an OECD-IAEA Symposium on the Safety of Nuclear Ships, Hamburg, 5-9 December 1977. Problems and possible solutions related to the safety of nuclear-propelled vessels were discussed at the Symposium at an international level. The Commission continued its participation in the work of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency Committee on the Safety of Nuclear Installations (CSNI) particularly in regard to a study on the safety of nuclear ships. This study culminated in a general review report (CSNI Draft Code for Nuclear Ship Safety) which attempts to consider the whole problem of nuclear ship safety. Forty key safety issues requiring further investigation were identified during the course of this study, but owing to pressure of other work the Nuclear Energy Agency is not currently pursuing them further. However, many of these issues are being explored actively by individual countries. The main international effort in nuclear merchant ship safety has been taken over by the Inlcrgovcrnmcntal Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO). IMCO's objective is to develop a Code of Practice to be adopted by Member States (which include Australia). The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency review report has been made available to IMCO for this study and will serve as the starting point for IMCO's work. Despite pressure to complete this Code at an early date, it has become apparent that there arc two alternative approaches which will require resolution before a meaningful Code can be developed. One view is to treat a nuclear-propelled merchant ship as a conventional ship with a novel form of propulsion unit. No undue restriction need be placed upon the design of the ship or its operation, except where these impinge on the safety of the reactor installations (e.g., in the need to provide collision protection). However, the need for the strictest standards and controls over the design and operation of the nuclear power plant is clearly acknowledged. The other viewpoint considers that the design and operation of the ship should not be considered separately from the nuclear plant and that the total installation should be treated as an integral complex demanding equal safety standards throughout.

INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATIVE STUDIES The Commission continued to support the work of the IAEA in developing international safety codes and guides for nuclear power plants by reviewing and commenting on these documents at the drafting stages. 65 Close interest is being maintained also in the work of a recently established OECD Nuclear Energy Agcncy-CSNI Working Group on Fuel Cycle Safety which has the following terms of reference: • To review existing knowledge about the safety of the fuel cycle, with particular reference to reprocessing and waste management. • To identify critical safety issues, indicating areas where further research or analysis is needed. • To propose a program of further work in relation to the priorities identified. During the year, Dr N. R. McDonald, Counsellor (Atomic Energy), Australian Embassy, Vienna, represented Australia at the Annual Meeting of CSNI and at meetings of the Working Group on the Safety of Nuclear Ships, all held in Paris during November 1977.

WORLD DEVELOPMENTS IN RFGl II ATnpv mi\i''•-.> The Licensing and Regulatory Bureau continued its study of overseas developments in .cgulatory matters during the year. The following arc some world developments. Canada The development of nuclear energy in Canada is currently the responsibility of Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd (AECL), and the licensing and regulatory role the responsibility of the Atomic Energy Control Board (AECB), both reporting to the Minister for Energy. A Bill is presently before the House of Commons to divide this responsibility. It is proposed that AECL continue to report to the Minister for Energy and a new body be formed, known as the Nuclear Control Board, to be responsible to the Minister for Science and Technology. Japan Legislation to separate the promotional and regulatory functions of the Japanese Atomic Energy Commission has been delayed. It is hoped, however, that the legislation will be enacted during the current session of the Diet and the new bodies formed by July 1978. USA In June 1978, the US Supreme Court ruled that the Price-Anderson Act is constitutional. This Act, which was discussed in the Commission's Twenty-fifth Annual Report (page 51), limits third party liability of licensees of nuclear plant in the event of a nuclear accident to US$560 million. This decision overturned a ruling of the US District Court for the Western District of North Carolina that the limitations on liability provided by the Act was unconstitutional. The suit was originally brought by the Carolina Environmental Study Group against the Duke Power Co. and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

ENVIRONMENT -\NH PI M U 111 A! I'll

The work of the Commission's Environment and Public Health Unit is aimed at providing factual and objective assessments of the public health and environmental impact of nuclear energy and acquiring the data and information upon which these assessments can be based. In addition, it aims to provide advice on the techniques and technology necessary to ensure that acceptable environmental 66 and public health standards arc established and achieved in relation both to Commission activities and activities elsewhere. At the request of the Department oC Environment, Housing and Community Development, oHiccrs of the Unit provided advice on draft environmental impact statements concerned with proposals to mine uranium.

INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT Over the past year a number ol' important specialist reports on radioactive waste management have been released by agencies of international organisations and foreign governments. In September 1977, the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency issued its Group of Experts' Report entitled "Objectives, Concepts and Strategics for the Management of Radioactive Waste Arising from Nuclear Power Programs''. In November 1977. a report entitled "The Management of Canada's Nuclear Wastes" was tabled in the Canadian Parliament as a contribution to the public debate on nuclear energy in that country. Also in November 1977, the Federal Republic of Germany ksued its report on "The Reprocessing and Waste Disposal of Material from Nuclear Power Plants", accompanied by a second, more-detailed Evaluation Report from its Reactor Safety and Radiation Protection Commissions. In February 1978, the US Department of Energy issued the draft report of the Task Force for Review of Nuclear Waste Management, and in March the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission issued its draft generic environmental impact statement entitled "Handling and Storage of Spent Light-Water Power Reactor Fuel". Finally, in April 1978, a group of Swedish utilities issued a Nuclear Fuel Safety Project Report entitled "Handling of Spent Nuclear Fuel and Final Storage of Vitrified High-Level Reprocessing Waste". None of these reports found cause for objection in principle to the geological disposal of nuclear wastes, noting that current research is directed to establishing the most acceptable waste forms, containment and geological formations. There were a number of important international meetings during the year on radioactive waste and related environment and public health matters which were attended by Commission staff. In February 1978, Mr R. Fry, then Director of the Commission's Environment and Public Health Unit (presently seconded to the Department of Environment, Housing and Community Development), chaired an Advisory Group Meeting to review the International Atomic Energy Agency's Definition and Recommendations to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (the "London Convention"). The main purpose of this meeting was to consider the recommended grouping cf radionuclides and release rate limits. The findings arc to be presented to the Third Consultative Meeting of Contracting Parties to the London Convention in October 1978. Mr Fry has also been elected to Committee 4 of the International Committee on Radiological Protection (1CRP). Committee 4 is to advise on implementation of ICRP Recommendations in relation to all nuclear activities, including uranium mining and milling. In November 1977 and again in March 1978, Dr R. Smith, Counsellor (Atomic Energy), Australian High Commission, London, attended meetings of the Radioactive Waste Management Committee of OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. This Committee was set up two years ago to coordinate national approaches to radioactive waste management. Within the committee there is an exchange of information on national plans for treatment, storage and long-term waste disposal. 67 Under its control it has an ad hoc coordination group on geologic disposal. Dr N. R. McDonald, Counsellor (Atomic Energy), Australian Embassy, Vienna, attended a meeting of this group in Paris, December 1977. The group has proposed a revised and extended program for the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency in this licld, based essentially on national research and development programs being carried out in Member Countries of the Nuclear Energy Agency with significant nuclear activity. The program is aimed at achieving effective cooperation between these countries in establishing the technology for geologic .disposal of nuclear wastes. A Joint OECD Nuclear Energy Agency-IAEA Technical Seminar on alpha- bearing waste and cladding hulls from reprocessing of spent fuel was held in December 1977 and was attended by Dr R. Smith. Major attention was given to disposal of high-level and transuranium wastes into deep geologic formations.

DELAYED EFFECT? OF EXPOSURE TO RADIATION Exposure to radiation has been known for many years to increase the subsequent risk of cancer. The health records of groups of persons with measured or assessable exposure to radiation have been studied assiduously for the past 30 years or more to obtain figures for the relationships between risk and exposure. The two reference groups who have provided (lie most information arc the survivors of exposure to the atomic bombs dropped in Japan in 1945 and patients in various countries exposed to radiation for medical diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. The most recent review of the information available was published during the past year by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. The same information has been used by the .International Commission on Radiological Protection to estimate the risks associated with its recommended dose limits for individuals. During the latter part of the period under review, the use of the relationships obtained from the two reference groups has been challenged increasingly, particularly in the USA. The challenges arc based in part on analyses of the causes of death of workers at the US Hanford plant, and in part on claims that leukaemia deaths among early entrants to Hiroshima following the bombing, among US military personnel exposed in nuclear weapons testing, and among US Navy ship- yard workers arc attributable to radiation exposure. The Hanford analyses show a small excess of deaths from cancer of the pancreas and from myeloma (but not from leukaemia), tl.at these deaths are associated with radiation exposure and that the apparent relationships between exposure and risk is five to ten limes that derived from other studies. Because these results are in conflict with the results obtained from the bomb survivors, those medically exposed and pre-war radiologists, and also with the absence of observable dilTerences in cancer incidence in populations exposed to different bvels of background, the conclusion by some that the excess deaths arc due to radiation exposure is being treated with reserve. The Hanford data are being extensively re-examined. So far no firm conclusions have been reached. It should be noted that the above challenges to the generally accepted opinions on radiation risk do not affect the estimates of risk to uranium miners. The latter are based directly on observations of risks in past groups of uranium miners exposed at levels above current limits and arc not derived from the two reference groups. 68 RUM JUNGLE REHABILITATION Environmental studies at Rum Jungle were performed as a joint project o£ the Department of the Northern Territory and the Commission and the results published in September 1975 (AAEC/E365—Rum Jungle Environmental Studies). The studies, inter alia, identified the sources of pollution and their relative importance and also determined the extent of pollution and its seasonal variation. Some additional studies have been carried out since. An allocation of $300,000 was made available in 1977 by the Commonwealth Government for an immediate clean-up of the former treatment plant area at the Rum Jungle mine site. This work consisted of removal of derelict buildings, foundation slabs and miscellaneous plant, together with landscaping of the treatment plant area using old stockpiled material from the mining, followed by top-soiling and rcvcgetation. The work was carried out by the Department of the Northern Territory and the Department of Construction. The Commission assisted in the project by performing radon emanation and radiation surveys of the area and in the provision of general advice and assistance. The work was essentially completed in December 1977. A proposal to study possible rehabilitation of the overall Rum Jungle mine site was included in a statement to Parliament on 25 August 1977 by the Minister for National Resources. Me said that the Department of the Northern Territory would coordinate a study of a comprehensive program of rehabilitation of the whole area and that the Government would take further decisions when that study was completed. The Commission has participated in these studies.

DISPOSAL OF CONTAMINATED MATERIAL AT HUNTERS HILL, NSW On 28 June 1978, the Minister for National Development announced a Commonwealth Government decision to assist the New South Wales Government resolve a problem faced by that Government in disposing of radiation-contaminated material located beneath several residential houses at Hunters Hill, a suburb of Sydney. The radiation emanates from radioactive tailings deposited there early this century as a result of radium extraction processing. The task of the Commission in this matter is to bring forward, together with the Health Commission of NSW, a joint recommendation to both Governments on a suitable site and method of disposal of the contaminated material.

69 5 RESEARCH

The Commission's Research Establishment is organised into Divisions primarily according to discipline. There are three main research programs — power and energy, uranium fuel cycle and nuclear science and applications — and what is termed divisional research. Divisional research, which nominally constitutes about 10 per cent of divisional effort, originates within the division and is generally directed towards support for the main research programs. The main fields of research within the program, including divisional research, are summarised in Appendix D. The approximate distribution of operating expenditure among the various Branches during 1977-78 is given in Figure 10 and a similar distribution for research expenditure among the main research programs for the same period is given in Figure 11.

URANIUM ? 1fi%

REGULATORY ami NUCLEAR SCIFNCL ;iiul EXTERNAL RELATIONS 3.88% TECHNOLOGY 8875%

Figure 10. Approximate expenditure on each Branch as a percentage of told Commission expenditure. 70 POWER and ENERGY URANIUM FUEL CYCLE NUCLEAR SCIENCE DIVISIONAL and APPLICATIONS Figure II. Approximate expenditure on each research program as a percentage of total researcli expenditure.

POWER AND ENERGY

The main thrust of the Power and Energy Research Program continued to be in materials, engineering and physics relevant to fission reactors, with particular emphasis on performance and safety. There was, however, some movement towards research on fusion. Programs of materials research show a gradual transition from materials of interest solely in fission reactors (e.g., zirconium alloys) to those relating to fusion research, such as tantalum and titanium. Commission staff were attached to some Australian universities to participate in plasma physics studies.

CREEP OF REACTOR MATERIALS Polycrystallinc materials subjected to stress at elevated temperatures, undergo creep resulting from cither the movement of dislocations or stress-directed diffusion of point defects. The service life of structural components made of such materials can be limited by cither excessive creep deformation ur by intergranular failure. The role of grain boundaries in the creep process is being investigated using zirconium alloys, stainless steels and copper to show a range of contrasting behaviour. Work has been extended to include materials of interest in fusion technology. Fusion Reactor Materials Preliminary creep tests on tantalum were undertaken at temperatures up to S50°C. Strain aging was found to occur in tantalum at about 600°C and resulted in an enhanced creep strength at that temperature. Fission Reactor Materials The amount of permanent deformation resulting from the long-term creep of materials has an important bearing on the overall economics and safely of operating power reactors. It is important to know the difference in the performance of materials in a reactor environment compared with that in the laboratory. A scries of in-rcactor and out-of-rcactor creep tests, in collaboration with the UK Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) is being undertaken on cold-worked zirconium-2.5 per cent niobium pressure tube specimens supplied by the UKAEA. Although this arose from work on pressure tube reactors, the overall implications, conclusions and technical problems encountered are relevant to the testing of many similar important core and structural components of all reactors. Pressure tube samples arc tested both in-rc?.ctor and out-of-rcactor, such that the strcss-tcmpcraturc-time history of the in-reactor creep specimens is reproduced as closely as possible in the otit-of-reactor creep tests. In this way, the effects of neutron irradiation on creep behaviour can be evaluated separately. 71 The nature and design of the UKAEA creep rigs used in tlic current in-rcaclor tests, require the rigs to be removed from the reactor at intervals to allow extension of the specimens to be measured in the unloaded condition. In the out-of-rcactor tests, the extension of a specimen is monitored continuously whether it is stressed or not to match the various in-reactor trips, transients, etc. The out-of-reactor tests have revealed that, when some samples are unloaded, they show a time- dependent contraction in addition to the normal clastic contraction. This time- dependent contraction was followed for periods of up to 500 hours and could result in more than 50 per cent of the "permanent" strain being recovered. This means that the creep strains measured on the in-rcactor specimens in the unloaded condition could lead to very conservative values of the creep rate because the recovered lime-dependent strain would not be detected. The overall implications of these results are being assessed. To progress further in this research, new in-pile creep machines which measure the unloading strain characteristics are being obtained. Radiation Effects on Reactor Materials Fundamental research continued into the cITccls of neutron bombardment on zirconium alloys and pressure vessel steels used in thermal reactors. The zirconii.ni work, through which the Commission has been involved in two international collaborative projects, is ncaring completion. The results have been published in the scientific literature and Commission research in this field has received international recognition. Current research is aimed at elucidating the mechanism of radiation cmbrittlcmcnt of pressure vessel steels containing significant amounts of copper as an impurity. Preliminary work has also started on titanium, which has prospects as a first wall blanket material in fusion reactors. In many respects, titanium behaves similarly to zirconium, the behaviour of which has been studied extensively by the Commission.

CERAMICS RESEARCH

To obtain a better reactor flux shape, small amounts of gadolinium oxide (a burnable neutron poison) are added to uranium oxide fuel. These additions have significant effects on the properties and behaviour of uranium oxide and may afTcct its performance as a fuel. Up to five weight per cent of gadolinium oxide progressively reduces the rate of grain growth, the apparent activation energy and the prc-exponcntial constant in the rate equation. The dcnsification rate is increased and the apparent activation energy is again reduced; the room temperature thermal difl'usivity of uranium oxide, measured using a 25 joule pulsed infra-red laser system, decreased rapidly as gadolinium oxide was added, falling to 65 per cent of its original value at a three weight per cent level of addition. The pulsed laser was used also to complete a study of the room temperature thermal diffusivity of non-stoichiometric uranium oxide as a function of excess oxygen content, cooling rate, amount and distribution of second phase precipitate, original porosity and the presence or absence of microcracks. As expected, the amount of second phase precipitate, which is determined by the excess oxygen content, exerted the major influence on thermal diffusivity while the next most important factor was the presence or absence of microcracking. The amount of microcracking could be correlated with the amount of excess oxygen and the cooling rate. 72 CHEMICAL CONTROL IN NUCLEAR REAC1 ORS

Chemical control of water coolants is assuming increasing importance in the safe and economical operation of nuclear power stations. In particular, the chemistry of the coolant controls the rate of corrosion of the primary circuit materials and the movement of the resulting corrosion products ("crud"). The transport of highly radioactive crud to parts of the primary circuit outside the core is an important factor in certain reactor systems and presents radiation hazards to operating and maintenance staff. The Commission aims lo determine the conditions under which ferrous alloys can be used safely and economically in nuclear plant, and how the formation and movement of corrosion products in coolant circuits can be controlled. Study continued on the deposition and transport of radioactive!}' labelled crud in steel and Zircaloy tubes, using a high-pressure, high-temperature water loop. It was established that the presence of boiling markedly increased the rate of deposition of fcrritic crud and that the increased deposition was not due to increased heat fluxes or reduced flowratcs except in so far as they affect boiling. Nucleate boiling, the- normal condition in nuclear reactors, was found to be a primary factor controlling the extent of crud deposition. Initially, deposition increased rapidly with the extent of nucleate boiling. Once nucleate boiling was well established, however, no further increase in deposition resulted from any further increase in the extent of boiling. The release of crud correlated best with large, local disturbances and was inhibited by higher temperatures.

HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW

Two-Phase Flow Analysis In the thermohydraulic aspects of reactor engineering, major roles are played by two-phase flow void fraction, pressure loss, choked (critical) flowratc, heat transfer coefficient and critical heat flux. Because the understanding of two-phase flow phenomena is inadequate, current predictive methods for these arc pre- dominantly empirical. Recent Commission research has resulted in an improved understanding of two-phase flow which has led to more satisfactory predictive methods for most of the above phenomena. A Commission concept of two-phase friction regimes has indicated a potentially useful relation between two-phase friction and critical heat flux. Theoretical work has been complemented by an experimental program. A recent analysis of data from Commission experiments on two-phase axial flow through seven-rod bundles has provided supporting evidence for the concept of friction regimes. Two-Phase Flow Instabilities Under certain circumstances, flow instabilities may occur in a heated channel carrying a two-phase liquid coolant, e.g., in a nuclear reactor. Methods have been developed for predicting the conditions under which such instabilities arc likely to occur, both from theory using empirical data and from passive on-line measurements representative of normally-operating plant. These methods and their associated computer codes have been tested on data from flow stability experiments carried out on an electrically heated test channel carrying Freon 113 at atmospheric pressure, in which the random fluctuations in the coolant conditions were monitored. Good agreement between theory and experiment was obtained. 73 A technical officer adjusts the computer controlled, automatic traversing and hot wire anemometer probe-rotation system oj a six rod cluster air rig. The rig is designed to measure basic jlidd mechanics of turbulent coolant flow in a six jncl-roil cluster, a geometry common to most power reactor cores. Sec below.

Flow Mechanisms in Fuel Rod Sub-Channels The turbulence in the primary coolant fluid flowing axially through the core of a nuclear reactor provides the mechanism by which most heat transfer takes place between the fuel rods and the coolant. This complex mechanism is not fully understood. To facilitate the development of more accurate predictive methods of calculation, required for both performance and safety studies, further experimental measurements and theoretical analyses are necessary. A representative cross-section portion of the thousands of parallel fuel rods in a square-lattice array of a typical power reactor core has been arranged so that air at atmospheric pressure flows axially along the sub-channels between the rods in fully-developed turbulent-flow condition. The turbulence level can be made representative of any reactor coolant, e.g., water, liquid sodium or carbon dioxide, and closely similar modelling techniques may be applied to exploration of the flow structure in other classes of heat transfer equipment, e.g., fusion reactors, solar energy plant and heat exchangers generally. Study of the line detail of flow structure for a given flow condition in these particular tests typically calls for 600 data points and may need 200 hours of rig operation. To enable this to be achieved economically, a computer-actuated system has been developed for flow-scanning and for data acquisition and analysis. 74 Loss-of-Coolant Analysis The Commission continued to participate in a study of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA) standard problems. The final report on the fourth problem (which was discussed in the previous Commission Annual Report) has been issued by the US Department of Energy. In it, the Australian prediction was rated third after the USA and Japan and ahead of Germany, the UK, the Netherlands, Italy, Sweden and Switzerland. The sixth problem was an experiment carried out in the Federal Republic of Germany in which a leak path was opened from a large vessel (11.2 m high), about half full of hot pressurised water. The mass flows determined by the Australian calculation and those measured in the German experiment are compared in Figure 12. During the first two seconds, saturated steam entered the leak path and the liquid level rose as steam bubbles formed in the liquid. At 2.5 seconds, the liquid level reached the leak path entrance and the flow increased. A vessel model was added to the Australian NAIAD code to enable the calculation to be made. A Commission officer held an appointment for one year as a Visiting Scientist at the Brookhavcn National Laboratory where he participated in the development of an advanced LOCA code for the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. In addition, the Commission continued studies using the large computer program RELAP to identify the heat transfer and fluid flow regimes where further experimental research might be productive. The code is kept in an operational status so that transient thermo-hydraulic analyses of large systems can be carried cut at short notice if required, e.g., in relation to regulatory activities. For this

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V) < 5 0.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 TIME (s) Figure 12. Simulation of a large vessel blowdown. (Problem 6 of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency series of postulated emergency core cooling problems.) 75 latter purpose, input data corresponding to a large pressurised water reactor (the Indian Point 2 plant in the USA) have been assembled, and a postulated major loss-of-coolant accident case is run with each version of the code as it is received, hi addition to ensuring opcrability, this gives some indication of differences in the behaviour of successive versions of RELAP. Thermohydraulic Performance of Reactor Containments Experiments continued on the blowdown of a small pressure vessel into a much larger containment vessel with major emphasis on the conditions which arise within the containment vessel. Arrangements were made to permit measurement of heat flux and heat transfer cocllicicnt at a point within the containment. It has been demonstrated that the heat flux to the containment walls is distributed very unevenly and, at the point immediately opposite the incoming blowdown, the heat transfer can be 30 times higher than the mean value. A paper describing the relationship between calculated containment pressures, using some of the heat transfer schemes used in reactor safely calculations and the pressure transient measured on the rig, was presented at an international conference in Manchester, England, in September 1977.

FLEXIBILITY OF PIPE ELBOWS

The integrity of reactor primary coolant circuits is a major factor in reactor safety, consequently it is important to make detailed analysis of stresses in pipe components. In association with the University of New South Wales, a fundamental investigation is being made of the flexibilities of the thick-walled, small-radius pipe bends representative of primary coolant circuit components in both power and research reactors. In the case of unconstrained ends and in-plane bending, the finite-element computer-code (SAP) has been applied and the results reported to the Second SAP Users Conference, Los Angeles, June 1977. An analytical code has been developed to enable the flexibilities of pipe elbows to be calculated for more complex arrangements, still limited to in-plane bending, but using far less computer time than is necessary with a finite-clement code. The elbow may be pressurised internally and subjected to axial forces as well as to bending moments, and the ends may be unconstrained, attached to solid flanges, or contiguous with straight pipes, which in turn can have their ends cither unconstrained or attached to solid flanges.

REACTOR ANALYSIS

The Commission's modular ncutronic computational code is being extended by the development of a three-dimensional (x-y-z geometry) reactor kinetics module, the steady stale portion of which is presently under test. An important part of all such codes is the solution of very large sets (typically 100,000) of sparse linear simultaneous equations. As part of the development of the module, a method of implicit non-stationary iteration was devised to accelerate convergence of the solution. Its performance is being evaluated against other possible accelerated iteration techniques. Favourable comparison should lead to incorporation of this approach in iterative solution codes into a wide range of applications. 76 ASSOCIATED ENERGY RESEARCH The Commission carried out limited research and development in non-nuclear energy fields using existing research facilities. The direct conversion of solar energy to electrical energy was examined. Pholoclcctrochcmical cells were investigated as a means of producing electricity and hydrogen using relatively inexpensive materials. The cells operate by the action of sunlight on electrodes made from oxidised titanium, a metal with properties similar to zirconium. The Commission already had considerable experience with zirconium and its oxides through its nuclear program. When the electrodes arc immersed in water, the water decomposes, generating electricity and hydrogen. One of the limitations of this method is its low efficiency (about 2 per cent). The electrodes developed under this project consist of semi-conducting oxide layers on metals, and show promise for the production of electric power and for the storage of solar energy in the form of hydrogen fuel. Australian patents are being sought covering the use of oxidised metals for hydrogen production and specific methods for producing the semi-conducting electrodes. Possible commercial applications are being examined. In addition, a small solar energy research program was continued to obtain first-hand knowledge of the possibilities, problems and technology of solar energy collection and conversion. The Commission is considering the problems of buildings which are dis- advantagcd by geographical isolation from electricity grids. One concept being investigated relates to a house in which solar energy would be collected on the roof and converted to the energy forms required by the house as well as being stored in suitable forms lo cover non-sunshine periods. Theoretical and experimental work centred on the development of low cost devices to concentrate solar energy, and to transmit it from roof to basement for conversion and storage.

Titanium oxides are being studied for possible use as solar absorbers which produce heat, electricity and hydrogen simultaneously from sunlight. Shown here are crystals jonned on titanium as seen under the scanning electron microscope (magnification X 400). 77 URANIUM 1-UF.L CYC'Ll- CHEMICAL PROCESSING

Research continued on the processing of uranium ores, production of uranium hc.xafluoridc, treatment of wastes arising in the nuclear industry and on some basic aspects of uranium chemistry. Leaching of Uranium Ores Most conventional processes for treating uranium ores were developed about 20 years ago. New and improved methods arc being developed which reduce processing costs or arc more suitable for low grade and refractory ores. The use of acidified ferric sulphate solution as a leaching agent, now used in sonic South African plants, was tested with several Australian ores. While there was little improvement in the final extraction of uranium compared with conventional sulphuric acid leaching, the consumption of acid and oxidant was reduced. Treatment of Wastes from Mining and Milling Research continued into methods of reducing the environmental impact of uranium mining and milling by improvements in waste treatment and pollution control technology. Most attention focusscd on radium and radon, the two elements in the uranium decay chain which have a significant radiological impact on the environment. Using wastes obtained by processing Australian ores, experiments were carried out to simulate the long-term leaching of radium and heavy metals in a tailings retention clam. In other experiments, loss of pollutants through seepage from a tailings dam was simulated by percolating neutralised wastes and tlcmincraliscd water through columns packed with tailings. Uranium tailings contain essentially all the radium originally present in the ore. If this radium was chemically extracted during milling, the long-term environmental impact of tailings could be reduced considerably. However, the radium would require storage similar to that for high-level nuclear wastes. A leaching process which involves repeated washing with strong sodium chloride solutions was investigated. Experiments with Australian tailings showed that more than 90 per cent of the radiiim'could be extracted by four-stage leaching at ambient temperature. The fate of the radioactive daughters of uranium during ore processing, especially radium and thorium isotopes, is important in evaluating the effectiveness of proposed waste treatment methods. The extent of leaching of radium, thorium and actinium during processing has been measured by gamma spcctromctry using a high resolution, lithium-drifted germanium detector. Radon gas is continuously released from mine surfaces, ore stockpiles and tailings, and is liberated during blasting, crushing and grinding of ore. To evaluate the magnitude of such releases, measurements were made of the extent of release of radon from Australian ores and their tailings. Radon emanation was three times higher for high-grade oxidised ore than for a lower-grade carnotitc ore. Studies of the feasibility of removing radon from underground mine air by adsorption on activated charcoal also began. Production of Uranium Hexafluoride

The conventional method of producing uranium hexafluoridc (UF,;) is by reaction of uranium tetrafluoridc (UFO with elemental fluorine. An alternative process that docs not require an electrolysis plant to generate fluorine is by 78 reaction of uranium tctrafluoridc with oxygen at high temperatures to produce uranium hcxafluoriclc and uranyl fluoride (UO-F2). The Commission has patented an improvement to this process, involving the use of a platinum catalyst, and this was investigated in a pilot plant which has two 150 mm diameter fluidisecl bed reactors. One fluidiscd bed was used for the oxidation reaction to produce uranium hcxafluorklc while the other was used to reconvert uranyl fluoride, a by-product of the process, back to uranium tctrafluoridc by reaction with hydrogen and hydrogen fluoride. Batch experiments using up to 20 kg of uranium tetrafluoride in uraiui fluoride showed that the rate of uranium hexafluoridc production depended on the concentration of uranium tctrafluoridc in the bed. As referred to in the 25th Annual Report, early experiments using high concentrations of uranium hexafluoridc gave lower reaction rates than in previous laboratory studies. With less than 20 per cent uranium tctrafluoride in uranyl fluoride, the catalysed rates of uranium hcxafluoride production were as fast as those measured in laboratory-scale experiments and about five times faster than the uncatalyscd tales. With continued exposure to uranium hcxafluoride, the effectiveness of the platinum catalyst was reduced. Laboratory-scale experiments indicated that catalytic activity was restored when the catalyst was recycled with uranyl fluoride, and experiments were in progress at the end of the year to determine whether this also occurred in the pilot plant.

STRUCTURE OF URANIUM CHELATES

Uranyl /3-clikctonatcs complcxcd with neutral ligands arc of interest for gas chromatography and other vapour-phase separation processes and have been known for many years. They arc generally yellow and, in some cases, volatile. Single crystal X-ray structure determinations, both at the Commission's Research Establishment and elsewhere, have shown that they have a monomcric molecular structure in which the uranium atom is surrounded by a regular, nearly planar pentagon of oxygen atoms at right angles to the linear uranyl group. Their high stability appears to be related to the saturation of the coordination number.of the uranium atom by the neutral ligand, and it is not surprising that compounds without neutral ligands have" proved difficult to prepare. However, recent work at the Research Establishment has resulted in the development of a simple method for the preparation of these volatile complexes, which arc dark red with a high degree of purity and give good yields. Their crystal structures determined to date by X-ray and neutron diffraction show a unique trimcric structure in which one uranyl oxygen is terminal, but the other fits into the pentagonal equatorial plane of the neighbouring uranium atom. The first significant study of the chemistry of these compounds in the gas phase was made and this included heats of sublimation, equilibria between monomer and polymeric species, and thermal decomposition.

MATERIALS RESEARCH

Background research has continued into materials capable of withstanding the high stresses and corrosive conditions characteristic of rotor operation of centrifuges developed for uranium enrichment. Work on special steel alloys and composite materials is reported below. 79 Maraging Steels Managing slccls arc a scries of iron-nickel alloys containing additions of molybdenum, cobalt and titanium. The high strength and toughness of these steels, coupled with relative case of fabrication, make them attractive candidate materials for centrifuge applications. A number of features of these materials have been investigated using commercial alloys obtained from various sources.

Fabrication of Maraging Steels Research was carried out on the effect of fabrication and heat treatment operations (e.g., melting, casting, extrusion, hot and cold working, solution treatment and subsequent aging) on the structure and mechanical properties of managing steels. This involved measurement of tensile strength, hardness and fracture toughness after fabrication by different routes, together with a detailed structural study using density measurements, X-ray diffraction, optical and electron microscopy. Results obtained to date have provided some insight into the complex behaviour of these steels and have defined areas where further work is required to .develop the full potential of these high-strength alloys. Long-Term Mechanical Behaviour Selection of materials for operation under prolonged stresses in centrifuge plants requires confidence in the material's long-term resistance to creep, stress relaxation and stress corrosion. Equipment for invcst:gating the validity of predicting long-term mechanical behaviour from short-term tests was built and a method developed to derive design information on low-temperature creep rates from simple stress relaxation tests. The stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of managing steels was investigated using slow strain rate tests carried out in simulated centrifuge environments consisting of uranium hexafluoridc gas containing small amounts of hydrogen fluoride. The results of these tests were combined with an examination of the fracture surfaces using scanning electron microscopy. Carbon Fibres and Composites Regular surveys of commercially-available carbon librcs were made to determine their suitability for the fabrication of high performance carbon fibre- cpoxy resin composites for possible application in centrifuges. Fabrication variables which may alTcct the structural perfection of such composites were kept under study. ... The design is well advanced for an upgraded pultrusion system to extend the capability of a laboratory-scale rig for the fabrication of cioss-plicd carbon fibrc- cpoxy resin tubes. The new system will allow more realistic tests of the tubes produced so that the true potential of the method can be assessed. A complete patent specification is being lodged in a number of countries.

LASER TECHNOLOGY An experimental program to develop improved carbon dioxide lasers for application to laser enrichment processes continued .during the year. A second, high-power, carbon dioxide laser of improved design was constructed for irradiation of volatile uranium compounds with synchronised pulses at selected S'rcqucncics. Many molecular compounds were laser-dissociated under diverse physical conditions to evaluate isotopic selectivity and to gain greater understanding of processes of molecular dissociation. SO ^m&mX*.* Structure of 300-grade maragi'ig steel (strength 2,068 megapascals (3 )< /^5 //7/ in2)). The specimen is over-aged — ,'icat treated past the oiiiiinmn conditions — and shows the formation of reverted ansleniie phase as featureless grey areas. Tin's phase is very soft and leads to an undesirable reduction in strength (transmission electron micrograph X 44,000).

NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND APPLICATIONS

DEVELOPMENT OE ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES Atomic Absorption Spectrometry The high toxicity of mercury requires that its maximum permissible concentration in waste waters and effluent streams be extremely low. Of the techniques available for mercury analysis, atomic absorption spcctromctry is used almost, exclusively because of its high sensitivity, specificity and ease of application. Since mercury has a significant vapour pressure at room temperature, it can be detected by atomic absorption spcclromctry without the need for an atomisation source such as a llame or healed tube. This is known as the cold vapour technique. To detect minute quantities of mercury, it is necessary only to produce mercury vapour from a solution and transfer it to a cell attached to (lie instrument. The Commission has substantially improved application of the cold vapour technique by modifying the mode of transfer of the mercury vapour to the cell. This new procedure provides extremely high sensitivity and precision, making it possible to determine very low concenln1 ions in a range of environmental samples. The techniques for the electrodcposition of heavy metals on pyrolytic-coated graphite tubes for atomic absorption analysis, developed in collaboration with the University of Ne\v South Wales, have now been applied lo Ihc analysis of 81 chromium in natural waters. Chromium is a metal of considerable environmental concern since in the hcxavalcnt slate it is extremely toxic whereas in the trivalcnt form it is not. A knowledge of the distribution of the metal between these valencies has, in the past, required separation of one or other of the forms and took no account of those species in colloidal form. Using the clcctrodeposition technique, selective deposition of chromiui»(VI) or total chromium has been demonstrated, enabling chtomitim spcciation in natural waters lo be studied in detail. Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry The recently-developed technique of cathodic stripping voltammctry was applied to the quantitative determination of a wide range of tbiols, disulphidcs, flavins, and porphyrin compounds at concentrations down to 1 x 1CHM. The precision of measurement at concentrations of 2 x JQ-7M is mostly in the range ± 3-5 per cent, which is similar to that of anodic stripping voltammctry. Cathodic stripping voltammctry was used to study the dcnaturation ot proteins in alkaline media by measuring the inorganic sulphide ion liberated by dissociation of disulphide bridges. Used in this way, it is a sensitive and novel technique for detecting the presence and availability of disulphide bridges in proteins. Spark Source Mass Spectrometry The Commission's spark source mass spectrometer has proved a useful instrument in multi-clement trace analysis for environmental science ard materials research because of the high elemental sensitivities available. Using photoplalc detection, the complete elemental composition of a sample can be determined in a few hours. The electrical detection system designed for measurement of selected nuclidcs was improved considerably by adding a minicomputer. Selected nuclidcs can be measured sequentially with fairly good precision at concentrations of 0.1 /tg per gram or less. Development of a fully automated system using additional peripheral data storage facilities is proceeding.

APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR TECHNIQUES The reactor and accelerator facilities at Lucas Heights arc being used lo develop new applications of nuclear techniques when these offer advantages for the solution of special problems. A conference held at Lucas Heights, 15-17 May 1978 ',2nd A1NSE Con- ference on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis), attracted more than 90 scientists from all States of Australia and highlighted the potential for advancement in such diverse fields as the exploration for and processing of minerals, the study of trace elements in planes, animals and in man, and the development of special materials such as those required for the new technologies in energy and com- munications. Neutron Activation Analysis Three cooperative research projects arc in progress with the State Electricity Commission of Victoria, the Chemistry Department of the University of Queens- land and the Australian Coal Industry Research laboratories Ltd. Each project involves the use of instrumental neutron activation analysis to determine key elemental distribution patterns. More than 20 elements were measured simultaneously in seven samples of brown coal from Victoria, two samples of black 82 Neutron radiographs showing root development and growth in bean seeds. Left: The bean taken three days alter sowing- Right: The seed eight days after sowing. (Soil thickness 25 nun; moisture 0.03 in* per m} oj soil.') coal from New South Wales and samples from the product stream of the Australian Coal Industry Research Laboratory's coal hydrogcnation process. In four gallstones, removed from the same gallbladder, 16 trace elements were detected at concentrations in the range of 0.8 ng per gram for gold to 7,800 /xg per gram for calcium. This information could contribute towards an understanding of the formation of gallstones. There was a greatly increased demand for neutron activation analysis, including samples of coal, biopsy tissue, blood and organic chemicals. The Com- mission's facilities in this area of analysis arc being expanded. Two officers of the Commonwealth Police Force arc attached to the Research Establishment to carry out forensic analysis of a wide range of materials, such as contraband drugs and human hairs, using neutron activation analysis and other techniques available at Lucas Heights.

Neutron Radiography Neutron radiography is especially sensitive to water (more specifically to hydrogen). For example, a nctKron beam from "Moata" reactor at Lucas Heights was usc-d to radiograph plant roots in situ in the soil in which they were growing. This provided information directly on the sprouting of seeds and growth of roots. The technique was used by La Trobe University to study the influence of seed position and soil compaction upon root growth. S3 Uranium in Tissue and Hair Fission fragments damage plastics and similar materials such as mica and this effect can be exploited to locate uranium or plutonium in a diverse range of materials. A specimen to be analysed is placed in intimate contact with mica and exposed to neutrons from "Moala" reactor. The mica is chemically processed and then inspected under a microscope which reveals the uraiiium-pliilonium distribution. This is a particularly sensitive method for studying the behaviour of these heavy elements in biological materials such as tissue and hair. Uranium in Soils Uranium occurs in soils and rocks in a few parts per million, but uranium concentration in phosphate deposits is sometimes much higher. The application of phosphate to pastures may result therefore in the involuntary application of uranium. To determine the fate of this uranium, measurements of its retention in soil after SO years of phosphate application were made in collaboration with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Zealand, using the "Moata" uranium assay system. The results showed that in this case uranium from phosphate is almost completely retained in the soil, presumably attached to clay particles.

PROTON INDUCED X- AND GAMMA-RAYS The proton induced X-ray technique was developed for the study of thorium. It has many potential applications and new methods of data analysis have been developed to match the speed of the X-ray measurements. The proton induced X-ray technique was tested on a variety of technical problems arising from collaborative projects with universities and colleges and supported by the Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering. Results show that information can be obtained on the composition of such materials as metal inlays on ancient artefacts, minerals, wheat and obsidian. The use of an 0.1 mm diameter proton beam is useful for studying variations in composition across the surface of a specimen. Proton induced gamma-rays are useful in elemental analysis, particularly for light elements such as boron, fluorine, sodium and aluminium. To apply this technique, reliable measurements are needed of the number of gamma-rays produced by each element. A series of such measurements was carried out with the 3 MeV accelerator at Lucas Heights, following calibration of the efficiency of the gamma-ray detector used. The accuracy of the gamma-ray technique is comparable with that of chemical analysis and X-ray fluorescence for the analysis of sodium in glass (in collaboration with Australian Consolidated Industries Ltd). The gamma-ray method gave an accuracy of 1 per cent or better and measurements took from five to ten minutes. Obsidian Analysis The proton induced X-ray method for studying obsidian, a volcanic glass used by Pacific Islanders, extends the usefulness of other analytical techniques used at Lucas Heights. Information about the composition of obsidian can be obtained by proton beam irradiation to which specimens require only a three minute exposure. This indicates the original location of obsidian from which artefacts were manufactured. By making proton induced X-ray and gamma-ray measurements simultaneously, the number of elements determined in each sample can be increased from three to at least 15. 84 Thorium Determination Proton induced X-rays were used to test new methods to determine thorium and uranium in ores. A small amount of powdered ore is mixed into a graphite matrix which upon exposure to a proton beam from the 3 MeV accelerator at Lucas Heights emits X-rays. It is then possible to delect the heavy elements at concentrations down lo 5 parts per million in favourable cases by measuring the X-ray spectral lines. This technique is being compared wilh other techniques, including neutron activation analysis, anil the potential of each method is being evaluated lor ore analysis. Surface Layers During the growth of ultra-pure germanium crystals, aluminium can be removed from Ihc melt by exploiting its attraction lo the surface of silica. This phenomenon was studied by using proton induced gamma-rays to detect the aluminium. The particular nuclear reaction used for this study only occurs for a precise value of the proton energy. Gamma-ray measurements made while varying the proton energy can be interpreted as a variation of the aluminium concentration with depth. Another method by which depth profiles can be studied is by measuring the energy of scattered protons or alpha-particles. A small permanent magnet was built lo remove unwanted particles by deflection during such measurements. These methods arc being used to study the properties of semiconductors and solar absorbers (in collaboration with the University of Western Australia and the New South Wales Institute of Technology respectively).

Microphoiograph of a naturally-occurring fliiorite crystal which has been coloured by irradiation wish a proton beam. The colouration reveals healed fracture surfaces conlaini/ii,' fluid inclusions and oilier features not otherwise observable. 85 NUCLEAR RADIATION DETECTORS Work continued on purification of the semiconductor germanium by zone refining. Large, single crystals grown from this material, if sufficiently pure, form the basis for the construction of efficient and high resolution gamma-ray spectrometers. The advantages of this approach over the previous method of lithium ion drift compensation arc easier fabrication, maintenance and operation. One major difficulty in this work — that of identifying the contaminating impurities at the very low levels implied by net concentrations of 10" to 10|: per cm3 (i.e. purity better than one part in a million million) — has largely been removed as the result of a collaborative arrangement with the National Measure- ment Laboratory (NML). Measurement of crystal specimens is carried out at low temperatures on the NML infra-red interferometer using photo thermal ionisation spectroscopy. The natural sensitivity of this technique, together with the enhancement factor contributed by using Fourier Transform methods, permits ready identification of impurities at the lowest levels. The main impurities identified have been aluminium and boron as acceptor impurities and phosphorus and arsenic as donors. The technique will aid in identifying possible sources of contamination encountered during the purification process. Large single crystals grown in the past year have included several with impurity concentrations in the ramie 5-6 X 10lllcnr-' approachinn the tarsiet fmure of 2 x'lOU)cnr3.

RADIATION DOSIMETRY PHYSICS As part of the Commission's concern to ensure the safe utilisation of nuclear energy, there is a need to understand the physical and biological mechanisms by which various radiations produce specific effects in living systems. This involves a detailed understanding of the distribution of energetic electrons created when matter absorbs radiation. Almost all the energy absorbed is transferred from the incident radiation or particle vi;< these electrons which determine the microscopic dose distribution. To understand these mechanisms, an apparatus was designed and built to enable the simultaneous measurement of the energy and angular distribution of electrons ejected from organic molecules by energetic protons and alpha particles. Preliminary results have been reported which confirm the conceptual behaviour of this apparatus. Work is currently being directed to improving the data acquisition system necessary to handle the substantial amounts of data generated. The apparatus can also provide data relevant to fusion and related plasma physics.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Components used for nuclear reactors or for containment of radioactive materials must be of high quality to ensure long life and reliability in service. Non-destructive examination of all finished components is mandatory. Conse- quently, the Commission maintains a strong inspection and testing group to examine finished components and a research group to investigate the less-developed aspects of a number of methods used for non-destructive examination. Techniques such as X-ray, gamma and neutron radiography, acoustic emission and ultrasonic testing are being developed by the Commission. Ultrasonic Testing A major effort is being directed towards developing ultrasonic testing. Modern equipment was purchased during the year and is being commissioned. Work 86 The Commission and the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Hoard have cooperated in the acoustic emission monitoring of large pipes. The tests assisted in evaluating this technique on pipelines and provided experimental data relating to signal transmission in both exposed and buried pipes. Above left: An above-ground section of the Kangaroo pipeline (part of the M\\'SDI1 Shoalhaven Scheme) used in lite tests. Right: One of the several piezoelectric transducers for detecting the acoustic emission hursts. began on investigating flaw detection in materials such as stainless steels and composites. An important aspect is the processing of flaw indication signals to make interpretation of results easier and less dependent on operators. Acoustic Emission During the past year, the practical applications of acoustic emission non- destructive testing techniques were investigated to establish within the Commission a bank of knowledge and expertise in this field. Controlled experiments on actual structures were set up to answer such questions as how far away can a defect in a pipeline be detected and how complicated a structure can be monitored successfully. Organisations such as the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board and the Department of Main Roads were helpful in making large structures available for experimental evaluation of the technique. Sound attenuation was measured at various frequencies in the above-ground section of the Kangaroo pipeline (part of the Shoalhaven Scheme) and the underground Prospect-Minchinbury pipeline. Prestressed concrete bridge components used by the Department of Main Roads were monitored during proof- testing and some of the problems associated with llaw location in such complex structures were identified. Noise Analysis Techniques Noise analysi:, involves the application of statistical techniques to derive meaningful parameters from the fluctuating components of noise of mechanical or thermohydraulic origin recorded during experimental investigations of industrial plant or laboratory rigs. The specialised data processing techniques required for such investigations include correlation and spectral analysis. These techniques, which are being regularly improved and extended, were applied to a wide range of investigations including acoustic emission, flow instabilities, vibration analysis and blowdown. S7 RADIOISOTOPE STANDARDS Radioisotope standards are maintained on an international basis in cooperation with the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Paris, and the Inter- nationa! Atomic Energy Agency Laboratory. Vienna. A Radioisotope Standards Group represents the Commission on the International Committee for Radionuclidc Metrology and cooperates with various Working Groups to advance techniques and procedures for radioactivity measurements. The principal activity of the Commission's Radioisotope Standards Group during the year was research and development lor the maintenance of Common- wealth Standards of Radioactivity. The Group supplied radioactive sources with standardised disintegration rates to the AAEC Research Establishment and to other organisations. The Group also advised on the use of such sources and on matters relating to the accurate measurement of radioactivity. Activities included participation in bilateral international intercomparison for the radionuclidcs cobalt 57, zinc 65 and barium 133: continued upgrading of the calibration of the Commission's principal working standards (a Gc(Li) gamma spectrometer and a 4-rr-/ pressurised ionisalion chamber): further development of thin sources for •/ and particle spcctrometry; and work on neutron flux density measurements in the Commission's reactor HI FAR using activation detectors.

Adsorption rig used to xlnely the uptake oj heavy metals on clays and oxides jrom verv dilute solutions nsini' radio/racers. The results of batch experiments will be n::ed lo dcj'.r.c .'/;.• co::d ions jor s ndyjig iln- transport of heavy metals through a column oj soil. 88 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES METAL POLLUTANTS

The Commission has a program of research and field studies related to the environmental effects of mining and milling operations. The behaviour and transport of metals released into the environment during mining and milling operations arc governed by a number of factors, including the degree to which the metals arc complcxcd in the aqueous phase and their adsorption-dcsorption behaviour in soils and sediments. These two processes arc being studied to assist in modelling the transport of metals through soils, sediments and geological strata. Chemical Studies Studies of the behaviour of metals in aqueous systems have concentrated on the important metal ion hydrolysis reactions. The study of these reactions has always posed problems because the experimental data must be precise and analysis of the data requires advanced computing techniques. These problems have been solved and very complex metal ion systems can now be investigated. Studies of the hydrolytic behaviour of coppcr(Il) and uranium(VI) were completed. The dominant species produced in both these systems are polymeric, but the latter system is much more complicated because hydrolysis prior to precipitation is much greater. The adsorption of the heavy metals, cobalt, zinc, barium, radium and manganese, onto model clay and mineral surfaces (alumina, silica, kaolinitc and montmorillonitc) was studied using radiotraccr techniques. Trace Metals in Interstitial Waters Sedimentation in natural water systems results in the entrainmcnt and eventual trapping of water which establishes equilibrium with the surrounding sediment. A knowledge of the heavy metal content of interstitial water can provide useful information on the availability of metals from the sediment and assists in understanding trace metal cycling in aquatic ecosystems. The metal species present in interstitial waters are generally quite different from those in the overlying water and arc usually anoxic in deeper sediments. Separation of metal species from the sediment is a difficult problem if the metal species arc to be unperturbed in the separation. The Commission is studying a solvent displacement technique for this purpose. Samples of the sediment, to which a dense fluorocarbon solvent is added, arc ccntrifugcd at low speeds. Water is displaced from the sediment and floats on the solvent permitting easy removal of the water. Experiments have shown that losses of metal species to the solvent layer do not occur. The technique is being applied to studies of metal spcciation in interstitial waters.

Toxicity of Copper Dissolved coppcr(II), which is highly toxic to .nany aquatic animals including fish, is a trace metal pollutant from many mining operations involving sulphidic ores and overburdens. Coppcr(II) hyrolyscs and complexes readily and the various copper species arc of greatly unequal toxicity. Chemical and biological factors affecting the survival of fish exposed to coppcr(II) are being examined using the freshwater gudgeon, Hypseleotrix gali. 89 At low pH, survival is directly related to the activity of free cupiic ion rather than to total cupric ion. including complexes. Increased concentrations of the metals magnesium, calcium and sodium, whether as chloride or sulphate, enhanced survival to a moderate extent at higher activities of free cupric ion. At lower activities the enhancement by sodium was more marked. The biological variables, size of fish and infestation with flukes were shown to have little effect on survival in copper(ll). The results so far indicate that the widely known effect of increased hardness in enhancing survival in coppcr(ll) may be due to a combination of three factors — increase in complc.xing of copper(II). increase in ionic strength, and effects specific to the light metals magnesium, calcium, and sodium. Uptake of Radium 226 in the Freshwater Mussel A project to examine the uptake and loss of radium 226 in the freshwater mussel, Vek'sitnio cui^axi. was begun. Laboratory experiments were used to investigate its response to concentrations of radium 226, calcium and magnesium expected from the working of uranium deposits in the Magela Creek region. Northern Territory. The aim of the project is to predict the resultant level of radium 226 in total mussel flesh and the possible intake of radium 226 in man. via his diet, for particular environmental levels of radium, calcium and magnesium.

FIELD STUDIES Heavy Metal Leaching from Overburden Heaps Pollutants released from mine overburden heaps are formed by the oxidation of pyrites and other sulphide minerals to form sulphuric acid which retains the heavy metals in solution. The chemical oxidation of pyrites at ambient temperatures is thought to be too slow to account for the large volumes of acid generated, and it has been shown that the sulphide oxidation can be catalysed by bacteria. The bacterial populations in the heaps arc being investigated by the School of Biological Technology, University of New South Wales, under a Commission research contract. Measurements of the temperature at various points within the largest overburden dump at Rum Jungle in the Northern Territory have yielded some illuminating results. The oxidation process generates heat and consequently, in some regions of the dump, the temperatures arc above ambient. In one region in particular, the temperature is 55-60°C — well above ambient. Of greater significance is the fact that the bacteria do not survive above about 45°C. their optimum temperature being about 35CC. This could mean that, although the oxidation is triggered by bacteria, in some regions at least, chemical oxidation has taken over as the dominant process. The chemical oxidation rates between 45-IO()°C are being determined so that the chemical contribution to the overall oxidation rate in the heaps can be included in models being developed to simulate the processes in these heaps. Changes in the temperature at various depths in the dump and at various times of the wet-dry cycle demonstrate that significant quantities of heat arc removed from the dump from time to time. Rain falling on the dump and passing through it provides one possible mechanism for heat removal. Correlation of the temperature changes with measurements of the water concentration in the dump, using neutron moisture meters, should indicate whether this mechanism 90 is the dominant one for heal removal. Suitable modelling of heat balance in the dump should indicate where most of the heat is generated and hence where most of the oxidation takes place. A clear picture of where the oxidation takes place and the factors that determine the rate of oxidation will allow better assessments to be made of the relative merits of schemes to mitigate pollution from such an overburden dump. Radium Analysis The second coordination meeting of the Internationa! Atomic Energy Agency cooperative research program entitled "The Source. Distribution, Move- ment and Deposition of Radium in Inland Waterways and Aquifers", was held in Japan in October 1977. At this meeting, a preliminary report on the international inter-laboratory comparison of analytical methods was presented, together with progress reports on work in the Northern Territory and on research into the leaching of radium from tailings. The intcrcomparison of analytical methods revealed large differences between laboratories cither in the same country or different countries. The meeting agreed that variation in standard sources may account for the differences and recommended that a single standard source be sup;.,.led to every country and the results rc- analyscd and adjusted according to the new standard. The low level unknown sample at — 3.7mBq/I was too low to be measured by several Australian laboratories. The Commission therefore prepared a new unknown sample of 111 mBq/1. This was distributed in December 1977. Magela Creek Floodplain, N T The mapping of the Magcla Creek floodplain vegetation was completed during the year and a paper describing this work was prepared for publication. Aerial photographic mapping showed the floodplain to be a freshwater lagoon cut off at its outlet by the levee bank of the East Alligator River. Analysis of field samples of soil and plants from the Magcla floodplain for radium 226 was completed and a paper prepared on the work. Although the catchment of the Magcla floodplain is highly mineralised, the radium 226 levels in the soil arc not above the regional or world background levels. Radium concentration in the swamp vegetation is about twice the regional level. Radon Studies On behalf of the South Australian Department of Public Health, the Com- mission and the Australian Mineral DevcloDincnt Laboratories, Adelaide, studied the radon and radon daughter concentration in air resulting from the tailings dam (sited on tidal flats) of the former uranium mill at Port Piric, South Australia. The radon emanation rate from the surface of tailings material was measured also. Four surveys were completed, the last being in May 1978. No significant seasonal effect was found in the radon emanation rates, although there was a marked tidal effect. Variation in atmospheric concentrations was associated with meteorological dispersion factors. Radon emanation rates were measured also at the tailings dam of the former Rum Jungle workings, Northern Territory, at the end of both the wet and dry seasons. No significant differences were found. These results suggest that the predominant mechanism for radon release is not simply a diffusion controlled process (the diffusion coefficient of radon in air is l(hs m- s~' and in water Kh9 m: s~'), otherwise the emanation rate from dry tailings would be a factor of 25 to 100 times greater than from wet tailings. 91 A scries of measurements of radon emanation rates from the Ranger I. No. 1 orcbody in the Northern Territory was made at the end of the wet season. Compared with measurements of radon emanation 1'iom tailings dams that arose from previous uranium mining operations elsewhere, the highest radon emanation rate recorded from the undisturbed orcbody at Ranger 1. No. 1 was about 15 times greater than the highest measurement taken from the existing tailings dams. The series of measurements taken at Ranger 1. No. 1 provided an estimate of the total quantity of radon emanated by this orebody. The estimate is greater than would be expected from a rcvcgetatcd, above-ground-level tailings dam derived from the same orcbody.

METEOROLOGICAL STUDIES An acoustic sounder continued to monitor the dynamic behaviour of the lower atmosphere over Lucas Heights. In addition, periodic field experiments have been conducted using a balloon-borne Tethersondc system to calibrate the acoustic sounding facsimile records in terms of vertical profiles of temperatures and winds. To date this work has concentrated on the development of the atmospheric mixing layer during the morning. In a continuing program, the profile of meteorological parameters will be investigated using balloon-borne sensors suspended in sea breeze wind regimes and in the nocturnal stable boundary layer. In September 1977 a successful collaborative research program with the balloon-borne acoustic sounder was undertaken in association with Mount Isa Mines Ltd. The main purpose of the experiments was to assist in the calibration of an acoustic sounder pattern recognition scheme using in xim meteorological measurements at an inland, continental location.

DIVISIONAL RESEARCH

ASSAY OF THORIUM A neutron activation analysis technique was developed which shows promise for simple, specific assay of thorium-bearing minerals with minimal sample preparation. A short reactor irradiation of the mineral leads, by neutron capture, to the formation of protactinium 233 which decays with a 27-day half-life to uranium 233 with the emission of a y-ray of 311.8 kcV. Detection of the latter radiation forms the basis of the analytical technique. The method offers good sensitivity (a few parts per million in a 10 gram sample) and good discrimination against uranium content without need for chemical separation.

ELECTRON MICROSCOPY Electron microscopy continued to be a major research tool and was used to investigate radiation damage in reactor materials and in studies of maraging steels for centrifuge applications. Development was carried out to extend the application of the technique, for example, the determination of extinction distances in copper using convergent beam diffraction on the 200 kV scanning transmission electron microscope. Follow- ing this work, an invitation was received to participate in an international project aimed at establishing the accuracy of structure factor measurements using electron microscopy and diffraction. 92 500nm

Transmission elet. iron micro- graphs illustrating structural clianges on heating oj chrysotile asbestos. C/irysotile, an hyilraieil magnesium silicate, occurs in nature as fine fibrils (/c.f illiistraiifni) which are often clustered loosely in handles. Alter suitable heat tmiti'it'iit, water is expelled, and the individual fibrils sinter together. The sintered product is a p'llycrysialline mixture of two types oj magnesium silicate; enstatile and jorsterite (lop illustration). The jor- sierite grains contain crysiallo- graphically faceted cavities whereas enstatite muv s/iow in- ternal striations clue to twin- ning and polymorphism.

DECOMPOSITION OF ASBESTOS

Exposure to asbestos represents a serious hazard because of the fibrogcnie and carcinogenic properties of inhaled asbestos fibres. Previous work elsewhere showed a substantial increase in toxicity when chrysotilc asbestos was heated to between 600° and 800'C. The most commonly held view is that chrysotilc when heated innsforms to forslcritc and silica. The increase in toxicity is attributed to the prcsi. . of silica, even though silica has not been detected experimentally. 93 To clarify this problem, the thermal decomposition of chrysolite was studied using advanced X-ray • /fraction techniques, infra-red spectroscopy, electron microscopy and electron diffraction. Results of this study indicate the chrysotile decomposes to enstatitc and forstcrilc. The enhanced toxicity of healed chrysotilc arises from substantial changes in the surface properties of the asbestos fibre.

PASCAL COMPILER In collaboration with the University of Tokyo, a compiler for the Pascal programming language was developed for IBM360/370 computer systems. Pascal, originally defined by Professor N. Wirth in Zurich about 1970. provides powerful data structuring facilities and has control structures suitable for structured programming. A great deal of interest in Pascal has been expressed by computing communities around the world, and it is used extensively by universities as a tool for teaching computer science. Unlike Fortran, Cobol and other more popular scientific and business languages, Pascal has not had the support of the major computer manufacturers and, for this reason, commercial organisations have been slow to appreciate its advantages and to seek to use it. Pascal was implemented originally on CDC computers and, more recently, subsets of the language have been implemented on other computers. There have been several previous attempts to develop a Pascal compiler that executes on IBM360/370 computer systems. However, all these attempts have failed cither to implement the language as originally defined, or have provided inefficient and poor operational characteristics. The newly developed Pascal compiler not only fully implements the Pascal language, but provides many powerful extensions. Further, its performance is eminently suited to a production environment. It evolved from a compiler developed at the University of Tokyo that executed on a HITAC computer, and was extensively modified and extended with all restrictions of the original compiler removed. The result is an elegant and efficient software system that, for the first time, enables IBM users lo gain access to the sophisticated features provided by the Pascal language. The Pascal system is currently operational at the Commission's Research Establishment. The Commission already has received more than 100 requests from organisations in the USA, Europe and other parts of Australia to purchase copies of the new system. These arc being processed. PATENTS AND EXPLOITATION A total of 14 patent applications, covering seven inventions, was filed during the year. In addition, one patent application for an invention was allowed to lapse. Only one grant of letters patent was received for an invention. However, several inventions, whose complete specifications have been filed, could result in a number of letters patent being granted in the near future. An agreement was concluded appointing Rcntokil Ply Ltd as the Com- mission's world-wide agent for the control of insects (termites) patent. Agreements concerning a Commission-patented technique for gas flow measurement were terminated with Imperial Chemical Industries Australia Ltd and subsequently with Australian Consolidated Industries Ltd. The trademark "PHYTEC" was registered by the Registrar of Trade Marks for use in connection with a liver and spleen scanning radiopharmaccutical developed by the Commission. 94 6 RADIOISOTOPES AND RADIATION

RADIOISOTOPE APPLICATIONS

MINERAL INDUSTRY Bulk Analysis for Copper and Nickel in Ores An agreement has been drawn up with the Australian Mineral Development Laboratories (Amclcl), Adelaide, under which Amdcl is responsible for the manufacture and marketing of bulk mineral analysers under licence to the Commission. The bulk mineral analysers have resulted from several years' research and development by the Commission. The analysers arc based on the principle of gamma-ray resonance scattering. The method is highly specific to copper and nickel and has the advantage that elemental concentrations obtained arc averaged over large samples of ore. Amdel plans to have the first commercial bulk analyser available by late 1978. The prototype bulk mineral analyser for copper, which was manufactured and installed by Commission staff at Mount Isa Mines Ltd in 1976, continues to be used by the company for routine assay of drill cores and crushed bulk samples. This installation has tested the method under industrial conditions and has demonstrated some of the technique's capabilities for the mineral industry. On-line Analysis of Coal On-line determination of the ash, moisture and energy content of coal would be of great value to the coal and power generation industries. The Commission is undertaking research into X-ray and neutron techniques for the on-line analysis of coal on conveyor belts or in chutes or hoppers. Radioisotope X-ray techniques can be used to determine the ash content of coal. The Commission has developed a novel method for which patent applications have bzcn lodged in eight countries. A patent has already been granted in South Africa. The main direction of present work is to extend the X-ray techniques to higher X-ray energies. This would enable ash content analysis to be averaged over 30 cm thickness of coal. 95 Neutron techniques can be used to determine the concentration of specific elements such as carbon, hydrogen and silicon in coal. These elemental concentrations arc correlated to the ash, moisture and energy content of the coal. Energy content and carbon arc closely correlated although many applications will require accurate analysis for carbon. The Commission has lodged a provisional patent application for a method which is applicable to the accurate analysis of carbon in coal. Control of Mineral Concentrators The Commission is cooperating with Australian Mining and Smelting Ltd in a study of factors affecting control of the company's lead-zinc concentrators at Broken Hill, NSW. Operation of these notation plants is alTectcd by many in- teracting variables, such as ore throughput, grade and particle size, addition rates of various reagents, etc. It is difficult to unravel the complex correlations and transport delays of these process variables. The Commission is applying noise analysis techniques used in nuclear reactor studies to improve signal to noise ratios and hence obtain significant correlations. Plant input and output data have been supplied by New Broken Hill Con- solidated Ltd. Much of this data concerns metal concentrations of various plant process streams. These concentrations were determined by the radioisotopc on- stream analysis system originally developed by the Commission and now manufactured and marketed commercially by the Australian Mineral Development Laboratories. The Commission has analysed the data supplied and results have been encouraging. Similar sets of data will be supplied from the Zinc Corporation Ltd plant at Broken Hill. In addition, various plant inputs, such as reagent addition rates, will be varied randomly over a small range to enhance signals relative to noise.

NUCLEAR HYDROLOGY Data derived from a three-year investigation of the isotope hydrology of the Great Artesian Basin have now been assessed. The study was carried out by the Commission in collaboration with the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics. The results appear to have important implications in the study of aspects of climate change over the past 300,000 years. When plotted against the calculated age of the ground water the concentrations of sodium, chloride and bicarbonate ions fall on similar regular curves. The curves all exhibit minima during the recent glacial period (20,000 to 65,000 years before present (BP)) and maxima during the warmer holocenc epoch (<20,000 years BP). and during the last interglacial period (80,000 to 120,000 years BP). This work- has strengthened the impression gained from the study of the Merccnie Sand- stone aquifer, Alice Springs, that, under favourable circumstances, the chemical and isotopic composition of ground water in arid and semi-arid basins may be a sensitive probe of palcoclimatic variations. Studies are continuing of the isotope hydrology of the Coonawarra Valley, in collaboration with the South Australian Department of Mines, and of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Division of Plant Industry's catchment in the upper Shoalhavcn Valley. Increasing commercial interest is being expressed in the application of environmental isotope techniques lo the study of water seeping into open-cut and underground mines. The measurement of the tritium levels in a few carefully 96 Research at Lucas Heights into radioisolope techniques jar the determination oj specific energy, ash and moisture content of coal. Top left: In one part of tin- study, coal is poured into a container for bulk analysis oj carbon and hydrogen content />v a combined neutron and gamma-ray method. The method provides simultaneous determination of specific energy, asli and mois'.nre content. Top right: The neutron source is located under the container. The method has potential also jor on-line analysis of coal on conveyor bells or in dunes or /toppers, llelow: A radioactive X-ray transmission gauge and associated electronics is used in this experimental equipment to determine the transmission of X-rays through a solution simulating coal samples.

97 chosen samples is frequently sufficient to determine whether seepage has resulted from local infiltration or from the intersection of a normal ground water flow path. Substantial efforts were expended in applying caesium 137 techniques to the study of sediment redistribution in semi-arid regions. The fission product adsorbs strongly on components of the sediments and acts as a natural tracer. Work in the Cobar and Broken Hill regions, NSW, in association with the CSIRO Division of Land Resources and Management, is well under way. Plans are in hand to extend the studies to other geographical settings. Measurements were made of the levels of chlorine 36 in a number of environmental samples. Because of its long half-life (308,000 years) and the relative simplicity of its geochemistry, the isotope is of potential value in dating very old ground water and, for instance, in studying aspects of the genesis of salt lakes. The value of ultra-low-level tracing techniques has been demonstrated in a recent study of the transport of tritiated water (HTO) and zinc 65 across the Magela Plains system in the Northern Territory. Further applications of these techniques arc expected as the proponents of large mining and industrial ventures seek to predict the ultimate fate of low-level effluent released to the environment.

ERADICATION OF TERMITES The Commission further improved the efficiency of the eradication method for termites being developed jointly with CSIRO. The Commission carried out a further series of radiotracer studies on infestations of Coptotermes acinacilonnis and Coploicnnex lacleux in warehouses and factories where the termites have been located mainly under concrete floors. This work provided further information on the nesting pattern of these insects in an urban environment. Using slow-acting poison baits, eradication of the colonies has been indicated by a cessation of termite activity. The Commission has applied in several countries for patents on the novel aspects of this work for the control and eradication of termites. The pest control company Rentokil Pty Ltd has entered into a licensing agreement with the Com- mission on the exploitation of the baiting technique.

RADIOISOTOPE CONSULTING SERVICE The Commission provides an advisory and consulting service on the applications of radioisotopes in industry and other fields. Demand for this commercial service continued to expand during the year necessitating the appointment of additional staff. The backup of highly-specialised resources and equipment available within the Commission greatly facilitates the successful operation of this service. The main classes of work requested during the past two years have been dispersion studies in rivers, estuaries and oceans, wear testing, and testing for leaks in industrial plant. Major projects were undertaken for the Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board, Pancontinental Mining Ltd and Ranger Uranium Mines Pty Ltd. The Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and Drainage Board contracted the Commission to undertake a series of radiotracer experiments to determine the dispersion behaviour of various types of particulate matter released from the ocean outfall at Malabar, NSW. Various types of paniculate matter labelled with the radionuclide gold 198 were traced from the outfall until well dispersed in the 98 surrounding ocean. By this means it was possible to determine whether any specific fraction resulting from sewage treatment gave rise to beach pollution. As mentioned earlier, the Commission undertook a series of .dispersion experiments in the Magela Creek and adjacent flood plain in the Northern Terri- tory. These experiments were conducted on behalf of Pancontinental Mining Ltd and Ranger Uranium Mines Ply Ltd. The radiotracer experiments were designed to determine the fate of run-off water from incident rain that may become slightly contaminated with heavy metals from passing over disturbed areas. It is hoped to gain information on how these heavy metals could interact with sediments and with biota downstream of the proposed development area as far as the ocean. Zinc 65 was used to reveal the behaviour of zinc and chemically related heavy metals, while manganese 54 was used to simulate the behaviour of manganese and related metals. The concentrations of these radioisotopcs when dispersed in the water system were very small and could be detected only by the use of sophisticated low-level counting techniques. The experiments were undertaken during February and March 1978 and counting of low-level samples is scheduled to be completed in August 1978. Radiotracer experiments are being undertaken for the Port of Brisbane Authority to determine silt movement in Moreton Bay. This will determine the efficiency of the present practice of dumping spoil dredged from the Brisbane River into Morcton Bay. The work is part of a larger program which is being undertaken by the Wallingford Hydraulics Research Station, UK, and which is aimed at determination of the effects of a reduced program of dredging in the Brisbane River on metropolitan flood levels and stable navigable depths in the shipping channels in Moreton Bay. A wide variety of enquiries on radioisotope applications was received and feasibility studies were carried out on a number of problems, such as leaks in wave guides, determination of coating mass of zinc on galvanised wire, the labelling of beach sand and the measurement of suspended silt levels in rivers.

RADIATION RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS RADIATION SHRINKPROOFING OF WOOL Commission research has shown that the inconvenient and inefficient catalytic-high temperature curing methods used in commercial processes for shrinkproofing wool materials by the application of polymer resins are no longer mandatory. Instead, good shrinkage resistance can be imparted to wool by simple treatments using polymer resins and ionising radiation at normal ambient temperatures. Processes developed by the Commission use a wide variety of simple resin formulations based on conventional types of textile resins, but there is no need to add the highly reactive chemical catalysts normally required for curing these materials. This eliminates problems such as degradation and loss of strength of the wool, evolution of unpleasant and toxic fumes during heat curing, contamination and corrosion of equipment, and the need to neutralise and wasli catalyst residues out of the treated materials. The radiation processes are suitable for batch-type operations (e.g., using commercial gamma-irradiation services) and particularly for continuous operations using electron beam irradiators. Patents have been applied for in Australia, England, France, West Germany, the USA and Japan. 7V.v» cijiiliiuit'd puiif 102. Above: Apparatus tiseil lo label digested sewage sludge, with gold /9

Abort", Survey oj beaches adjacent to the Malabar treatment works wns carried out by Commission officers using sensitive detection equip/item to determine natural background radiation levels and to identify any gold-labelled con- Kiminan's reaching the batch.

Lejr. An MWSDI) technician sampling tligesied sludge np- stnain of the gold /W injection apparatus. Samples oj this .slinlge were taken for chemical analysis dining the trials.

100 Abore: During llic 1977-78 wet season, extensive tracing experi- * 'n>*",V>"< ments were carried out at Magela 1 Creek, Northern Territory, jor Pan- i * :• , —,••f.§. -,, t4: continental Mining Lid and Ranger Uranium Mines I'ty Ltd. The .study concerned the possible effect of mine water discharges on the environment of Magelct Creek and the adjacent flood plain. Heli- copter transport was required lor part of the sampling program he- cause high vegetation growing in the llood waters prevented the use of boats.

Above: An officer i>j the Northern Terri- tory Water Resources liranch collecting water samples by helicopter following release of one of the radioactive tracers used in the studv.

Left: As part oj a hydraulic study of t/ie lirisbane River and Moreton Bay, Queensland, the Commission traced silt labelled with radioactive gold 198. The study was carried out for the I'ort of Brisbane Authority in conjunction with the \Vallinglord Hydraulics Research Station of the United Kingdom. Com- mission siafl on board llie dredge "Echeneis", in Moreion Hay, inject gold 198 into a hopper containing dredged spoil. The movement of the dumped spoil was then followed under water using sledge-monnled radiation detection epnip- ment.

101 RADIATION IN CHEMICAL. RESEARCH

The Commission carried out research into various aspects of radiation- initiated polymerisation of a number of monomers of different types. One area involved the measurement of radical lifetimes during polymerisation at pressures of up to 275 megapascals (about 40,000 pounds per square inch). The method involves a gamma source rotated at controlled speeds around a monomer sample inside a lead-shielded pressure vessel. Removal of one 90° segment of shielding allows a pulse of gamma-radiation of known duration to initiate polymerisation. By measuring polymerisation rates under different conditions and at different speeds, the lifetimes of polymer radicals can be determined. This information may then be used, together with other data, to calculate rate constants for various steps in polymerisation processes. The technique of pulse radiolysis can be used to examine the early chemical events which occur when high-energy ionising radiation interacts with matter. Sometimes these events give species which are important in non-nuclear fields and pulse radiolysis can be used to study their reactions. Several such problems a'" being studied by both university and Commission research workers using the two electron accelerators at Lucas Heights. Styrene is used in the production of many polymers such as styrene-butadiene rubbers and latexes, polystyrene foams and mouldings and fibreglass reinforced styrene-polyester materials. The radiation chemistry of styrene is important because radiation can be used for grafting, cross-linking, degradation and polymerisation. The industrial use of the radiation-induced polymerisation of styrene and emulsions at very high pressures has been studied for some time by the Commission using gamma-irradiation facilities. Pulse radiolysis is an obvious technique for elucidating the fundamental processes occurring in aqueous emulsions. Research using the 1.3 MeV Van dc Graaff electron accelerator was confined initially to the study of styrene in emulsions of various surface-active agents, but it was soon realised that there were flaws in the literature accounts of the radiation chemistry of styrene and of the optical transitions of the benzyl radical — the latter probably being the main species involved. A related study into the optical transitions of benzyl-type radicals showed that the anomalous optical behaviour of this radical in styrene was not due to a polymerisation process, but to a general feature which was dependent upon the concentration of the compound and common to benzyl radicals formed from other non-polymeric compounds. This work explained why many workers over the past few decades have reported large differences in the spectra of the benzyl radical. Attention could now be directed to the other species present in styrene systems. Because of the superior optical resolution and spectral range now available, a previously unrecognised transient product was discovered and dis- crepancies in the literature were resolved. This technique was used also to study the chemically-catalysed polymerisation of styrene. During a two-month shutdown, the Commission's 1.3 MeV Van dc Graaff electron accelerator was extensively remodelled by Commission and Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering staff. Improvements included a new system of flight tubes and a switching magnet which allows a rapid change to be made between different experimental rigs. A visual display unit was added to the on-line computer to process the results of kinetic studies of transient free radicals in a wide range of chemical systems. 102 MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION DOSE Chemical Methods In radiotherapy for cancer, the objective is to obtain maximum control of tumours with a minimum of complications. One of the important factors in achieving this objective is control of the radiation dose delivered to the patient. Dose can be measured in several ways, one of which is chemical dosimetry. This technique is convenient to use and gives accurate and reliable measurement of doses greater than those used in radiotherapy. In radiotherapy, however, the doses are at the lower limit of sensitivity of the accepted standard ferrous sulphate dosimeter. Research continued towards developing a chemical dosimeter, with the reliability of the ferrous sulphate dosimeter, but suitable for the dose range used in radiotherapy. Some progress was achieved by modifying the composition of the standard ferrous sulphate dosimeter to allow the measurement of irradiated ferrous sulphate dosimeters by a more sensitive analytical technique than used previously. Another approach to the problem has been to use a completely different chemical, a dilute aqueous solution of sodium terephthalate. When this solution is irradiated it forms the compound 2-hydroxy sodium terephthalate which has a brilliant fluorescence. Concentrations as low as 4 x 1O9 molar can be detected, corresponding to an absorbed dose of about 0.04 gray (4 rads). This highly- sensitive chemical dosimeter is being studied further. Biological Methods The measurement of absorbed dose by chemical or physical methods is not necessarily a true indication of the degree of inactivation of micro-organisms by radiation. For example, bacteria are generally more resistant to the high dose rates delivered by accelerators than to the same dose delivered by cobalt 60. Microbiological testing could be a more appropriate measurement of the overall effectiveness of commercial radiation sterilisation processes. Although several radiation resistant micro-organisms have been investigated in other countries for this purpose, the results have not been encouraging due to a lack of rcproducibility between laboratories. Spores of Bacillus spliaericus, strain CiA, were re-examined for their suitability as a "biological effects" dosimeter. It was shown that several factors, both before and after irradiation, can influence the results. When these parameters arc controlled, the spore dosimeter performs with an accuracy comparable to, or better than, many secondary chemical or physical radiation dosimeters now in use. RADIATION STERILISATION OF MEDICAL PRODUCTS Radiation sterilisation of medical items is being increasingly preferred overseas as the "cold" sterilisation process of choice. Many companies in the USA are abandoning ethylene oxide sterilisation for radiation treatment of their material. This change can be attributed, in part, to increased awareness of the potential hazard of the toxic effect of cthylene oxide residues in products and in the environment. At present the trend in Australia is towards the increasing use of ethylenc oxide sterilisation. The slightly 'higher costs of radiation sterilisation may be a contributing factor. These costs could be reduced if doses lower than the normal sterilisation dose for medical products of 25 kilogray (2.5 megarads) sufficed to achieve commercial sterility. Selected medical products (e.g., cotton balls) arc being examined for their suitability for sterilisation with doses less than 25 kilogray. 103 This should be feasible for some items because of the good manufacturing practices insisted upon by the Commonwealth Department of Health. Sterilisation doses will be determined on the basis of pre-slerilisation microbiological burden levels and the radiation resistance of the bacterial contaminants. This procedure is the current practice in the USA. Validation of the dose required for radiation sterilisation of certain products forms a part of the International Atomic Energy Agency's Coordinated Program of Research on Radiation Sterilisation Practices Significant to Local Medical Supplies and Conditions for Asia and the Pacific Region. The Commission par- ticipates in this program by means of a research agreement with the Agency and was represented at the first coordination meeting of participants, held at Jakarta in April 1978.

RADIATION RESISTANCE OF BACTERIAL SPORES Bacterial spores arc very resistant to chemical and physical agents, such as heat and radiation. For several years, the Commission has been investigating combinations of various treatments which could reduce the resistance of the spores sufficiently to provide acceptable alternative methods for sterilisation of materials containing spores. This work has provided considerable insight into the biophysical properties of the spore and suggested a thermodynamic model to account for resistance mechanisms operating in the spore. The significance of these results was presented and discussed at an international interdisciplinary seminar-workshop about the basis and mechanism of bacterial spore resistance, Wisconsin, USA, in October 1977. Resulting from the workshop, the Commission is taking part in a collaborative project with the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation and US scientists to help clarify the role of water absorption on spore resistance.

RADIATION ADVISORY SERVICE The Commission provides an advisory service to government and to industrial and commercial organisations on the applications of radiation. Advice was provided during the year on the sterilisation of materials and products, disinfestation of quarantined goods, polymerisation of monomers and cross-linking of polymers.

RADIATION STANDARDS As an agent of the National Measurement Laboratory of the Common- wealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, the Commission is responsible for the development and maintenance of national standards of absorbed dose. Working standards of absorbed dose in carbon and absorbed dose in water were calibrated against the Australian Commonwealth Standard of absorbed dose (graphite calorimeter) for cobalt 60 gamma-radiation. The long term stability of these standards was tested over a period of one year and found to be satisfactory.

DOSIMETRY SERVICES The Commission provides a regular dose calibration service through the mail to a number of companies, both in Australia and overseas, which use radiation commercially for sterilisation. Other companies use this service on an occasional basis to determine the radiation dose received by materials they have had irradiated. 104 RADIOPHARMAC'iaiTlCAL R1-SI:>\RCH AND 1)1-VI-1.OPMI-NT The main thrust of radiopharmaccutical rcsearcli throughout the past year involved the development of improved processes for the production of the radionuclidc tcchnetium 99m and the search for compounds of tcchnetium whose biological properties would make them suitable for use in diagnostic medicine. Technetium 99m is the decay product of another radionuclide, molybdenum 99, which is produced by the irradiation of cither natural molybdenum or uranium 235. Portable devices which separate tcchnetium 99m from parent molybdenum 99, called generators, are supplied to most hospitals practising nuclear medicine. The generator type produced by the Commission contains molybdenum 99 (produced from the fission of uranium) adsorbed on a bed of aluminium oxide. The technetium 99m is separated by passing a stream of saline solution through the bed. However, because of radiation-induced side effects, the efficiency of the separation process can be affected adversely and this has stimulated a study to find methods of overcoming the problem. In the present design of generator, radiolysis effects are avoided by adding nitrate ions in low concentration to the saline eluant. Commission research has shown that a much improved performance can be ob'aincd if the alumina adsorbent used in the generator is coated with certain salts. A patent application has been lodged for this invention. In a separate approach, the Commission is developing a novel type of technetium 99m generator to allow the use of molybdenum 99 produced by the irradiation of natural molybdenum. This generator, which retains all the advantages of the current alumina generator, has been tested successfully at high activity. The chemical preparation and performance of the new generator are being optimised. The Commission continued a program aimed at expanding the range of diagnostic agents manufactured at Lucas Heights. An improved hepato-biliary diagnostic agent resulted from new product research. RADIOISOTOPI- PRODUCTION AND SI-RVIC1-S As foreshadowed in its Annual Report for 1976-77, the Commission has assumed from the Australian Radiation Laboratory, Melbourne, responsibility for production, procurement and distribution of radiopharmaccuticals in Australia. As from 17 December 1977, the Commission has provided a regular daily service of tcchnetium 99m products to 12 Victorian centres. The service requires the manufacture of these products by 1900 hours each day, shipment to Melbourne by overnight air freighter and distribution throughout the Melbourne metropolitan area by 0900 hours next morning. The Melbourne delivery service is provided by the Commonwealth Department of Administrative Services which also forwards products by rail to hospitals at Bencligo, Sale, Ballarat and Latrobc. The Commission has also assumed the responsibility for importing and dis- tributing other radiopharmaceuticals formerly handled by the Australian Radiation Laboratory. These arc iodine 125 labelled triodothyroninc and thyroxine (In- dustrial Nuclear Corp., California, USA), cyanocobalamin-cobalt 57 (Bhaba Atomic Research Centre, Bombay, India), sodium chromatc-chromium 51 (Radio- chemical Centre, Amersham, UK), ferric citrate-iron 59, and gallium citrate- gallium 67 (Medi-Physics Inc., California, USA). Negotiations are in hand with

Text ctintinitt'il pugc I OH. 105 TABU-; 11 — SUPPLY OF KADIOISOTOPES !5Y AAEC (For Ihc period I April 1977 to 31 March 1978)

USE AND TYPE SHIPMENTS ACTIVITY* VALUE

WITHIN AUSTRALIA $ Industrial Radiography sources 172 !99TBq (5.365 Ci) 40.200 Scaled sources for radiation switches etc. 83 276GBq (7.467 mCi) 5.200 Miscellaneous 68 6.4(K)GBq (173 Ci) 4,500 Service activities on equipment etc. 41 1.400 Total for industrial use 364 51.300 Research Cobalt 60 source 1 3ITBq (830 Ci) 600 Miscellaneous Solutions etc 918 475GBq (12.841 mCi) 16,700 Neutron irradiations 119 3.500 Total for research 1.038 20.800 Medical Implant source (gold 198) 138 153GBq (4,139 mCi) 1,800 Miscellaneous solutions 1,012, M7GBq (3.154 mCi) 12,700 Lyophilised products 9,707 13.600 Iodine 131 solutions 4,335 1.787GBq (48,292 mCi) 37.200 Tcchnctium 99m solutions 32,467 68TBq (1.837.481 mCi) ,066,000 Molybdenum 99 solutions and tcchnctium 99m uencrators 1,342 25TBq (677.352 mCi) 172.300 Total for medical use 49,001 ,303.600 EXPORT Cobalt 60 tclctherapy source 1 !67TBq (4,510 Ci) 20,200 Radiography sources 32 4ITBq (1,116 Ci) 7.500 Solutions for research and medical use 134 l.lSSGBq (31.303 mCi) 11,600 Technctium 99m generators 360 4,603GBq (124.400 mCi) 37,300 Lyophiliscd reagents 380 400 Total for export 907 77,000 Total for AAEC production 51,310 1,452,700 Miscellaneous solutions imported for medical use within Australia 446 8,900 Total isotope sales 51,756 1,461,600

* The International System (SI) unit, the hccqucrcl (Hq), is replacing the curie (CO ;is the unit for the measurement of radioactivity. I Ci = 3.7 x IQlOBq (c.MicO. I »q = 2.7 * 10-HCi ("rounded). 106 SI 600 000 —r] rr rr~ rf -;[ TJ ~n~ 31 Marth 31 March' 31 March ' 31 March; 31 Maith 31 March' 31 Marrh I 31 Marcn ' / 51.600 000 ANNUAL SALES VALUE OF RADIOISOTOPES . MANUFACTURED BY AAEC ; 51,300 OHO {NOTE. VALUES EXCLUDE LARGE COBAL T 60 ' IRRADIATION AND TELETHERAPY SOUFtCESI ' / | ,- 51,200.000

S1.IOQ.OOO TOTAL SALES VALUE TOTAL NON-MEDICAL SI. 001). 000 INDUSTRIAL

sson.ooo RESEARCH -» TOTAL MEDICAL (including exports! 5800.000 TOTAL EXPORTS (including medical) S700.000

5600.000

5500000

5400.000

5300.000

5700.000

S100.000

550.000

1967 | 1968 | 1969 j 1970 I 1971 I 1972 I 1973 j 1974 I 1975 | 1976 ( 1977 [1978

so.ooo 1 ; 31 Mar_ch] 31 March j TTMaTch! 31 March! 31 March] 31 March! 31 March] 31 March I •15000 •to ooo ! ANNUAL SHIPMENTS OF AAEC ''' .-.!• OOtl 30000 PRODUCED RADIOISOTOPES

25000

20000

15.000 moon r, onn

VJ67 | 19GB I 19G9 1070 | 1971 1972 | 1973 1974 1975 I 1076 ( 1977 ! 197n

13. 107 suppliers of cyclotron-produced radiophannucculicnls to extend the range of products available in Australia. The Commission lias introduced 24 hour, seven day a week puxluction to enable the Isotope Production Unit to cope with this greatly increased work load and to provide a more extensive service to nuclear medicine centres in Australia. On 1 January 1978, radiopharmaccuticals ceased to be supplied free by the Commonwealth Government. In a press statement issued on 17 August 1977, the Minister for Health said: "The Tree supply to users of radiopharmaccuticals and radioisotopcs will end on 31 December this year. The free issue policy which began in 1946 has achieved its main aim of fostering the development of the use of these materials for medical .diagnosis and treatment to the extent that they arc now an established facet of medicine . . . The main reasons for the ending of the free supply policy are that other equally lifesaving and diagnostic materials arc not supplied free, and free issue prevents effective control, dis- courages commercial competition and limits freedom of choice". It is anticipated that this new policy which has resulted in free competition in Australia involving worldwide radiopharmaccutical manufacturers will have some adverse effect on the demand for Commission supplies. However, the full extent may not be apparent for some time. Table 11 and Figure 13 show the number of shipments and values of radionuclidcs supplied by the Commission from I April 1977 to 31 March 1978. Commission production of tcchnctium 99m-bascd radiopharmaceuticals was expanded during the year to satisfy Australian requirements for these products. The Commission continued to export radiopharmaccuticals to New Zealand and the Philippines but was unable to increase its share of the market because of fully-committed production capacity presently available at Lucas Heights. Cobalt 60 tclctherapy sources were supplied to two hospitals in Sydney, one hospital in Perth and one in Auckland, New Zealand. Three ytterbium 169 sources were sold to a West German organisation for the radiography of thin sections and light-alloy components. These sources were unobtainable elsewhere in the world and represent a notable industrial use of this radioisotopc. Sales of other radiography sources remained constant. A recent trend in hospital practice resulted in an increased demand for fission-produced tcchnctium 99m. This necessitated a 75 per cent increase in the Commission's capacity in this area. It is anticipated that further increases may be necessary and improved irradiation techniques and processing methods and equipment arc being investigated. Improvements were made in methods of handling materials during radiopharmaceutical production to the extent that the Commission's cobalt 60 cell will be available now to manufacture special purpose sources.

I OS 7 RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT OPERATIONS AND SERVICES

NUCLEAR REACTORS

The reactors Moata (100 kilowatts thermal) and HIFAR (10 megawatts thermal) continued routine operation throughout the year. HIFAR, Australia's first nuclear reactor, was installed in 1956-57 and went critical in 1958. Its eventual replacement is under study by the Commission and a design for a possible new reactor is in the initial stage of development.

MOATA Moata continued to operate regularly at powers up to 100 kW to meet the needs of a growing range of research projects and services. Tenders have been called for a replacement fuel charge. During January 1978, the fuel was unloaded to replace an ionisation chamber, which had deteriorated in performance after 15 years service, and to replace and improve cabling to some of the other nuclconic instrumentation. Improve- ments in performance of the nuclconic instrumentation have resulted, but obso- lescence and increasing failure of instrumentation with age are causing servicing problems. Early consideration will be given to complete rcinstrumcntation of the reactor. During the unloading, other components and mechanisms of the reactor which arc normally inaccessible were inspected and found to be satisfactory.

HIFAR Operation HIFAR continued routine operation without major interruptions. Full power availability of 98.7 per cent was achieved. A number of new rigs were loaded, the most significant being a uranium ore assay rig. Although the total reactor rig burden has declined slightly, the 109 demand for isotopes has increased and up to 12 on-powcr load-unload rigs arc handled each operating period. Two minor coolant leaks occurred in the reactor primary coolant circuit from pipes in the heavy-water plant room within the HIFAR scaled building. The leaks were stopped, but correction of the basic cause of one leak will await the next major shutdown. These leaks in no way affected the safety of the reactor. Improvement in Fuel Economy Fuel economics anticipated in the 25th Annual Report (1976-77) were achieved during the year. Increasing the isotopic purity of the reactor heavy water in October 1976 enabled fuel burn-up to be increased and accounted for part of the savings. Additional savings were achieved by arranging a certain amount of fuel shuffling within the core. Although the situation is complicated by a small drop in the average rig loading over the past few years and a change in fuel loading from a combination of 115 gram and 150 gram elements to 150 gram and 170 gram elements, the yearly clement usage has been cut from about 58 to 47 elements, a saving of $60,000 a year. Modifications to Control Absorbers Difficulties with premature release of control arms, responsible for about two unscheduled shutdowns a year, have now yielded to investigation and arc unlikely to reoccur. Physics Research Research was carried out to improve understanding of the dynamic response of HIFAR. Power transients were initiated by altering both the temperature of the primary coolant and its flow rate. These were compared with computed values based on a model of characteristics of the reactor circuit. An improved method was devised for obtaining the reactivity worth of the HIFAR coarse control arms as a function of their angle in the core. This greatly increases the speed and precision with which reactivity calibration data can now be obtained. « Performance Investigations The HIFAR primary coolant circuit comprises the reactor aluminium tank and a number of stainless steel vessels and interconnecting pipework. The circuit contains heavy water which circulates through the reactor core and removes heat generated in the fuel elements. To maintain cooling at all times, it is important to prevent leakage of water and consequently the circuit is accorded the highest standards of inspection and maintenance. To provide further assurance of the integrity of the circuit, the possible modes of failure of the pipework were analysed. Results indicate that the likelihood of any significant leakage from the circuit is remote. As an added protection, measures arc provided to ensure the supply of emergency cooling water to the fuel elements in the unlikely event of loss of coolant. A program of analysis and experiment is continuing to increase understanding of the phenomena associated with heat transfer and fluid flow mechanisms which would occur ii\siich an event. REACTOR DESIGN STUDY In August 1977, the Commonwealth Government approved a Commission proposal to commence a design-cost study for a new reactor so that rcplace- 110 mem of (lie prcscnl research reactor HIFAR would be possible if required. The lead lime for the design and construction of such a reactor is five to eight years. The lesser time would relate to building an almost direct copy of an existing reactor and the longer time to a new design or a re-design based on an existing reactor. Studies have shown that no existing reactor design meets Australia's requirements for radioisotopc production and for research closely enough to be copied directly, therefore the design and construction of a reactor to replace HIFAR could take up to eight years, assuming that adequate resources were made available. In November and December 1977, two Commission officers visited the USA, UK, France and Austria to discuss possible means for designing reactor cores which would meet both Australian performance requirements and the US requirement for the use of low-enrichment fuel. Particular attention was paid in the USA to the review of reactor systems being undertaken for the US Depart- ment of Energy and. in France, to the practical work of developing low-enrichment fuel and predicting its performance. As a result of the US discussions a Com- mission officer is participating in some of the US studies. It was established that France is the only Western country with an existing design team having recent experience on the type of reactor considered most appropriate to Australia's future needs. Tcchnicatomc (Saclay) has proposed limited studies to enable the Commission to select a fuel clement design at a given enrichment and to for- mulate a preliminary design of the reactor core area.

Studies in support of the design project include the following.

Engineering Research Further experiments on the flow instability dryout limit to the power of a down flow pool-type reactor were carried out, using a heated round tube to simulate one of the rectangular flow passages in a reactor of the French Siloc type- in addition, design studies of various rectangular test sections were performed. One full size and one of one-fifth the normal width to economise on power requirements were made. Metallising of plates of non-conducting material (e.g., machinable glass ceramic) is being investigated as a way to obtain an electrically conducting surface thin enough to have a relatively high electrical resistance suited to ease of electric heating, yet stiff enough to resist deformation by thermal and hydraulic stresses. Tn parallel with this experimental work, a scries of parameter studies was made on the effect of various core flow rales, fuel plate spacing, pool temperatures, and pool depth on maximum permissible core power. These showed that increasing the depth of the pool was the most effective way of raising permissible core power, but this must be balanced against the additional cost and operational problems of a deeper pool.

Physics Research A suivey was made of the physics performance of water-moderated reactors with plate type uranium-aluminium fuel elements with a range of uranium 235 enrichments. The calculations were sufficiently detailed to allow neutron flux and fuel cost penalties to be assessed as a function of enrichment. The reactor core design, can thus he optimised for tcchnctium specific activity (of interest for isotope production) and available neutron beam fluxes for any imposed enrichment limitation. SI£ISMICITY AT LUCAS HEIGHTS The probabilities of seismic movements at Lucas Heights are being investigated, particularly in regard to magnitude as a function of return period. Past records of seismic movements in the Sydney Basin and neighbouring areas have been examined, and new methods of analysis developed overseas arc being evaluated and applied. To monitor local earth movements, a seismic vault is being installed at Lucas Heights containing a three-axis vibration detector. MANAGEMENT OF WASTES FROM THE RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT Waste management systems and services operated satisfactorily throughout the year. The Commission continued to store solid waste at Lucas Heights. Lo\v- and medium-level solid wastes were compacted and stored in sealed drums in weatherproof conditions. High-level solid waste was contained and placed in a dry storage facility. Irradiated fuel elements from HIFAR were stored in a special shielded facility under a dry, inert atmosphere and subject to inspection by the Department of Safeguards of the International Atomic Energy Agency. The small quantities of high-level liquid waste arising from the production of radiopharmaceuticals were stored in shielded tanks. The estimated maximum radiation dose that could have been received by any member of the public from airborne discharges from the Research Establish- ment during the year was less than one per cent of the dose limits for members of the public recommended by the National Health and Medical Research Council. Discharges of treated liquid effluent via a pipeline to the tidal reaches of the Woronora River continued to be substantially lower in radioactivity than the limits agreed with the New South Wales authorities.

WASTE MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES The purpose of waste management in atomic energy operations is to control any potential hazards by minimising the radiation and contamination effects that might be produced by the wastes. Strict control and surveillance arc carried out during transfer, treatment, storage and/or discharge of the wastes. In addition, environmental surveys and studies are carried out to demonstrate that the behaviour and fate of the released waste products in the environment are as predicted. The term "radioactive wastes" may include materials exhibiting widely different levels of radioactivity and toxicity, and occur in different chemical and physical forms. There is thus a wide range of different methods of treatment in use. In general, three basic methods of waste management arc available: (a) Dilute and disperse. This method is used when the radioactivity in the effluent can be reduced to levels acceptable for discharge into the environment, which already contains readily measurable levels of naturally- occurring radioactivity. Environmental surveys and studies arc carried out to confirm that the approach of dilute and disperse can be used without compromising health and safety standards. 112 (b) Concentrate and contain. This is used for wastes with a high level of radioactivity or toxicity. The radioactive or toxic materials are concentrated by volume reduction and the waste concentrates are stored in special facilities. (c) Delay and decay. This method is used on wastes of short half-life. These are held in a suitable container until the radioactivity decays to a level acceptable for discharge or further treatment.

EFFLUENT TREATMENT METHODS AT LUCAS HEIGHTS Liquid effluents arising at the Research Establishment, Lucas Heights, are segregated at the source as follows: (a) Waste waters are collected and transferred from source to monitoring, storage and treatment facilities on the site, through an effluent system which allows individual batches to be handled in the most suitable way. (b) Liquid wastes (generally of small volume) that may not K-- compatible with the operation of the effluent treatment plant arc scg;egatcd into approved containers and transported to the storage facility for storage and/or treatment. They may be one or more of the following: high, medium or low in radioactivity, toxic and non-radioactive or toxic and radioactive, and aqueous or non-aqueous. Classification of effluents is carried out at the source. Wasie waters are further segregated into three categories: sewage effluent free of significant radioactive or chemical pollutants, low-level radioactive effluent, and non-toxic trade waste effluent free of significant radioactive or chemical pollutants. These are collected and transferred through three different effluent drainage systems to the treatment plant. Strict control and surveillance of low-level effluent arc effected during passage through a series of holding tanks. The effluent passes through four sequential holding stages in tanks before finally being discharged into the Woronora River. The first control point is a delay tank close to the building at which the material originates. From this it proceeds to a mixing tank before being processed in the effluent treatment plant. It is then transferred into a holding tank, and finally into a discharge pond from which it is released into the discharge pipeline. In each of the first three tanks the effluent is sampled and analysed. These analyses enable a decision to be made whether the effluent should be released into the successive tank downstream, whether further analyses should be carried out, or if the effluent should be further treated in situ. Effluent containing short-lived radioactivity may be held in a mixing tank for decay and, if necessary, chemical treatment can be carried out in the tank during the holding period. Effluent is pumped from the mixing tanks for decontamination by a two-step process involving chemical and physical processes. Chemical flocculation produces a highly adsorbent floe which retains colloidal materials, radioactive and chemical pollutants. Physical concentration of the floe results in the separation and settling of sludge which is withdrawn and dried in solar evaporation ponds. The dry sludge is transferred for storage into cpoxy-coated steel drums which are lined with polythene bags. It has been shown by surveys that sludge drying in the solar evaporation ponds does not result in airborne contamination. 113 6 s^iys^^tite'^^NS'f^ ^^.-r;

Aerial view of the Commixxion's ejjlneni treatment plant at Lucas Heights. At the lop are the five mixing lenikx lor treatment hatch preparation and clari/ier feed, lielow these are two banks of solar drying ponds, with mobile covers, jor volume reduction of clarifier sludges. Storage drums for dried sludge concentrates also are visible. To the right of the drying ponds are the two sludge blankel-clarifiers and associated equipment. At lower centre are six holding tanks for treated effluents and below them is the larger treated effluent discharge pond. The pipeline sampler and the pipeline used to discharge the treated effluent are at the bottom right- hand corner.

'['he overflow from the treatment plant, together with treated sewage and filtered trade waste elTlucnl, is taken into holding tanks. Effluents may he held in these tanks Tor hours or days until confirmed by analysis that they arc satisfactory for discharge. While held in the tanks, the effluents are chlorinated to give a residual chlorine concentration of 1-2 milligrams per litre. Final pH adjustments or other chemical treatments are carried out as necessary in the holding tanks before transfer to the discharge pond. Effluent discharged from the pond to the \Voronora River passes through a pipeline strainer, flow meter and proportional sampler. The proportional pipeline samples are collected automatically and the volumes discharged are obtained by differential meter readings. Pipeline discharge samples are checked independently. One sample is analysed by a Commission Audit Officer to determine that discharges comply with the current discharge formula. A second sample goes to the EITIuent Control Laboratory which analyses for radioactivities and for other contaminants as specified by the NSW Clean Waters Regulations. 114 SAFETY

Safety Record The Commission's excellent safety record was maintained during the year. No serious accidents occurred and all radiation exposures were less than the limits recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Most accidents reported were minor, involving little or no lost time or residual disability. Less than two per cent of radiation workers received doses greater than three-tenths of the annual limit recommended by the ICRP, which considers that the potential detriment to workers in the "less than three-tenths" category docs not warrant contiguous, personal monitoring. A major contribution to the good safety record conies from the large and continuing effort devoted to the examination and review of existing and proposed operations and projects. By a variety of procedures, an attempt is made to identify all hazards — industrial, radiological, chemical, electrical, etc. — associated with a project and so eliminate them or reduce them to a minimum. As part of this system, the standing Committees on Reactor Safety and Safety Assessment met regularly. The Reactor Safety Committee is concerned with the review of all aspects of the operation of reactors and critical assemblies. The Safety Assessment Committee is concerned with assessment of the safety of new or significantly different operations and regular review of existing operations. An independent Safety Review Committee also reviews periodically the health and safety standards and procedures adopted by the Commission in the operation of its reactors and in the use of radiation, radioactive substances and toxic materials. (See Chapter 9.)

Environmental Survey Radioactivity measurements on a comprehensive range of samples of environmental materials collected in the vicinity of Lucas Heights showed that, as in previous years, the possible dose resulting from radioactivity discharges from the Research Establishment was negligible to any member of the public.

Emergency Planning A Working Party composed of officers of the Commission and of the NSW Police Department, State Emergency Services, Health Commission of NSW and Fire Brigade met regularly to review and update plans to deal with potential emergency situations which could have consequences outside the boundaries of the Research Establishment. This planning is of the same nature as that associated with the operation of, for example, oil refineries, petrochemical and fertiliser factories. It is concerned with the identification and execution of any counter- measures which might be necessary to protect the population in the event of a serious accident. Because the Commission maintains, as part of its domestic arrangements for safety, a continuously available emergency response system, the Health Com- mission of NSW requested that the Commission take over responsibility to deal with any accident that might occur at Sydney Airport involving shipments of radioactive materials. This responsibility was accepted and appropriate arrangements established. 115 ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY SERVICE A comprehensive analytical chemistry service was provided for research projects being carried out at the Research Establishment and 1'or control of the Commission's research reactors, cooling towers and effluent treatment plant. Work included analysis of samples such as uranium concentrates, ores, soils, liquors from leaching studies of uranium tailings, cooling and waste waters, environmental waters, plants and biota, coal, fly ash, and steel and non-ferrous alloys. In addition, a small amount of specialised chemical analysis, not available from commercial laboratories, was performed for other organisations including private industry, hospitals and government departments. In total, 30,000 separate analyses were performed on 13,000 samples. Neutron activation analysis was used increasingly as a rapid, non-destructive method for the analysis of up to 30 elements in organic materials such as coal, biopsy and tissue samples. Spark source mass spcctromctry was used to determine simultaneously 70 elements scmi-quantitatively at the parts per billion level in metals, alloys, semi-conductors and environmental waters. The Low Level Radio- chemistry Laboratory provided a unique service in measuring extremely low concentrations of radioactive nuclidcs, such as cesium 137. radium 226 and lead 210, in environmental and other samples.

COMPUTING SERVICES A computing service, together with specialised programming and mathematical advice and assistance, was provided for use by all Branches of the Commission. The computing service is based on an 1BM360/65 central computer and a network of smaller computers. The central computer system operates continuously, processing up to 10,000 jobs each month of which 95 per cent relate directly to the Commission's research program and the remaining 5 per cent to administration computing. Jobs may be submitted directly to the central computer or through a network of remote job-entry stations and user terminals. A revised version of the central computer operating system was installed and implemented in July 1977 to cater for a new operator's visual display console and for replacement card reader and card punch equipment installed in August 1977. New accounting procedures were developed to provide a better breakdown of computer usage for charging purposes. An improved interactive terminal com- munication system for the Commission's NOVA 820 computer now monitors and records interactive computer network usage.

INSTRUMENTATION SERVICES Hybrid Computer System availability continued to be very good and the hybrid computer is used on a regular basis for diverse problems. The removal of several deficiencies in manufacturer-supplied software has provided what is virtually a new set of file management routines for the hybrid system, and gives a marked improvement in the integrity and capacity of the disk storage. As an example of the type of application that the hybrid suits, the following problem was analysed in support of the centrifuge enrichment project. Under some accident conditions it might be possible for air to leak into a centrifuge cascade 116 depending upon how it lias been designed. It is important therefore to know how the pressures would rise under these circumstances so that the exact risk to each of the centrifuges can be assessed for design purposes. In solving the problem, the analogue integrators represented the volumes of the various sections of the cascade. and the compressible flow between volumes was found by continual reference to tables stored in the digital component of the hybrid. The digital program can use both one- and two-dimensional tables, there being two of the former and five of the latter in this case. The main components of the program are in a general purpose form, and can be used in other applications without difficulty.

Nl'HRINCi SI7.RV1CKS Radioactive Source for Bulk Analyser The Commission's bulk ore analysis technique (see Chapter 6), which utilises the gamma-ray resonance scattering process, requires radioactive zinc- iodide (Znlo) in the vapour form as the source of gamma-radiation. To accomplish this, the compound which is a powder at room temperature must be heated continuously at 850"C. In addition to being radioactive, the source is toxic, corrosive and highly reactive with most materials. For this reason the source is encapsulated in a silica ampoule which is heat sealed. The ampoule is then scaled inside a stainless steel capsule to protect it during handling. The capsule also acts as a further containment for the radioactive source should the ampoule break. Since the USA is potentially a market for this apparatus, the encapsulation has been designed to comply with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and the US Nuclear Regulatory Guide for Scaled Radioactive Sources. Because of the elevated service temperature and the welding of the containment, significant con- straints were placed on design of the containment. Gas Flow Measurement Rig A test facility is being built to investigate the accuracy and the practical applications of a Commission-developed gas-flow measurement method based on dilution of a tracer gas containing krypton 85. A principal advantage of the technique is the capability for /'// situ calibration of industrial flow-measuring instruments. The technique was described in a Commission paper presented at the Conference on Fluid Flow Measurement, East Kilbride, Scotland, April 1975. The test facility under construction has a length of 61 metres and will operate using compressed air supplied from the Lucas Heights services system at pressures between 150 and 550 kilopascals and flow rates up to 70 cubic metres per minute. The quality of this air supply is being upgraded by installing filters and a refriger- ated air dryer. When initially installed, pipe diameters of 50 mm, 100 mm, and 150 mm will be provided for the whole length of the rig with the option to add a 250 mm size if required. Since the rig could become an approved national testing facility for the calibration of flow-measurement instruments, the National Measurement Laboratory has been invited to contribute to the rig's basic design criteria. Facilities for Technetium 99m Production The increased demand for tcchnctium 99m radioisotope scanning agents has required provision of additional shielded production facilities at Lucas Heights which comply with the standards of cleanliness appropriate to pharmaceutical pro- I 17 ducts. A suite of four radioactive material handling cells was commissioned in which the atmosphere of the cells is positively pressurised with respect to the surrounding atmosphere to prevent ingress of contamination. At the same time, the conventional features of radioactive handling cells had to be retained whereby the personnel operating area is positively pressurised with respect to atmospheres which may be contaminated with radioactive material. This was achieved by siting the inner handling boxes within a sealed room formed by concrete and lead shielding and controlling, within close limits, the handling box and scaled room pressures at 150 and 250 pascals respectively bolow the pressure at the operating face. Relatively high flows of purified purging gases — nitrogen or air — arc employed to remove promptly any contaminants generated within the cells. By the correct sizing of gas control valves, it has been possible to arrange for positive pressure to be maintained in the handling boxes at all times, with increased flow of purging gas even while the loading doors arc open. Access to the scaled room is via full-sized doors and the cells can be readily serviced since the radioactive half- life of tcchnclium 99m is six hours. Maintenance and Testing of High Voltage Switchboards All high voltage switchboards in the Research Establishment sub-stations were isolated and dismantled for maintenance and testing. The work, which was undertaken with the aid of contract stall" and in collaboration with the Sydney County Council, included the servicing of 32 high voltage oil circuit breakers, filtering and testing of oil in nineteen 500 kVA transformers, and the servicing and testing of protection relays in the high vollagc and medium voltage switchboards, including standby dicscl plant switchboards. Some minor adjustments were required but no serious defects were found.

DESIGN DRAFTING SERVICES A significant proportion of the design drafting services during the year were directed towards equipment associated with isotope applications. The Drawing Ollice worked in close cooperation with Isotope Division to produce production drawings for the manufacture of such items as bulk analysers and a liquid radioisotope transport vessel. Three different types of bulk analysers have been designed for varying types of applications, using different sources, strengths and shielding for particular requirements. Under an agreement with the Commission, the Australian Mineral Development Laboratories (Amdcl) will carry out production and manufacture from drawings supplied by the Commission (sec Chapter 6). A special purpose liquid radioisotopc transport vessel was designed and built for use in oil refineries and chemical plants. It incorporates a liquid sodium 24 isotope at 10 megapascals pressure to monitor How and to detect leaks.

TESTING AND INSPECTION SERVICES The greater part of testing and inspection effort was directed to priority work having a high safety content, such as the certification of experimental pressurised equipment, chemical plant, lifting equipment, and appurtenances and isotope containers. Implementation of a Quality Assurance System based on International Atomic Energy Agency requirements provided the necessary proof of the integrity of such equipment. Assistance was given to the various research divisions in the execution of testing relating to acoustic emission, vacuum testing of a wide range of equipment, and stress and vibration analyses. IIS CAPITAL WORKS Total expenditure on new buildings, modifications and maintenance of buildings and grounds at Lucas Heights was $600,000. The capital works program for 1977-78 included the construction of additions and modifications to the Isotope Production Building at a contract price of $128,953. This work is the first stage of modifications to enable more efficient production and packaging of radiopharmaceutical products. These alterations will enable reorganisation of packaging, control of stores and despatch of radioisotope products. Construction was programmed to cause the least disruption to commercial operations. The Isotope Applications Building was completed at a cost of 5294,747. This building consists of an ollice and laboratory wing and a large, high, open bay for experimental rigs designed to develop the commercial and industrial applications of radioisotopes.

ENERGY CONSERVATION Energy conservation at the Research Establishment has been constantly under review during the past several years with a view to reducing to a minimum the consumption of energy derived from non-renewable fossil fuels. In this regard all stall have been made conscious of the need to conserve energy. Boiler heat loads have been electrified to enable the plant to be shut down during the summer months when the load factor is low. The switching on of large research loads is now scheduled to prevent the maximum electrical demand exceed- ing a prc-dctcrmincd level. As part of a long-range energy conservation policy, it is planned to electrify all boiler heat loads and, where practicable, to utilise solar energy. The Commis- sion also intends to use waste heat from the cooling water of any future reactor built at Lucas Heights, in conjunction with heat pumps, to provide energy for space heating. On the transportation side, to reduce petrol consumption and operating costs, it is planned to convert some industrial vehicles to liquid petroleum gas and possibly some of the passenger vehicles at a later stage.

LIBRARY The Research Establishment Library continued its activities as the Australian centre for the International Nuclear Information System (IN1S). Development proceeded on improving search facilities using INIS. This service, which provides access to the world's nuclear science literature, is available to the Australian community. A minicomputer system was installed and software developed to provide access to commercial nuclear information. Equipment was installed also to give direct access to the Dialog information system at the Lockheed Company's Palo Alto Research Laboratories in the USA. This has improved the availability of general scientific and technological literature.

119 8 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The Commission has a wide range of interaction with other organisations and bodies, both within and outside Australia. The principal external contacts are the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Nuclear Energy Agency, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Aus- tralian missions overseas, parliamentary and ministerial liaison, government departments and instrumentalities, and representatives of overseas organisations concerned with the peaceful use of nuclear energy.

OECD NUCEEAR ENERGY AGENCY The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, an organisation made up of countries with a high level of industrial and nuclear development, viewed 1977 as a year of consolidation rather than expansion for the nuclear industry. The Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) maintained that the rise of energy costs, lack of vigour following the economic recession associated with the oil crisis, the slowing clown of economic growth rates and public resistance to nuclear development were contributory factors to reductions in the projected rates of nuclear energy growth in the OECD area. The NEA also saw other political and social considerations, such as examination of methods to minimise nuclear weapons proliferation, as contributing to a sense of uncertainty, which in turn tended to lead to deferral of nuclear power programs. Safety and regulatory aspects of nuclear development in 1977 represented approximately two-thirds of the N'HA's total effort, and a high degree of priority was given to questions of radioactive waste management and nuclear safety. Special efforts were devoted to an integrated appraisal of technical, economic, safety, environmental and political questions influencing the nuclear fuel cycle. Commission officers attend NEA meetings as delegates for Australia. As far as possible, representation is drawn from the Commission's liaison officers serving with Australian missions in Vienna and London. An officer is sent from Australia only when specialist technical expertise is required. 120 In the area of radioactive waste management, a comprehensive evaluation of radioactive waste management policies and practices in OECD Member Countries, initiated in 1975. was completed and published in 1977 as a Report entitled ''Objectives, Concepts and Strategics for the Management of Radioactive Waste Arising from Nuclear Power Programs'' ("Polvani Report"). Dr R. Smith, Counsellor (Atomic Energy), Australian High Commission, London, attended meetings of the Radioactive Waste Management Committee in November 1977 and March 1978. The Committee on Radiation Protection and Public Health (CRPPH) continued its priority work on radiation and environmental protection questions directly related to the nuclear fuel cycle. Work concentrated on the following topics: mining and milling operations, planned radioactive effluent releases, radiation and environmental considerations relating to radioactive waste management, doses to workers, isolated large-scale releases as might characterise major accidents, and biological and environmental behaviour of plutonium. The NEA program concerning radiation and environmental protection relative to the mining and milling of uranium is of parlicular interest to the Commission. Dr Smith attended meetings of the Committee in December 1977 and June 1978 in Paris. Mr R. M. Fry, Director of the Commission's Environment and Public Health Unit (presently on secondment as Acting Supervising Scientist under the Environment Protection (Alligator Rivers Region) Act 1978), was elected Chairman of CRPPH at the June 1978 meeting of the Committee. The NEA's program in nuclear safety and licensing is guided and coordinated by the Committee on the Safely of Nuclear Installations (CSNI). The Com- mittee's working groups examine nich areas as rare event analyses, light-water reactors, fast and other reactors, fuel cycle safety, and licensing. Tts work is kept under scrutiny by the Commission's Licensing and Regulatory Bureau, which also serves as a focus for presenting Australian technical contributions. Dr N. R. McDonald. Counsellor (Atomic Energy), Australian Embassy, Vienna, represented Australia at the annual meeting of the Committee and at a sub-group on licensing in November 1977 in Paris. Mr D. \V. Cranchcr, Director, Nuclear Plant Safety Unit, delivered an address to a joint NEA-IAEA Symposium on the Safety of Nuclear Ships. December 1977, Hamburg, FRO. Dr Smith attended a specialist meeting on safety problems associated with the handling and storage of uranium hcxafluoridc, June 1978. Boekclo. the Netherlands. During 1977, the Study Group on the Long Term Role of Nuclear Energy (NELT) was replaced by the Committee for lechnical and Economic Studies on Nuclear Development and the Fuel Cycle (FCC) to lake account of the increased emphasis on technical and economic studies of the nuclear fuel cycle. In December 1977, a new edition of the joint NEA-IAEA report. "Uranium — Resources, Production and Demand", was published. Tn February 1978 a report. "Nuclear Fuel Cycle Requirements and Supply Considerations through the Long Term", was also published. In 1977, an expert working party was formed to undertake a world-wide evaluation program (International Uranium Resources Evaluation Project (IUREP)) to study the geologic setting of the various types of uranium ore deposits that exist throughout the world. A report on Phase One of the study was published in June 1978. Meetings were held on uranium resources which revised the joint NEA-IAEA uranium resources report mentioned above and carried out the IUREP study. Australia was represented in September and December 1977, and in March and June 1978 by Mr G. C. Battcy, Uranium Branch, Dr N. R. McDonald. Australian Embassy, Vienna, Dr R. K. Warner, 121 Uranium Branch, and an officer of the Australian Embassy, Paris. An officer of the Department of Trade and Resources also attended the June meeting. Mr B. Allen, Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, attended an NEA International Specialist Meeting on Neutron Data for the Structural Materials for Fast Reactors, December 1977, Gccl, Belgium. Dr Smith represented Australia at meetings of the OECD Steering Com- mittee for Nuclear Energy, which coordinates policy for the NEA. Dr Smith also represented Australia at the first meeting of the FCC in December 1977 and a meeting of the Committee in March 1978 in Paris. In April 1978, the Director General of the NEA, Mr I. G. K. Williams, and in June the Deputy Director General of the NEA, Mr P. Strohl, visited Australia to discuss with the Commission and other government departments Australia's involvement in NEA. INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY The IAEA saw the nuclear scene in 1977 as being dominated by a divided international opinion about the future of nuclear power and especially the question of the introduction of plutonium breeder reactors. The Agency accepts nuclear power as being a necessary and irreplaceable source of energy both in the short and long term. The Agency, a member of the United Nations System, was conceived as a scientific and technical organisation and it is in this context that the Commission interacts with the organisation. Australia is represented on the Agency's executive and governing organ, the Board of Governors, by the Commission's Chairman, Professor D. W. George. Commission areas of interest are centred on Agency priority concerns of safety and environmental protection, safeguards, technical assistance and public acceptance. The Agency has a continuing program to develop safety codes and guides. Under the 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter ("London Convention"), the Agency has the responsibility of defining "high-level" radioactive wastes or other "high-level" radioactive matter that may be considered unsuitable for clumping at sea, and of making recommendations with respect to the consideration of conditions and criteria governing the issue of special permits for dumping of other radioactive waste or material. Mr R. M. Fry chaired an experts' panel meeting to revise the definition and recommendations, February-March 1978, Vienna. The Ad Hoc Advisory Group on Nuclear Explosions for Peaceful Pur nses submitted its report to the Board of Governors in September 1977. The ^,: -up was chaired by Dr A. R. W. Wilson, Head, Regulatory and External Relations Branch. Professor D. W. George, Governor for Australia, led the Australian delegation to the 21st General Conference of the IAEA. September 1977. Vienna, and attended associated meetings of the Board of Governors. The Australian delegation included Dr A. R. W. Wilson. Professor George also attended the February 1978 meeting of the Board in Vienna. Australia acceded to the 1972 Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research and Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology for South Asia, South-East Asia and the Pacific or the Far East (RCA) in De- cember 1977. The Agreement provides a framework for cooperative research, development and training projects in nuclear science and technology through 122 national scientific institutions under IAEA auspices. Mr P. Gillcspie, Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, participated in an IAEA-RCA Technical Mission to the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and the Republic of Korea. The mission, covering the three months period April-June 1978, was concerned with industrial isotopes and radiation applications in the above-mentioned countries. Dr W. 13. Rotscy, Acting Head, Regulatory and External Relations Branch, attended the first regional meeting of the Members of the Regional Col- laborative Agreement, June 1978, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Commission officers participated in a number of IAEA technical meetings during 1977-78. Mr A. Williams, Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, attended an IAEA-coordinated research program meeting on the study of the Movement of Radium in Inland Waterways. October 1977, Japan. Mr D. N. McCulloch, Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, attended an Advisory Group Meeting on Research Reactor Renewal and Upgrading Pro- grams, May 1978, Vienna. Mr J. S. Watt, Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, attended an Advisory Group Meeting on the Practical Aspects of Energy Dis- persive X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis, May-June 1978, Vienna. Dr P. L. Aircy. Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, attended an IAEA symposium on Isotope Hydrology, June 1978, Munich. Dr A. R. W. Wilson attended Physical Security Convention meetings in October 1977 and April 1978 in Vienna. Miss P. A. Wills, Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, attended a coordinated research meeting on Radiation Sterilisation Practices Significant to Local Medical Suppliers and Conditions for Asia and the Pacific Region, April 1978, Jakarta, Indonesia, and an Advisory Group meeting on Radiation Sterilisation of Medical and Biological Products for Asia and Far East Region, April 1978, Seoul, Republic of Korea. Dr N. R. McDonald represented Australia at a number of technical and policy meetings. Commission officers currently employed by the Agency are Mr W. B. Lynch, Department of Administration, and Mr U. Barda and Mr K. Vccvcrs, Depart- ment of Safeguards.

OVERSEAS VISITS AND ATTACHMENTS The Chairman of the Commission. Professor D. \V. George, attended the World Energy Conference at Istanbul, Turkey, en route to attend a meeting of the IAEA General Conference in Vienna, September 1977. The Chairman also attended the lllh Annual Conference of the Japan Atomic Industrial Forum. Tokyo, Japan, in March 1978 and delivered an address. Dr J. L. Symonds, Program Manager, Power and Energy, attended the World Energy Conference in Istanbul, Turkey, and visited laboratories in Italy and Austria engaged in energy-related studies. Dr J. G. Clouston, Chief, Isotope Division, attended meetings in the USA related to the behaviour of bacterial spores. The visit was arranged under the auspices of the US-Australia Agreement for Scientific Cooperation and was funded mainly through the Department of Science. In May 1978, Dr W. B. Rotsey, Acting Head, Regulatory and External Relations Branch, and Mr W. E. T. Cawscy. Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, visited Malaysia, and Dr Rotscy and Mr J. McManus, Uranium Branch, subsequently visited the Philippines at the request of the Australian Development Assistance Bureau. 123 A number of specialised visits by Commission staff took place during the year. These included: Dr P. L. Aircy — Application of Radiomctric Techniques in Hydrology; Mr D. R. Ebeling — Technical Aspects of Centrifuge Technology; Dr D. J. Higson — Methodology of Safety Assessment of Nuclear Installations; Dr H. Struvc — Isotope Separation by Laser Methods; and Mr A. J. George — Physical Security of Nuclear Installations. Other visits in connection with the International Atomic Energy Agency, the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, International Safeguards, the International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation and the Japan-Australia Study on Uranium En- richment, arc dealt with in the appropriate sections of this report, or in the Annual Report for 1977-78 of the Australian Safeguards Office. The attachment of Mr M. Thackray, Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, to SRI International, Menlo Park, California, initially for a period of two years, was extended for a further year until the end of 1978. The purpose of the attachment is to promote the commercial development of inventions made by Mr Thackray which utilise radioactivity for the intensification of photographic images and for reproducing images by novel methods. In February 1978, the attachment of Dr A. B. McLaren, Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, began for a period of two years at the Institute for Hot Chemistry, Karlsruhe, West Germany. Dr McLaren will work on the chemistry of organomctallic compounds.

124 9 GENERAL

MINISTERIAL CHANGES

An Administrative Arrangements Order was issued by the Governor-General in Council on 20 December 1977 under which the Minister for National De- velopment, the Honourable Kevin Newman, M.P.. became responsible for administering the Atomic Energy Act 1953. The Minister for Trade and Resources, the Right Honourable J. D. Anthony, M.P., became responsible inter cilia for commercial development and marketing of minerals (including uranium). An Order dated 20 December 1977, issued under Section 19BA(1) of the Acts Interpretation Act 1901, provided that in the Atomic Energy Act 1953 references to the Minister for Finance were to be substituted for references to the Treasurer, except in sections 25. 26(3) and 27(1) and (3) of that Act. A further Administrative Arrangements Order dated 1 June 1978 provided that the Minister for Trade and Resources be responsible for the Administration of Section 41 of the Atomic Energy Act 1953 and specified matters in relation to Sections 19, 29 and 38 of that Act.

AMENDMENT ()!•' THE ATOMIC ENERGY ACT IW

In April 1978, the Commonwealth Government introduced into Parliament the Atomic Energy Amendment Bill 1978. The Bill was one of a group of six. the main purpose of which was to provide the legislative base for implementing the Government's decisions on uranium which were announced in Parliament on 25 August 1977. The Bill was passed by the Senate and the House of Representatives and on 9 June 1978, the Atomic Energy Act 1953 (Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1978) was assented to by the Governor-General. 125 The Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1978 provides: • A firm specific base for the Commission to enter the Ranger Uranium Project. • A firm specific base for the Commonwealth lo grant an authority for the Ranger Uranium Project to proceed. 0 A firm specific base for the application of safeguards pursuant to Australia's obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the consequent Safeguards Agreement between Australia and the International Atomic Energy Agency. A number of minor amendments of an administrative nature were included. These related to provisions of the Principal Act relating to Members and staff of the Commission, to bring them into line with current drafting practice. In addition, Section 31(2)(b) of the Principal Act was amended to remove the need for the Auditor-General to report on the "state of affairs" of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission. This exemption in no way impairs the Auditor- General's reports on the financial statements submitted by the Commission, and is in line with suggestions made by the Parliamentary Public Accounts Committee which examined the matter in 1976.

MEMBERSHIP OI; THE COMMISSION On 1 1 April 1973, the Governor-General in Council accepted the resignation of Sir Lenox Hewitt, O.B.E., as Deputy Chairman of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission and appointed Mr A. .1. Woods as Deputy Chairman. The Commission wishes to place on record its high appreciation of the services rendered by Sir Lenox Hewitt since his appointment on 11 January 1973 as a Member of the Commission and appointment on 1 June 1975 as Deputy Chairman. Following the death on 17 February 1976 of the Chairman of the Com- mission. Mr R. W. Boswcll, Sir Lenox accepted the general responsibilities of Chairman until the appointment of the present Chairman, Professor D. W. George, on 27 May 1976. Sir Lenox played a major role in bringing the Commission into a new phase of commercial development of uranium in Australia, including the establishment of an active uranium exploration program and the collaborative Japan-Australia study on the establishment of a uranium enrichment plant in Australia. The Commission gratefully acknowledges Sir Lenox's perceptive wisdom and guidance in the administration of its affairs. The appointment of Mr A. J. Woods, who is Secretary, Department of National Development, follows the original precedent set by the appointment of Dr H. G. Raggatt (later Sir Harold) when he was Secretary to the Department of National Development.

SENIOR STAFF CHANGES Following the appointment of Mr K. F. Alder as General Manager of the Commission as reported in the Twenty-fifth Annual Report, the position of Head, Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, was advertised both inside and outside the Commission's service. The Commission appointed Professor S. T. Butler. FAA, previously Professor of Theoretical Physics in the University of Sydney, lo the position. Professor Butler commenced duty on 5 October 1977. 126 Dr D. G. Walker, Counsellor (Atomic Energy). Australian Embassy. Wash- ington, returned to Australia in November 1977 and was succeeded by Dr R. J. Knight. The Commission records with regret the death of Dr P. W. Wilson. As reported in the Twenty-fifth Annual Report, Dr Wilson was First Secretary (Atomic Energy) in the Australian Embassy, Tokyo, and acted as Counsellor from December 1976 until Dr R. C. Cairns took up his appointment on 27 June 1977. Dr Wilson was killed when the aircraft on which he was returning to Australia from his posting crashed in Malaysia in September 1977. Mr W. J. Wright, Director, Special Studies Unit, was seconded to the De- partment of the Special Trade Negotiator (later Department of the Special Trade Representative) in August 1977. Mr Wright resumed duty with the Commission in June 1978. Mr R. M. Fry, Director, Environment and Public Health Unit, was made available to the Department of Environment, Housing and Community Develop- ment in September 1977 to assist the Department until such time as an appointment was made to the office of Supervising Scientist. The Second Report of the Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry recommended, inter cilia, the appointment of a Supervising Scientist to be Chairman of a proposed Coordinating Committee to coordinate the formulation of environmental control measures for the Alligator Rivers Region and to consider any major changes proposed in mine operating procedures. The Supervising Scientist would also head a proposed Research Institute. Legislation (Environment Protection (Alligator Rivers Region) Act 1978) to establish the office of Supervising Scientist was enacted in May 1978 and received Royal assent on 9 June. Mr Fry was appointed on 29 June 1978 to act as Supervising Scientist. Dr G. M. Watson. Assistant to the Head, Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, retired from the service of the Commission on 3 January 1978. Dr Watson's distinguished career with the Commission extended over 20 years during which he was a Chief 'Research Officer. Chief of Health and Safety Division, and Chief Research Scientist.

ADMINISTRATIVE REORGANISATION

A new administrative structure was introduced during the year with the approval of the Public Service Board. No increase in stall numbers was required. A Manpower Division was created under the direction of the Assistant Secretary (Manpower). Two departments. Manpower Development and Industrial Relations, under the supervision of Managers report to the Assistant Secretary (Manpower). A Finance Division under the control of the Assistant Secretary (Finance) was also created. The Assistant Secretary (Finance) is assisted by a Head, Manage- ment Accounting. Personnel and pay and accounting records previously kept manually at the Commission's Head Office were transferred to computer operations at Lucas Heights. A? a result of the reorganisation, the policy activities at Head Office and operation responsibilities at the Research Establishment, Lucas Heights, have become more closely coordinated. Occupants of some of the policy positions arc now located physically at Lucas Heights. Greater emphasis will be placed on staff training and career development. 127 STAM NUMBERS The total staff employed by the Commission at 30 June 1978 was 1,254 distributed among four Branches as listed below: Total Strength Branch At 30/6/78 At 30/6/77 Nuclear Science and Technology 1.133 1,160 Regulatory and External Relations 34* 37 Uranium 24 23 Administration/Management 63 72 1,254 1,292

* Incliulcs 4 stiiff ilctiichcil to Auslnilinn Siifcgiiiinls Office. The distribution of staff according to functional activity over the past three years was as follows: At 30/6/78 30/6/77 30/6/76 Executive and Senior Staff 687 Research Grades 146 144 142 Experimental Grades 110 115 120 Other Professional Grades 102 106 117 Technical Grades 396 408 429 Trade Grades 118 117 122 Administrative and Clerical 187 201 211 Support Staff (Storemen. Drivers, etc.) 189 193 206 1,254 1,292 1.354

In furtherance of Government policies, the Commission has continued and extended research in the nuclear field. This has necessitated maintaining professional staff levels. In meeting Ihc reduction in staff ceiling provisions, however, resignations and retirements from the remaining areas have weakened the services available to assist the professional staff. Representations have been received from staff organisations and the Com- mission has. in turn, represented its problems to the Public Service Board. The Commission is not achieving the staff ceiling imposed on it by the process of natural wastage as little turnover has occurred in the professional ranks. As illustrated in the tables, the effects of the ceiling arc being absorbed by not filling positions in the technical, administrative/clerical and support services areas. It will be difficult to maintain adequate support for the professional staff should this trend continue.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS The Commission continued to maintain good industrial relations with the various associations and unions representing the staff. As part of the reorganisation of the Commission's administrative structure reported previously, an expanded Industrial Relations Department has been established to facilitate day-to-day deal- ings with staff organisations. 128 During the year, an agreement was readied with ten staff organisations to introduce common working hours for all day workers at the Research Establish- ment in the interests of the health, safety and physical security of all staff and improved working practices.

MEDICAL HFAl.TH SURVEY In May 1978, the First Report of the Survey of Health of Employees in the Research Establishment of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission at Lucas Heights, Sydney, was submitted to the Commission and also to the New South Wales Labor Council on behalf of the unions representing the staff at Lucas Heights who initially sought the survey. The Commission's Twenty-second Annual Report (1973-74) reported that the Commission had agreed to establish the survey and that it had confidence in its current practices in relation to the health of the staff. Professor David Ferguson, Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, the University of Sydney and Australian Department of Health, conducted the survey. The following para- graphs are quoted from the Summary printed in his First Report.

"3 The survey has comprised a medical interview of staff of the Establish- ment; analysis of records of environmental monitoring, exposure incidents, sickness absence, workers compensation, premature morbidity, retirement and mortality; and observations on tasks and work environments. This first report is concerned only with analysis of the medical interview data. Other aspects of the survey, and recommendations on health promotion, will be the subject of later reports. "4 A Medical Advisory Panel was appointed by the Commission to liaise with the Occupational Health Section (now Department of Occupational and Environmental Health) of the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine in its planning and conduct of the survey, and to report to the Commission on the findings and recommendations of the Department. The Panel's Chair- man, Dr Gordon Smith, retired in October 1975, and 1 took his place thereafter. "5 Early in 1975 the Australian Department of Health appointed a medical officer to conduct the medical interviews, for assistance in which the Com- mission employed a nursing sister from outside the Establishment. In the period of the interviews, from April J975 to December 1976, the medical position changed hands five times and that of the sister three times. "6 The medical interviews subject of this first report comprised self-administration of a lake-home biographic qucstioiv:ry on personal, social, occupational and medical history; medical interview and examination at the Establishment; analysis of blood samples elsewhere; and consultations with medical specialists in selected cases referred on defined criteria."

''9 Of available employees in the Establishment 93% attended for medical interview. Subsequently an invitation to employees in the Commission's Head- quarters at Coogcc and unit at Mascot was met with a smaller response. Altogether 1,141 employees were interviewed. I have outlined difficulties inherent in prevalence studies of this type, and in particular 1 stress that the medical interview part of the survey reported here docs not bring to light 129 acute disorders the effect of which arc no longer apparent at interview, nor docs it identify people who leave the service due to illhcalth or who die pre- maturely. The other types of analysis needed for these cases arc the subject of the next report. "10 Analysis of the medical interview data revealed many often marked occupational differences between the four main groups compared — professionals, technicians, tradesmen and administration staff. The latter were a far less homogeneous occupational group than the others, and were the only group (48%) to include many women. For many health-related attributes studied, tradesmen occupied the less favourable end, in a health sense, of a gradient in which professionals fared best and technicians occupied an intermediate position. "11 Reduced breathing capacity and chronic airways disease were two of the most important attributes for which this gradient was noted. However, while these disorders were linked with various other personal attributes, they appeared unrelated to a history of exposure to particular hazardous agents, nor to work in particular buildings, and with limited exceptions, will be the subject of further investigation. "12 The occupational differences noted in health related variables are likely to be multifactorial in origin, and to be contributed to by socio-culUiral and selection factors. The extent to which occupation was responsible is the subject of further discussion on the environmental data in the second report. "13 Hearing loss was a common finding in the survey, especially in tradesmen. The relationship of this loss to environmental observations will also be the subject of the next report. "14 No chronic occupational disease of other organs except the skin was identified, but raised blood pressure was common and merits action towards control. "15 Where individuals were found in the interviews to have disorders needing treatment they were referred to appropriate health services. Similarly, potential hazards identified in the survey were referred to management for correction, if not already in hand. "16 The medical interviews have revealed a fair amount of morbidity in the Establishment not specifically related to work in atomic energy research, but valid comparisons with other work populations will be difficult to make. The interviews have not revealed disease specifically related to work with ionising radiation. Further study is needed to assess the relative contribution if any of work with toxic chemicals to the expression of non-specific disorders such as chronic airways disease." The Commission gratefully records its appreciation to Professor Ferguson, the Medical Advisory Panel, examining doctors and all staff organisations and staff who assisted with and participated in the survey. Recommendations for control measures, where they have not been initiated already by the Commission, are being considered.

SAFETY REVIEW COMMITTEE The Safety Review Committee continued its program of three-day meetings. Three meetings were held during the year, 13-15 July 1977, 19-21 October 1977 and 12-14 April 1978, to assess the health and safety standards and the 130 procedures in operation at the Research Establishment. As well as inspections and discussions with Commission officers and staff representatives at the Research Establishment, the Committee also conferred with the Chairman of the Commission. Membership of the Committee was increased to four with the appointment, in February 1978, of Dr S. J. Krister, Commissioner for Environmental and Special Health Services, Health Commission of New South Wales.

INFORMATION SERVICES A ten-minute colour film "Radioisotope Analytical Techniques in Mineral Processing, Part 2 — Plant Operations", was completed during the year. The film shows the raclioisotopc on-strcam analytical system, which was largely developed by the Commission, in operation at New Broken Hill Consolidated Ltd, Broken Hill, NSW. Various commercial probes designed for the analysis of copper, zinc, Jrad, tin and nickel in slurry streams in mineral concentrating plants are illustrated and described in detail with cutaway drawings. The present film extends an earlier Commission production outlining the research and development effort behind these radioisotopc analytical techniques. More than 140 overseas and Australian titles are now held in the Com- mission's Film Lending Library at Head Office, Coogce, NSW. The films cover a wide range of subjects related to nuclear power, nuclear research, uranium exploration and mining, the application of radioisotopes and radiation, and fusion. Appropriate new films arc added to the library as they become available. Five new titles were added during the year and additional prints of popular items purchased. Approximately 800 requests for loans were received, the majority coming from schools, hospitals, universities and colleges of advanced education. A cata- logue is available on application. To meet the continuing demand for factual information on nuclear subjects, Commission staff again responded to some 200 requests for talks to groups and organisations during the year. In addition, a wide range of Commission-produced printed material was distributed to the public with emphasis on thoroughly- researched background papers and other educational brochures. In addition, several thousand written and telephoned enquiries were dealt with during the year by public relations staff. A medium-sized, manned exhibition on nuclear power and its fuel cycle and the use of radioisotopes was included in the four-day Centenary Celebration Trade Fair at Finley, NSW, in May 1978. The trade fair was organised by the Finley Rotary Club and attracted visitors from the surrounding district and towns as well as from Finlcy itself. More than 1,100 students and teachers from schools up to 60 km from Finley attended on the last day of the trade fair. The Information Centre at Lucas Heights continued to attract public attention and 16,800 visitors inspected the permanent nuclear energy display during the year. The Centre is open to the public seven clays a week from 9 am to 4.30 pm except Christmas Day and Good Friday. Conducted group tours on site continued to be popular with schools, hospitals, service clubs, church fellowships and social clubs. Tours can be arranged for normal working hours by contacting the Re- search Establishment Public Relations Officer. A series of "Invitation Days" was conducted during the year at approximately monthly intervals. Guests included Members of the House of Representatives, Senators, Members of State Legislative Assemblies and Councils, and representatives 131 of Commonwealth and State Government Departments, the armed services, local government, universities, trade unions, business and industry, education, community sc* vices, institutions and professional associations.

APPRENTICESHIP PRIZES The Commission held its Apprentices Awards function on 8 December 1977. Prizes were awarded to the following: Best Final Year Apprentice Mr R. Mackay (Carpenter and Joiner) Best Third Year Apprentice Mr N. Pcrrett (Fitter and Machinist) Best Second Year Apprentice Mr \V. Silk (Electrical Fitter/Mechanic) Amalgamated Metal Workers' and Mr N. Maclean Shipwrights' Union Prize to the Most (Fitter and Machinist) Improved Second or Third Year Apprentice AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Membership of the Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering (AINSE) consists of the Commission and 17 Australian universities. Its purpose is to assist research and training in the nuclear field and in areas of science and engineering employing nuclear technology. The Institute also makes available to universities and colleges of advanced education, the specialised research facilities located at the Commission's Research Establishment, Lucas Heights, and arranges attachment of academic staff and research students to Lucas Heights for this purpose. In 1978, the Institute provided AINSE Grants in support of 94 research projects and awarded a number of AINSE Studentships and Fellowships. The Institute also organised three major conferences during the year under review. Activities associated with meetings of AINSE Council included a Public Forum on "Energy Policy for Western Australia", held at the University of Western Australia on 4 August 1977. Principal speakers were Mr J. B. Kirkwood, State Energy Commission (Western Australia), Mr M. Vickcrs-Willis, Alcoa Ltd, Dr J. L. Symonds, AAEC, and Professor D. J. Allen-Williams, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Western Australia. On 16 February 1978, Open Discussion took place at the Australian National University, Canberra, following addresses by members of the University including Sir Ernest Tittcrton on the use of cyclotrons for neutron therapy, Mr W. Ambrose on the use of nuclear analytical techniques in archaeology, Dr 1. McDougal on nuclear techniques in gcochronology and Dr L. Hughes on laser techniques in fusion. An Executive Committee acted on behalf of Council in the conduct of many of the Institute's operations. Membership comprised the President, Professor E. O. Hall, two Vice-Presidents, Professor R. W. Parsons and Professor S. C. Haydon, the Immediate Past President, Professor P. A. Parsons, the Head of the Com- mission's Nuclear Science and Technology Branch, Professor S. T. Butler, the Acting Head of the Commission's Regulatory and External Relations Branch, 132 Dr W. 13. Rotscy, and the Executive Ofliccr of A1NSE, Mr E. A. Palmer. The latter was assisted in the Institute's operations by nine other members of A1NSE stall' (three scientific, three technical and three administrative).

Finances The Institute's finances continued to be organised on a calendar year basis. Income for 1977 totalled $498,867, the major inputs being $217.500 (unchanged from 1976) as annual subscriptions from the member organisations, and $250,000 (unchanged from 1974) as the Commission's contribution for research and training. Expenditure for 1977 was $448.546. including $355,649 spent on research and training. An increase of $62,500 in the level of funds provided by the Commission for 1978 permitted preparation of plans to spend $568.000 during the calendar year 1978, approximately equal to total funds provided.

Visitors to Lucas Heights Visitors from the universities and colleges of advanced education were attached to the Institute for varying periods through 1977-78 to work at the Commission's Research Establishment and to undertake joint projects with Com- mission scientists and engineers or with members of A1NSE staff. The duration of visits ranged from one day to periods totalling some months. The Institute contributed substantially to the travel costs of visitors with a requirement to use nuclear reactors or other specialised equipment at Lucas Heights. During 1977 more than 400 visitors spent a total of more than 2,500 days attached to Lucas Heights under A1NSE auspices.

AINSE Grants A total of 94 AINSE Grants, involving an estimated expenditure of $135.000, was awarded for 1978 in response to proposals requesting over $330,000. The titles of the projects are listed in Appendix F grouped under the names of the proposing organisations. The awards were made in support of projects in the Institute's fields of interest, the major areas being radiation biology, plasma physics (related to nuclear fusion), radiation chemistry, neutron physics, neutron diffraction, nuclear techniques of analysis, nuclear materials, and many areas of engineering. Most projects required use of facilities at Lucas Heights and involved cooperation between the visiting research workers and Commission and AINSE scientists and engineers. Grants supporting university work related to nuclear fusion totalled more than $58,000 for 1978.

AINSE Studentships Four AINSE Post-Graduate Research Studentships awarded in previous years were current through part or the whole of 1977-78, and two new AINSE Students commenced tenure early in 1978. The Students spent about one-quarter of their time attached to Lucas Heights and the remainder of their time at the university at which they were enrolled as candidates for a Ph.D. Research projects undertaken under the terms of these awards are listed in Appendix F. The projects included studies of the radiation chemistry of water and organic glasses (University of Western Australia and Macquaric University), the molecular structures of minerals (James Cook University) and radiation damage in glass (Griffith University). Expenditure for AINSE Studentships in 1977 totalled $14,928. J33 AINSE Research Fellowships Member organisations nominated a total of 16 candidates for the award of AINSE Research Fellowships in the series offered for 1977-78. Two of these post-doctoral awards were accepted, one for tenure at Flinders University (Dr A. T. Stclbovics, plasma physics) and one at the University of Western Australia (Dr G. A. Williams, neutron diffraction). Previous awards which continued throughout part or the whole of the period included Dr A. T. Thornton (University of Adelaide, radiation chemistry), Dr F. P. Imray (University of Melbourne, radiation genetics), Dr G. A. Anstis (University of Sydney, electron microscopy), Dr W. E. Thorpe (University of Queensland, reactor materials) and Dr J. E. Tibballs (Uni- versity of Melbourne, neutron diffraction). AINSE Research Fellows cooperated closely with scientists based at Lucas Heights, and some of these activities resulted in. valuable contributions to the development of new research facilities which were made available to other visiting or resident research groups. Fellowship projects as listed in Appendix F involved expenditure of $78,784 in J977.

AINSE Conferences Three major conferences were organised and financed by the Institute during 1977-78: 2nd AINSE Engineering Conference, Lucas Heights, 22-23 August 1977. This conference was attended by more than 130 engineers from the Commission, universities, colleges of advanced education, industry, electricity authorities and other organisations. More than 40 papers were discussed, dealing with aspects of engineering relevant to the uranium fuel cycle and other areas of the nuclear field. A book of abstracts was made available for distribution. 7lli AINSE Nuclear I'liysicx Conference, University of Melbourne, 6-8 Feb- ruary 1978. A total of 61 papers was discussed by more than 150 participants from the Commission, the universities and colleges of advanced education. The program included both theoretical and experimental work in nuclear physics generally. Jt also covered some aspects of. high energy and heavy ions research and some applications work. The papers were summarised in a book of abstracts. 2nd AINSE Nuclear Techniques (>'. Analysis Conference, Lucas Heights, 15-17 May 1978. Some 90 participants considered 43 papers covering a wide range of interests from the development of new analytical techniques using accelerators and nuclear reactors, to the applications of such techniques in geology, archaeology, biology, forensic science, mineral processing and other fields. Early in 1978, the Institute announced plans for future AINSE conferences in Radiation Chemistry (21-23 August 1978), Plasma Physics (5-7 February J979) and Radiation Biology (20-21 August 1979).

AINSE Neutron Diffraction Operations Through 1977-78 the Institute continued to provide the services of the AINSE Neutron Diffraction Group (leader Dr F. H. Moore) to assist visiting members of other research groups in using the ten neutron diffractomctcrs cm- ploying neutron beams from the reactor Hll AR. Investigations carried out in cooperation with university groups included a number of studies to determine 134 molecular structure of materials of biological importance, and the application of long wavelength, polarised neutrons in examining magnetic structure. The four A1NSE staff comprising the Institute's Group cooperated with the Commission Neutron Diffraction Group in developing a high-resolution neutron diffractometer installed on H1FAR in mid-1978. The new instrument will permit profile analysis techniques to be used by Australian scientists. Work on liquid helium cryostats for low-temperature neutron diffraction experiments (—269°C) again absorbed significant staff effort during the year, and improvements were made in computer-based control systems to expedite data collection. The Institute's expenditure for neution diffraction equipment in 1977 was $30,157, bringing the accumulated AINSE capital input to this activity to $261,479 since 1960. Total demand for use of neutron diffraction techniques, including assistance with data collection, analysis of results and maintenance and development of equipment, exceeded the combined effort available from staff members of both the AINSE and the Commission neutron diffraction groups. This occasioned significant extensions to waiting times for several experiments, a situation which was adversely affected in mid-1978 when the Commission's group was reduced to two members. The Institute has drawn the Commission's attention to the importance of maintaining a sufficient number of expert staff at Lucas Heights to provide for the increasing needs of Australian scientists in this field.

AINSE Accelerator Operations The AINSE Accelerator Group (leader Mr D. D. Cohen) assisted visiting scientists using the three particle accelerators at Lucas Heights. AINSE operations connected with the Commission's 3 MeV proton accelerator were directed mainly to the development of applications, particularly analytical techniques using proton-induced X-rays. This technique was applied successfully in a wide variety of investigations, including the identification of trace clement variations in wheat and the non-destructive analysis of archaeological materials. The Institute continued to provide staff for the maintenance, operation and development of the Commission's 1.3 MeV electron accelerator which is used by university groups interested in radiation damage studies and by radiation chemists. The data acquisition system associated with the 1.3 McV machine was developed further and a floppy-disk unit and a visual display unit were added to the PDPI 1/03 computer. Improvements also were made to the instrumentation associated with the Institute's 600 kcV pulsed electron accelerator (Febctron 702) which was used for pulse radiolysis work by radiation chemists from several universities. A capital expenditure of $26,345 in 1977 for equipment used in these activities brought the Institute's investment in this area to $252,415 since 1960.

Other AINSE Activities The Institute's day-to-day operations through 1977-78 included provision of a wide variety of services for member organisations. These included the circula- tion of research reports on AINSE projects, support of university staff attending courses presented by the Australian School of Nuclear Technology, and the organisation of informal meetings at Lucas Heights for discussion between Commis- sion staff and members of academic organisations. The Institute again acted as a channel for the provision of small quantities of special materials required by university research groups, an example being the supply in 1977 of 42,454 gin of heavy water in response to 57 requests. Another of the Institute's many liaison activities was the arranging of equipment loans between member organisations. 135 AUSTRALIAN SCHOOL OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

The Australian School of Nuclear Technology, located at Lucas Heights, is a joint enterprise of the Commission and the University of New South Wales. Lectures during the year were given mainly by Commission staff. Additional lectures were given by staff of the University of New South Wales and the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, and a few lectures on specialised topics were given by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation members. A Radioisotope Course for Graduates was held from 18 July to 12 August 1977. This course involved approximately 45 hours of lectures and 60 hours practical work. Radioisotope Courses for Non-Graduates were held from 12-30 September 1977 and from 3-28 April 1978. These courses involved approximately 30 hours of lectures and 60 hours practical work. A Radionuclides in Medicine Course took place from 7 November to 2 December 1977. This course involved approximately 45 hours of lectures and 60 hours practical work. Six of the practical sessions were held at the Prince of Wales Hospital, the Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, St George's Hospital and the Liverpool District Hospital. A Radiation Protection Course was held from 29 May to 23 June 1978. The course involved approximately 50 hours of lectures and 50 hours practical work. This was a new course and proved most successful. The facilities available at the School restricted the number of participants to 20. Interest in this field resulted in the course being over-subscribed and a further course is planned for next year. The total number of persons attending courses during the year was 59. There were 19 participants from abroad, including 12 Colombo Plan Fellows, and five participants sponsored by the Special Commonwealth African Assistance Plan. Participants from abroad came from Ghana, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Western Samoa. FINANCE As required by Section 31 of the Atomic Energy Act 1953, the Financial Accounts for the year ended 30 June 1978 arc annexed as Appendix A and the Report of the Auditor-General is included as Appendix B. Included in the accounts for the first time are details of Canteen operations which are conducted through a separate bank account (sec Note 2 to and forming part of the Accounts). The overdrawn bank account position at I July 1977 and 30 June 1978 is significantly ollset by levels of stockholdings at each date. Funds provided by Parliamentary Appropriation, $21,593,000, and revenues received by the Commission, $1,831,471, were applied towards total branch operating expenditures of $23,331,545 and an increase ($22,962) in the total of Cash on Hand and Recoverable Advances at 30 June 1978 of $55,005 (1976-77, $32,043). In addition, capital expenditure of $1,219,832 was met from funds appropriated by Parliament of $1,260,000. Unspent Parliamentary Appropriations ($69,964 Operating and $40,168 Capital) at 30 June 1978 were returned to the Treasury. Administration expenditure increased by $41,647 (3.55%) from $1,174,518 during the previous year to $1,216,165. The increased cost of administrative 136 salaries was marginal (1.02% ), the cost of implementing National Wage Decisions being significantly olTsct by a reduction in stair numbers. Increased General Expenses resulted primarily from travel in relation to the Commission's participation in the International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation. Information Services expenditure was controlled to provide savings sufficient to offset expenditure in excess of the estimate for General Expenses. Total Research expenditure was $20,706,226, an increase of $1,365,654 (7.06%) over the previous year. The cost of salaries and wages increased by $961,824 (6.49%) and was the net result of implementation of National Wage Decisions and a small reduction in stall numbers, generally in the lower income range. Expenditure on General Expense items declined during the year, the major factor being the decision to terminate the hire of motor vehicles and replacement with Commission-owned vehicles, resulting in a saving of $38,450. A moderate increase occurred against Power, Water and Heating through increased demand. Reactor Supplies and Special Nuclear Materials expenditure increased by $139,433 of which $45,874 relates to isotopes purchased for resale, $87,023 to increased costs of HIFAR reactor fuel elements and $6,536 for increased purchases of Special Nuclear Materials. Stores replenishment expenditure marginally increased during the year but was not sufficient to raise stockholdings to the desired level. During the year the Commission continued its policy of contributing to external research and training. Expenditure was $523,687, including $417,000 to the Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering, $56,687 to Australian universities for specialised research related to the Commission's own program and $50,000 to the Australian Mineral Development Laboratories for equipment, development, research and analytical work. Building and grounds maintenance accounted for $175,587, computer hire $465,000 and Service Agreements, Period Contracts and Design and Development Contracts $396,148, making a total of $1,560,422 which is shown under the heading Maintenance and External Contracts. Regulatory and External Relations Branch expenditure increased by $64,809 (7.71%) of which increased salaries accounted for $14,869 and General Expenses $49,940. The increase in General Expenses is abnormal, being exaggerated by payment of a lump sum workers compensation determination ($25,000). The remaining increase relates to travel relative to regulatory and safeguards matters. Uranium Branch expenditure continued throughout the year at a greatly reduced rate following implementation in 1976-77 of the Government's decision to terminate the Commission's uranium exploration activities, and was confined to data collection, technical aivJ economic assessments on world uranium resources and production and matters pertaining to the proposed Ranger Joint Venture. Building construction expenditure conformed with the estimate of $430,000, installation of a fire main at the Head Office site accounting for $4,656 and the remainder, $425,344, in accordance with the approved Research Establishment program. Funds provided for the purchase of research plant and equipment ($700,000) were fully spent. Continued participation in the Ngalia Basin Joint Venture during 1977-78 resulted in expenditure of $89,832 (1976-77, $136,677) against an estimate of $130,000. The shortfall in expenditure was related directly to the decision taken by the joint venturers during the year to reduce the program to "care and maintenance" only from 31 December 1977.

137 Appendix A—Financial Accounts

™fgfi™*&c;™HiiWF^ *"•"!?J™

AUSTRALIAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS FOR YEAR ENDED 30 JUNE 1978 (Note I)

1978 1977 $ $ $ Funds on hand 1 July (a) Moneys held in trust . ... 37,455 2,228 (b) Cash on hand and at bank (Note 2) . . (1.890) 15,081 (c) Recoverable advances 27,063 40,640

62,628 57,949 RECEIPTS Parliamentary Appropriations (a) Operating 21,593,000 19,668,000 (b) Capital — (i) Administration and research 1,130,000 1 ^97 000 (ii) Uranium exploration and development . . 130,000 1 101 000

22,853,000 22,066,000 Other Receipts — Isotope operations 1,495,733 1 5^9 139 Miscellaneous (Note 3) 335,738 321,933

1,831,471 1,851,072 Canteen operations — (Note 4) Sales 429,065 473 945 Other receipts 2,081 14 ^09

Advance from welfare account . . 431,146 488 154 1 5,000 Moneys received in trust 46,790 7"> 866

TOTAL 25,225,035 24,551 041 PAYMENTS Operating Administration — Salaries and payments in the nature of salary 880,207 871,335 General expenses 301,073 1& 51) Information services 34,885 40 67?

1,216,165 1,174,518 138 1978 1977 $ $ $ Research — Salaries and payments in the nature of salary .. 15,780,217 14,818,393 General expenses 611,762 653,251 Power, water and heating 467,769 451,895 Reactor supplies and special nuclear materials 689,256 549.823 Stores 1,596,800 1,448,786 Maintenance and external contracts (Note 5) 1.560.422 1,418,424

20,706,226 19,340,572 Regulatory and External Relations — Salaries and payments in the nature of salary 803,326 788.457 General expenses 102,393 52,453

905,719 840.910 Uranium Exploration and Development — Salaries and payments in the nature of salary 410,833 633,775 Stores — 60,320 General expenses 92.602 270.228

503,435 964.323

Canteen operations — Salaries 120,623 116.219 Purchases 306,703 392,992 General expenses . , 1,133 678

428,459 509,889 Repayment of advance from welfare account . .. 15,000 — Payments from moneys held in trust 78,058 37,639

Total Operating Payments 23,853,062 22,867.851

Capital Administration and Research — Administrative buildings and equipment 4,656 6.776 Research sites and establishments 425,344 670,221 Research plant ,n:d equipment 700,000 620,003

1,130,000 1,297,000 Uranium Exploration and Development — Contributions to Ngalia Basin Joint Venture expenses ." 89,832 136,677

Total Capital Payments 1,219,832 1,433,677

Total Operating and Capital Payments 25,072,894 24,301,528

Repayment of Advance from Rum Jungle Account — 55,856 139 1978 1977 $ $ $ Unexpended Parliamentary Appropriations repaid ' 110,132 131.029 Funds on hand 30 June (a) Moneys held in trust . ... 6,187 37,455 (b) Cash on hand and at bank (Note 2 and Note 6) (11,667) (1,890) (c) Recoverable advances (AW'6) 47.489 27,063 42,009 62.628

TOTAL ... 25,225,035 24.551,041

STATEMENT OF CAPITAL ASSETS AS AT 30 JUNE 1978 (AT COST) (Note 7)

1978 1977 $ $ Administrative buildings and equipment 1,143,032 ' 126,167 Research sites and establishments 24,427,364 23,811,851 Reactor H1FAR 2,940,735 2,940.735 Scientific plant and equipment 14,903.660 14,269.854 Uranium exploration and development buildings and equipment . ... 912,458 1,138,831

44,327,249 43,287,438

STATEMENT OF INVESTMENTS AS AT 30 JUNE 1978

1978 $ Shareholdings (Note

7,482,665 Interest charges on overdraft 691,193

Net cost to the Commission 8,173,858

Ngalhi Basin Joint Venture (Note 9) Contribution to 30 June 1977 341,348 Contribution for 1977/78 89,832

Total contributions to 30 June 1978 431,180

140 NOTES TO AND FORMING PART OF THE ACCOUNTS

1. The Commission's accounts arc kept on a cash basis. The trading activities of the AAEC Canteen arc included for the first time in the Commission's financial accounts.

2. The item Cash on hand has been recast to include Cash at bank for the Australian Atomic Energy Commission Canteen Account (Note 4 refers). Details of the two components are as follows. 1.7.76 30.6.77/1.7.77 30.6.78 S S $ Cash on hand 15.216 4,980 7,516 Cash at bank (Canteen Account) (135) (6.870) (19,183)

15,081 (1,890) (11,667)

3. The major items included under this heading arc:— Proceeds from sale of surplus property . . . . . $80,855 Hire of equipment and services ...... $210,973 The item "Proceeds from sale of surplus property" includes $66,329 (1976/77 $183,099) received as a result of the disposal of surplus property previously purchased for the Commission's uranium exploration activities in the Northern Territory.

4. The Canteen situated at the Research Establishment. Lucas Heights, is a complex consisting of a cafeteria and an accommodation unit known as Stevens Hall. The complex was, between 1958 when trading commenced until 28 February 1975, operated by the Australiu.i Services Canteen Organisation (ASCO). Following deterioration in trading results a decision was taken to terminate the ASCO arrangement and for the AAEC to manage on its own behalf with effect from 1 March 1975. Trading has continued since that date with the objective that the complex should operate on a self supporting basis. Working capital (1977/78. $15,000) is provided each year from AAEC funds on hand to facilitate the carriage of adequate stocks. Repayment to the AAEC of this amount is made at the close of each financial year. At 30 June 1977. because of necessary levels of trading stock held, repayment of the working capital ($15,000) advanced by the AAEC for 1976/77 was financed by the AAEC\Vclfarc Account, the financial activities of which are not included in this statement (sec Note 10 below). Canteen funds arc kept in an interest bearing current account with the Com- monwealth Savings Bank of Australia, Engadinc Branch.

5. This item includes — Maintenance of grounds and buildings $175,587 Computer hire " $465,000 Service agreements, period contracts and design and development contracts 7. $396,148 141; Grants in aid of research Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering Membership subscription $117,000 Contribution to research and training $300.000

$417,000 Australian universities ...... $56,687 Australian Mineral Development Laboratories . $50.000 $523.687

6. The Cash on hand and Recoverable advances outstanding at 30 June 1978 ($55,005) were financed by retention of an equivalent sum from Unexpended Parliamentary Approprialions $165.137 (1976/77 brought forward $32.043 plus 1977/783133,094).

7. The net increase to the total of capital assets ($1,039,81 1) is $102,608 less than the total purchases from Parliamentary appropriation of $1,142,419 (Capital $1,130,000 and Operating $ 12,419). The main components of this variance rounded to the nearest one thousand dollars arc as follows:— $ Items written of; (000) (a) Scientific plant and equipment — write offs ...... 206 (b) Uranium exploration and dcvclopme:., disposals and write offs 226

432

less items brought on charge (i) Australian School of Nuclear Technology — Buildings and Works 91 (ii) Australian Atomic Energy Commission Welfare Account — Buildings and Works .". 99 (iii) Research manufactured items . 17 (iv) Equipment acquired under research contracts . . .13 (v) Reinstatement of previously unlocatcd items written off . . 20 (vi) Equipment purchases financed from proceeds of trade-in items 89

329

Net variance 103 Previous years' Statements of Capital Assets did not include items (i) and (ii).

8. Under the terms of the underwriting agreement with Mary Kathleen Uranium Limited dated 4 October 1974, the Commission acquired 30,764,142 shares of a new issue unsubscribed by the existing shareholders. To finance its acquisition the Commission arranged an overdraft with the Reserve Bank of Australia. The overdraft was discharged on 7 June 1976: Funds for the payment of interest on the overdraft accommodation were provided from an appropriation by the Parlia- ment during 1976/77. The shareholding is shown at cost because the size of the respective holdings of both Conzinc Riotinto of Australia Limited and the Commission tend to make the market value uncertain. 142 9. During 1977/78 the Commission continued to participate in a joint exploration venture in the Ngalia Basin, Northern Territory. The sum of $89,832 (1976/ 77 $136,677) was contributed to the joint exploration program during the financial year. The total contribution by the Commission to 30 June 1978 amounted to $431,180 representing a 10.7% beneficial interest in the joint venture. The other venturers are Agip Nuclcarc Australia Pty Limited, Central Pacific Minerals NL, Urangesellschaft mbH & Co. KG and Urangcscllschaft Australia Pty Limited. During the year a former joint venturer, Magellan Petroleum Australia Limited, disposed of its interest to Agip Nuclcarc Australia Pty Limited and Urangescllschaft Australia Pty Limited. Further contributions by the Commission will not be made in 1978/79 because the joint exploration program has been placed on a care and maintenance basis.

10. The Australian Atomic Energy Commission carries out accounting services for the following organisations:— Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering Staff Superannuation Fund Australian School of Nuclear Technology Australian Atomic Energy Commission Welfare Account An opinion is being sought from the Attorney-General's Department to determine whether the Commission has assumed the role of Trustee as a result of these services. The opinion will have a bearing on the appropriateness of the inclusion of financial transactions relevant to these organisations respectively in this Commission's financial accounts for subsequent years.

D. W. GEORGE A. J. MOULDING Chairman Assistant Secretary (Finance) Australian Atomic Energy Commission Australian Atomic Energy Commission

143 Appendix B — Auditor-General's Report, Commonwealth of Australia

&tosxax4**z£>r9*H!u*,^'. w*M'«^

Auditor-General's Ollicc Canberra House, Marcus Clarke St. Canberra City, A.C.T. 2601 20 November 1978 The Honourable the Minister for National Development, Parliament House. CANBERRA. A.C.T. 2600

Dear Sir, AUSTRALiAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

In compliance with section 31(2) of the Atomic Energy Act 1953. the Commission has submitted for my report the following financial statements — Statement of Receipts and Payments for the year ended 30 June 1978;

Statement of Capital Assets as at 30 June 1978: and

Statement of Investments as at 30 June 1978.

Copies of the statements in the form approved by the Minister for Finance under section 31(1) of the Act, together with Notes to, and forming part of, the accounts, arc attached for your information.

I now report in terms of section 31(2) of the Act that the financial statements arc in agreement with the accounts and records and in my opinion —

(a) the statements are based on proper accounts and records;

(b) to the extent the statements are prepared on a cash rather than an accrual basis they show fairly the financial operations of the Commission; and

(c) the receipt, expenditure and investment of moneys, and the acquisition and disposal of assets, by the Commission during the year have been in accordance with the Act except to the extent that moneys were expended by the Commission prior to obtaining approval of the estimates of expenditure by the Minister for Finance as required by section 26(2) of the Act.

Yours faithfully. (D. R. STEELE CRAIK) AUDITOR-GENERAL 144 Appendix C — Organisation of Commission at 30 June 1978

HEAD OFFICE

General Manager: K. F. Alder. M.Sc.. F.T.S.. F.I.M. Assistant to Gene ml Marnier. D. G. Walker. M.Sc.. Ph.D.. A.R.A.C.I.. A.M.Aiis.l.M.M.

ADMINISTRATION BRANCH Secretary and 11 end of Brunch: A. D. Thomas, M.Sc., M.lnst.P., A.A.I.P. Assistant Secretary (Manpower): N. J. Carnegie Assistant Secretary(l'iiiance): A. J. Moulding, A.A.S.A.. A.C.I.S. Director, Public Relations: 1£. A. Lane Director, Let-til Services: R. .1. Rowell, L1..M. Director, Organisation and Methods: R. .1. Waddell Chief Auditor: E. N. Brunker. A.A.S.A.I.S.). A.C.I.S. Director, Coiiiinix.n Security: A. J. George

REGULATORY AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS BRANCH AcliiiH Head of Brunch: \V. B. Rotsey*. B.Mel., Ph.D. Acting Director, Kxtermil Relations Office: 1. .1. Humphreys. U.K.. A.S.T.C., C.linu.. M.l.E.E.(Loml.) Licensing and Regulatory linrean Director, Nuclear I'lant Safety Unit: D. \V. Crancher, M.Sc., M.I Mcch.E. Acting Director, Environment and I'ttblic Health Unit: J. E. Cookt. B.Sc. (Huns.)

Overseas Representatives Counsellor (Atomic. Enert>\), Washinvton: R. J. Knight, M.Sc'., Ph.D. Counsellor (Atomic Energ\), London: R. Smith, B.Mct.E.(Hons.), M.Eng.Sc., Ph.D. Counsellor (Atomic Energy), Tokyo: R. C. P. Cairns, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D.. D.Sc., A.S.T.C., C.En'g., F.I.Chcm.E., F.I.E.Aust. Counsellor (Atomic Eriervv) Vienna: N. R. McDonald, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D.. C.En'g., M.I.M., A.M.Aus.l.M.M.

URANIUM BRANCH lleadoj Branch: D. R. Griffiths, B.E.

Exploration Division Exploration Manager and Chief of Division: C. C. Battey, B.Sc., M.Aus.I.M.M. Director, Evaluation: J. W. Farthing, B.Sc.(Tech. Mining ling.), A.M.Aus.l.M.M.

Production Division Chief of Division: R. K. Warner, B.Sc.(Hons.), Ph.D.. A.R.A.C.I.

* Dr W. B. Rotsey acting on behalf of Dr A. R. W. Wilson, who is fully engaged on the International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation. t Mr J. E. Cook' acting on behalf of Mr R. M. Fry, who is presently on secondment as Acting Supervising Scientist under the Environment Protection (Alligator Rivers Region) Act 1978. 145 RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT

NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BRANCH Head of Branch: Emeritus Professor S. T. Butler, M.Sc.. I'h.D.. D.Sc.. F.A.I.P., F.A.A., F.A.A.F.S. Assistant to Head of Branch: W. E. T. Cawscy, B.E., M.Sc., F.A.I.M. Site Manager: G. L. Miles. B.A., M.Sc., Ph.D.. F.R.A.C.J.. M.A.I.P. Program Manager, Power anil Knergy: 3. L. Symonds. B.Sc.(Hons.). Ph.D.. F.lnM.P., F.A.I.l'. Assessment ami I'lanniiif; Unit: F. H. Carr. M.I-.. F.A.I.E.. M.l.E.Aust. Program Manager, Nuclear Science and Application*: J. N. Gregory, M.Sc., D.Sc.. r.K.A.C.J. Program Manager, Uranium I'nel Cvcle: C. .1. Hardy, B.Sc.(Hons.). Ph.D.. D.Sc.. C.Chem.. F.R.I.C.. M.Aus.l.M.M. Assessment anil I'lannini; Unit: L M. Costello, B.Sc.(Hons.). Ph.D.. C.Eng.. F.'l.Chem.E.. C.Chem.. M.R.I.C. A. P. Marks. B.Sc.(Hons.). F.lnst.P., M.A.I.P.

Applied Mathematics and Computing Division Chief of Division: D. J. Richardson. B.A.(Hons.). B.Sc.. Ph.D.. F.A.C.S. Leader, Svstems Desii>n Section: G. W. Cox. B.Sc.(Hons.). I'h.D.. M.A.C.S., M.A.C.M., M.A.I.P. Leader, Computing Svstems Section: P. L. Sanuer, B.Sc.l Hons.). Ph.D.. M.A.C.S., M.A.C.M.. M.A.I.P.

Centrifuge Enrichment Project Division Chief of Division: D. R. lEbelinc, B.Mcch.E.(Hons.). M.E.. C.linu.. M.l.Mech.Ii., M.I.E.Aust. Leader, Centrifuge Unit Development Section: J. Price, B.Sc.(Hons-). Dip.Eng.. C.l-ng., M.I.Mech.l-.. M.l.l£.Aust..A.F.A.I.M. Leader, Cascade Development Section: K. S. Turner. A.S.T.C.. M.Sc., M.I.Chem.l-. Leader, Separation Performance Section: D. J. Mercer, B.E. Mech.(Hons.), M.Eng.Sci.(Nuc.), M.I.E.Aust.

Chemical Technology Division Chief of Division: P. G. Alfredson, B.Se.App.(Hons.). B.E.(Hons.), M.Sc., Ph.D., C.Eng., F.I.Chcm.E.. F.I.E.Aust. Leader, Analytical Chemistry Section: T. M. Florence. A.S.T.C.. M.Sc., D.Sc., A.R.A.C.I. Leader, Applied Chemistry Section: J. V. Evans. B.Sc.(Hons.). Ph.D., C.Chem.. M.R.I.C. Actini; Lender, Chemical Kni>iiieeriiii{ Section: D. M. Levins. B.I£.(Hons.). Ph.D.. C.Enc., M.l.Chem.E. Leader, Chemical Physics Section: J. W. Kelly, M.Sc.. Ph.D.. M.A.I.P. Leader, Physical Chemistry Section: R. N. Whittem. B.Sc.(Hons.), A.R.A.C.I.

Engineering Research Division Chief of Division: G. \V. K. Ford. M.B.E., M.A.(Cantab.), M.I.Mech.E. Leader, Heat Transfer Section: K. R. Lawlhcr, B.Sc., B.E., Ph.D.. C.Eng., M.l.Chem.E. Leader, Heat Teclinolai>v Section: I. F. Mayer. B.Sc.. B.E.(Hons.), M.A.I.P., M.lnst.l'., Cling.. A.F.R.Ae.Sc., M.A.N.S. Leader, Applied Mechanics Section: R. W. Harris. B.Sc.(Hons.), M.Sc., Th.D., M.I.R.E.E.(Aust.). M.A.I.P. Leader, Kisk Analysis Section: A. Bicevskis. M.Eng.Sc., Dipl.lng.. M.A.N.S.. M.B.N.E.S.

Instrumentation and Control Division Chief of Division: J. K. Parry. M.Sc., Ph.D. Leader, Applied Physics Section: A. J. Tavendale. M.Sc., Ph.D. Leader, Control and Systems Studies Section: C. P. Gilbert, M.Sc., M.I.E.E. 146 Isotope Division Chief of Division: J. G. Clousion, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.S.T.C., D.I.C., F.A.l.P. Assistant Cliief of Division: U. Engelbcrt, Dr.Ing., F.l.M.(Lond.), V.D.Eh. Acting Controller, Commercial Products Unit: K. W. Horlock, Dipt.Man., M.I.Mcch.E., A.M.I.E.E., A.M.B.I.M. Acting Leader, Medical Products Section: H. H. Brian, M.Sc., A.R.A.C.I. Manager, Technical Sulex Section: \V. A. Wiblin, B.Sc. Leader, Radioisolope Applications Research Section: .1. S. Wall, M.Sc., F.A.l.P., A.M.Aus.l.M.M., F.T.S. Leader, Irradiation Technology and Research Section: D. F. Sangstcr, li.Sc.(Hons.), F.R.A.C.I. Leader, Radioactive Products Research Section: R. E. Boyil. B.Sc.(.Hons.). A.M.C.'I".

Materials Division Acting Chief of Division: P. M. Kelly, M.A.. Ph.D.. Sc.D., M.lnst.P.. F.A.I.P. Leader, Ceramics Section: K. D. Reeve. M.Sc., Ph.D., F.l.Ceram. Actini; Leader, Materials Science Section: A. Joslsons. H.Sc.(Hons.). Ph.D. Leader, Reactor Materials-Section: K. V. Snowtlcn. B.Sc.. Ph.D., M.lnst.P.. M.A.l.P. Leader. Metallnrgv and Assessment Section: R. J. Hiklitch. B.Tech.", A.S.A.S.M.. A.M.Aus.l.M.M.

Physics Division Acting Cliief of Division: \V. Gemmell, B.Sc.(Hons.), M.lnst.P., M.A.l.P. Leader, Reactor Physics: D. B. McCulloch. B.Sc.(Hons.). F.A.I.P. Leader, Neutron Physics: .1. VV. Boklcman, li.Sc., Ph.D. Leader, Applications of Nuclear Techniques: J. R. Bird, M.Sc.. Ph.D.. F.A.l.P. Leader, Reactor Safety: VV. J. Turner. B.Sc.(Hons.) Leader, Atomic and Nuclear Data: J. L. Cook, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.A.l.P. Lender, Physics of Environment: A. 1. M. Ritchie, B.Sc.. Ph.D. Leader. l-'nsion Physics: B. E. Clancy, M.Sc.. Ph.D.

Health Physics Research Section Lender: D. R. Davy, B.Sc.CHons.), Dip.Environ.Stud.

Occupational Health Research Section Leader and Site Medical Officer: A. D. Tuck'cr, M.B., B.S.

Radiation Biology Research Section Acting Leader: D. R. Davy. 13.Sc.(Hons.). Dip.Environ.Stud.

Site Management Acting Controller, Administration: C. H. Bebb. A.A.S.A. Acting Assistant Controller, 1'inance and Administrative Services: T. F. Slade Assistant Controller, Automatic Data Processing: K. Cubbin, M.A.C.S. Personnel Officer: J. A. Gerrard Controller, Safety: J. C. E. Bullon, B.Sc.(Hons.), F.Inst.P., F.A.l.P. Controller, Site Operations Department, and Acting Controller, Site Planning Unit: A. C. Wood, B.Sc., F.l.E.Aust. Controller, Engineering Services Department: A. C. Higgins, C.Enu., F.I.Mech.E. Controller, Site Information Servicex: K. H. Talc, B.Sc., M.Aus.l.M.M. //cm/ Librarian: W. H. Ncale, B.Sc.(Hons.), A.L.A.A. Scientific Editor: Mrs M. E. Workman, B.A.(Hons.), Dip.Ed. Manager, Commercial Applications: A. Walker, B.E., Grad.Dip., A.S.T.C., M.A.l.E. Public Relations Officer (Research Establishment): D. Coleby, B.Sc.

Australian School of Nuclear Technology Principal: D. A. Newmarch, B.Sc.(Hons.), 13.A.(Hons.), M.R.I.P. 147 Appendix D —AAEC Research Programs

7.g.-'.ic^ve^vn-B.a^^^^

The main research programs in progress at the Research Establishment at 30 June 1978 are listed below. Power and Energy Program 1. Energy Resources, Supply and Usage: Collection and assessment of energy data anil information on a world-wide hasis with particular attention to Australia; studies of historic and projected growth patterns including the effects of economic and technical developments; examination of ecological and environmental impacts of energy utilisation. 2. Fission Reactor Performance, Operation and Safety: Provision and maintenance of a base of scientific and technical competence which can he applied to all aspects and applications of nuclear fission reactors. 3. Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion Systems: Provision of a base of scientific expertise in the fundamentals of fusion systems; study and review of overseas programs; development of study and experimental programs in Australia. 4. Alternative Energy Systems: Preliminary studies and basic experiments directed towards the exploitation of alternative energy sources. Nuclear Science and Applications Program 1. Radioisotopes and Radiation: Development of nuclear techniques of analysis and their application to industry, particularly in mining: development of radioisotope techniques and application to hydrological and sediment dynamics, termite control, photography, gas and two-phase flow and other industrial problems. Application of radiation to sterilisation and industrial processing: development of radiation detectors and dosimeters. 2. Environment and Health: Laboratory and field studies relating to environmental problems, particularly those arising from uranium mining and milling: research into the effects cf radiation on man and other living organisms: investigations into the chemical toxicily of uranium compounds and industrial dusts, particularly those containing uranium. 3. Development of Techniques: These include analytical chemistry, neutron activation analysis, spectrometry. and non-destructive testing methods based on X-ray. f-n\y ;iru' neutron radiography, ultrasonics and acoustic emission. Uranium Fuel Cycle Program 1. Uranium Industry: Investigation and development of methods for processing Aus- tralian ores to various end products, to improve uranium recovery, to reduce costs and to prevent or minimise pollution of the environment: studies on nature, distribution and association of uranium minerals in Australian ores: assessment and laboratory studies on waste water treatment in the nuclear industry: operation of an experimental facility for the production of uranium hcx.ifluoritlc by an improved Fluorox process. 2. Enrichment by the Centrifuge Process: Development of an independent centrifuge technology for uranium enrichment including assessment studies and a laboratory program to improve the design of individual centrifuge machines, and to test the behaviour of centrifuges in cascade. 3. Enrichment by Novel Methods: Assessment and development of laser enrichment through theoretical and experimental studies of laser technology and high resolution spcctroscopy of uranium compounds. Divisional Research Program Divisional research includes basic research over a wide range of disciplines currently in the following areas: Applied mathematics and computing, solid slate physics, analytical and structural chemistry, the application of radioisoiopcs in medicine and industry, the effects of nuclear radiation on materials and organisms, and electronic circuit and instrumentation development and nuclear physics. Scientific Services Program This program provides a wide variety of scientific services via the research divisions in support of each research program and a considerable range of consulting, testing, investigation;!) and analytical services to external organisations. It also includes support for the operation of H1FAR and the various engineering and other technical services: the production and distribution of radioisotopes for research, industrial and medical use; maintenance of radionuclide activity standards, development of radioactive products and nuclear measuring techniques; provision of nuclear materials control, waste management and information, medical, safety and dosimelry services. 148 Appendix E —AAEC Research Contracts

In 1977-78 the Commission awarded research contracts for the projects listed below.

NEW CONTRACTS

University or Organisation Project Momish University Department of Materials Creep of cracked tensile specimens of zinc Engineering ($1.5001. The Flinders University of South Australia School of Physical Sciences Formation anil properties of linear diffuse pinches ($12,778). Miscellaneous minor expenses ($350). The Australian National University Research School of Physical Sciences Studies of high temperature magnetically confined toroidal plasma ($10.889). The University of Sydney School of Physics Stability of plasma in toroidal mamictic field con- figurations ($12,650). The Australian Mineral Development Development of equipment for radon monitoring Laboratories and field surveys ($14.240). Development of prototype uamma resonance bulk analyser ($25.000). Preparation of uranium ore core samples, including counting, drying and encapsulation ($1.253). Analyses of coal samples for carbon and hydrogen content, and for calorific value ($1,899). Analyses of soil and plant ash samples ($3,208).

EXTENDED CONTRACTS

University of New South Wales School of Biological Technology Suppression and control of microbial leaching ($1S.520). The Australian Mineral Development Commercial exploitation of radioisotope research Laboratories ($4,400).

149 Appendix F —AINSE Grants for Research and Training

The Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering awarded AINSE Grants in the 1978 Series in support of the 94 projects listed below. (Alloca- tion of up to $189,000.) Titles of projects supported in 1977-78 under the terms of AINSE Studentships (6) and AINSE Fellowships (6), are listed separately.

AINSE GRANTS FOR 1978

James Cook University of North Queensland

1. Neutron capture gamma-ray studies. (Associate Professor R. H. Taylor, Physics, up to SI.800.) 2. keV neutron capture gamma-ray studies. (Dr G. C. Hicks. Physics, up to $1.800.) 3. Effect of ~i-radialion on selected monomers and polymers. (.Dr E. Senogles. Chemistry and Biochemistry, up to $1,000.) 4. Studies on metal complexes of quadridentate ligancls. (Dr L. I-. Liiuloy, Chemistry and Biochemistry, tip to $ 1,400.) 5. Structure elucidation of certain natural products from marine sources by diffraction methods. (Drs J. C. Coll ;md 15. Bowdcn. Chemistry and Biochemistry, up to $1.100.) 6. Point defect-dislocation interaction in ionic crystals. (Dr G. A. Bielig, Physics, up to $1,000.)

University of Queensland

1. Application of the k-s turbulence model to How in the presence of turbulence pro- moters. (Dr K. Brcmhorst, Mechanical Engineering, up to $600.) 2. Hurp.'in genetic disorders involving sensitivity to ionising radiation. (Dr M. F. I,avin and Professor C. Kidson, Biochemistry, up to $2,332.) 3. Radiation effects on polymers and copolymers. (Dr J. H. O'Donncll, Chemistry, up to $1,800.) 4. Structure analysis using neutron diffraction. (Dr C. H. L. Kennard, Chemistry, up to $500.) 5. Neutron and X-ray scattering studies of crystalline solids near transition temperatures. (Dr B. VV. J.ucas, Physics, up to $900.) 6. Neutron activation analysis of gallstones. (Dr C. H. L. Kennard, Surgery and Chemistry, up to $500.)

Griffith University 1. Irradiation effects on struclur: of polypropylene. (Dr \V, K. Btisfield. Science, up to $800.) 2. Radiation damage effects in the kinetics of dissolution of oxides. (Professor K. L. Segall. Drs R. SlC. Smart and P. Turner. Science, up to $1,000.) 3. Radiation damage in semiconductors and ordered alloys. (Dr S. Myhra, Science, up to $5.800.) 4. The estimation of the area! variation in soil erosion intensity and the past and present rates of soil erosion in the Darling Downs using >-17Cs and 2"'Pb. (Professor C. W. Rose, Australian Environmental Studies. Physics, up to $900.)

University of New England 1. Multi-photon techniques for tunable VUV veneration. (Professor S. C. Haydon, Physics, up to $2,738.) 2. Oscillator strengths of highly excited states. (Dr A. Mclntosh, Physics, up to $2,500.) 3. Repair of radiation damage in model organism. (Or M. H. Soliman. Microbiology and Genetics, up to $1,000.) 150 University of Newcastle 1. Molecular structure determination of Xanthorrhoeol. (Mr 11. R. Tietze, Chemistry, up to $900.) 2. Interstitial hydrogen in palladium alloys. (Professor W. A. Gates, Metallurgy, up to $600.) 3. Polarised neutron analysis of intermetallic compounds containing transition metals. (Professor E. O. Hall, Drs J. D. Browne and G. B. Johnston, Metallurgy, up to $1,200.) 4. Luders band propagation. (Professor E. O. Hall, Metallurgy, up to $500.)

University of Sydney 1. Laser separation of isotopes. (Dr L. P. Henderson, Mechanical Engineering, up to $850.) 2. Far infra-red wave interactions in plasmas. (Dr L. C. Robinson, Plasma Physics, up to $2,165.) 3. Laser scattering from plasmas. (Drs I. S. Falconer and W. I. B. Smith, Plasma Physics, up to $2,160.) 4. Wave propagation and heating in high temperature plasmas. (Associate Professor J. Lehane, Plasma Physics, up to $7,300.)

University of New South Wales 1. Thermo-mcchanical analysis of nuclear plant structures. (Associate Professor Z. J. Holy, Nuclear Engineering, up to $1.200.) 2. Noise measurements in the H1FAR reactor. (Mr L. G. Kemeny, Nuclear Engineering, up to $6,775.) 3. Hybrid computer analysis of rotor bearing systems. (Dr E. J. Hahn, Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, up to $3,700.) 4. Bubbling and segregation phenomena in gas fluidised beds. (Dr A. G. Fane, Associate Professor C. J. D. Fell, Chemical Engineering, up to $985.) 5. The effects of neutron irradiation on the mechanical properties of alkali halide crystals. (Associate Professor 11. F. Pollard, Physics, up to $500.) 6. Grain analysis by nuclear reactions and backscattering. (Associate Professor J. C. Kelly, Physics, up to $900.) 7. (a) Radiation catalysis and (b) Studies in mass spectrometry related to radiation chemistry. (Associate Professor J. L. Garnett, Physical Chemistry, up to $2.800.) 8. Tritium-NMR studies of new tritium labelling techniques. (Dr M. A. Long, Chemistry, up to $1,110.) 9. The neutron study of ribopyranoside. (Drs A. D. Rae. V. J. James and R. A. Wood, Chemistry and Physics, up to $300.) 10. Neutron diffraction studies of biological membranes. (Drs C. T. Grainger and V. J. James, Physics, up to $200.) 11. Magnetic spin structures of rare earth intermetallics. (Professor K. N. R. Taylor and Dr A. M. Stewart, Physics, up to $1,600.) 12. The progressive breakdown of antiferromagnetism in 7-Mn with the addition of Cu. (Dr S. J. Campbell. Physics, Royal Military College. Duntroon. up to $7,000.) 13. Metal-hydrogen systems. (Professor K. N. R. Taylor and Dr G. L. Paul. Associate Professor G. Wallwork, Physics and Metallurgy, up to $2.000.) 14. Fourfold monopole mass spectrometer for precise isotope ratio studies. (Dr J. A. Richards, Electrical Engineering, up to $550.)

Macquarie University 1. Radiolysis of polyunsaturated acids and esters. (Dr J. M. Gebicki. Biological Sciences, up to $250.) 2. Radiation effects in surface films. (Associate Professor J. G. Hawkc and Dr J. M. Gebicki, Chemistry/Biological Sciences, up to $2,350.) 3. Evidence for hot atom reactions in molecules exposed to fast neutron fluxes. (Associate Professor J. G. Hawkc. Chemistry, up to $1.250.) 4. Chemical processes initiutctl by the '<>B (n. n) 'Li transformation in phenylboric acids. (Associate Professor J. G. Hawke. Chemistry, up to $1.150.) 5. Trapped electron tunnelling in organic glasses at 77°K. (Associate Professor J. G. Hawke, Chemistry, up to $1,000.)

University of Wollongong 1. Removal of soluble organic compounds from aqueous effluents by radiation induced co-polymerisation with polyeleclrolytes. (Dr J. Ellis, Chemistry, up to $800.) 151 2. Quantum theoretical search for potential high energy molecular lasers. (Dr P. G. Burton, Chemistry, up to $3.100.) 3. Study of neutron capture in reactor structural material. (Dr D. N. Muthur, Physics, up to $500.)

Australian National University 1. Oxygen impurity in a Tokamak plasma. (.Dr A. 1-1. Morton. Engineering Physics, up to $4.510.) 2. Picosecond interferometry of laser produced plasmas. (Dr G. H. Gillman. Engineering Physics, up to $2.500.) 3. A frequency doubled multi-gigawatt neodymium glass laser system for studying wave- lenulh dependent effects in laser-produced plasmas. (Dr 13. I.ulher-Davics, Engineering Physics, up to $7.190.) 4. Neutral particle and other diagnostics of a Tokamak plasma. ( Dr I.. I-. Peterson. En- gineering Physics, up to $11.352.) 5 Oxidation reduction reactions of coordinated ligands. (Dr A. M. Sargeson, Research School of Chemistry, up to $S()0.) fi. Accurate determination of second-order crystallographic information. (Drs K. D. G. Jones, Research School of Chemistry, and C. .1. Howard. AA1£C. up to $800.) 7. Molecular structure of hydrido-transition metal complexes by neutron diffraction. (Drs G. B. Robertson and P. A. Tucker. Research School of Chemistry, up to $1,000.) 8. Disorder in 9-. 10-substituted anthracenes. (Dr T. R. Welberry. Research School of Chemistry, up to $600.) 9. A study of magnetic ordering in dilute chromium alloys. (Dr I. S. Williams. Research School of Physics, up to $1.500.) 10. •4llAr/-'wAr age determination of rocks. (Dr I. McDougall. Research School of Earth Sciences, up to $1.200.) I I. The sources and prehistoric dispersal of oceanic volcanic glasses. (Mr \V. Ambrose, Prehistory, up to $700.)

University of Melbourne 1. Turbulent shear layers and heat transfer. (Dr A. E. Perry and Professor P. N. Joubert, Mechanical Engineering, up to $1.290.) 2. Genes controlling radiation response in l'*cndoinonus iii'riiiiiiiiuii. (Dr B. T. O. Lee, Genetics. $2,400.) 3. Pulse radiolysis studies of uascous atoms and radicals. (Dr R. Cooper. Physical Chemistry, up to $1.400.) 4. Application of activation analysis to problems of ore genesis and evolution of the crust. (Dr R. R. Keays. Geology, up to $2.000.) 5. The application of activation and particle track analysis and radiochcmical tracer techniques to fundamental problems in geochemistry and cosmochemistry. (Professor J. l.ovcring. Geology, up to $2.700.)

Monash University 1. The effects of ionising radial!'1'? on the electrical properties of some simple polymer and polymer-like systems. (Dr I-!, j. Fleming. Physics, up to $1.000.) 2. Distribution of magnetic moment in 7 Mn-Ni alloys and the Kondo effect in Cul-c and A1 Mn. (Dr T. J. Hicks, Physics, up to $6,000.) 3. Distribution of macnctic moment in transition melal alloys. (Dr "I". J. Hicks. Physics, up to $1.800.) 4. Determination of crystal field levels in rare earth alloys and compounds. (Dr T. J. Hicks, Physics, up to $1,200.) 5. Magnetic order in transition metal alloys and compounds. (Associate Professor J. H. Smith, Physics, up to $5.500.) 6. Magnetic interactions in rare earth compounds. (Dr .1. D. Cushion. Physics, up to $800.) 7. Efficiency, power and energy limitations of lonuitudinally excited copper halide laser. (Mr R. C. Tobin. Physics, up to $1.500.) 8. Investigation of isotone ratio in ground water in the Melbourne area. (Dr V. J. Wall. Earth Sciences, up to $600.)

La Trobe University 1. Mutagenesis studies with the radiation resistant bacterium Miirucocriis ratlioiliirans. (Dr D. G. MacPhec. Genetics and Human Variation $1.650.) 2. Cell fusion studies of radiation-induced chromosome damage. (Dr .1. A. Marshall-Graves. Genetics and Human Variation, $1.700.) 152 3. Repair of radiation-induced damage in etikaryole chromosomes. (Dr M. Westerman, Genetics and Human Variation. $2.200.) 4. Neutron radiography of roots urowinu in soils. (Or S. T. Willatt. Agriculture, up to $1.200.)

University of Tasmania 1. (a) Mode of action of chemical protection against X-ray damage to cells, (b) Mode of action of radiomimctic substances in animal cell cultures. (Dr Y. A. \L. Hick. Zoolocy. up to $1.800.1 2. Polyiodidcs of the alkaline earth metals. (Professor II. H. Bloom and Mr R. Thomas. Chemistry, Dr I", l-l. Moore (AINSli). up to $600.)

University of Adelaide 1. Development of laminar natural convective flow through vertical ducts. (Dr .1. R. Dyer. Mechanical Engineering, up to $750.) 2. Intra-molccular electron transfer processes in metal complexes. (Dr G. S. Laurence, Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, up to $2.550.) 3. Low level uranium and thorium determinations for archaeometry. (Professor .1. R. Prescolt. Physics, up to S.J.400.)

The Flinders University of South Australia 1. Radiation dose from M-particlcs In human bronchial epithelium. (Professor A. \V. Rogers and DrG. Robertson. Human Morphology, up to $1.300.) 2. Fast /-pinch (FU/A-2). (Professor M. l-l. Brcnnan. Drs I. R. .lone., and I-. L. Munay. Physical Sciences, up to $6.SOO.) 3. Kutiilini! lied dischiiru-'. (Drs I. R. Jones and M. Phillips. Physical Sciences, up to $9.064.) 4. riuorine transport and distribution in dental enamels. (Associate Professor l-l. J. de Bruin, Professor D. .1. M. Bevan. Physical Scicncos. anil Dr l£. A. Fanning. Denial Health (University of Adelaide), up to $1.900.) 5. Uranium distribution studies in rocks and sediments. (Dr II. II. Veeh. Earth Sciences, up to $300.)

University of Western Australia 1. Absolute measurement of neutron production. (Dr H. II. Thics. Physics, up to $900.) 2. An investigation of electronically excited species produced during the radiolysis of water. (Dr T. I. Quickcnden. Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, up to $2.200.) 3. Crystal structure analysis by neutron diffraction. (Dr H. N. Maslen. Physical and In- organic Chemistry, up to SI.NOO.) 4. Bonding in the hexacyanochromate (111) ion and the hexanilronickelate (II) ion. (Professor B. N. Figgis. Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, up to $2.500.) 5. Generation centre investigation in silicon devices by ion implant, neutron activation and He+ Rutherford backscalteriim methods. (Dr A. G. Nassibian, Electrical Enuineering, up to $1.400.)

Queensland Institute of Technology 1. Development of a new dosimeter for measuring fluence of fast neutrons in the range l()|y-|0-'s ncm-- in the presence of an intense thermal neutron field. (Dr C. F. Wong, Physics, up to $600.)

New South Wales Institute of Technology 1. Total pattern analysis of neutron powder patterns. (Drs T. M. Sabine and D. G. Blair. Physics, up to $70()".)

AINSE Post-Graduate Research Studentships 1. The electronic excitation of water. (Mr J. A. Irvin. Physical and Inorganic Chemistry. University of Western Australia.) 2. Crystallography and geochemistry of high pressure mineral phases. (Mr 1. D. R. Mac- kinnon. Geology. James Cook University of North Queensland.) 153 3. Trapped electron tunnelling in organic glasses at 77°K. (Mr M. J. Holland, Chemistry, Macquarie University.) 4. Crystallographic studies of silicate and hydratcd minerals. (Mr J. B. Parise, Geology, James Cook University of North Queensland.) 5. An investigation of electronically excited species produced during the radiolysis of water. (Mr S. M. Trotman, Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, University of Western Australia.) 6. Dissolution studies of radiation damage in oxides and oxide glasses. (Mr D. R. Cousens, Physics. Griffith University.)

AINSE Research Fellowships 1. Defect characterisation using high resolution electron microscopy. (Dr G. R. Anstis, Electron Microscope Unit, University of Sydney.) 2. Radiation genetics, repair and development in the lower eukaryote Dictyostelium dis- coiileum. (Dr F. P. Imray, Genetics, University of Melbourne.) 3. Creep fatigue of reactor structural materials. (Dr W. R. Thorpe, Mining and Metal- lurgical Engineering, University of Queensland.) 4. Anharmonicity in zinc blende compounds. (Dr J. E. Tibballs, Physics, University of Melbourne.) 5. Electron transfer properties of metalloporphyrines and plastocyanin. (Dr A. T. Thornton, Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, University of Adelaide.) 6. lonisation cross-sections for the fusion program. (IDr A. T. Stelbovics. Physics. The Flinders University of South Australia.)

154 Appendix G — Technical Papers by Commission Staff

The research publications of the Commission include reports in official AAEC series distributed widely throughout the world, papers contributed to learned journals, and papers presented at conferences where proceedings are subsequently published.

PUBLISHED PAPERS

ALFREDSON, P. G. [I977J. Disposal of nuclear wastes reviewed. KiiKinct-rs Ain-t., 49 (17): ALLEN.IB. J., MUSGROVE, A. R. ilc L., BOLDEMAN .1. \V.. MACKI.IN, R. I.." [I977J. Valence neutron capture in 54Fe. Nud. /'/iv.v., A283 : 37-44. ('Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) ALLEN, 1). J.. MUSGROVE, A. R. de L., BERTRAM, W. K. [1978). Resonance and hackground interference in 54Fe neutron capture. /'/;v.v. Lett., 72B (3) : 323-325 ALLEN. B. J.. MUSGROVE, A. R. de I.. |I978J. Valence and doorway mechanisms in resonance neutron capture. Adv. Niicl. /'/iv.v., 10 : 129-195. BARRY, J. M.. POLLARD, J. P. [1977]. Method of implicit non-stationary iteration for solving neutron diffusion linear equations. Ann. Nucl. Energv, 4 : 485-493. BATLEY, G. E., GARDNER, D.* 11977]. Sampling and storage of natural waters for trace metal analysis. Water Rex., II : 745-756. ("CSIRO, Division of Fisheries and Oceano- graphy.) BATLEY, G. E., MATOUSEK, .1. P.* [1977]. Determination of heavy metals in sea-water by atomic absorption spcctromctry after electrodeposition on pyrolytic graphite-coated tubes. Anal. Client., 49 : 2031-2034. (*Univ. of NSW.) BATLEY, G. E., GARDNER, D.* [1978J. A study of copper, lead and cadmium specialion in some estuarine and coastal marine waters. Kxliiarine and Coaxial Mm: AW. (In press.) (*CSIRO, Division of Fisheries and Oceanography.) BATLEY, G. E., FARRAR, Y. J. 11978|. Irradiation techniques for the release of bound heavy metals in natural waters and blood. Anal. Cliini. Actit., 99 (2):283-292. BERZINS. A.. LOWSON. R. T., MIRAMS, K. J.* |1977|. Aluminium corrosion studies 111. Chloride adsorption isotherms on corroding aluminium. Aitst. J. Client., 30 : 1891-1903. (*Royal Melbourne Inst. of Technology.) BIRD, J. R., SCOTT, M. D., RUSSELL, L. H., KENNY, M. J. [WSJ. Analysis using ion induced 7-rays. Auxt. J. /'/iv.v., 31 : 209-213. BLAKE, R. G., JOSTSONS, A., KELLY. P. M.. NAPIER. .1. C. [1978]. The determination of extinction distances and anomalous absorption coefficients by scanning transmission electron microscopy. I'lill. Mat;., 37 (1): 1-16. BOLDEMAN. J. W., ALLEN. B. J.. MUSGROVE. A. R. de I... MACKL1N. R. L.* |I977]. The neutron capture cross section of ytlrium-89. Nucl. AW. Kng., 64 (3):744-748. (*Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) BROWN. J. K. [1978]. Chromosomes and cancer. Omcw I'oriini, 14:97-100. BROWN, K.. SMITH, P. D. [I978|. The fracture behaviour of maraging steel in thin sections. J. A list. Inst. Met., 22 (2): 106. CALF, G. E. [19781. An investigation of recharge to the Namoi Valley aquifers using environmental isotopes. AIIXI. J. AW/v, 16:197-207. CALF, G. E. [I978|. The isotope hydrology of the Merecnie sandstone aquifer, Alice Springs. Northern Territory, Australia. J. llyilrol. (In press.) CHAPMAN, J. F., DALE. L. S. |1978[. A simple apparatus for the spcctrometric determination of mercury by the cold vapour-atomic absorption technique. Anal. Cliint. Acta. (In press.) CHEETHAM, A. K.*, TAYLOR, J. C. [1977]. Profile analysis of powder neutron diffraction data : Its scope, limitations and applications in solid state chemistry. J. Solid State Client., 21 : 253-275. (*Chem. Crystallography Lab.. Oxford.) CLARK, G. H., CHARASH, E., BENDUN. E. O. K. |I977|. Pattern recognition studies in acoustic sounding. /. A[>pl. Melcaml., 16 (12): 1365-1368. CLAYTON, E., COOK, J. L., ROSE. IE. K. [1977]. Local and non-local potentials for low energy pion-nucleon scattering. A list. J. /'/iv.v.. 30 (4):369-377. CLOUSTON, J. G. [1978]. Bacterial spores — a thermodynamic model. Spore Newsletter, 6:32-35. 155 CLOUSTON, J. a, WILLS, 1'. A. 11978]. Effect of. pressure from radiation and heat on the rate of germination anil inactivation oC bacterial spores,. Spare Nt'iuk'ttcr, 6:66-68. COOK, J. E. U977J. Radiation protection philosophy anil .standards. AVir Doctor, 7:29-31. COOPER, R.'-:, GRIS5ER, F.*, SAUER, M. C.»*, SANGSTER, D. F. [1977]. Formation and decay kinetics oC the 2p levels of neon, argon, krypton and .\enon produced by electron-beam pulses. J. l'li\:\.. Clieni., SI (24):2215-2220. (-Univ. of Melboiiine: "'Aruonne National Laboratory.; FOOKES, R. A.. WATT, J. S., SEATONBEKKY. B. W., DAVISON, A.. GRL1G. R. A.. LOWE. H. W. G.'-, ABBOTT. C. A.* [1978]. Gamma-ray backscatter applied to the on-line location of termite-damaged railway sleepers. Int. J. Ap[>l. Radial. l.\ol. (In press.) (*Ml Newman Mining Co.) 1-OY, J. J. 11978J. Development and testing of a high piessure electrochemical cell for corrosion studies at elevated temperatures. AIIM. J. ln.\triini. Control, 34 (11:16-19. GILES, M. S. 11978|. Study of phosphorus turnover in an unpolluted estuary. /V/'A.i mill Wildlife, 2 (2):60-62. GRAVIT1S, V. L.. WA'IT, J. S., WENK, G. J.*. WILKINSON. L. R.4 |1977|. On-slieam analysis for nickel in mineral slurries by radioisotope X-ray techniques. CIM (Can. Mill. Melall.) Hull.. December : 1-3. ("Amilcl) GREEN. W. J.. LAWTHEK, K. K. |I97S|. A study of the sensitivity of I.OCA heat transfe. analysis for a water-cooled reactor .system. A'/ir/. lini;. OCA.. 47 : 87-99. HARDY.' C. J.. COSTELLO. .1. M. 119771. Status of technology and management of high level waste arisinu from spent nuclear fuel. At. Knen;v AHM., 2()(3):2-7. HOWARD. C. .1. II978|. On the displacement fields for ilo'tibio-forces in an ellipsoid. 7. AI>I>!. I'liy.i. (In press.) KEHEK. L. H. 11978). Uranium and nuclear cneruy — a perspective. At. I-MI-W AIM.. 21(11:15-25. KENNY. M. J.. ALLEN. B. .1. [I977|. Gamnu-rays from keV neutron capture in lanthanum. AIM. J. I'livx., 30 (5. 6) :591-597. KENNY. M. /., ALLEN. B. J.. MACKI.1N. R. 1..- [1977|. Resonant neutron capture in •»5Sc below 100 keV. AIM. J. /'/J.VA., 30 (5. 6) :605-6I5. ('Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) LANG. D. W.. COOK, J. I.. |1978|. Phase equivalent potentials in reaction metric theon. AIM. J. I'livx.. 3 I (2) :215-2 IS. LEVY. J. H.. VVAUGH. A. B. 119771. Polymorphism in nranyl chelate complexes Part I. Differential scanning calorimelry. infrared spectra and X-ray patterns of his-( I. I. 1. 5. 5. 5.-hexafluoropenlane-2. 4-dionato) dioxo (trimethyl phosphate)-uraniuni( VI). ./. Client. Soc. (London). Ditltun Tran\., No, 17/1977:1628-1629. LEVY. .1. H.. TAYLOR. .1. C.. WILSON. P. W. ]1977|. 'I he structures of fluoiides XVII. Neutron diffraction study of n-uraniiim oxide letrafluoride. J. I nor a. A'nc/. Client., 39:1989-1991. LEVY, .1. H., TAYLOR. .1. C.. WILSON. P. W. |I978|. The crystal structure of uranium penlabromiile by powder neutron diffraction. J. liiorx. Nncl. Client. (In press.) LOWSON. R. T. 11977]. Electrochemical mechanism for the room temperature inhibition of corrosion of steel by hydra/.ine. lir. Corros. J., 12 (3 ): 175-179. LOWSON. R. T. [I978|. Aluminium corrosion studies. IV. Pitlinu coiriKion. AIM. J. Clii'in., 31 ( 15) :943-956. McASKILL, N. A.. SANGSTER. D. I-. 11977]. Ultraviolet absorption spectra of the hen/yl radical formed during pulse ladiolysis. Anst. J. Client., 30 ( 10) :2107-21 13. McLAREN. K. G. 11978]. The potential for using dichroniate solutions to measure low radiation ilixcs. Int. J. /![>/>!. R/'/• Kiiilint. /.»'/., 29:151-157. ('Univ. of NSW.) MUSGROVE. A. R. de L.. HARVEY. ,1. A.*. GOOD. W. M.* [1977|. Neutron resonance parameters of W'Zr below 300 kcV. An\t. J. I'liyx.. 30 (4):379-389. (::'Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) MUSGROVE. A. R. lie L.. BOLDEMAN, .1. W.. ALLEN. ». .1.. HARVEY. .1. A.*. MACK1.1N, R. L.':' |1977]. Hiuh resolution neutron transmission and capture for y|/.r. Anst. J. l'lt\\., 30 (4) :391-4()0. l^'Oak Ridue National Laboratory.) MUSGROVE. A. R. de I... ALLEN, li. .1.. MACKLIN, R. I..* 11977]. Resonant neution ciintu-e in '-wLa. AIM. J. I'livx.. 30 (5, 6):599-604. (-Oak Ridtic National Laboratory.) MUSGROVE. A. R. dc 1... ALLEN. B. .1.. MACKLIN. R. L.'~|1978|. Neutron-capture resonance parameters and cross sections for the even-A isotopes of cadmium. J. l'liv.\. Ci. (London). Nncl. /'/I.VA, 4(5):77l-789. ('"Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) NICHOLSON. F. D. (1978). A model of llic mass transfer of corrosion products in hi»li temperature, hiah pressure water circuits. Corrosion J., 34 (4): 125-133. O'DONNELL. T.*. WAUGH. A. B.. RANDALL. C. 11977]. Reactivity of transition metal fluorides — IX. Protactinium pentafluoride and tetrafluoride. J. Inori;. Nncl. Client., 39 (9): 1597-1600. (-''Univ. of Melbourne.) 156 PAKALNS, I'., BATLEY, G. !£., CAMERON, A. .1.* 11978]. "I he effect of surfactants on the concentration of heavy metals from natural waters on Chelex-100 resin. Anul. Chiin. Acta.. 99(2) =333-342. ("NSW Inst. of Technology.) PORR1TT, R. E. J.. PORRITT, P. M.* (I977J. "I he determination of some rare-earth elements in rocks hy neutron activation analysis. Radiocliein. Riuliiiiiiml. Lett., 31 (-4. 5) =265-276. (*CS1RO, Minerals Research Laboratories.) PRICE, G. H. [1978]. Inhihilion by occluded nitrate of .self-reduction in ammonium nitrate. J. liiors. Niicl. Client. (In press.) QUICKENDEN. T. 1.*, IKVlN. .1. A.*, SANGSTEK. D. F. |1978|. Time resolved emission from OK(c2 S') produced by the pulse radiolysis of water vapor. J. Client. l'ln:\. (In press.) (*Univ. of Western Australia.) RICHARDSON, D. J. L1978J. The history and development ol computing at the AAEC. A t. Enerxy A list.. 21 (2): 24-2S. ROMBERG. T. M. [1978). Comments on system identification from multiple input/output data. J. Sound \'in.. 57 (3 ) :468-469. ROMBERG, T. M. [1978|. An algorithm for the multivariale spectral analysis of linear systems. J. Sound \'ih. (In press.! ROMBERG. T. M.. HARRIS. R. \V. |1978|. A note on the spectral identification of systems with inherent transport delays. Monitor (Inst. Radio Electron. Eng. Aiist. Proc.). (In press.) ROYS'lON. D.. RING. R. .1. |I977|. The production of fluorine. At. Knew AIM.. 20 (31:14-19. SIMPSON. R. D. ]I977|. The reproduction of some littoral molluscs from Macquarie Island (Suh-Antarctic). Mar. llial.. 44:125-142. STEVENS. G. T.. HATI-IER1.Y. M.*. BOWLES. .1. S. [19771. The ordered phase fields of the iron-nickel-platinum equilibrium diagram. J. Nncl. Maier. (In press.) ("Univ. of NSW.) STUART. W. I.. ADAMS. R. B.. SMITH. H. E. |I97S|. Solubility and hemoluic activity of uranium trioxide. Environ. Rex. (In press.) THACKRAY. M. A." |1978|. Uniform sources of ionising radiation of extended area from radiotoned photographic film. Int. J. Appl. Radial. /«»/.. 29:120-123. (!On attachment to Stanford Res. Inst.. USA.) THACKKAY. M. A.* |I978|. Intaglio imaging with nuclear particles. J. Appl. I'lioto.ur. Una (In press.) C:'On allachmenl lo Stanford Res. Insl.. USA.) THACKKAY. M. A.* |197S|. Photographic nucleonics: a record of many lost opportunities in the history of science. Appl. Opl.. 17 (11): 1683-1686. ("On attachment lo Stanford Res. Inst.. USA.) WATSON. G. M. 11977|. Ha/ards of plutonium and fuel processing. New Doctor. 7:41-48. \\THTTLESTONE. S. |I977|. Neutron distrihutions from the deuteron bombardment of a thick beryllium target. ./. /'/i.v.s. /). (London). Appl. /'/m.. 10:1715-1723. WILLS. P. A. [I977|. Stimulation of seeds by low doses of radialion. AIIM. Seed Science Newsletter. 3:1720. WOOLEREY. .1. L. |I97S|. The preparation of UO.. powder: Effect of ammonium uranate properties. J. Nncl. Muter., 74 (I): 123-13 I.

CONFERENCE PAPERS

AIREY. P. L.. CALK. G. E.. CAMPBELL. B. 1... HABEKMEHL. M. A.'-. I-IAR'I LEY. I-. E., ROMAN. D. |I978|. Aspects of the isotope hydrology of the Great Artesian Basin. Proc. IAEA Symp. on isotope Hydrology. Neuherberg. Germany. 19-23 June. (^Bureau of Mineral Resources.) ALLEN. B. .L. MUSGROVI-. A. R. de L. 11977]. S-wave resonance parameters in the structural materials. Paper presented at Specialists Meeting on Neulron Data for the Structural Materials for R\:i Reactors. Gcel. Beluium. 5-8 December. ALLEN. B. J.. MUSGROVE. A. i<. de L.. MACKL1N. R. L.*. WINTERS. R. R.** 11977]. Neutron sensitivity of capture gamma-ray detectors. Paper presented at Specialists Meet- ing on Neutron Data for the Structural Materials for East Reactors. Geel. Belgium. 5-8 December. C:'Oak Kidue National Laboratory. """Denison Univ.. Granville. Oliio.) ALLEN. H. J.. MUSGROVE.'A. R. de L.. TAYLOR. R.*, MACKL1N. R. I..** 11977]. Neutron capture cross section of 57Fc. Paper presented at Specialists Meeting on Neulron Data for the Structural Materials for Fast Reactors. Geel. Belgium. 5-8 December. (-"James Cook Univ.. Townsville. **Oak Ridge National Laboratory.) BATLEY. G. C. |I978|. Australia's uranium resources. Paper presented at a National Seminar. Australia's Mineral Energy Resources Assessment and Potential. Univ. of Sydney. 22-23 May. BENTLEY. K. W.. WYATT. J. H.. WALL. T. [I978|. Fission track analysis of plulom'um and thorium in biological tissues. Proc. 3rd Ann. Conf.. of the Aust. Radiation Pro- lection Soc.. Univ. of Sydney, 24-26 May. 157 BOYD. R. E., MATTHEWS, R. VV. [1977J. Performance aspects of WMo/Wnrfc generators. Proc. Atist. and N.Z. Soc. of Nuclear Medicine Seminar on Radiopharmaceuticals, Can- berra, 11-12 November. BOYD, R. E. 11978J. AAEC policy on radiopharmaceutical production. Paper presented at Joint Aust./French Health Care Conf., Sydney, 12-14 April. BROWN, K., HARRIS, R., WOOD, B. [1977J. The evaluation of mechanical integrity using vibration signature analysis and acoustic emission. Paper presented at CHEMECA 77, 5th Aust. Conf. on Chem. Eng., Canberra, 14-16 September. BULL, P. S., EVANS, .1. V., WECHSLER, R. M., CLELAND, K. J.* I1977J. Treatment of leachate from a sanitary landfill. Proc. 7th Fed. Cpnv. of Aust. Water and Waste Water Assoc., Canberra, 20-24 September. (^Metropolitan Waste Disposal Authority.) CAMPBELL, B. L.. BIRD, J. R. [1978). Recent developments in prompt nuclear analysis. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis. Sydney 15-17 May. CARTER, M. W. [1978]. Radiation is good for you? Proc.'3rd Anr. Conf. of the Aust. Radiation Protection Soc., Univ. of Sydney, 24-26 May. CARTER, M. W., WILLIAMSON. K. J., WOODS. D. A. [1978j. Tests on a disposable overall. Proc. 3rd Ann. Conf. of the Aust. Radiation Protection Soc., Univ. of Sydney, 24-26 May. CLAPP. R. A.*, SCOTT, M. D., BIRD, J. R. [1978]. A systematic investigation of solar collector chrome black surfaces. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis. Sydney. 15-17 May. (*NSW Inst. of Technology.) CLAYTON, E., DUERDEN. P., COHEN. D.* [1978]. Theoretical interpretation of PIXE spectra. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis, Sydney. 15-17 May. (*AINSE.) CLOUSTON. J. G.. WILLS. P. A. [19771. Bacterial spores — a ihermodynamic approach. Paper presented at US/Aust. Workshop Seminar on Basic Resistance Mechanisms of Bacterial Spores. Univ. of Wisconsin. 10-14 October. COHEN, D.*, CLAYTON. E., DUERDEN, P. [19781. The proton induced X-ray emission technique for ore analysis. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis. Sydney, 15-17 May. (*AINSE.) COX, G. W.. TOBIAS. .1. M. [1978]. An implementation of Pascal for international business machines, or the impossible takes a little longer. Proc. Aust. Universities Computer Science Seminar (p. 296). Univ. of NSW. 23-24 February. CRANCHER, D. W. [1977J. Problems faced by host nations in accepting visits by nuclear powered merchant ships. Proc. OECD-NEA/IAEA Symp. Safety of Nuclear Ships. Hamburg, 5-9 December. CRAZE, D. J. [1977|. An exact low-enrichment separation theory for the counter-current gas centrifuge. Proc. 6th Aust. Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics Conf.. Adelaide. 5-9 December. CRAZE, D. J. [19771. On the near wak'e behind a circular disc. Proc. 6th Aust. Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics Conf., Adelaide, 5-9 December. DAVY. D. R. [1978|. Uranium — overview of the Alligator Rivers area. Northern Territory. Australia. Paper presented at CSIRO Workshop on Management of Lands Affected by Mining, Kalgoorlie. 28 May-4 June. DUERDEN, P., CLAYTON, E.. COHEN, D.* [19781. The use of PIXE in the characterisation of thick obsidian samples. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis, Sydney, 15-17 May. (*AINSE.) EBERHARDT, J. E. [I978|. Stable output in pulsed ultraviolet preionised carbon dioxide TE lasers. Proc. 1st Aust. Nat. Laser Conf., Canberra. 20-23 March. FARDY, J. J. [19781. Recent applications of neutron activation analysis at Lucas Heights. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis, Syd'icy, 15-17 May. FARR1NGTON. K. J.. BARNES. R. K.. MELLER, H.. BLAGOJEVIC. N. [1977]. An overview of the quality control on tcchnctium-labelled radiopliannaceiiticals. Proc. Aust. and N.Z. Soc. of Nuclear Medicine Seminar on Radiopharmaceuticals, Canberra, 11-12 November. FOY. J. J. [1978|. Purification of radioactive waste water by reverse osmosis. Proc. 3rd Aust. Conf. on Science Technology. Canberra, 18 May. ORE1. NT, W. J. [1977]. Effect of removal of a central thimble on coolant flow distribution in a research reactor fuel element. Proc. 6th Aust. Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics Conf., Adelaide, 5-9 December. HARRIS, R. W. [1977J. Vibration signature analysis to monitor pump integrity. Paper presented at CHEMECA 77, 5th Aust. Conf. on Chemical Eng., Canberra, 14-16 September. HESPE, E. D. [1978]. The management of radioactive wastes — a general view. Proc. Aust. Water and Waste Water Assoc. Summer School, Hobart, 6-10 February. HESPE, E. D. [1978]. Setting of water quality criteria — a nuclear industry rationale. Proc. Aust. Water and Waste Water Assoc. Summer School, Hobart, 6-10 February. HEMPHILL, R. J. [1978]. Density changes resulting from heat treatment, of maraging steels. Proc. 3rd Aust. Conf. on Science Technology, Canberra, 18 May. 158 HOLT, D. J. [1977J. Electrolyte hydrogen for power system load balancing. Proc. l.E.Aust. Electric Energy Conf., Sydney, 28-30 September. Publ. 4/77. HOOPER, J. D. [I977J. A comparison of developed single, phase turbulent flow in two and three dimensions. Proc. 6th Aust. Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics Conf. (pp. 537- 540), Adelaide, 5-9 December. HURST, H. J., WH1TTEM, R. N. [1978J. A minicomputer-controlled Hansch dye laser spcctrophotometric system. Proc. 1st Aust. Nat. Laser Conf., Canberra, 20-23 March. JOSTSONS, A., KELLY, P. M., BLAKE, R. G., WARREN, R. U., NAPIER, J. G. [1978J. High temperature decomposition products of chrysotile asbestos — an EM and micro- dift'raction study. Paper presented at 5th Aiist. Conf. on Electron Microscopy, Univ. of Adelaide, 20-24 February. KEAYES, G. C., BO YD, R. E., BROUGH, J. [1977J. A model for toxicity testing of radiopharmaceuticals. Proc. Aust. and N.Z. Soc. of Nuclear Medicine Seminar on Radio- pharrnuceuticuls, Canberra, 11-12 November. KEAYES, G. C., BOYD, R. E., BROUGH, J. [I978J. A model for toxicity testing of radiopharmaceuticals. Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Radiopharmacology, Innsbruck. Austria, 21-24 May. KELLY, J. W. L1978J. A tunable high resolution CW laser system. Proc. 1st Aust. Nat. Laser Conf., Canberra, 20-23 March. KELLY, I'. M., JOSTSONS, A., BLAKE, R. G. [1978J. Micro-diffraction and spot size in STEM. Paper presented at 5th Anst. Conf. on Electron Microscopy, Univ. of Adelaide, 20-24 February. KING, B. V.*, KELLY, J. C.*, BIRD, J. R. [1978|. Particle beam methods for protein analysis in wheat. Proc. 2nd A1NSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis, Sydney, 15-17 May. (."Univ. of NSW.) LEVINS, D. M.. RYAN, R. K., STRONG, K. P., ALFREDSON. P. G. 11977]. Improving pollution control in uranium mining and milling. Paper presented at CHEMECA 77. 5th Aust. Conf. on Chem. Eng., Canberra, 14-16 September. McCULLOCH. D. B. |I978|. Australian research reactor studies. Paper presented at JAEA Advisory Group Meeting on Research Reactor Renewal and Upgradirm Program, Vienna, 23-26 May. McGREGOR," B., EISLER, P.* H978J. The effect of the bore hole itself on bore hole logging measurements. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis, Sydney, 15-17 May. ("CSIRO, Division of Mineral Physics. Melbourne.) McGREGOR, B. J., DICKSON, B. L.*, CLARK, G. J.* [1978]. Technique for correcting for overburden effects in ground level surveys of uranium orebodies. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis, Sydney, 15-17 May. (*CSIRO, Division of Mineral Physics. North Ryde.) MADDALENA. D. J.. POTTER. R.. FARR1NGTON. K. J. 11977]. Routine biological testing of AAEC radiopharmaceuticals. Proc. Aust. and N.Z. Soc. of Nuclear Medicine Seminar on Radiopharmaceuiicals, Canberra. 11-12 November. MADDALENA. D. J.. MARSH. C. A.*. BOYD. R. E. |1978]. Caesium transport studies in Ihe mammalian thyroid gland using a steady state model. Proc. Aust. Biochem. Soc., 11:103. (*NSW Inst. of Technology.) MARSHALL, J., HOLLAND. P. G. 11977]. Blowdown into full-pressure containment. Proc. Conf. on Heat and Fluid Flow in Water Reactor Safety. Univ. of Manchester, 13-15 September. MAY. F. G. [1978]. Ventilation in Ihe laboratory. Proc. 3rd Ann. Conf. of the Aust. Radiation Protection Soc., Univ. of Sydney. 24-26 May. POLLOCK, J. T. A., BARTON, S. G., KELLY, P. M. [1977]. Long term mechanical properties of strong materials at ambient temperatures. Proc. 5th N.Z. Science of Materials Conf., Wellington, 10-14 December. PORRITT, P. M.*, PORRITT. R. G. J. JI978]. Neutron activation analysis as a tracer technique for evaluating sample dissolution methods. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis. Sydney, 15-17 May. p. 125-128. (*CS1RO Division of Mineralogy. North Ryde.) PRYOR. A. W. [1978|. The feasibility of laser enrichment of uranium. Proc. 1st Aust. Nat. Laser Conf., Canberra, 20-23 March. RING, R. J., RAPISARDA, A.* [1977]. Leaching of uranium ores with hydrochloric acid. Paper presented at Extractive Metallurgy Symp., Sydney, 7-9 November. (*Vac. Student, Univ. of NSW.) RITCHIE, A. I. M. [1978]. Impact on the environment of the mining operation at Rum Jungle, Northern Territory. Proc. 3rd Ann. Conf. of the Aust. Radiation Protection Soc., Univ. of Sydney, 24-26 May. SANGSTER, D. F. [1977]. The use of large radiation sources. Paper presented at ANZAAS Conf.. Univ. of Melbourne, 29 August-2 September. SAUNDERS, M. T.. FARRINGTON, K. J. [1977]. Microbiological quality control. Proc. Aust. and N.Z. Soc. of Nuclear Medicine Seminar on Radiopharmaceuticals, Canberra. 11-12 November. 159 SCOTT, M. D.. RUSSELL, L. H.. DUERDEN, I'., COHEN. D.*. CLAYTON, E.. BIRD, J. K. |I978]. Studies of artel acts using ion beam techniques. Proc. 2nd AlNSIf Conl. on Nuclear Techniques oC Analysis, Sydney, 15-17 May. (."AINSE.) SCOTT, M. D., RUSSELL, L. H. [~I978|. Magnetic separation as an adjunct to surface barrier detectors for back-scattering and ion reaction analysis methods. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of'Analysis, Sydney, 15-17 May. (*AINSE.) SORBY, P. J., BOYD, R. E. [1977]. Production of approved rudiopharniaceuticals and development of new radiopharmaceuticals. Proc. Aust. and N.X. Soc. of Nuclear Medicine Seminar on Radiopharmaccuticais, Canberra. 11-12 November. WALL, T. LI978J. Delayed neutron analysis service work and applications. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis, Sydney, 15-17 May. WATT, J. S. [1978). Radioisolope XRF analysis in industrial process control: Australian applications and economic aspects. Proc. "IAEA Advisory Group Meeting on Practical Aspects of Energy and Dispersive X-ray Emission Speclrometry. Vienna. 29 May-2 June. WHATHAM. J. F. 11977]. The use of finite element code SAP-4 to analyse the stresses produced in curved pipes by pure in-plane bending. Proc. 2nd SAP Users Conf. and Workshop. Univ. of Southern California. Los Alamos. 23-24 June. W1LKINS. R. W. T.*. BIRD. .1. R.. SCO'IT. M. D. |1978|. Decoration of growth and deformation dislocations in fluorite — a new application of proton irradiation. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis. Sydney. 15-17 May. (SCSIRO.) W1LLAI. S. T.*. WALL. T. [1978]. Neutron radiography of plant root isrowlh. Proc. 2nd AINSE Conf. on Nuclear Techniques of Analysis ('p. 162-164). Sydney. 15-17 May. ('-La 'Probe Univ.) W1LLAT. S. T.'% WALL. T.. G1LLESPIE. P. |I978]. Neutron radiography of plant root growth. Proc. 3rd AIIM. C'unf. on .Science Technology. Canberra. Is May. Is'La Trobe Univ.) WILLS. P. A. |I977|. Searchini; for radiation resistant microorganisms. Paper presented at 6th AINSE Radiation Biology Conf.. Sydney. 7-8 November.' WILLS. P. A. |I978|. Microbiological aspects of radiation sterilisation of phatmaceiilicals and related products. I. Precision of II. S/I/KHT/CM C.A spot us as a biological dosi- meler. Search for radiation resistant mutants in an industrial sterilisation plant. Paper presented at IAEA Coordinated Program of Research on Radiation Sterilisation Practices Significant to Local Medicine Supplies and Conditions for Asia and the Pacific Region. Jakarta. 3-7 April. WILLS, P. A. 11978], Practice of radiation sterilisation in Australia. Paper presented at IAEA Advisory Group Meeting on Radiation Sterilisation. Seoul. Korea. 17-21 April. WILLS. P. A. 11978]. Regulatory viewpoint — Australia. Proc. Conf. on Sterilisation of Medical Products by Ionising Radiation. Vol. II, eds. I:. R. L. Gaughran and A. J. Goudie. Multiscience. Montreal. Canada, pp. 349-381. WOOD. B. R. A.. HARRIS. R. W.. BROWN. K. R. |I978|. Acoustic emission as a non- destructive testing tool. Proc. ANZAAS Conf. on Science Technology. Canberra. 18 May.

AAEC/E SERIES

BIRD. .1. R.. CAMPBELL. B. L.. CAWLEY, R. J. 11978]. Prompt nuclear analysis bibli- ography 1976. AAEC/E443. BROWN. K.. HARRIS, R.. WOOD. B. |1978]. Acoustic emission monitoring of a steam receiver pressurised to failure. AAEC/E447. HROWNSCOMBE. A., DAVY. D. R.. GILES, M. S.. WILLIAMS. A. R. |I978|. Three baseline studies in the environment of the uranium deposit at Yeelirrie. Western Aus- tralia. AAEC/E442. CAWLEY. R. J., TRIMBLE. G. D. ]1977|. An interactive computing system for the AAEC Dataway network. AAEC/E425. CAWLEY. R. J.. BIRD. .1. R. |1978|. B1BL1O — a bibliographic index system. AAEC/ E449. CLANCY. 15. E.. COOK. J. L.. ROSE. E. K. 11978]. The effect of missing levels on Un- observed channels open in neutron fission. AAI-C/E444. CONNOLLY, J. W.. FERGUSON. H. 11978). An analysis of self-terminating power transients in the reactor HI FAR. AAEC/E435. DAVIDSON. M. R. ]1978|. A theoretical study of mass transfer between tissue and blood at the apex of a branched blood vessel. AAEC/E438. ELLIS, P. .1. (1977]. SMUT — serial multiple-user terminals system. AAEC/E433. FARDY. J. J., SYLVA. R. N. |1978|. SIAS. a computer program for the generalised calculation of spcciation in mixed metal-ligand aqueous systems. AAEC/E445. GIBSON. D. K.. PETERSEN. M. C. E. |1978|. An apparatus for measuring the energy and angular distribution of electrons ejected in ion-atom collisions. AAEC/E448. 160 HARRIES. .1. R.. WILSON. D. .1. [1978). Measurement of the dynamic response of the materials testing reactor HIFAR. AAEC/E428. HARRIS. R., BROWN, K. R., WOOD. B. R. A. 11978). Acoustic emission monitoring of a steel bifurcate at Dartmouth Dam. AAEC/E441. KHOE. G. 11978). Effluent management practices at the AAEC Research Establishment. AAEC/E439. LANG. D. W. 11977). Reactor calculations and nuclear information. AAEC/E426. McGREGOR. B. |1978). Monte Carlo calculations of time-dependent neptuniuni-237 and uranium-235 fission rates in a pulsed thorium assembly. AAEC/E432. POLLARD. J. P. [I978|. SKAN — a free input labelled output variable dimensioning routine for the IBM360 computer. AAEC/E43I. RAINBOW. M. T.. RITCHIE. A. I. M.. SULLIVAN. L." 11977). The calculation of angular neutron spectra from the thick target Li(p, n) source. AAEC/E424. (*Royal Prince Alfred Hospital. Sydney.) RITCHIE, A. 1. M. 11977]". Heap leaching: a gas diffusion rale-limited model. AAEC/E429. RITCHIE. A. I. M. |I977|. Flow and diffusion of a two-species uas mixture in a porous slab. AAEC/E430. ROliSON. J., SORBY. P. J. 11978). The synthesis of 4-'-'C-pyridiiie-2. 6-dicarho.\ylic acid. AAEC/E440. TAYLOR, J. C. (19781. A general IHM360 computer program for determining the multi- plicities of crystal forms, to he used in conjunction with the Rietveld powder profile refinement program. AAEC/E436. TRIM'.M.E. G. D. |1978|. XYPLOT — a subroutine package for the computer generation of planar graphs. AAEC/E437. (In press.)

AAEC/M SERIES CAW1.EY. R. .1. [1978). A PDPI5 assembler which runs on an IBM360 computer. AAEC/ M94. (In press.) CHURCH. V. E. 119781. The AAEC Type 500 digital ralemeter/scaler. AAEC/M93. (In press.) WATT, G. C. 119781. The AAEC Type 493 temperature preamplifier. AAEC/M91. (In press.)

AAEC/S SERIES NEWTON. P. .1. 1-. (Editor) 11977). Down but never 0111 — the mathematics and com- putation of exponentials arising in the fields of physics, chemistry, biology, ... A collection of papers presented at the AAEC Summer School (3rd round). AAEC/S 19.

AAEC/UB SERIES SCHWABE. M.. HAYLEN. M. |I977|. Report on exploration of MR 548 — portion of the Daly River Basin, near Katherine. 1976 field season. AAEC/UB8. SWINGLI-R, N. 1I977). Report on exploration in an area adjoining the area under application for a special mineral lease covering the Jabiluka Uranium Deposits. N.T. AAEC/UB 9. SW1NGLEK. N. (19771. Report on 1976 (ield operations in an area 10 km north of the Jabiluka Uranium Deposits. N.T. AAEC/UBIO.

161 Appendix M —AAEC Patent Applications

The following patent applications under the headings "Australia — Provisional" and "Australia and Overseas — Complete" were lodged during 1977-78.

AUSTRALIA—PROVISIONAL R. E. BOYD, R. W. MATTHEWS. Technetiuni generators — improvements to performance. PD 2113, dated 19 October 1977. B. D. SOWERBY. Combination neutron and gamma-ray method of elemental analysis. M. THACKRAY. Use of luminous images on photographic image enhancement. T. J. MAGEE, R. R. PETTIJOHN, S. A. STEWART and M. THACKRAY. Method of controlled surface texturisation of crystalline semiconductor material. US Pat. Appln. Ser. No. 852786, dated 18 November 1977.

AUSTRALIA AND OVERSEAS—COMPLETE J. S. WAIT, V. L. GRAVIT1S. Analysis of coal. USSR Divisional 2 558 153/25. dated 6 January 1978. K. G. McLAREN. Improvements in the treatment of wool textiles. Australia 32505/1978, dated 17 January 1978. Japan 11387/1978, dated 3 February 1978. USA 870,299, dated 18 January 1978.

PATENT APPLICATIONS ALLOWED TO LAPSE

J. ROBSON. Process for the production of Tc99m from neutron irradiated molybdenum trioxide. Japan 85901/72.

LETTERS PATENT GRANTED W. T. SPRAGG. Improvements in .md relating to termite control. South Africa 76/4479, dated 3 November 1977.

162