THE INTERNATIONAL SUGAR JOURNAL

Vol. XLVI. NOVEMBER, 1944 No. 551

Notes and Comments.

The Western Front. without a struggle, which is so much nearer the scene The epic of Arnhem—which Mr. Ch u r c h il l of military operations, remains useless till the channel described as “ a glorious and fruitful operation which approaching it through Dutch territory is cleared of will take a lasting place in our military annals ”—oc­ German fortifications. This last task has been pro­ curred too late for comment here last month. In ceeding for some weeks now, but seems surprisingly the interval it has been possible to assess its real protracted having regard^to the urgentjieed for this value in a larger operation which was as a whole a additional harbour. Similar considerations of supply decided success. Just previous to the attempt the limitation enforced a'comparative^lull of some weeks British army was on the borders of Holland astride once the American 1st and 3rd Armies reached the the Escaut Canal with the Siegfried Line still on their German borders. Minor fighting has been continuous right Jlank and, well ahead, the various arms of the but even at Aachen (better known in history as Maas and the Rhine, with their bridges still intact. Aix-la-Chapelle) one suspects that the full force of The British airborne contingent which landed at the allied hammer blow has not been launched and Arnhem attempted to seize the north bank of the awaits the^vast stores of ammunition and equipment most northerly of these rivers. But there were at which any major attempt at break-through entails. least two other airborne contingents (mostly American Meantime, the winter season is rapidly approaching units) which secured the bridge across the Maas at and unless there is a good spell of late Autumn weather Grave and that across the main stream of the Rhine to allow the movement of the heavy armour and enable (the Waal) at Nijmegen. Thereby the armoured us to make use of our supremacy in the air, it is a elements of the British 2nd Army were enabled to moot point whether any more material gains of make a big thrust into Holland and secure the crossings territory can be achieved this side of Christmas. of the two biggest rivers. But beyond Nijmegen they Some further surprises are not precluded, but so ran up against determined opposition and could not much hangs on the weather, which has been per­ reach the third river, the Lek (Lower Rhine), in time sistently hostile to Allied movements, with a few to support the lightly armed air-borne troops at exceptions, ever since D-day. Arnhem. The presence of these last on the Lek, This does not assume that we are necessarily tied however, prevented the Germans from rushing to a war of position during the winter months. A reinforcements south to contest the passage of the slowing down of movement may be inevitable, but a Waal at Nijmegen and thus facilitated our securing waiting game would almost certainly present the the great bridge over that river. The net result of enemy with the opportunity to build up a new these operations was, thus, that we secured all but Siegfried line behind the Rhine and train new armies the last of the main water obstacles to an entry into for deployment when the fine weather returns. It Germany beyond the Siegfrted line and had a deep might also give him just the time he needs to evolve salient into Holland which was subsequently safely further robot instruments of civilian destruction, widened. Success at Arnhem as well would have aimed perhaps at the whole of Britain and not merely enabled us to turn the whole of the Rhine defences at its south-eastern corner. It would also mean that running south, had we been in a position to make the Holland, Denmark and Norway would be fated to movement. But in the light of subsequent events, endure a dour fifth winter under Nazi domination, it seems very doubtful whether our supply position which latter gets worse as the plight of its authors would have allowed us to get much further than the becomes more desperate. Mr. Ch u r c h il l ’s dictum Arnhem bridgehead, as we were still dependent on (to which we refer further on) that the war might last the distant harbours of Cherbourg and the Normandy for some months into next year seems increasingly littoral. The -big harbour of Antwerp, captured almost likely on the face of it, but it is to be hoped that, as

31 November t h e international s u g a r j o u r n a l 1944

events pan out, it will be possible all along to keep the nese hold on the Philippines and facilitate an inter­ German armies fully engaged and the process of island drive to Luzon in the north, where lies Manila attrition uninterrupted, in which case the break­ and the heart of the Japanese resistance in those through when it eventually comes may well be the islands. The local Japanese naval force after claiming final one. The experience of the 1914-18 War is no a great victory which had no foundation is reported sure guide as to what may be possible this winter, as having retreated to safer waters. In the sphere for the modern army is so mechanized and the Ameri­ of the South-East Asia Command under Admiral cans in particular such adepts at mechanical impro- Mountbatten the monsoon season is now over and vization on a big scale, that Generals Mud and Rain further operations in Burma may be looked for. It may not be so paralysing in their operations as they is some indication of the growing importance of this were 30 years ago. front that Air Chief Marshal L e ig h -M a l l o b y , hitherto The Russian Front. in command of the Allied Expeditionary Air Force in Since July went out, the Germans have succeeded Western Europe, has just been transferred to South- temporarily in stabilizing the central Russian front, East Asia with a view, doubtless, to stepping up largely by massing all available guns and armour on British air performance there. the Warsaw section. It became evident to the Mr. Churchill’s War Survey. Russian command that a break-through in this After an interval of some seven weeks following sector could not be safely attempted till the German his record of progress given in the House of Commons forces in the Baltic Provinces threatening the Russian on August 2nd, an interval which covered the long right flank had first been eliminated. This operation vacation of the House, Mr. Ch u r c h il l on September has by now been satisfactorily accomplished with the 28th again surveyed the military position and the capture of Riga and the way into East Prussia political situations which were arising in Europe seems finally open. But the opportune defection of as it was being liberated. He was perhaps more the Balkan States provided the southern Russian cautious this time in prophecy about the end of the armies with an opening of which they have taken European war ; he did say that “ many persons of full advantage. As we write, they have reached the highest technical attainment, knowledge, and Belgrade in Jugoslavia, thus cutting the main route responsibility ” had hopes that it would be over by of retreat of such German forces as remain in the the end of this year ; on the other hand, no one could Balkans ; they have sent otherJ'armies northwest guarantee that it would not last for some months through Rumania into Hungary where Budapest into next year. There is also a possibility, he said, is now threatened (and not far beyond lies Vienna) ; that after organized resistance of the German Army and finally Red armies, well to the south of Warsaw, and State has completely broken down, fierce war­ have penetrated the Carpathian passes into eastern fare may be maintained in the forests and mountains Czechoslovakia and strategically threaten if they of Germany by numbers of desperate men conscious penetrate far enough to turn the German line in of their own guilt and pending doom. It may be central Poland. B oth in H ungary and in the passes the necessary for the Allies to declare at a certain date Russians have been aided by the defection of Hun­ that the actual war against the German State and garian troops and the aid of Czech guerrillas. But Army has come to an end and that a period of mopping further progress by these movements must depend up of bandits and war criminals has begun. For us on supply ; and the main push by S t a l in m ay yet the important decision will be to chose the moment develop instead into Poland and East Prussia. when substantial forces can be w ithdrawn from Europe The Pacific. to intensify the war against Japan. But Mr. Activity by the Americans in the Pacific has come Ch u b c h il l cautioned his hearers against taking loo increasingly into the news of late. Island strong- optimistic a view of the speed at which this great points and coral harbours have been captured one transference can be made from one side of the world by one to serve as bases for the approach to Japan. to the other. Not only will the Allied shipping, vast Formosa has been heavily bombed by super-Fortresses as it is, be a limiting factor, but the development based on Chinese airfields ; Japanese airfields in the of bases, the accumulation of stores and supplies, Philippines have been destroyed by carrier-based and the construction and protection of airfields, U.S. bombers in overwhelming force. These two air all impose restraints on undue optimism. The huge operations accounted within one week for some 900 distances, the tropical conditions and other physical Japanese aircraft destroyed on the ground and in the factors, added to the desperate resistance of the air. The tale of sinkings of Japanese ships, both enemy, make the war against Japan an enterprise naval and mercantile, by bomb and torpedo, is an of the first magnitude. impressive one. Now, as we write, comes the news of Dealing with the various fronts, Mr. Ch u b c h il l the invasion of the Philippines on the large island of said that a very hard task still lies before our army Leyte which lies to the east of the sugar islands of in Italy. The extraordinary defensive strength of the Cebu and Negros. This operation if successful and Gothic line has at length been pierced and on the not protracted by jungle fighting will split the Japa­ eastern flank the 8th Army has now definitely broken 282 NOTES AND COMMENTS

into the basin of the Po, but here we exchange the seedlings possessed the potential capacity to yield barriers of mountain ridges for the perpetual inter­ well under the conditions of northern India but, ruption of the ground by streams and canals. Never­ to realize those potentialities, a higher standard of theless conditions henceforward will be more favour­ agricultural practice required to be worked out end able for the destruction or rout of K e s s e l r in g ’s adopted. For this purpose Cl a r k e was admirably army. Of the Burma campaign, one about which fitted. Born at Sutton Bridge in the Holland Division the most widespread misconceptions have developed of Lincolnshire of agricultural stock, he absorbed in the public mind, he gave the true picture. Under an intimate knowledge of the marsh alluvial soils Admiral M o u n t b a t t e n it had provided the largest bordering the fens and he was at once struck with and most important ground fighting that has yet the similarity between the conditions of his home-land taken place against the armies of Japan and by its and those of the Gangetic Plain. aggressive and successful operation has guarded the Prior to his appointment to the Indian Agricultural pass of the immense American air line to China and Service in 1906, he had held the posts of Demonstrator also protected India against the horrors of a Japanese in the Manchester School of Technology and of Head invasion. The recent monsoon has slowed down of the Department of Agriculture and Chemistry, operations for the time being, but once seasonable the County Laboratories, Chelmsford, Essex, and weather returns a renewal of the Japanese offensive his arrival coincided with the impetus giviii to the may have to be met.1 study of agriculture in India by Lord Cu r z o n and M r. Ch u r c h il l observed that we owe a gcod deal the establishment of a Indian Agricultural Service. to the blunders of the Germans. Like N a p o l e o n , Among his early duties was the planning of the Teach­ H it l e r was temperamentally unable to give up the ing and Research laboratories of the Agricultural tiniest scrap of any territory he had conquered; College, Cawnpore, but his energies were soon directed he has successfully scattered the German armies all to a study of the sugar cane and, in 1912, he started over Europe and, by obstinating at every point from his main work on a newly-acquired station at Shah- Stalingrad to Tunis down to the present moment, jahanpur, in the centre of the northern India s-ugar he has stripped himself of the power to concentrate tract. Of that Station he remained in personal in main strength for the final struggle. He has lost charge for a period of twenty years, during the last more than one million men in France and the Low ten of which he held the post of Director of Agric- Countries, and other armies may well be cut off in culture, the United Provinces, and sat on the Pro­ the Baltic States, in Finland and in Norway. He has vincial Legislative Council as a nominated Member. scattered and squandered a very large army in the The practical results C l a r k e achieved are directly Balkans whose escape will be very difficult, and has traceable to his youthful experience, particularly penned up 27 divisions in fighting General A l e x a n d e r to his familiarity with the intensive system of potato in Italy. This vast frittering away of forces is a prime culture adopted in the Holland Division of Lincoln­ cause in the impending ruin of Germany. shire. From that arose the trench system adopted Turning to the political aspects, Mr. Ch u b c h il l for sugar cane, by means of which he succeeded in observed that the foreign situation had responded raising the average yield to 37 tons of cane and 3-5 to the military events. Never was the alliance of the tons of sugar per acre, thus approximately trebling three Great Powers more close or more effective. the normal yield. But his technical training enabled Divergences of view and interest there must neces­ him to identify the primary deficiency in these soils sarily be, but at no time have they been allowed to as lying in the low humus content and, through a affect in any way the march of events in accordance study of the nitrogen cycle, to evolve a system of with the decisions and agreements of Teheran. He cultivation on the flat, using green manuring to added further on in his speech that “ the future of provide the organic matter. the whole world and certainly the future of Europe, Later, as Head of the Department, he took an perhaps for several generations, depends on the cordial, active lead in introducing the Coimbatore canes and trustful and comprehending association of the British his cultural methods into general practice. In a Empire, the United States and Soviet Russia.” country where practically all cultivation is on a peasant basis this problem is no simple one. His An Indian Pioneer. method was to interest the larger landholders, to It is with regret that we record the death of Mr. encourage them to start home farms and to use these G e o r o e Cl a r k e who will be remembered for his both as demonstration centres and as a source of work on sugar cane in Northern India. In the fullest planting material. The lever used here wa; the sense, his work was complementary to that of Dr. sinking of a tube well, around which the home farm C. A. B a r b e r for, if the latter led the development could be developed on an assured water supply. in the breeding of canes suited to the climate of the On his retirement Cl a r k e took up residence in Gangetic Plains, it was the former who, by his local southern France but was caught in the maelstrom of knowledge combined with a flair for agriculture, the present war and arrived in England after a was responsible for the prompt introduction of the precarious and devious voyage, from the effect of seedlings raised at Coimbatore. The Coimbatore which he never recovered. i Some data as to this campaign are given on page 307. 283 Some Aspects of the Sugar Supply Position. Report of the Agent-General for Queensland in London for the year 1943.

In his Annual Report for 1943, prepared last May, of cane sugar will in any future ‘ set-up ” of inter­ the Agent-General for Queensland in London (Mr. national control, submit to restricted quo as over a L. H . P i k e )_ made the following remarks on Queans- lengthy period within a “ free-market ” structure land’s sugar exp irt achievement and on the relation based upon an arbitrary figure of, say, 3,000,000 tons of of sugar supply to demand in the immediate future. raw sugar as was the case in 1937. In this connexion, “ During the year under review, a contract was it should be stressed that Queensland is posse ?ted of entered into with the United Kingdom Ministry every natural advantage for cane sugar production of Food for the sale of a “ token ” quantity of 100,000 which would entitle the industry to claim for itself tons of sugar, representing the exportable surplus of the highest degree of economic efficiency and agri­ the Australian 1943-44 crop. This quantity was at cultural stability. These factors must be born in the time regarding as additional to the 40,000 tons mind when considering the wide field for expansion remaining unshipped under the previous year’s in European and other consuming markets, due to agreement with the Ministry. Owing to the fact that the general desire to raise the standard of living the 40,000 tons were unshipped by 31st May, in many countries, the decline in production during 1943, f n account of the Ministry’s inability to provide the war period, and the rehabilitation and relief shipping space, an approximate payment of 95 per plans which will require to be implemented on the cent, was made against its eventual shipment. In . liberation of enemy-occupied and other territories. order to avoid deterioration consequent on excessively “ It may also be emphasized that practically the long storage, it was agreed that this tugar should be only buyers of sugar of what used to be called “ free delivered to the Australian refineries, and that an market ” origin are today the United Kingdom and equivalent quantity out of the first shipments of the the United States Governments, and that the ordinary 1943-44 crop be utilized to liquidate the above- pre-war and world-wide system of sale and purchase mentioned advance. Shipments of the 1943 crop are on the open market through private channels has not yet complete, but it is apparent that these will temporarily almost ceased to exist. In so far as not exceed approximately 90,000 tons in all. United Kingdom and United States sugar require­ “ In the matter of price, the new 1943-44 contract ments are concerned, there is the closest collaboration provided for a continuation of the price established between these two Allied countries through certain for shipments on and after 1st January, 1943, namely official bodies, including the Sugar Committee of the 14s. 3d. per cwt. c.i.f. United Kingdom. This price Combined Food Board (with headquarters at Washing­ was subsequently raised by Is. per cwt. in respect of ton) and the Sugar Committee of the London Food shipments made on or after 1st January, 1944, making Council. These authorities are now responsible for in all 15s. 3d. per cwt. considering and receiving estimates of supplies and “ As is generally known, since the outbreak of demands from all interested countries, and of sub­ war, or more precisely, after the United States mitting recommendations to Governments based entered the conflict, the statistical position and move­ thereon, taking cognizance at the same time of all ments of sugar have to a large extent and for reasons relevant information affecting shipping space. of security, been included in the category of “ confi­ “ Although information regarding the statistical dential information ” and consequently details as position of sugar is very incomplete, it m ay be authori­ to the present condition of the industry are restricted tatively stated, without divulging any confidences, more or less to Caribbean and Empire production that for some time past there has been in evidence a figures. There is, of course, much uncertainty as to growing tightness of the supply position, and a situa­ what is happening to the sugar industry in enemy- tion where requirements are disposed to expand at a occupied countries both in Europe and the Far East, greater pace than production. It is doubtless with particularly in its bearing upon the immediate post­ these facts in mind, and in order to assist producers war period. The result is that those authorities to “ plan ahead ” in so far as this is possible under (e.g. the International Sugar Council or its successor) present conditions, that the United Kingdom Ministry which will be charged with the task of organizing and of Food, under the Empire war-time pooling arrange­ regulating world sugar supplies, and of giving some ment, has offered to purchase the exportable sur­ form of stability to the industry after the war by pluses of the Dominions, and an agreed quantity from the elimination of wasteful or uneconomic competition, each of the Colonies, for the three years ending with will find their task of even greater complexity than, the 1946 crop, at a price to be reviewed annually siy in 1937, when the present International Sugar as at present. At the time of writing it is understood Agreement was concluded. that both the Union of South Africa and the various “ It is indeed doubtful whether sugar-growing . sugar-growing colonies have accepted this offer, and countries with natural advantages for the production that Australia has also given a favourable reply.” 284 Some Thoughts on Yield*

Few economic questions are simple and, most from a balanced and synchronized study of agriculture certainly, the economics of crop production is not in all its aspects ; it will result from team work, one of those few. It would not be unfair to say that and concentration on one aspect is likely to result the standard measure of success in improved cul­ in much wasted effort. The division of the sciences tural methods, in the production of new varieties into the different and almost water-tight compart­ and so on is yield. That, however, is a preliminary ments of the various “-ologies ” is not the most step only ; experiments can ehow only the potentiali­ promising basis for the improvement of so complex ties of any proposed change in the standard agri­ a subject as agriculture. cultural practice. There remains the question of Such are the thoughts that arise from consideration whether that change can be made without incurring of the subject of yield in its technical aspect, but additional charges which will more than offset the they are merely of a preliminary nature. Given, as value of the increased yield. The work of the agro­ the result of technical investigation in all the above biologists illustrates the point very clearly. They directions, evidence to suggest that certain modi­ have shown that there is in each plant an inherent fications in agricultural practice, in the widest sense capacity to yield ; that is, a capacity which will not of that phrase, are desirable, the question arises as to be exceeded in the perfect environment when each how these modifications may best be introduced into and every environmental factor affecting plant general farming practice. The nature of this problem growth is optimum. But they also show that each may best be illustrated by a particular instance for successive increment in any particular factor, say which, for concordance’s sake, the same example as amount of nitrogen, produces a smaller effect when above, drawn from India, may be taken. There is measured as yield. The time soon comes, therefore, here no question of an unbalanced technical study when the cost of the added dose exceeds the value of of wheat in northern India with emphasis on breeding : the increase obtained as the result of the application. as much attention has been given to the soil and Another pertinent point arises from a consideration conditions of growth of the wheat plant as to breeding. of the theory of limiting factors. Plant growth, and Yet no appreciable increment of the general yield has with it yield, is limited by that factor which is in resulted. The cause lies, not in the technical work least supply. However many of the factors are present but in failure to apply its teaching to practice. When in optimum amount, if only one is deficient, growth the reason for this failure is sought, it is found to lie and yield will be determined by that factor. It is in the economic organization of the industry. That useless, for instance, to evolve and introduce into organization is on a peasant basis with small holdings general cultivation a new variety of a crop of which varying from 2-5 to 5 acres, with high indebtedness the inherent capacity to yield is greater than that of and an absence of fuel which compels the peasant to the standard crop, without considering the conditions use most of his cattle droppings as a substitute. The of growth. Unless these are simultaneously improved, peasant, or ryot, has not the facilities for intensive no increase will be obtained and the greater inherent cultivation, nor the means to purchase either ferti­ capacity will remain potential. A good example of lizers or the fuel which would liberate organic matter this is to be seen in India. The statistical returns for by which the humus content of the soil could be wheat in northern India show that the average raised. The question of yield, thus, is directly linked yield is still the same as at the beginning of the with the question of the terms under which the land century—as a matter of fact, the average for the is held. It is primarily a question of land tenure, last quinquennium for which returns are available yet—if memory serves aright—land tenure being a is slightly less (by an amount, however, which is revenue subject was specifically excluded from the not statistically significant) than the average for terms of reference of the Royal Commission of Agri­ the first quinquennium of the century. This is the culture which made its investigations shortly after result of forty years of evolution of new varieties the last war. Of the technical services working under by the plant breeder. A succession of new varieties such conditions it might almost be said that, through has been introduced into cultivation and these un­ no fault of their own, parturiunt montes et nascitur doubtedly have a capacity to produce yields much ridiculus mus. What is lacking, in fact, is not know­ higher than the standard wheats earlier grown, but ledge but the means to turn knowledge to practice ; that capacity has remained potential and will only what is wanted in the immediate conditions is, not be realized when the conditions under which they are more knowledge but the application of existing grown are improved. The limiting factor lies in the knowledge. If the division of the “-ologies” each soil. But the soil itself is a complex of different working in a separate water-tight compartment is factors, physical, chemical and biological, improve­ one source of weakness, the sum of the “-ologies,” ment of any one of which may influence yield little technology as a unit, may be equally ineffective as a or not at all, for the limiting factor may lib in one of water-tight department divorced from the economic the other factors involved. Progress will result only conditions attaching to the practice of agriculture. 285 November THE INTERNATIONAL SUGAR JOURNAL 1944

The present writer was, as head of an Agricultural cial lines with its financial limitations to finance pure Department and Member of the Legislative Council research ; that is the work of a University. The of a Province of northern India, compelled to defend practical problem is to draw the line between that his Department against criticism on the grounds research which is properly the function of a University that the demonstration farms did not pay. The and that which so directly affects practice that the defence was easy ; his own farm as a subordinate commercial organization may be justified in incurring member of the service had always paid. But that was the expense of carrying a technical staff as an over­ a mis-directed criticism ; they were made to pay be­ head. There is sufficient evidence in the methods by cause of the financial freedom conferred by their which the answer to this problem has been sought in ownership, a freedom which allowed methods to different countries, to provide a broad conclusion. be adopted which were entirely beyond the capacity In industry, only the largest units have found of the small peasant. It did not follow that the peas­ profit in entering the field of pure research ; the ant, lacking that financial freedom, could adopt the financial risks are too great. The tendency has been, same methods. The influence of this freedom is, therefore, to leave such work to the Universities or perhaps, best seen where the two systems, peasant to Government frequently working through hybrid and plantation, are closely intermingled. Such is the bodies, Research Associations, controlled by Commit­ case in the cane industry of the West Indies, particu­ tees composed of representatives partly of the industry larly Trinidad with its cane farming. Here it is and partly of Government. Experience in England estimated that the difference between plantation and since the last war, when the latter method received peasant yield is 6 tons per acre on plant cane (1933 a great impetus, has failed to provide a solution of figures, 30 tons and 24 tons respectively) and 4 tons the problem, as is evidenced by the present cry for per acre on ratoons (20 tons and 16 tons respectively). a closer association between research and industry. The conclusion to be drawn from such facts is that It would seem that the research worker is a wayward there is available the technical knowledge largely individual, always drifting along the path of incli­ to increase the yield of crops ; the difficulty lies in nation and unwilling to be bound by a limited practi­ the application of that knowledge. The almost cal objective. The failure of these methods appears inevitable conclusion is that agriculture, in as far as to lie in the non-recognition of this waywardness. yield is concerned, must be organized in units suffici­ The worker in pure research is an essential element ently large and of sufficient financial strength to in industrial progress ; it is in the course of his mean- render the application of technical knowledge feasible derings that are brought to light those deeper secrets in practice. As that may appear to be an argument of nature which may be turned to practical account. in favour of the plantation system, it may be as well But his is not the temperament to follow these by­ to issue a caution. It is not necessarily so ; there are paths to their practical conclusion. For this a dif­ examples both of cooperative association of peasant ferent temperament is required and a different training; units providing the necessary financial basis and of a training in technique and a technical knowledge large-scale units (plantations) with the area distri­ which will enable him to grasp the openings presented buted among a host of peasant tenures. Denmark by the newer knowledge. But it is a temperament offers an example of the former, and Fiji and the Sudan which requires a restraint which will counteract the of the latter, and the degree of success depends desire, inherent in all, to follow their inclination, and apparently on the extent to which the spirit of co­ all the evidence points to the conclusion that this partnership is incorporated into the scheme. restraint is best applied by making these “ interpre­ That point, the nature of the financial organi­ ters of research ” responsible to the industry alone. zation, cannot be discussed here ; it has already This thought envisages industry as organized into been briefly considered earlier1. A full study of the units sufficiently large to carry a technical staff various systems adopted would show the importance responsible to, and paid by the industry itself. The of the role of finance in determining organization distinction, too little recognized, lies between the for agricultural production. There remains, however, research worker, following his bent and having an a further point; the nature of the technical advice assured income such as is provided by a University, which the provision of financial facilities would render and the “ interpreter ” paid by his capacity to “ de­ available. The basis of technical advice is research and liver the goods.” research is commonly divided into two ; pure and ap­ The world’s sugar industry is carried on under very plied. The difference between the two is readily de­ divergent conditions in the different areas in which fined ; the former is elusive in its aims and the worker sugar cane is grown and, for many decades, the agri­ moves towards an unknown goal, in the latter, the goal cultural aspect of cane cultivation has been the object is a solution to a specified practical problem. But, if of scientific study of growing intensity. A practical, definition is easy, practical distinction between the if not perfect (for it leaves out cost) measure of the two is difficult for they merge into each other. Rarely success of science in improving cane cultuvation is is it possible for any organization working on commer­ yield and'a comparison of the increases of yield per 1 1933, p. 103.

28R SOME THOUGHTS ON YIELD unit of area obtained under the different conditions war. From the time of the reorganization yields have should offer evidence of the efficiency of the different gradually risen. Returning to the earlier average of ways in which attempts have been made by the re­ 311 quintals per hectare, they now approach, and spective industries to take advantage of scientific have on occasion surpassed 600 quintals. It is knowledge. Unfortunately the records of yield for also on record that the yields obtained by the peasants many of the countries involved are not available or are not less than those obtained on land under direct lack concordance, but there are sufficient to justify cultivation ; a fact which is in strong contrast with a tentative conclusion. The collected data are too the earlier fact, quoted above, for the West Indies. extensive to be given here but attention is at once It would take too long to pursue the analysis attracted to three countries, Java, Hawaii and Fiji; through all the sugar-growing countries ; two only all three are countries in which the industry main­ can be mentioned. In contrast with the above, the tains at its own expense a technical staff to supervise yield in northern India has risen from an average of cultivation. 2600 lb. gur per acre in 1907-08 to 1911-12 to only The facts of the Java industry have recently been 3500 lb. in spite of the substitution of Coimbatore reviewed1; there has been a ten-fold increase of yield canes. India’s increased production results mainly since the start of the industry as an independent from increased acreage. In British Guiana the yield organization in 1870. The increase has been especially of sugar per acre has risen from some 1-8 tons per marked in recent years, yield in quintals sugar per acre around 1902 to over 3 tons. This apparent hectare rising from below 1000 about 1920 to some exception is probably due to the dominance of the 1400 when war broke out. That review gives an sugar industry in the Colony’s economy. idea of the work carried out by the extensive staff of “ interpreters ” employed and paid for by the There is, in the above examples drawn from the industry. Hawaii entered the field much later but sugar industry, presumptive evidence that practical has built up a technical service, responsible to the achievement is best attained when a technical staff industry. Like Java, it maintains a central experi­ is employed by the industry itself. A wealth of evi­ ment station which works in close collaboration with dence could be gathered from without, pointing in the estate staffs. Unlike Java, the estates have perma­ same direction, and one example may be given. nent possession of the land they cultivate. The yield Denmark is a country in which the technical services per hectare, 1909-10 to 1913-14, averaged 930 quintals; are employed by the industry, in England these in only one year before 1923/24 did it exceed 1000 services are official. In the former, the quinquennial quintals and, from that date it has consistently averages for barley have steadily risen from 13-77 risen to reach some 1,600 quintals. cwt. per acre in 1893 to ’97 to 23-5 cwt. in 1933 to ’37; in the latter, starting from 14-3 cwt., they remained The conditions in Fiji are very different. The fairly constant—actually dropping slightly—till 1918 average yield per hectare (1909-10 to 1913-14) was to ’22 and only rose to 16-7 cwt. in 1933 to ’37. In 311 quintals but dropped heavily between 1918 and Ireland, where the brewing interests take an active 1921. The reason is not in doubt; it was the labour interest in the technical development of the crop, troubles following the cutting off of the indentured there has been a fairly steady rise from 16-7 cwt. to labour supply from India. Up to that time, the 20-3 cwt. over the same period. industry was run on typical plantation lines and had gradually passed under the monopolistic control of Realization of high yields, thus, is dependent on the Colonial Sugar Refining Company. Drastic many factors, some of which are economic ; and not steps had to be taken and, fortunately, the Company the least of these latter are the employment of the was controlled by courageous men. By stages the technical staff by, and its responsibility to the estates were cut up into peasant holdings which were industry. That implies an industry organized in large leased to the freed indentured labour which was un­ units and this is generally opposed on social grounds, willing to work for a wage. A technical staff was for it is commonly visualized as a plantation run on employed to supervise and help the tenantry. In paid labour. Fiji provides the answer to that ob­ addition to supervising the cultivation, the staff jection ; full development of agricultural wealth and organizes cooperative harvesting by groups of tenants social progress are compatible. The key lies in the and supervises the loans given for purchasing imple­ organization which recognized the psychological ments and cattle and for the erection of housing. The distinction between research workers and “ interpre­ ters of research.” Provision for research proper is best tenant grows a portion of his holding in cane and is free to grow other crops on the remainder for his own made by Universities and the necessary liaison effected by provision of facilities for research workers by use. The scheme, originally tentative, has proved so successful that only a small area for experimental which they will at intervals be able to conduct this purposes is now under direct cultivation by the more fundamental work at the local stations. Company. That was the position on the outbreak of H.M.L. 1 I.S.J., 1944, p. 61. 287 Sugar Cane Cultivation in India.

India is a large country with a very varied climate In the above experiment sulphate of ammonia and very diverse soils, the common feature being the was applied at the rate of 0-8 per cent. N on the trash monsoon. Methods of cultivation, consequently, dry weight. The experiment was repeated the follow­ show wide differences. Methods appropriate in one ing year using 0-5 per cent. N on the dry weight. This tract, and conclusions drawn from experiments in was a season of adequate moisture and decomposition one tract will not necessarily be applicable to another. of the trash was completed by the November ploughing. This difference is brought out by two papers read at The harvest results were confirmatory ; the decompo­ the 12th Convention of the Sugar Cane Technologists’ sition of trash requires a greater supply of assimilable Association of India. nitrogen than is available at the important growth The first paper, by R. D. R e g e and P. V. W a g l e season in these soils. describes the methods for handling trash in the The cash benefit of this procedure over composting Deccan Canal Tract. It is a tract in which the power is appeciable. The cost of the sulphate of ammonia to irrigate ensures the supply of some 130-150 inches is some Rs. 3 and of labour in placing the trash in of water to the crop and the value of bulky manure furrows Rs. 1-8-0,atotal of Rs. 4-8-0 against Rs. 118-0 is fully recognized. Concurrently, the higher fibred for manufactured compost. canes now grown have done away with the need for The second paper comes from northern India and is burning trash in the furnaces. There is, thus, some by H. S. Ch a t u b v e d i, G . N. G u p t a and H. K. P. 5 to 6 tons of trash available per acre and the ques­ V a b m a . Earlier1 a “ hot fermentation ” process had tion arises as to how this may be most profitably been devised to convert wastes at the factory into used. The method first adopted was to convert this compost. These wastes consist of filter-press cake, trash to compost, yielding approximately four tons bagasse, molasses and a certain amount of trash from per acre in 4 to 5-5 months. The cost is Rs. 1-1-6 the carts, while cattle droppings are also available. per ton (farmyard manure Rs. 2 to Rs. 2 -8-0 per cart These were composted after the cake had been dried of 1500 to 1800 lb. when obtainable) and has proved and the trash sliced. The cost of these two processes fully comparable with farmyard manure. But the is considerable and the experiments now described main difficulty is the cost of collecting, carting and were designed to see if they could be dispensed with. composting. Much of the trash is, consequently, A series of pits were, therefore, filled with (1) cake still burnt. Preliminary trials with the ploughing in of dried and trash sliced, (2) cake dried and trash entire, trash, sprinkled with sulphate of ammonia, in June, both being in the proportion of cake 3 to trash 1, with planting in the following January, gave promising (3) as (2) but in proportions cake 6 to trash 1, (4) cake results and led to further more extensive experiments. wet and trash sliced and (5) cake wet trash entire. In these a comparison was made between (1) Molasses and a thin slurry of cow dung were mixed in compost alone, (2) trash alone, (3) trash plus sulphate at 2 per cent, of heap weight. of ammonia, (4) sunn sown mid-June and ploughed The heaps, which were not turned throughout, in in August and (5) sunn plus trash, this last being attained a temperature of 69-70°C on the third day, included to slow down the process of nitrification falling to 50°C. by the 8th day when they wore and thus to check leaching of nitrates. Trash was covered with mud paste. Completion of the process ploughed in in June but owing to deficient rainfall, was assumed when a crumbled, powdery mat erial was was not fully decomposed by the second ploughing obtained and the trash wholly decomposed. The in November. Determinations were made of nitric results were as given in the following table. nitrogen in mid-October and mid-December with.the % N. in % loss compost % loss following results :— %N Time

The most recent history of the development and was at its height, from 1914 to 1924, to double their culmination of the railways in Cuba begins towards tracks from one end of the island to the other and so the latter part of last century. In 1901 the Central facilitate the quicker transportation of traffic. Instead, Railroad was inaugurated, extending its principal they maintained very high rate schedules on freight track from Santiago de Cuba to Santa Clara, a distance and on other important services such as the hiring of 573 kilometres. This track connected Santa of railroad cars and locomotives, this being the reason Clara with the line of the Cuban Central Railroad why many sugar mills dispensed with their services (now United Railways of Havana), thereby opening and built their own tracks and bought their own up railway communications between six provinces. rolling stock in an effort to lower their transportation Prior to this date, the most important nucleus of costs ; for, in spite of the low sugar prices that pre­ rail systems was to be found in the western provinces, vailed from 1922 to 1933, the railways maintained very i.e., Pinar del Rio, Havana, Matanzas and Las high freight rates on sugar cane and its by-products. Villas (Santa Clara) ; but after 1899 the new tracks True, such mills as were no longer wholly dependent laid down in the eastern provinces of Camaguey on the public railway services were able to obtain and Oriente completed a railway system of which advantages in freight rates on their sugars, but the island was so badly in need for its agricultural, the less fortunate ones continued paying higher rates. industrial and commercial development. Yet the economic improvement of both industries From the inauguration of the Republic in 1902 is due to the coherence which must necessarily exist the Cuban railways have been unceasingly improved. for their mutual interests, since the railway remains Existing tracks have been extended, while new the only and the most adequate system for the trans­ tracks and branch lines, of the same gauge, have been portation of the products of the sugar industry ; laid down to facilitate the interchange of traffic. the reasons for this lie in the convenience of trans­ Among these new lines, the Ferrocarril Cubano de porting, in large rail cars, the cane from the loading Hershey and the Ferrocarril Norte de Cuba deserve places to the mills and the sugars from the bateys special mention, as these two systems run through to the port warehouses. Some 2600 arrobas of cane very rich zones of the country which had been iso­ (29 long tons) can be loaded on one rail car, and 200 lated from the rest of the Republic, but today enjoy bags of sugar into a closed rail car. And there is the the advantages derived from these means of communi­ convenience in handling molasses, which is pumped cation. While in 1901 the tracks in existence totalled direct from the mill storage tanks into rail tank cars, 1792 kilometres, nearly all in the western provinces, holding 5000 to 10,000 gallons each. by 1939 the trackage am ounted to a to tal of 6077 Each sugar crop represents in all a volume of kilometres. millions of tons which has to be moved rapidly and At the time of the inauguration of the Republic accurately within a limited period of time, especially there were some 80 private railways in Cuba, with an the cane ; and to cope with this the Cuban railways approximate trackage of 3000 kilometres, dedicated have established an organization in agreement with to the transportation of cane from the fields to the the sugar industry that has solved in a satisfactory bateys and of sugar from the mills to the public manner a problem of vital importance to the economy railroad junctions or to the mill’s own shipping out­ of the island. There is no industry in any other country let. In subsequent years, and especially from 1914, from which the railways derive such profitable busi­ the building of railroads for private enterprise ness ; and the sugar industry, on its part, by means of reached enormous proportions, nearly all of them their operation has been able to expand during the last being laid down by the sugar industry. Including 30 years to its present dimensions. During the present not only the main tracks but also the yards and war it has been necessary to accumulate sugar at switches, the total trackage of these private service different ports from which it has been shipped in railways a t the present day is p u t a t 12,648 kilometres. adequately convoyed steamers to the points of desti­ As it is, the total of public and private systems in nation ; and this convoy system has been largely round figures runs to some 15,300 kilometres of main made possible by the facilities afforded by the rail­ tracks e nd branch roads all over the territory of Cuba, roads for expeditiously transporting the sugar from or an average of 1 km. track per 71 sq. km. of terri­ the distant points of manufacture to the ports of tory. shipment whence the convoys started. But with the inauguration of the central highway of Cuba in 1930 the cycle of railway expansion in R h in e l a n d B e e t F a c t o r ie s.— There are about a the island ceased, and railway interests suffered a dozen beet sugar factories in the area between Aachen serious blow from the new competition of road and the Rhine, now being overrun by the Americans. A transport. They also suffered from a lack of fore­ war correspondent observed the other day that while Aachen was being strafed by bombers and shell fire, sight in the past, inasmuch as they did not take farmers could bo seen at work in the beetfields outside the advantage of the opportunity when the sugar industry town, oblivious to what was going on. nearby. i Summary ut a Paper read before the 16th Meeting of the Asoc. Teen. Azuc. Cuba, by A. Ayme Hodhigcez. 290 Economical Method for the Manufacture of Absolute AlcohoL Plant Data.1

By THEODORE O. WENTWORTH,2 DONALD F. OTHMER and GEORGE M. POHLER.

Recently there was described a process for the for their operation, both of which being run at sub- production of anhydrous alcohol by azeotropic distil­ atmospheric pressures in order to obtain the temper­ lation from 95 per cent, (by vol.); it uses ethyl ther ature difference essential for heat transfer. Conden­ as the withdrawing agent, which, while forming.the sate from these two calandrias, etc., is collected in a heterogeneous binary constant boiling mixture with receiver and pumped to a mid-plate of tho alcohol- water essential for dehydration, avoids the objection­ concentrating column, the feed to which contains able ternary azeotropic mixture3. A unit of small all of the volatile impurities originally present in the industrial size has been placed in operation for the beer. Northern Regional Research Laboratory of the The alcohol-concentrating column serves a dual U. S. Department of Agriculture, Peoria, 111. The purpose. Water is discharged from the base, and test here reported was made as a performance and alcohol concentrated to 96 per cent, is withdrawn from acceptance test of this equipment. a plate near the top. The uppermost part of the column The operations incorporate several novel features above this plate is used for the concentration of some of which are : (a) Azeotropic dehydration with “ heads ” or low-boiling impurities. The alcohol ether, which presents a simple and direct means in withdrawn, partially contaminated with low boiling a single distillation operation for the complete impurities, is fed to the top plate of the “ heads” separation of the components of 95 per cent, alcohol stripping column^ wherein; the low-boiling impurities which is introduced at an intermediate point in a are removed during the downward passage of the fractionating column, water-free alcohol being with­ alcohol to the base. The product discharged from drawn from the base, and alcohol-free water taken the base is purified alcohol, 95-96 per cent., suitable oft overhead. (6) The heat content of the vapour for mo it industrial uses. The vapour given off the top leaving the top of the azeotropic dehydrating column of the “ heads ” stripping column contains the low is utilized to generate steam a t 2-3 lb., which steam is boiling impurities, and is therefore returned to the used in the previous processing for the production of “ heads ” concentrating section of the alcohol column the 95 per cent, spirit. for ultimate removal in concentrated form from the (c) The vapour re-use process previously described4 top of this column. is likewise used in the initial processing of beer to The purified 95-96 per cent, alcohol next passes to 95 per cent, refined alcohol, the “ high-wine ” vapour the dehydrating column operating at 130 lb. per sq. from the beer column being utilized as the heat supply in., which removes all the water remaining in the for the alcohol-concentrating column and for the alcohol, the anhydrous product passing out of (he “ heads ” stripping column, (d) Removal of low- base. The dehydrating column is charged with ether boiling impurities or “ heads ” stripping is satis­ from the top to a point intermediate betwe n the factorily effected from concentrated rather than from feed plate and the base. This ether, together with the dilute alcohol, as heretofore has been customary, water which it entrains, passes overhead to the steam which basic change results in a substantial simpli­ generator where it condenses, furnishing hoct to fication of equipment, only a single condensing generate low pressure steam. A small decanter separ­ system for the alcohol concentrating column and ates the ether from the distillates, the recovered 1 her “ heads ” stripping column being required. passing to the suction of the dehydrating column feed pump, and thus is returned to the system. D e s c r ip t io n o f F l o w -Sh e e t . A diagrammatic flow-sheet is indicated in the block. F l o w o f H e a t . Beer entering the exchangers is preheated, and passed Steam at 80 lb. is supplied to the calandria or to the beer column, which operates at substantially re-boiler at the base of the dehydrating column, the atmospheric pressure, spent beer discharging from the vapour from which operating under a pressure of base. Vapour from the beer column, containing 40-45 approximately 130 lb. per sq. in. generates steam at per cent, alcohol, passes in the vapour re-use manner 2-3 lb. pressure by condensing in the steam genera or to the calandrias or re-boilers at the bases of the unit superimposed on the dehydrating column. This “ heads ” stripping column and the alcohol-concen- low pressure steam is in turn used to operate the beer trating column, there to furnish all the heat necessary column by direct contact with the spent beer passing 11 Trans. Amer. Inst. Chem. Eng., 1943, 39, No. 4, pp. 565-578, here abridged. (Reproduced with the permission of author and publishers). 2 The Vulcan Copper & Supply Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A. 3 1941, pp. 149-151, 4 Ind. Eng. Chem,, 1936, 28, pp. 1435-1438. ?91 November T H E INTERN A TIO N A L SUGAR JO U RN A L 1944 therefrom. The heat content of the vapour from the being supplied to the dehydrating column to ensure beer column is adequate for the operation of the satisfactory operation of the latter. If this rate of “ heads ” stripping column and the alcohol-concentra­ steam flow is sufficient (the case for the unit here ting column. This heat is transferred by condensing described), the steam flow to the dehydrating column the “ high-wine ’’ vapour from the beer still in calan- is increased, thus giving rise to a larger amount of drias or re-boilers provided at the bases of these two vapour at the top of the dehydrating column, and columns. hence a greater amount of low pressure steam for Sufficient steam is also withdrawn from the steam the operation of the beer column. generator to operate the small stripping column that The division of “ high wine ” vapour from the is used for recovery of the ether dissolved in the water beer column to the “ heads ” stripping and alcohol- layer discharged from the decanter of the dehydrating concentrating column calandria is obtained in this column. The use of vaporous heat may be sum­ installation by means of a hand-controlled valve in the marized as follows : vapour line to the former. Normally, any excess

Boiler steam condenses in the calandria of the amount of heat in the “ high-wine ” vapour from the dehydrating column to give ether and water vapour beer column merely results in a greater reflux at the at the top of the column, which condenses in the top of the alcohol-concentrating column. In general, f team generator to give water vapour or low pressure the control is no more difficult than that of a multiple steam (2-3 lb.); this in turn passes directly to the base effect' evaporator unit because of the balancing of the beer column where it serves to exhaust the effect of the several flows and heat supplies against alcohol from the beer giving rise to “ high wine ” each other. The feed to the dehydrating column is vapour, which passes to the calandrias or re-boilers controlled to balance the production of 95 per cent, of both the “ heads ” stripping and the alcohol- alcohol. Water-layer is withdrawn from the dehy­ concentrating columns, and condenses to give vapour. drating column decanter at a rate corresponding to This vapour ultimately passes in the form of con- the amount of water contained in the alcohol fed to (entrated “ heads ” product to the condensing system the column. of the alcohol-concentrating column. O p e r a t io n . The legulation of the distillation unit is obtained Under the test conditions the feed averaged 375 in the following manner : The feed to the beer column gal. per hour at 80-85°F., which was preheated to is controlled at the desired rate with sufficient steam approximately 180°F. The beer column operated 292 ECONOMICAL METHOD FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF ABSOLUTE ALCOHOL

with a base-eolumn temperature of 2I7°F., and with lb. per hour at 96 per cent., was fed to the top plate a top-column temperature of approximately 206°F. of the “ heads ” stripping column which operated The “ high-wine ” condensate from the calandrias with a base column temperature of 112°F. and a of the heads-stripping and alcohol-concentrating vacuum of 23 in. of mercury. Alcohol at 95-96 per columns was fed to the latter. “ Heads ” product cent, concentration was pumped from the base of withdrawn amounted to 13 lb. per hour, or 6 per this column to the dehydrating column feed tank. cent, of the total alcohol produced, and contained The dehydrating column operated at a top pressure the impurities more volatile than alcohol. Reflux of 130 lb., the steam pressure in the calandria or re- amounted to 1200 lb. per hour which, based on the boiler being 64 lb. per sq. in. The input at this point quantity of “ heads ” product withdrawn, corres­ was the only steam from the power-house used in the ponded to a reflux ratio of 93 to 1. process with the exception of that supplied to the In the continuous rectification of “ high wine ” steam ejector used for maintaining the vacuum at fusel oil concentrates at an intermediate point in the top of the alcohol-concentrating column. The the column. During this test a mixture of fusel oil, rate of product withdrawal from the base of the alcohol and water was withdrawn as a side-stream dehydrating column was approximately 208 lb. of from the alcohol-concentrating column and pumped anhydrous alcohol per hour. The indicated proof

Lb. Gal. of . Lb. Gal. Steam Water % Alcohol Steam Lb/Hr. per Hr. per Hr. per Gal. per in Spent Chart Total Anhyd. Anhyd-. Gal. per Hr. Gal. Time Beer Beading Steam Alcohol Alcohol Alcohol Water Alcohol 2 a .m ...... 436 . 740 . 201 . 30-4 .. 24-3 . . 1880 . 61-7 3 a .m ...... 435 . 739 . 206 . 31-2 . . 23-7 . 1810 . 58-0 4 a .m ...... 435 . 739 . 208 . 31-5 . . 23-4 . 2100 . 66-8 5 a .m ...... 425 . 722 . 198 . 30-0 .. 24-0 . 2130 . 71-0 ti a .m ...... 417-5 . 709 . 195 . 29-5 .. 24-0 . 1810 . 61-4 414 . 703 . 192 . 29-1 .. 24-2 . 1700 . 58-4 8 a .m ...... 413 . 702 . 168 . 25-5 . . 27-5 . 1620 . 63-3 9 a .m ...... 400 . 680 . 178 . 26-9 . . 24-2 . 1650 . 61-5 10 a.m . . . . , ...... 399 ■ . 679 . 154 . 23-3 . . 29-2 . 1840 . 79-0 11 a.m...... 400 . 680 . 214 . 32 4 . . 20-9 . 1650 . 47-8 12 noon ...... 399 . 679 . 286 . 43-2 . . 15-7 . 1500 . 34-6 1 p.m ...... 400 . 680 . 245 . 37-1 . . 18-4 . 1570 . 42-2 2 p.m ...... 399 . 679 . 258 . 39-0 . . 15-5 . 1430 . . 36-8 A v e ra g e 22-7 57'0 The beer feed from 2 to 8 a.m. contained 7-27 pci cent, alcohol, while that from 8 a.m. to 2 p.m. contained 7-56 per cent. Steam Consumption Checked- by Condensate : Lb. per Hr. Lb. per Hr. Lb. per Hr. Flowmeter Calandria Ejector Total Chart Condensate Steam Steam Beading Factor* 12 Noon T ost No. 1 ...... 622-5 + 124-8 = 747-3 .. 442 .. 1-69 2 p.m. Test No. 2 ...... I . .. . 622-5 + 124-8 = 747-3 .. 441 .. 1-69 10 a.m . T est N o. 3 ...... 566-1 + 124-8 = 690-9 . . 399 1-73 Average 1-70 * This calibration factor represents the ratio between the arbitrary scale on the chart and the true value of steam consumption as shown by condensate measurement. to the adjacent oil washer, where it was counter - at 67°F. was 201-2, giving 200° corrected. The actual currently washed with water, thereby effecting its amount of water present, as determined by a modified separation. The aqueous layer from the washer Fischer reagent titration1 showed approximately 0 02 flowed to the condensate receiver from which it was per cent, water, or a corresponding proof of 199-96. returned to the alcohol-concentrating column for . Alcohol was produced which passed the specifications the recovery of the alcohol contained therein. of the U.S. Pharmacopeia. Its permanganate time At alcohol concentrations up to approximately was normally 30 min. 95 per cent., the alcohol concentrates more rapidly S t e a m a n d W a t e r C onsumptions . than the “ heads ” constituents ; at higher alcohol As previously stated, the only boiler steam used was concentrations the “ heads ” constituents concentrate that supplied to the calandria of the dehydrating more rapidly than the alcohol. For this reason the column plus the amount required by the ejector feed to the “ heads ” stripping column was drawn maintaining vacuum at the vent outlet of the alcohol- from a plate sufficiently high in the alcohol-concen- concentrating column condensating system. The trating column to ensure a satisfactory alcohol con­ average steam consumption over the period of the tent without too great a concentration of “ hr ads ” run was 22-7 lb. per gal. of anhydrous alcohol pro­ impurities. The alcohol draw, approximately 400 ducted from 7-4 per cent. beer. When operating on an 1 Angew. Chem., 1935, 48, pp. 394-5 293 November THE INTERNATIONAL SUGAR JOURNAL 1944 industrial scale, the steam consumption for the average consumption of 55°F. cooling water for the process would vary from 19 to 24 lb. per gal. of test was 57 gal. per gal. of anhydrous alcohol produced refined anhydrous alcohol produced, the actual figure from 7-4 per cent. beer. No ether was added to the within this range being dependent on several oper­ system during the several days of the test. Since the ating factors. Approximate steam consumptions for pressure azeotropic system is with its surge tank an the usual methods of producing refined anhydrous entirely enclosed and tight system, it may be expected alcohol in the U.S.A. are : (1) for the production that the ether losses during normal operation would of refined 95 per cent, alcohol, 35-40 lb. per gal. ; be slight. On the previous page is a table giving (2) for the dehydration of 95 per cent, alcohol operating data for a period, however, of 12 hours only, 10-15 lb. ; giving a total of 45-55 lb. per gal. The whereas the actual test ran for several days.

Sugar Refining in the Beet Sugar Factory Using Decolorizing Carbon.

By J. CAMPBELL MACDONALD, A.R.T.C., M.I.Chem.E.

It must be recognised that, with a wide range of crystal of raw sugar. The measure of its efficiency decolorizing vegetable carbons now on the market is the percentage yield of high-purity crystal on the and the experience gained in their use, every sugar raw sugar worked, to enhance the white sugar quality factory, either cane or beet, is a potential sugar and economize in the use of carbon, the sugar being refinery. Several advantages connected with refining mixed with a syrup to form an artificial magma or in the inter-crop period are obvious, such as the massecuite, which is then purged and washed in the reduction of the incidence of standing charges, the usual way. To m aintain the efficiency of the operation, reduction of the cost of inter-campaign maintenance the syrup must be as near saturation as possible to of plant, the holding together of the crop labour prevent crystal solution, be used to the minimum crew with a furtherance of their skill in manufacture, amount for the same reason, be as hot as possible to a better return for money invested in modern plant, reduce the viscosity of the adhering film of molasses, especially centrifugals, pans, crystallizers and sugar- and be of as high purity and colour as possible, not handling plant. In this article it is proposed to dis­ only to wash the sugar but to reduce the amount of cuss the technique of refining raws with the use of centrifugal wash-water to a minimum, again to decolorizing carbons in the sugar factory, and to preserve the crystal content. fix incentive targets for yields, fuel and other supplies, With this in mind, the syrup from the last white steam, labour and other requirements. boiling should be used for the work after heating Although it is certain the scope for refining in cane by steam injection to at least 95°C. The magma sugar factories is at least equal to that in beet sugar mixer should be placed immediately above the affina­ factories (which can refine cane as well as beet), tion centrifugals to allow the minimum use of syrup we will here first concentrate on the refining of raw to get the highest possible Brix massecuite able beet sugars. The principles are, for the most part, to flow to the machines. This means conveying the the same, but because of the true purities of beet raw sugar to the mixer, for too often the mixer is sugars and their solutions, it is more convenient to found placed convenient for the raw sugar reception, illustrate the principles mathematically in the case of but not for the centrifugals, with the result that too beet sugar, the refining of raw cane sugar being much undersaturated syrup has to be used to allow dealt with in a later article. the massecuite to flow through pipe lines or gutters Raw beet sugars are produced with varying com­ to the machines some distance away, with resultant positions, but a good average analysis is pol. 97-5°, loss of crystal yield. The magma mixer, too, should ash 0-42 per cent., moisture 0-9 per cent., and other be of ample size with hot water and steam heating organic matter, 1-18 per cent. From these figures, elements and insulated to raise and maintain a correct assuming a loss of 0-5 per cent, sucrose, it can be temperature in the massecuite, for, with the exact calculated that the best yields would be 94-612 per proportion of added syrup to sugar, the magma will cent, white sugar and 4-777 per cent, molasses (50 not be of sufficient temperature for good work. per cent, sucrose) on raw sugar worked. This then is On the other hand, care must be taken not to over­ the incentive target for yield in refining the above heat, for the syrup in the magma will then become sugar. saturated at the high temperature and, on the quick . Affination, Melting and Filtration.—The purpose cooling which follows in the centrifugal, will certainly of affination is to separate the molasses from the supersaturate on the crystal, so that too much wash- 294 SUGAR REFINING IN THE BEET SUGAR FACTORY Temp. Temp. Temp. . . 90°C. . . 90CC. . 15°C.. . . 15°C. . . 15°C. . . S0°C . . 100°C. . 100°C. . C. 75° . 80°C. . . 95=C. . . 90°C. . 90"C. . . . 65=C. . . 70°C. . . 50°C. . . 90°C. . 100°C. . . C. 80° . 80°C. . . 80°C. ------. . 99-500 . . 99-500 . C. 90° . . 98-390 . 96-850 . . 94-580 . 50°C. . . 99-480 . . 99-500 . 99-500 . 99-500 . 98-880 . 98-880 . . 100-000 . 50°C. . . 98-880 . . 98-880 Analyses Sugar Sugar Purity Sugar Sugar Purity . . 89-140 . 97-980 . 45/60°C. , , 69-650 . . 97-500 . . 98-390 . . 97-500 . . 71-860 . . . 97-500 . . 98-390 . . 69-650 . . 99-500 . . 87-470 . . . 73-860 . . . 69-650 . . 75-940 . . . 69-650 . . 73-860 . . . 88-060 . . . 73-860 . ------. . 73-860 . . 98-880 . Brix Brix Brix Brix 74-700 . 74-700 . 100-000 . . 100-000 . . . 90-980 . . 99-100 . . 74-200 . . . 99-100 . . 99-100 . . . 70-000 . . 70-000 . . . 76-800 . . . 70-000 . . 70-000 . . 74-700 . . . 74-700 . . . 88-500 . -i — ■ Jfon- Son- . Sugar 1-600 . 1-592 . 2-718 . Sugar 0-008 . 0-563 . 0-423 .. 99-500 . 99-000 . 99-500 . 50°C. 0-061 . 0-385 . 0-077 . 0-416 .. 87-930 . 0-416 . 0-416 . 0-385 . 0-031 . 0-423 . 0-561 . 70-000 . 69-650 . 0-031 . 0-385 . i l t r a t i o n — . • . 2-760 . . 2-760 . . Sugar in Sugar Sugar Sugar in 76-615 . . 36'857 .. 36-857 . . F Solution Solution . . 38-069 . . . 2-500. . 0-013 . . . 17-289 . . . 1-095 . . . 2-487 . . . . 30-236 .. 1-732 .. 73-980 .. 69-970 . . . 111-903 . . . . 12-575 . . . . 84-053 . . . 15-275 . . . . 34-097 . . a n d

o ilin g s ------B — • — . — - — . — . — 82-958 . 43-237 . 36-138 .. 41-194 . 35-421 . . 94-513 . e l t i n g e f in e d , M Total as Sugar Total Sugar as I I — R . . 84-053 . . . . 30-236 . . . . 97-000 . . . . 79-375 . . . 36-857 .. . . 84-053 . . . 15-275 .. . 36-857 . . . . 76-615 . .. 2-760 . . . . 12-575 . . . 2-760 . . . . 42-518 . . 42-518 . . . 34-097 . . . . . 111-903 . . . . . 131-578 . . 93-509 . . . . 17-289 .. f f i n a t i o n a ble T — 1-362 0-900 .. 97-500 . . 95-000 . 0-895 4-567 0-945 6-579 0-311 Amount perof Raw 100 Sugar Water Sugar Crystals 5-415 0-945 I . — A Water Sugar Crystals 10-951 10-006 12-624 33-000 .. 76-615 .. — . 36-204 22-994 . . — . . — . . . 48-199 . . 13-311 . . 6-208 . . 0-005 .. 0-500 .. 0-487 . . . . 0-424 33-370 . 2-410 . . 11-246 a b l e T Dry Dry Substance Substance . . 134-296 . . . 99-100 . . 0-508 . . . 17-852 . . . 84-476 . . . 31-968 . . . 98-592 . . 77-000 . . . 79-791 . . . 84-476 . . . 15-352 . . 77-000 . . 2-791 . . 37-273 . 11-262 . 37-273 . . . 2-791 . . . 42-518 . . . 12-636 . 2-410 1-362 0-513 4-567 3-736 3-736 0-311 24-060 84-900 33-370 43-214 90-742 99-487 87-006 21-931 22-994 18-051 . 48-535 49-897 42-518 46-161 .. 34-482 . 11-679 ------147-607 100-000 / Amount 110-000 120-680 Amount ...... Material Material Material W ater to M elt ...... 3rd Boiling Syrup (used twice) R aw Sugar Wash Water Loss in P r o c e s s ...... Artificial Magma 1st White Syrup Affined Sugar Dilution ...... by Steam Injection . 1st Syrup to discharge ...... 1st W hite Syrup h eated ...... Left for Refining Melted Affined Sugar 1st MassecuiteMelt from Presses Total Melt through Filters 160-663 . 112-464 . Melted High MeltedRaw LowSugar Raw Sugar Affination Syrup Wash Water Water evaporated At Finish of Boiling Massecuite to Machines Dilution by Steam Injection . W h ite Sugar ...... To 2nd Massecuite To Discharge Next Pan

295 November THE INTERNATIONAL SUGAR JOURNAL 1944

°c! 80 Temp. . . 90CC. . . 50°C. . 100°C. . 75°C. . C. 80° . 95°C. . C. 80° . 65°C. . 65°Cc. . 80°C. . . 80°C. . . 100°C. . . C. 80° . . 90°C. . . 80°C. . . 70°C. . . . . 75°C. . . 70°C. . . 50°C. . . 95°C. . . 80°C. . . 80°C. . . 55°C. . . 80°C.

------. . 98-100 . 98-100 . . 98-100 . . 96-850 . . 99-500 . . 99-140 . . 99-100 . 100-000 . . 98-100 . 98-100 . . 98-520 . 96-850 . 98-470 . 96-850 . . 98-100 . . 96-850 . 100-000 . 50°C. . 96-850

Analyses Sugar Sugar Purity 69-650 . . 99-500 87-240 . 87-820 . 87-390 . 71-860 . 86-760 . 75-370 . 73-280 . 73-280 . 74-470 . 69-650 . 71-860 . 73-280 . 71-860 . 73-860 . . 98-880 71-860 . 100-000 . 100-000 . . . 73-280 . . . 73-280 ------

Brix . . 74-700 . . . 74-700 . . . 70-000 . . . 74-700 . . . 74-200 . . 88-120 . . 88-700 . . 88-590 . . 74-200 . . 76-830 . . . 74-700 . . 74-700 . . 76-890 . . . 100-000 . . 70-000 \ . 74-700 . . . 100-000 . . . 74-200 . . 88-04 .

— ' ■ — - Non- Sugar 0-505 0-058 0-563 0-544 . 0-505 0-544 0-039 . 0-120 . 0-385 . 0-042 . 0-605 . 0-039 . 0-563 .. 74-200 . 0-042 .

..

— -- 1-991 . . 1-294 . . 1-991 . . 1-294 . . 17-173 . . 11-459 . . 17-541 .. 0-605 26-056 . 18-583 . . 18-583 .. 0-605 . 26-056 .. 0-505 Sugar Sugar in 26-649 . . Solution 28-047 . . 28-047 . . 23-827 . . 34-097 . . (continued).

------— . — . — - — . —'■ —'■ - — . 17-289 .. — 20-342 . 21-268 . 31-275 . 32-801 . 27-114 . . 0-544 . 31-868 .

Sugar Sugar Crystals Total as Sugar . 1-294 . . .. 37-515 .. .. 38-809 . . per 100 of Saw Sugar .. .. 11-459 .. 26-056 . . .. 1-294 .. .. 57-924 .. . . . 28-047.. .. 1-991 .. .. 20-226 .. 20-226 . .. 59-915 .. .. 18-583 .. .. 18-583 .. .. 23-827 .. — . .. 1-991 .. .. 31-868 .. .. 34-097 .. — . .. 17-289 .. .. 28-047 ..

— — 1-063 8-995 .. 26-056 .. 8-995 8-216 9-080 7-528 9-683 0-451 4-936 0-464 0-688 Water 5-766 6-672 8-620 0-688 0-404 0-464 Amount 10-263 11-679 14-414 Table II—Refined Boilings ■ ■ 6-208 . . 0-906 . . 4-851 ----

Dry Substance . 38-078 . . 39-414 . 5-315 . 11-517 . . 1-336 . . 60-459 . . 26-561 . . 58-429 . . 26-561 . . 19-188 . . 2-030 . . 20-226 . . 28-591 . . 19-188 . . . 17-852 . . . 31-868 . . . 23-947 . . 2-030 . . . 34-482 . . . 28-591 . . 1-336 . .

1-800 1-063 0-906 2-718 2-718 . 0-451 1-800 . 0-404 . 9-080 . 16-453 35-556 42-929 20-226 44-729 38-274 . 14-414 . 65-957 25-860 68-675 34-210 . 24-954 37-211 . 24-060 . 46-161 . Amount .. A ......

......

...... Material M asseeuite:— 1st W hite Syrup 3rd 3rd Water Evaporated 2nd Syrup to discharge 2nd White Syrup 3rd White Syrup heated 2nd W h ite S y r u p ...... Syrup to discharge ...... 3rd W hite Syrup 2nd W hite Syrup heated W h ite S u g a r ...... Masseeuite to Machines Wash Water Dilution by Steam Injection . Dilution by Steam Injection . 2ndM assecuite:— Melt from Filters At Finish of Boiling Water Evaporated W ash W a t e r ...... Melt from Presses A t F in ish of B o ilin g ...... Masseeuite to Machines W h ite Sugar ...... 31-868 . To Discharge Next Pan T o 3rd M asseeuite ...... 35-556 To Discharge Next Pan

296 SUGAR REFINING IN THE BEET SUGAR FACTORY water will be required for the removal of its increased quently it must always be remembered that the trans­ viscosity. The best temperature is, in our opinion, fer of heat from the heating surface to the massecuite 60°C. Before the sugar enters the magma mixer ,t to cause boiling should be done by convection through should pass through a breaker to disintegrate lumps adequate circulation of the boiling mass. Therefore and then through a pug mill to break up conglomerates in these white sugar boilings the added liquor should so that the syrup and wasli-water can surround and always be at a temperature exceeding that of the cleanse each crystal to yield the highest purity and massecuite to assist circulation by flash. For the colour of the sugar from the machines. Of course, same reason and for good quality sugar, the density the centrifugals available must be used, although of this added liquor should not exceed 73°Brix. the new high-speed machines greatly increase the Pans must not be boiled to a high level above the efficiency of the operation by their increased force upper tube-sheet in the case of calandria pans, and acting on the syrup film. Wash-water should be as at this high purity the end Brix should not oxceed hot as possible, and separation of syrups is 88-5. If these precautions are not taken, then the unnecessary. pan will be required to boil by heat transferred through The high quality moist, affined. sugar is then con­ the mass by conduction from massecuite lying veyed to a melter, dissolved in water with injected stagnant against the heating surfaces. In this way, steam to a tem perature of 90°C. a t a Brix of 70CC., loss of colour, inversion, and loss of pan capacity are and, after having its reaction adjusted if necessary bound to result w ithout any compensating advantages. to 7-2 to 7-4 pH with lime, treated with carbon to an At the moderate Brix the pan will discharge amount equal to 0-1 per cent, of the weight of solids easily, although it should be finally sprayed out with in the solution. The correct p H is -^ery im portant ; a small amount of its own syrup. Steaming out white on the one hand to prevent inversion and on the other sugar pans should not be done, for not only is it a to assist the work of the carbon, but it should be waste of steam in itself, but its condensing water measured electrically and not by colour indicators, will dissolve up to four times its own weight of crystal which, for some reason, can give quite wrong results in the crystallizer and have to be evaporated later. with high purity, high density sugar solutions. The The high temperature of the steam if left on too long removal of colour, especially the red element, can be (as it mostly is) can so raise the temperature inside assisted, too, by the judicious use of lime and tri­ the pan that any remaining sugar, either crystal or sodium phosphate, but care must be taken not to solution, may be destroyed by heat to form dark- use in excess, or filtering difficulties will result. coloured acid decomposition products, which not The carbon-treated mixture is then pumped to only debase colour, but promote further destruction a tank on the filter-floor where filter-aid to the amount by inversion in the next pan. Nothing like this can of 0-05 per cent on solids is added. Excess filter-aid occur with syrup discharge and any small amount of is an unnecessary expense, as it will only retard and crystal left in the pan will be dissolved in the next not help filtration. It should be added to the solution undersaturated charge. just before filtration to allow the maximum time for The massecuites should be cured hot to give high- the carbon to adsorb colour, as some carbons have a quality sugar and reduce the quantity of wash-water tendency to adsorb silica from the filter-aid and so required for that purpose. The above operations are reduce their decolorizing properties. Apart from illustrated in Table II, which show the quantities fuel economy, the Brix of the solution should be at of the various products. It should be noted particu­ the maximum for filtration at 80°C., as carbons have larly that the melt is divided between the boilings their highest colour adsorption power in high density in such proportions that (1) no solution to any.pan solutions. The filters, either plate-and-frame or leaf, exceeds 73° Brix, (2) by such division the white sugars should have a double gutter ; one to take the first from each boiling will more closely approximate the runnings and washings back to the melter and the quality of each other than they would if the melt was other to take the clear solution to the pan tanks. boiled alone in the first boiling and the syrups from The washings are of high purity, as the small per­ the preceding one in the other pans, and (3) in the centage of carbon used can only adsorb a negligible interests of the pan floor capacity planning, the water quantity of non-sugar. The carbon and filter-aid evaporated from the first pan is almost equal to that cakes are run to waste after washing. Table I illus­ evaporated from the other two. It will also be noted trates in figures the work done during affination, that the wash-water used at the centrifugals is melting and filtration. proportionate to the non-sugar present in each Refined Boilings.—The refined sugar is produced massecuite. from three boilings of melt and fine syrups. Up to this The syrup from the last and third boiling, still with stage so much trouble has been taken to eliminate high purity and good colour, is used for affination colour that additional precautions must be continued syrup, although, if the market is available, some of so as not to promote colour formation during these it can provide excellent material for the production boilings. The present design of vacuum pan provides of table syrups. a very poor tool for the work it has to do. Conse­ (To be continued). 297 32 Chemical Reports and Laboratory Methods*

Purified Mineral-free Water (Preparation by Ion- Hence, by the combination of a H-exchanger txchange). J . W . E . H areisson, R . J . and an ion exchanger it is possible to obtain “ de­ M y e e s and I). S. H e r r . Jl. Amer. Pliarm. ionized water,” which in purity compares favourably Assoc. (Sc. Ed.), 1943, 32, No. 5. pp. 121-128. with water obtained only by distillation. Samples There are many branches of chemical industry of domestic supply waters which had been treated with requiring pure water in their manufacture, and until Amberlite-/B were examined by the authors for purity. recently the only means of obtaining such water was Preliminarily they were found to comply with the by distillation. Now, however, by the; use of ion- specifications for aqua distillata of the United States exchange resins it is possible to “ de-mineralize ” water Pharmacopo ia-XII in respect of appearance, solids, so as to remove all its dissolved salts without even reaction, ammonium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, resorting to the use of heat. Moreover, it is possible chloride, sulphuric acid, but the carbon dioxide to do this economically. specification was met only after aerating the samples. In 1935 two B ritish chemists, A d a m s and H o l m e s Samples submitted to ordinary analysis gave the announced that polyhydric phenol-formaldehyde following average figures expressing parts per million : resins when polymerized to the insoluble (7-stage (a) before and (b) after treatment : Total solids, (a) would exhibit the phenomenon known as base-ex­ 389, (6) less than 10 ; loss on ignition, (a) 103, (b) change1, as did the natural and synthetic zeolites. —— ; Ca (a) 62, (6) absent; Mg {a) 28, (b) absent, But whereas these zeolites are affected by solutions Fe (a) 0-05, (b) absent ; p H (a) 8-4, (6) 5-1 ; Cl (a) of high pH , and gradually disintegrate, no such 15, (b) 0 ; S 0 3 (a) 100, (6) 0. Samples were next sub­ disruption takes place in the case of the resinous mitted to spectrographic examination, the following exchangers, and they can be continuously regenerated figures in mgrm. per litre, being found : Si, 0-06 ; by treatment with sodium chloride (common salt, Ca, 0 06 ; Fe, 0-03 ; Mg, 0 016 ; Na, Cu, Mn, A l, Cr, NaCl) solution. each less than 0-016 ; zinc and lead absent. These This exchange of sodium-ion for calcium- and mag- figures represent an exceedingly high degree of purity nesium-ions is technically known as operating in the of water prepared by this de-ionizing treatment. “ sodium cycle.” It involves the substitution of two As to the cost of the treatment, it is claimed an sodium-ions for each calcium- or magnesium-ion, and average type of domestic supply water, to be as low results in an increase of total solids. So, in order to as 81-00 per 10,000 gal., including depreciation and effect an exchange of all the cations by hydrogen-ions maintenance for i.e., a fraction of the cost of distilled the so-called “carbonaceous zeolites” were developed water. A large number of de-ionizing plants have about 1930. They are prepared by the sulphonation been installed in the U.S.A. having capacities up to and oxidization of organic materials, as coal, wood, 10,000 gal. per hour. Operation is completely auto­ lignite, and will exchange with all cations. matic until a point is reached at which the regeneration A reduction of total solids to zero results, i.e., cycle begins. A plant having a capacity of 30,000 in the case of hard water the total removal of mineral gal. per hour occupies a space of 70 ft. X 11 ft. matter can be accomplished. Temporary hardness is This abstract may be concluded by drawing converted to C02. Regeneration is effected by treat­ attention to the statement recently made2 that it ment of the exhausted exchanger with a suitable acid, is possible now by ion-exchange to solve the age-old as HC1 or H2S04. This part of the process is called problem of converting salt water into a potable operating in the “ hydrogen cycle.” Reactions of liquid without special plant or without any chemical these products taking place in this method of water experience. Details of how this is accomplished re­ softening will be seen in the following table : main a confidential military secret, but it is said by Rosin Exchanger Salt in Insoluble Compound before Water Being ltesin Salt Remaining in Reaction Treated Formed Treated Water Ca tio n E x c h a n g e R e s in Sodium Cycle 2NaR + C aS 04 = OaR 2 + N a 2S 0 4 , 2N aR + MgCla = M gR 2 + 2N aC l 2N aR + C a(H C 03)2 = C aR 2 + 2 N aH C 03 Hydrogen Cycle 2HR + C aS 04 = C a R 2 + h 2s o 4 2 H R + M gC l2 = M gR 2 + 2HC1 CO, 2H R + C a(H C 03)2 = C aR a + H aO HR + N aC l = N aR + HC1 A n io n -E xch a n g e R e s i n . Acid Romoval RX + h 2s o 4 = (R X )-H 2S 0 4 —■ No residual dissolved RX + HC1 = RX-HC1 substances NaR - Sodium salt of cation-exchange resin, such as Amberlite IR-1 in sodium cycle. HR = Hydrogen derivative of cation-exchange resin, such as Amberlite IR-1 in hydrogen cycle. RX = Anlon-exchanger resin such as Amerllte IR-4 with the acid binding substituent X. 1 Jl. Soe. Chem. Ind,. 1935, 54, pp. 1-6T. British Patents, 450,308 ; 450,309 ; 474,361. U.S. Patents, 2,104,501; 2,151,883 ; 2,191,833. Licensee : Resinous Products and Chemical Co., Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A. 2 Chem. Eng. News, 1943, 21, No 24, p. 2107. 298 CHEMICAL REPORTS AND LABORATORY METHODS the Permutit Co. of New York to be done by the transition is 3-8, making the indicator less suitable solution of certain tablets in the water, the salt of even than methyl orange itself. He, therefore, pro­ which is converted into a sediment which can be poses the use of an indicator made by dissolving abstracted or filtered oft. Kits including this material 0-45 grm. of methyl red sodium salt and 0-55 grm, will soon be placed in all m;litary and transport of alphazurine in one litre of distilled water. Using plants. this indicator, it was found that the “ double end­ point ” colour changes are sharp, showing sufficient Chemical Control Notes (Use of Dry Neutral Lead contrast to make the transitions of colour easily Acetate for Juice Preservation.) S. S ta u b . La distinguishable. In fact the new indicator appears to Revue agricole (Mauritius), 1944, 23, No. 1, pp. to be suitable for titrating most natural waters. 14-15.—In using Horne’s dry basic lead acetate, about 1 grm. is necessary per 100 ml. for the preser­ Use of Potassium Chromate for De-Leading. S. vation of raw juice : while with neutral (normal) Venkata Ramanayya and C. Nabasinga Rao1. 1. a. about 2 grm. is usually added. As the moisture Current Science, 1943, 11, N o . 10, p . 399.—A u th o r s content of Horne’s is about 2 per cent., the dilution employ potassium chromate as the de-leading agent error is of the order 0-02 per cent. ; but in the case of in the determination of sucrose by the double polari - the neutral 1. a. the water content may be as high as zation method, the exact control of the added reagent 14 per cent., leading to a dilution error of around being obtained with silver nitrate as external indi­ 0-28 per cent. Neutral lead acetate should be used cator. This method has been applied by them in the rather than the basic compound when the reducing determination of sugar in ordinary factory molasses sugars are to be determined. To test the comparative and distillery molasses, to which known amounts of juice preserving power of the two lead compounds, sugar had been added, the figures for that added and the following experiments were carried out. Two that indicated agreeing closely with the results of the 100 ml. portions, A and B, of mixed juice were yeast inversion methods. treated with 1 grm. of Horne’s basic La., and two 100 ml. portions of the same juice a and b w ith 2 Manufacture of Lime (from Coral in Mauritius). R. d’Avice, S. Staub and F. Dubocheb-Yvon. grm. of neutral l.a. Portions A and a were immediately filtered and polarized : but B and b were allowed to La Revue Agricole (Mauritius), 1944, No. 2, pp. 59-61.—Lime as itsed in Mauritius for juice tempering stand for 24 hours, before being filtered and analysed. is obtained solely from local corals, containing 87 Here are the results of ten experiments, and their averages. to 94 per cent, of CaC03, equivalent to 49 to 53 per cent. CaO, (pure limestone containing 56 per cent, No of test AB a b of CaO). Two types of corals are worked at the lime I ...... 13-16 . 13-14 13-12 12-72 I I ...... 13-00 . 13-00 12-94 12-70 stations, viz., Tete de Mort (Porites sp.) and Platin I l l 12-82 . 12-82 12-78 12-58 (Tubrinaria sp.), the first, which is somewhat superior I V ...... 12-78 . 12-76 12-74 12-50 to the second, showing the following figures as V ...... 12-74 . 12-74 12-72 12-38 picked : Water, 0-14 per cent; loss on ignition, VI ...... 12-70 . 12-68 12-66 12-32 V II ...... 12-68 . 12-68 12-62 12-32 45-34 ; S i02, 1-34 ; F e20 3 + A120 3, 0-32 ; CaO, 52-48, VIII 12-68 . . 12-66 12-64 12-24 MgO, 0-26 ; alkalis, 2-00 ; chlorine, 0-98 ; C 02, 41-00 IX ...... 12-60 . 12-58 12-56 12-16 S04, 1-17 per cent. It was thought that a purer X ...... 12-56 . 12-56 12-50 12-16 product could be obtained if before calcining the Averages .. 12-77 . . 12-76 . 12-73 . . 12-41 stone were washed in running water or by rain in the Hence it is seen that neutral La. failed to preserve the open. This proved to be so, as figures for the alkalis, juice during the period stated, thereby causing a chlorides and sulphates were lowered to 0-96, nil, considerable error. It can therefore only be used on and 0-84 per cent, respectively, the CaO figure being products which are to be analysed at once, and in 52-62 per cent. B ut analysis shows th a t it is in­ any case must be dried previously in an oven at 40°C. sufficient calcination that often accounts for low or in a desiccator over sulphuric acid. quality lime, analyses showing 14-8 per cent, of unattacked CaC03. A tem perature of about 1000°C. Sensitive Indicator for Determination of Boiler Feed- (1832°F.) should be used. An insufficiently high water Alkalinity. Habsy Fleisheb. Ind. and Eng. temperature may be due to the use of wood of low Ghem. (anal, ed.), 1943, 15, No. 12, p. 742. Methyl calorific value, e.g., acacia, bois d’oiseau, jamblon, orange is in almost universal use for titrating the eucalyptus, giving about 3500 B.T.U., whereas it alkalinity of waters ; but its great disadvantage is would have been better to use filao capable of giving that it possesses a rather difficulty detectable colour around 7000. On the other hand, too high a tem­ change. It had been proposed that an inert dye, perature must not be used, which will overburn the as xylene cyanole FF, should be added to intensify product, making it slake with difficulty, though with the colour, so as to give a green with the alkaline the type of kiln used in Mauritius such an event is yellow and a magenta with the acid orange of the hardly likely, even when using wood of the highest indicator. But the author finds the p H of the colour calorific value. 1 Vuyyura Sugar Factory, Kistna, India, 299 New Books and Bulletins*

Chemical Machinery. E. R a y m o n d R i e g e l , U ni­ The first of these covers various types of instruments versity of Buffalo. 579 pages ; 438 i lus- used in temperature measurem nt, pressure and time strations. (Rsinhold Publishing Corporation, controllers. The second deals with flow and volu­ New York). 1944. Price : $5-00. metric meters, one of the drawings showing a double This book is described in its sub-title as “ an effect evaporator having three glass-tube rotameters elementary treatise on equipment for the process to measure the volume of liquid entering and leaving industries.” Actually it is much more than “ ele­ each effect. The third chapter describes modern mentary ” in its up-to-date treatment ; in fact, a graphic electrical instruments in genera], and gives good deal of the information it contains will be sought information about liquid level gauges, gas analyses, for in vain in most of the more comprehensive texts autom atic p H controllers, in particular; and lastly, on the subject, which are certainly not elementary though by no means least, discusses the principles, in character. Perhaps “ fundamental ” would have choice and functioning of automatic valves. In its been a more suitable adjective to use. It has been general style and treatment, Prof. Raymond Riegel’s compiled with no small amount of care, the author’s book resembles closely his “ Industrial Chemistry,” aim being to describe and illustrate typical plant in now in its fourth edition.2 His newcomer, “ Chemical current use in the U.S. To this end he addressed Machinery, will, we feel sure, m eet with the same warm hundreds of enquiries to all branches of chemical appreciation as the older book has done. manufacturers, and in Ihe writing o most of the sections he collaborated with acknowledged special­ The Australian Sugar Year Book, 1943-44. (The Strand ists. He includes specifications of machinery and Press, Brisbane, Queensland). Price 10s. accessories wherever possible, and in many eases even This is the third annual volume of this guide to states the latest prices. At the end of each chapter the Australian sugar industry, issued with the as­ useful reading references ere to be found for those sistance of the Queensland Cane Growers' Association, who wish wider information, and often a list of the Australian Sugar Producers’ Association, fnd'the “ pertinent patents ” are given. Diagrams and photo­ Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations. In spite of graphs and frequently tabular data accompany almost numerous wartime difficulties, the compilers have every description, and these should be clear enough succeeded in keeping up the previous scope of the to make the construction and operation of machines volume and providing it with 300 pages of des riptive and apparatus comprehensible to most readers, even matter, well illustrated, covering all the ramifications one would think to laymen. of the Australian sugar industry, legal, industrial and Many sugar factory engineers should be able to statistical. find much of interest in a general work of this kind. Anuario Azucarero de Cuba (Cuba Sugar Year Book) In its pages one can glean ideas of possible value in 1944. (Compiled and edited by Cuba our particular branch of the chemical industry. Thus, Economica y Financiera, Habana). $3-00 one finds descriptions of disintegrating plant which (paper covers) ; §4-50 (bound). might well be tried out for the preliminary treatment In the eighth year of issue, this Year Book of the of the eane, and of modern designs of screens which Cuban sugar industry has been produced under should be adaptable to the straining of the raw censo.ship limitations imposed by the Government juice. A chapter on “ Agitation for Low Viscosity in the interests of security. Nevertheless in 169 Liquids ” deals with various types of mixers that large pages it succeeds in conveying a considerable would no doubt be found useful in the operation of amount of information, geographical and statistical, juice clarification. That on evaporators emphasises on the subjects of production, prices, exportation, the advantages of natural circulation, long vertical by-products and the ramifications generally of the tube types, such as were recently described in our industry in this large island. The section on Cuban pages1. Designs of crystallizers such as are being measures, if not as lucid at first sight as it might be, used in the chemical industry for different salts gives equivalence; of the weights and measures em­ should be worth studying, as indeed should also ployed in Cuba in terms of the various sugar a sort- dryers, distilling and fractionating equipment, ments and will be useful for those not fam liar with vacuum producing devices, etc. And so on with other the measu ing system there employed. apparatus of common interest. It is certain that a knowledge of the progress being made in allied Geogiafia do Agucar no Leste do Brasil. A f f o n so fields of technical effort cannot but fail to be of use V a e z e a . (lndustrias Graficas J. Lucena to most investigators in our industry. S. A ., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 1943. Before concluding this review of what we consider Contents : O leste brasileiro ; evolugao desertica ; a very excellent book, mention must be made of the a floresta fechada ; Tupis e Tapuias; Iguaragu; three chapters on the methods of tut matic control Os templos do azucar ; Porto Calvo ; Garroteado; that have found a place in certain manufactures. Usinas de Norte e do Centro ; Uniao. I T.S.J., 1943, p. 40. 2 I.S.J., 1943, p. 218, 300 Brevities*

Vitamins in Beet.1—At the Agricultural Institute at Mosquito R epellakt. —An American company have Weihenstephan, Upper Bavaria, investigations on the recently erected a factery which is to be devoted solely vitamins of sugar beet have been carried out. In 100 grm. to the manufacture of dimethyl phthala,te, which has been of fresh slices, 44-7 gamma of Vitamin B a were present; found to possess remarkable properties as a mosquito 25-5 g. of which went into the raw juice, and 11-6 g. re­ repellant. At present the whole of the available supplies mained in the residual pulp. B u t all the Vitamin B2 of this product are being devoted to the needs of the passing into the raw juice was later absorbed by the armed forces. carbonatation scums during clarification. Vitamins Bx and C have not yet been investigated. Bonding Rubber to M etal.—Ti e Vultalcck process is claimed actually to bond rubber to metal. This discovery forms a vital factor in the development of rubber-lined Nitriding High-Speed Steel Tools.2— A description tanks, which effectively prevent the contamination with was recently published of the latest technique of the iron of sugar liquors which may be on the acid side. The liquid nitriding process. It has been applied to high role of iron iri contributing to the colour of juices, syrups, speed tools for about 10 years past, during which time etc., is well known, and the use of rubber-lined tanks, there has been a considerable growth in the application pipes, pumps a,nd the like is the means of avoiding this. of the process. It appears to have its greatest sphere of usefulness for tools which take relatively light cuts, and where impact and other.mechanical disadvantages are S u g a r in U .S . Army Rations.6—The Qraiter-Master- moderate. To obtain a consistently good result, proper General of the U .S . Army recently emphasized the im­ control of the nitriding bath as regards temperature and portance of sugar in the American soldier’s ration, because composition is requisite.2 - of its energy-producing qualities. About 8 per cent, of the nation’s available supply was confined to Army use in 1943 without considering that used in preserves. Candy Cuban Repining Industry.4-—R< fii<-d su^ar was first figures prominently in supplies in three ways : (1) as a exported from Cuba in 1925, when 1182 tons were sold component of the regular and special rations, (2) through abroad, which quantity gradually increased annually to sale to the men through the Army Exehangfe Service ; reach 439,319 tons in 1933. Then the export quota was and (3) by distribution in the war theatres as a comfort limited to 22 per cent, of the total permitted import of item. He also gave particulars of the role of sugar in the Cuban sugar into the U.S. Subsequently, this quota was various U.S. field rations. Candy requirements for rations changed to a fixed tonnage basis, the average annual during 1944 are estim ated a t a b o u t 100,000,000 lb. amount having been 375,000 tons since 1937. Before its refining industry was subjected to limitation, however, Yellow Sugars.—A recent writer in a contemporary7 Cuba had developed a group of 17 refineries having a rated having in mind no doubt the viows recently expressed by capacity of approximately 1,000,000 tons per annum. Her the American Medical Association on refined sugar local consumption amounts only to 50,000 tons annually. makes the following remarks; ‘ ‘ There is developing, it appears, a demand for a cane sugar product which “ K n ig h t s o r the Blade.”—A vivid account of the retains some of the natural food elements in the juice of Queensland cane cutter’s life during the season is given by the cane, the glucose and fructose, the nitrogenous bodies, Caleb Francis in W allcalcvi6 from which the following the mineral constituents, the weak organic acids, and is an extract : “ Before starting work each day the ganger even the vitamins, in addition to the peculiar and seductive estimates the amount of cane that will be required to o d o u r ...... A more complete food from sugar can fill his next day’s rake of trucks, and the gang set about be made in attractive yellow shades, thus removing one cutting a swathe, 24 rows wide, to this distance. of the more serious propaganda arguments against the With his left hand Big Snowy, the ganger, grasps use of pure carbohydrate containing a single food ele­ two or three stalks and slices them off at or just below ment.” This writer probably had in mind also the recent ground level with his keen-edged knife. With three work done by Wm. R. Jackson and Thos. J. Macek, lightning strokes, two using the hook on the back of the demonstrating the presence of the valuable B-Complex knife, and one with the blade, he clears the trash and Vitamins in the sugar cane and in sugar cane juice.8 beheads the stalk just where “ cabbage ” and cane join, and then casts them behind him in orderly bundles. “ Bagassosis —Soon after the installation in a Nugget, his cobber, and incidentally greatest enemy to bagasse boarding factory of dry bale-breaking machinery, his supremacy, is just behind him. He throws his stalks cases of respiratory illness began to appear among the outwards on to Snowy’s heaps, making them only large workmen engaged in this part of the process. This illness enough to lift. After Nugget come the other six cutters, was described by Drs. L . I . M. Castleden and J . L . Hamilton- each attempting to overtake the man in front of him. Paterson,9 who advanced a theory linking it with more Day after day, week after week, this relentless raco common chronic diseases. Later Drs. J. A. Gillison and will go on until the last truck goes out, garlanded with the F. Taylor10 contributed an account of the characteristic cutters’ discarded wearing apparel .... Rail-carrying, symptoms to be observed following the inhalation of loading, Cutting, all are a fierce, relentless competition, bagasse dust from the shredder. In all four cases studied, for the cutter’s only worth-while credential for his accep­ the men had a severe and prolonged illness, and had lost tance into the “ gun ” gangs is his reputation for many working days. As the disease is not a scheduled speed, and the adjective “ fast ” is the highest recom­ one, no payment could be claimed by them under the mendation he can get.” As to the earnings “ the price Workmen’s Compensation Act. If it is true, as these during the year I have quoted was 7s. 5d. per ton. Our doctors believe likely, that some patients may develop earnings were, therefore (the cook sharing equally), in a permanent lung fibrosis, the importance to the workmen good cane 52s. per day. Prior to the war if a gang of the scheduling of the disease is clear. In any case, this averaged over 30s. per day through the season, they con­ danger to workmen in the particular factory concerned sidered it “pretty fair money.” Now, however, the has been avoided by reverting to the wot process of dis­ earnings of the few remaining good gangs are far higher. integrating the bagasse formerly in use. 1 Chan, and Eng. News. Jime 10th, 1944, p. 956. 2 Mechanical Engineering, August, 1944, pp. 539-542. 3 I.S.J., 1944. p. 72. 4 Sugar, 1944, 39, No. 7, pp. 24-25. 5 South African Svgar J., 1944, 28, No. 5, p. 201. 6 Sugar, 1944, 39, No. 7, pp. 20-21. 1 Sugar, 1944, 39, No. 7, pp. 28-33. 8 Ind. and Eng. Chem., 1944, 36, No. 3, pp. 261-262 :1.S.J., 1944, p. 264. . 0 British Medical Journal, Octr. 28th, 1942, pp. 478-480. 1° Ibid., Nov. 14th, 1942, pp. 577-578. 301 Sugar-House Practice.

Dehydrating and packing Molasses. A n o n . Paper Each unit has a fixed centre partition between the published by the Board of Economic Warfare, two bag compartments and hinged outer walls for the 1943, pp. 1-4 (with 5 pages of figures from easy removal of the filled bags. This unit moves over patent specifications). to a scale mechanism, and then over to a closing A few months ago we gave some particulars of a machine, where the gusset opening through which it method of dehydrating and packing cane molasses has been filled is sealed by sewing and paraffining. which had been proposed by D u . L y m a n Ch a l k i.e y , After allowing the filled units to cool for a short time, of the Board of Economic Warfare, Washington, for they are ready for stacking, storage or shipment. the consideration of companies interested in trans­ At the time of use, the block need only be crushed or porting this material for use in the production of split open with an axe, and the entire split package alcohol for the munitions industry, as well as for use dropped into a vat of water in sufficient quantity to for cattle feeds1. Some further information regarding give the proper concentrating for setting up the procedure has now reached us, but the warning is distillery wash. When the molasses has dissolved, given that “ the process has only been tried experi­ the solution is drained away from most of the paper mentally on a very small scale, and it will undoubtedly if desired, though for ordinary commercial alcohol be necessary to do further experimenting before production this may not be necessary. entering on large scale commercial production.” It has been found desirable to reduce the water Influence oi Cane Fibre on Mill Grinding. J u l io content of the molasses to about 5 per cent., which, C. Gonzalez Maiz. Proc. Assoc. Cane out of contact with the atmosphere, will maintain Sugar Tech. Cuba, 16th Meeting, pp. 93-96. the solid state up to a temperature of 150°F. In­ The theme of this essay is that imbibition must structions for solidifying molasses using ordinary be controlled in accordance with the fibre content equipment will be found in the literature2, After if the extraction of juice is to be maintained. Re­ being reduced to the required degree of dehydration, garded from the stand-point of the capacity of tho the molasses can be run off from the vacuum pans plant, canes having a high fibre content are not through steam-jacketted pipes directly into a container desirable ; but as the agricultural aspect demands from which it can be filled into bags, which preserve preferential consideration, it is left to the technician it from contact with hygroscopic conditions. The to solve the problem for the mill. most suitable types of bag to be used has been the Crystalina, being a winter planting, has a fibre subject o f some study by Dr. Ch a l k l e y , and on this content from 11-12 per cent., the ratoons generally matter he gives the following information. having one of 12-12-5 per cent. In the Santa Clara It is 20 in. wide, 6 in. thick and 39 in. high, each Province, the fibre content of Co 281 winter planting holding approximately 200 lb. of solidified molasses. fluctuates around 14 per cent., the ratoons having It is 4-ply with an outer of brown kraft, a centre between 15 and 16 per cent., and left-over ratoons section of “VCS-Skutan,” and an inner of kraft, the as much as 18 per cent. Co 281 is an excellent cane centre layers being treated for moisture-proofing. in the field, giving good crops in soils of medium The bottom is bound with a heavily paraffined strip, fertility, its ratoons continuing to sprout for a number and sewn with heavily paraffined thread. The top of years with little cultivation due to the large is similarly closed, except for a gusset of about 3-5 in., quantity of trash it produces. In a word, it is an through which the bag is filled. Its cost is in the excellent cane from an agricultural point of view, neighbourhood of 10 cents. though difficulties are encountered in the cutting When the hot dehydrated molasses has been poured of its ratoons due to the stems becoming too thin. into such a bag and cooled, it forms an integral mass, Plant capacity is nowadays expressed in terms of the molasses supporting the paper, and the paper arrobas of fibre-hour per sq. ft. of roll-min. ; and, as protecting the molasses from absorbing moisture. the fibre content of the cane passing through the In this way the volume of the molasses can be reduced grinding unit cannot be modified, our only resource about 60 per cent, of what it would have been in the is to increase the roll sq. ft. per min. by increasing the form of blackstrap. These bags filled „with solidified speed of the grinding units wherever, as the fibre molasses are not, however, shipped separately, but are content increases, the speed must also be increased “ packaged ” into twos or threes so as to permit of in the same degree. A limit is reached. Forced feed easier handling, and more certain transport. In this press rollers have contributed partially to solve the connexion reference is made to the patented method problem of operating with a high fibre content, an of C. C. G il l ic a n (1937)3, which describes equipment example of which is the “ Senado ” type of roller, consisting of one or more units of 2-compartment designed by D ia z C o m f a in , which is being operated forms or containers, constructed of wood or metal, with great success at Central Senado as well as at into each of which the bags are set. other mills. 1 1943, p. 229. 2 H. C. Puinsen G eeriigs : “ Cane Sugar and its Manufacture.” Second Edition. 1924, p. 235. 3 U. S. Patents 2,127,401 and 2,127,402 ; also 2,259,035, 302 SUGAR HOUSE PRACTICE

If a mill grinds 200,000 arrobas of cane having jet of water. Some refineries use a strong blast of 12-5 per cent, of fibre ; it would grind with 15 per fine sand, or sharp fine-grained sugar. Sometimes cent, cane 166,000 arr. ; and with 18 per cent, fibre hydrofluoric acid is added to facilitate the removal 138,888 arr., which in the first case would mean a of the sand. But all these methods are found to be reduction in capacity of 16’66 and of 30-55 in the slow and laborious. Trial-and error methods on the second case. After three year’s investigation, the part of the authors (of the Pennsylvania Sugar Co., author has reached the investigation that when canes of Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.) has shown that reversing having a different fibre content are ground the im­ the order of the use of the reagents has a remarkable bibition water must be controlled in accordance with effect in removing the deposit. the fibre content. Here are figures obtained, in Hence, the procedure has been changed to soaking obtaining which the imbibition was increased in an in a 2 to 5 per cent, solution of muriatic acid (i.e., 2 effort to maintain the same extraction : to 5 per cent, by volume of commercial 31-45 per Fibre per cent. Imbibition Extraction cent, acid) for half-an-hour to an hour, followed by in Cane per cent. per cent. a water rinse, and a hot bath immersion for a few 12-18 .. .. 10-55 ...... 94-52 12-88 . . , . . 20-40 ...... 94-63 minutes in a solution of 2 to 5 per cent, caustic soda 13-20 . . . . 22-09 ...... 94-79 by weight, which treatment has been found to dissolve 13-55 . . , . . 23-77 ...... 94-56 the deposit completely. So as to inhibit attack by 13-88 . . . . 25-50 ...... 94-48 the acid treatment, 2 to 3 per cent, by volume of 14-33 . . . . 26-96 ...... 94-71 80°Brix molasses is added. Actually the filter can be 14-85 . . . . 29-60 ...... 94-50 15-22 . . , .. 31-35 ...... 94-40 charged with the 2 to 5 per cent, inhibited muriatic Various experiments made in one mill alone lead acid at room temperature up to the level of the the author to the conclusion that : With 10 per bottom of the hubs. Nor is it necessary to remove cent, imbibition, the extraction drops approximately the screens unless they are to be repaired. 1 per cent, for each 1 per cent, increase in fibre ; After the element has been rotated for an hour, with 20 per cent, imbibition it drops 0-75 per cent., the filter is drained and rinsed with water, following and with 30 per cent, the fall is 0-5 per cent, for each which comes the treatment with 2J per cent, caustic 1 per cent, increase in the percentage of fibre in cane. soda solution, which is kept hot with steam while rotating the filter for half-an-hour. After a final These results cannot perhaps be applied to air sugar mills but they at least do give an idea of the great rinse, the filter is ready for returning to service. Addition of molasses as inhibitor reduces the cor­ influence of the fibre content on the extraction, a matter which required the constant attention of rosion of the cast iron, steel and stainless steel by the mill engineer and the chemist. 40 per cent., but no inhibitor has been found for the protection of brass by acid attack at low temperatures Combined Acid-Alkaline Treatment for cleaning under the conditions of the treatment outlined above. Clogged Filter Screens. John H. Dittmar However, it is slight, being only about 0 05 per cent, and Frank L. Harvey. Chem. and Met. in the half-hour needed. Eng., 1943, 50, No. 9, pp. 117-118. The use of monel metal and stainless steel wire Oil Separator for Exhaust Steam. J e a n L otjm iet. screens in sugar refineries has the defect of their Proc. 1 6th Meeting Cane Sugar Tech. Assoc. Cuba, becoming clogged sooner or later with fine particles pp. 107-112.—Of the several types of apparatus of filter-aid cemented into place by gums and other which have been offered for use in the separation colloidal impurities formerly present in the raw sugar of oil from exhaust steam some operate by inertia, liquor. In the Vallez filter the clogging becomes others by gravity, others by centrifugal force, or exaggerated at the hubs of the leaves under the rims, again others by adhesion. These operating by inertia at the perimeter and at any blind spots which cannot or by gravity usually give rather imperfect results ; be reached by the flushing nozzles. Moreover, it is while the criticism to be made of the other two types found that the flushing itself tends to wedge particles is that fresh steam may come into contact with sur­ into the interstices of the screens, more especially faces on which oil has already been deposited, thus when filtering low purity affination syrups containing removing it. In the type of separator now proposed,1 impurities washed from the surfaces of the raw sugar the steam enters at the bottom of a spiral, ascends to crystals and held in suspension. An average sample its upper part, and then descends in the remainder of the deposit was found to consist of : Organic matter until it reaches the bottom. During its course in 20 ; silica, 37 ; iron phosphate, 16 ; calcium phosphate, this spiral, the steam is forced to move in a circular 18 ; and magnesium phosphate, a trace. path, which imposes on it a certain centrifugal force. When the capacity of the filter has been reduced to This sends the oil into a groove in the spiral, along a certain minimum, the screens must be cleaned, which it is carried with condensed steam to the outlet. and heretofore this has meant dismantling, boiling However, total elimination of the oil is not realized the leaves up in a tub, first, in alkali, and then in in one operation, and therefore the steam is drained acid, and later dislodging the deposit with a powerful a second and even a third time. 1 U.K. Patents, 447, 457 ; 543, 928 ; 1944, p. 306. 303 N ovc mbcr THE INTERNATIONAL SUGAR JOURNAL 1944

Storage of Raw Sugar. J . B. C u t h il l . J.A.S.T. been circumvented to a considerable extent by adding Quarterly, 7, No. 1, p. II.—During a discussion on an adjustable by-pass. this subject by the Jamaican Association of Sugar Technologists, the author said he agreed that sugar Oven for burning Baluchistan Sulphur in Sulphitation stores should be airtight, but that as under present Factories in India. B. P. A g a r w a l . Proc. 12th conditions buildings had to be used for sugar storage Gonv. Sugar Tech. Assoc. India, I, pp. 67-78.—Various that had not been built for that purpose, in such designs of furnace claimed to be suitable for the burn­ buildings the sugar stacks themselves should be made ing of Baluchistan sulphur ore for the supply of as airtight as possible by close packing. He referred S02 have been proposed1, but they are not all suc­ to the fact that sugar had been stored in the open cessful in operation. A design on a new principle air in Cuba for a considerable time, the stacks being is now put forward by the author (with working made airtight with tarpaulin, the resulting loss drawings). It can be easily constructed in any work­ in sugar not being great. He then demonstrated shop, and is stated to give very satisfactory results. by means of a diagram how sugar bags could be cover­ It consists of a m.s. pipe, 18 in. wide and 5 ft. long, ed within a building, a layer of bagasse approximately inside which the burning Baluchistan ore (which may 9 in. thick being placed between the duckboards contain as much as 5 per cent, of ash) is constantly and the three walls of the store with strips of “ Sisal - stirred by means of a ribbon conveyor, driven by kraft ” covering the top of the sack and hanging means of a worm gear and handle. Sulphur charging down over the unprotected side of the sugar stack. and ash discharg'ng doors are provided, as are also With this method, damage by.bees was slight but an air inlet valve and an S02 gas outlet cock. It is there resulted a white clear solution of sugar in the heated by an open fire furnace, and fed with air from bottom layer of bags. He added that no moisture a compressor. When the temperature as indicated by should be allowed to form between the bags and the a thermometer near the S02 outlet indicates 250°C., floor. He thought that “ Sisalkraft ” paper, which the gas outlet cock is opened, thus starting the is comparatively cheap, could be used for this purpose, supply of gas to the sulphuring tanks ; but when it the paper to be placed directly on the concrete, and reaches 350°C., the fire is eased. When on the other the sugar bags then stacked upon it. hand, it falls below 200°C., a fresh charge of the Baluchistan sulphur is added. S02 generated from Converting a Steam Pump for Proportioning Service. such a crude material as B.s. requires to pass an J o h n H . D it t m a r and F r a n k L . H a r v e y . Chem. efficient type of dust-catcher. and Met. Eng., 1943, 50, No. 9, p. 118.—W hen the Pennsylvania Sugar Co. recently found itself con­ Recovery of By-products from the Distillation Wastes fronted with the need for a proportioning pump for of Alcohol Production (Distillery Slops). J . R . P. its new alcohol-from-grain operations, it had little I r v in g . University of Queensland, Dept. Chem., chance of procuring a newly built one in time. It 1, No. 24.—R e ic h has described a process whereby was therefore decided to convert an old steam pump. the fermented wash, instead of being de-alcoholized One of the direct-acting simplex type was fortunately, in a : till, is sent to a triple or quadruple effect evapor­ available, and the problem was solved by adding a ator. Practically all the alcohol will condense with new home-made cylinder to the pump to handle the water in the second effect, giving a condensate of second liquid. Since the liquid end of the pump was 29-30 per cent, of alcohol by vol., the third containing 10 in. in diam., and since approximately an 8 : 1 only 1 to 15 per cent., and the fourth no alcohol at ratio of the two liquids to be pumped was desired, all.2 In this way, it is said, about 44 per cent, of the it appeared that a new cylinder made of 3 in. extra cost of steam as compared with the ordinary procedure heavy brass pipe (2-9 in. in diam.) would do nicely. using a still can be saved, besides which there is a The larger flow was handled by the original liquid reduction of 100 per cent, in the volume of wash cylinder. For the smaller flow, a home-made con­ handled. The concentrated slops from the fourth trivance (illustrated in the original article) was added. effect contain : Solids, 63-5 ; nitrogen, 1-03 ; A hole was bored through the head of the steam cylin­ P2Os, 0-32 ; and K20, 9-56, and may be incinerated der and a stuffing box added to make tight the ex­ in a Porion furnace, or better in a rotary kiln for the tended pump rod. The new cylinder, which was production of a crude salt containing mostly K2C03. itself provided with a stuffing box bored from a piece The author presents calculations according to which of steel rod, was piped up with standard fittings for there is a saving in the distillation of approximately the suction and discharge connexions, and was 18 per cent, in favour of the Reich process as compared provided with standard check valves to supply the with the “ordinary process” using a still. He also necessary valving action. This arrangement worked produces figures for the cost of incinerating the excellently, its only disadvantage being the lack of concentrated slops, according to which evaporation adjustability, of the ratio between the two flows. amounts to about 84 per cent, of the total cost, and If it had been necessary, this difficulty could have incineration to 16 per cent. 1 I.S.J., 1943, p. 306. 2 Chem. and Met. Eng., 1929, 36, p. 131; see also T.S.J., 1941, p. 350. 304 Review of Recent Patents.

Copies of specifications of patents with their drawings can be obtained on application to the following — United Kingdom : Patent Office, Sales Branch, 25, Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.2 (price Is. each). United ^States: Commissioner of Patents, W ashington, D.C. (price 10 cents ea ch ). ______

UNITED STATES. natural circulation depends on existing conditions at Vacuum Pan (provided with Means for reducing the pan u'ed, but the general practice is to carry the the Capacity of the Heating Section). J o s e final level for the strike to within 6 or 7 ft. above R. Ca r b e b a s (assignor to S u c e s o r e s d e the upper tube sheet of the calandria. The ratio of A b a b c a , of San Juan, Puerto Rico). the initial charge to the final volume of the strike is 2,326,619. August 10th, 1943. thus limited to above 30 per cent. It is an object of this invention to provide a vacuum By decreasing the initial charge volume by use of pan of improved construction in which the ratio of the means above described, the ratio may be made the initial charge to the final volume of the strike much lower and further crystal growth beyond that is reduced, and in which the ratio of the heating now obtainable can be secured. The maximum surface to the initial charge is increased. Another heating surface given to a calandria vacuum pan with object is to provide a vacuum pan with means serving natural circulation is generally limited by the height to reduce the capacity of the heating section of the which must be given to the calandria belt, so that the pan during the initial stages of the strike, which may volume of the initial charge will not exceed a convenient be adjusted to restore the full capacity of the heating percentage of the final strike volume. Where the section, and serve as a baffle determining the path use of the usual ratio of initial charge volume to of the circulating currents during the subsequent final strike volume gives a crystal size which is boiling. satisfactory, and there is not desire to develop the size of the crystal further, the means above des­ t a cribed permits of a higher calandria belt being used with an initial charge of the usual volume, thus adding heating surface to the calandria and giving a higher ratio of heating surface to final strike volume than is now available. What is claimed is : In a vacuum pan, a bottom section, a heating section, a tubular member in said heating section engaging said bottom section and projecting above said heating section and means for shifting said tubular member to vary the capacity of said heating section between a lessened capacity during initial charging of the pan when said member engages said bottom section and full capacity on subsequent charging of said pan, said tubular member serving as a baffle to circulating currents as the pan is be;ng fed on the later stages.

Treatment of Molasses Fermentation Solutions (Re­ covery of Glycerin or Lactic Acid, Potash, Nitrogen, etc.). F r a n k M. H i l d e b r a n d t (assignor to U.S. I n d u s t r i a l . A l c o h o l Co. of New York). 2,315,422. March 30th, 1944. Spent wash from the alcoholic fermentation of molasses may contain glycerin to the amount of 3 per cent, on the sugar originally present, but is difficult to recover, owing to its tendency to scaie and over-heat. A method for the recovery of the glycerin which claims to circumvent such difficulties is here described. It consists in introducing the spent wash into a In present designs of calandria pans with natural vessel containing “ a body of heat-transfer liquid,” circulation, the volume of the minimum initial charge having a boiling point higher than the temperature which can be used is limited by the height of the used in the process, and non-reactive with the sol­ calandria which must be fully covered by the initial ution, e.g., mineral oil of 0-874 sp. gr., and 305-337°C. charge before heat is applied thereto. The final boiling point, in which manner volatile substances volume of the strike for calandria vacuum pans with including the glycerin are flashed off, and the solids 305 33 November THE INTERNATIONAL SUGAR JOURNAL 1944

changed into finely divided material by mixing with along the outer, lower side of the helical tube. It is a the liquid in the vessel, and maintaining the temper­ feature of the present invention that the tube is made ature of the liquid above 190°C., after which the of tapering cross-section towards the lower outer physically changed solids are removed, thus securing side thereof to provide a trough of restricted area for a product useful as a fertilizer material. the collection of the liquid. Apparatus suitable for carrying this invention A further feature of the invention consists in with­ into effect is described and illustrated in the original drawing the denser fluid at successive points during specification. The drawing shows the vessel containing the course of its travel while allowing the lighter the body of heat-transfer liquid, which is circulating fluid to continue its movements inside the helical through a heating coil in a furnace, and re-introduced tube. The separation or purification of the lighter into the vessel below the surface of the liquid, the fluid takes place is such a way that substantially the glycerin vapour being flashed off into a condenser. same percentage of denser fluid is separated at each The condensate passes into a decanting vessel, where withdrawal and consequently the effect of purifi­ 1 he oil is separated and returned to the heating vessel, cation of the lighter fluid multiplies itself. and the impure liquid containing the glycerin collected For example, if each partial withdrawal has the in a receiver. It is subsequently concentrated and effect of removing 70% of the denser fluid contained purified in any desired manner. in the mixture, the amount of the denser fluid re­ The solids separated in the heating vessel are maining after the first withdrawal will be 30 per cent, continuously drawn off in a small side stream to a of the original content. After the second withdrawal filter (preferably of the rotary vacuum type), the the denser fluid in the mixture is reduced to 30 per solid product thus separated being a dark powder cent, of 30 per cent., i.e., 9 per cent, of the original containing 14-15 per cent, of K 20 and about 2-25 content. After the third withwdrawal this is re­ per cent, of N. It forms a useful fertilizer, especially duced to 30 per cent, of 30 per cent, of 30 per cent., when incorporated with some phosphoric acid in­ i.e., 2-7 per cent, of the original content and so on, gredient. The filtrate is returned to the heating in direct geometric progression. - This means that a vessel, from whence it came. (This process is ap­ substantially perfect purification is obtained very plicable also to the recovery of volatile substances rapidly. in other fermentations, that in which lactic acid is (B ) Claim 1. A method of purification of a gas or produced for example). vapour comprising circulation of such gas or vapour at great velocity in a helicoidal separator, such as Processing Sugaxs and the Like. J a c o b H . N e u m a n , the separator disclosed in Specification No. 447,457, of South Salem, N .Y . 2,328,395. August 31st, 1944. provided substantially along its entire length with —Describes apparatus for heating and simultaneously a collecting channel of reduced diameter into which agitating the material in a trough by means of a impurities contained in said gas or vapour are pre­ rotatable heating screw in communication with a cipitated by centrifugal force, thereby producing a heat-transferring medium, driven by any suitable fluid stream in said channel entraining a substantial means such as a motor in such a manner that the part of such impurities, removing the fluid at intervals material will be advanced towards the end where it will overflow a vertical baffie or weir to be delivered along, the channel through draining or extraction tubes from which it is discharged into one or more to the next processing unit. settling chambers in which the velocity of the fluid UNITED KINGDOM. is substantially reduced and the impurities are thereby Oil Separators. J e a n L o u m ie t e t L a v ig n e , of permitted to settle out, passing the fluid issuing from Playa de la Teja, Itabo, Cuba. (A) 447,4571. said chamber through another separator in which J u ly 5th, 1935. (B) 543,928. April 4th, additional impurities are removed, and discharging 1941. the purified fluid from the second separator either (A) Relates to the separation of oil from the ex­ into the main stream of the fluid prior or subsequent haust steam of engines (as, e.g., in the sugar factory), to the above mentioned purification operations or and comprises a helical tube through which the either of them, or independently of said main stream. fluids to be separated are made to travel. Such Claim 2. Method as claimed in Claim 1, applied travel of the fluids develops centrifugal force which to the purification of steam in plants using said tends to effect a separation of the heavier liquid steam at lower pressure, comprising connecting particles from the lighter steam. The velocity of the the apparatus which utilizes said lower pressure fluid through the helical tube may be controlled to steam with a discharge trap for the entrained impuri­ produce centrifugal force of any magnitude desired ties passing through the extraction tubes, thus es­ so that the separation of the fluids may be performed tablishing a suction in said trap and propelling the efficiently. As a result of the combined effect of streams in the extraction tubes by reason of such gravity and centrifugal force, the liquid particles suction, the amount of suction produced in that way which are of higher density are caused to accumulate being preferably regulalted by means of a valve. 1 U.S. Patent, 2,015,076. 306 Stock Exchange Quotations. Some War Data,

According to Mr. Churchill, in the first 24 hours of the landings in Normandy on June 6th a Quarter Qf a LONDON STOCKS, nt Oct. 20th, 1944. million men were put ashore in the teeth of fortified and A n g l o -C e y l o n ...... 3 5 /0 — 3 6 /3 violent opposition. By the 20th day one million men were A n t i g u a S u g a r F a c t o r y (£1) .... 17/0— 19/0 ashore. At the end of September there were between B o o k e r B r o s . (£ 1 ) ...... 3 J — 3 J 2,000,000 and 3,000,000 men in France, of whom the C a r o n i O rd. (2s.) ...... 1 / 3 — - 1 / 9 British proportion was 2 to 3 in personnel and 4 to 5J in „ 6% Cum. Pref. (£1 shares).. 17/3— 18/3 fighting divisions. By that date we had lost 90,000 men— killed, wounded and missing—and the United States, G le d h o w C h a k a ’s K r a a l (£1) .. 1-^- — l-j| including the Southern France invaders, 145,000. (In H u l e t t & S o n s (£ 1 ) ...... 3 2 /6 —- 3 4 /6 the first day of the Battle of the Somme in the last war I n c o m a t i E s t a t e s (£ 1 ) ...... 16/0 — 17/6 the British casualties were about 60,000 to gain a few L e a c h ’s A r g e n t i n e (1 0 s . units) .. 8/0 — 8/9 square miles of battered territory.) R e y n o l d s B r o s (£ 1 ) ...... 2 — 2 J S t . K i t t s ( L o n d o n ) (£ 1 ) ...... 2 f — I f The campaign in western Burma, conducted by the S t e . M a d e l e i n e ( O r d .) ...... 12/9 — 13/9 14tli British Imperial Army, lias required a force of be­ S e n a S u g a r E s t a t e s ( 1 0 s .) ...... 14/0 — 14/9 tween 250,000 and 300,000 men, to oppose some 10 T a t e & L y l e (£ 1 ) ...... 6 9 /3 — 7 0 /3 Japanese divisions. These have been repulsed and largely T r i n i d a d S u g a r (5s.Ord.,4s.stk. units) 4/6 — 5/0 shattered as the result of a bloody and very costly cam­ U n i t e d M o l a s s e s (6 s . 8d. stock units) 37/0 — 37/6 paign which constitutes (according to Mr. C h u r c h ill) the largest and most important ground fighting that has yet taken place against the armies of Japan. Between NEW YORK STOCKS, at Sept. 23, 1944 50,000 and 60,000 Japanese have been killed and a few I hundreds taken prisoner. British losses to the end of A m e r i c a n C r y s t a l ...... 17 June comprised over 40,000 battle casualties ; in addition, A m e r . S u g a r R e f . Co. ($ 1 0 0 ) ______4 5 J no fewer th a n 237,000 cases of sickness b a d to be evacuated C e n t r a l A g u i r r e ...... 2 I f to rear hospitals, but more than 90 per cent, of these cases returned within six months. With a loss and a C u b a n A m e r i c a n ($ 1 0 ) ...... 1 5 £ drain like this, much larger numbers of troops have been G r e a t W e s t e r n S u g a r ...... 26J needed to maintain the forces at fighting strength. S o u t h P .R . S u g a r ...... 3SJ

Sucrose Sykthesis.-—Dis. M. Doudoroff, H. A . B arker and W. Z. Hassid, of the University of California, claim to have been able to synthesize sucrose by condensing fructose phosphate in the presence of an enzyme derived from Bacterium pseudomonas saccharophila. About two grm. of crystals having properties identical with those of United States, All Ports. natural sucrose are stated to have been isolated. (Willett

S ir J . L. H ulett & Sons.—The trading profit of this South African sugar company for the year ended April 30th, 1944, after defraying all expenses and writing off depreciation, amounted to £172,676 (against £129,789 in 1942-43); additional income from rents and invest­ ments raises the total to £221,512. Various contra dis­ bursements, including reserve for income tax, left a Cuba. net profit of £137,283 (against £108,299), carried to Appropriation Account. From this account after making IWillett (Sc Ora y ) other adjustments and paying the preference dividends, 1944 1943 Sp. Tons. Sp. Tons. £10,000 is being transferred to reserve, and out of a Carry-over from previous crops 559,119 1,558,667 remaining balance of £139,407 (against £120,141) a dividend of 6 per cent, plus bonus of 2 per cent, (against Production to d a te ...... 4,240,000 2,839,355 6 and 1J per cent.) is being paid, absorbing £89,934. The total output of the Company’s mills for the season was 4,799,119 4,398,022 140,950 tons (against 119,865 tons for 1942-43), an increase Exports, Jan. 1st to Aug. 26th 2,355,699 2,049,814 of over 17£ per cent. The average basic price realized for all sugars was £13 per ton. The mills worked well Stock (entire Island) Aug. 26t,h .. 2,443,420 2,348,208 throughout the season, and a high efficiency was main­ tained.

307 Brevities*

R oyal I n s t it u t e o f Ch e m is t r y .— I t 1 as teen decided Colonial Sugar for France.—A Government spokes­ by the Council of the Royal Institute of Chemistry that man in Paris stated the other day that some 170,000 the offices of Registrar and Secretary, formerly held tons of sugar are available in French colonial possessions jointly by Mr. Richard B. Pilcher, should now be held for export to France, once the shipping can be found. separately. Accordingly, Mr. R. Leslie Collett, who for the past 20 years has acted in the capacity of Assistant Secre­ U n it e d K ing do m B e e t Cr o p.— The limited infor­ tary, has been appointed Registrar; and Dr. H. J. T. mation available about the sugar beet crop in England Eliingham, of the Imperial College of Science and Tech­ this year discloses that it is somewhat below the average nology, has been made Secretary. Both appointments of recent years. Most districts suffered from drought will take effect from January 1st, 1945. Mr. Pilcher, who especially in the early summer; this was followed by has been Secretary of the Institute for nearly fifty years, rains in some areas but not in others, and as a whole the is retiring, probably in March of next year. weather during the last stages of growth was cold and sunless. As a consequence the sugar content has suffered, U .S. D o m estic B e e t Cr o p .— '±iie outlook for th e A m eri­ even if the roots have recovered from the earliest drought. can sugar beet crop at September 1st, according to a pronouncement of the Department of Agriculture, indi­ About 427,000 acres have been devoted to beet in Great Britain this season. cates a crop of 7,204,000 short tons of roots, which is about 10 per cent, larger than in 1943 but 29 per cent, The Anderometeb .3—This is a recently invented smiller than the ten-year average to 1942. Acreage to instrument for the production testing of ball bearings beets is 9 per cent, higher than in 1943 but 30 per cent, for deviations from circularity of balls and races. Each lei3 than the ten-year average. Average yield per acre is ball and race surface has a series of complex and irregular forecasted at 12-1 tons, which is slightly higher than for profiles. These complex profiles roll on each other like 1943 and also for the ten-year period. Delayed plantings, cams and thus produce motions. If we can imagine that dry weather, hail and disease have reduced yields in the inner race is rotated accurately about its axis, and the several States, while prospects are very good in others. outer race is restrained from rotation, then the outer race executes radial motions caused by the cam action D.D.T.—This anti-post pawder1 was the subject of a just mentioned. The purpose of the Anderometer is to eulogium on the part of Mr. Ch u b c h il l in his lengthy war measure the quality of the bearing in terms of the height, survey of September 28th. He said the powder has been and spacings of these radial motions. fully experimented with and found to yield astonishing results, and will henceforth be used on a great scale by the British forces in Burma and by American and Aus­ Colonial Su g a r R e f in in g Co.—Of la,te years this big tralian forces in the Pacific, who in the past have suffered Australian sugar refining company has been developing very heavy losses through sickness from jungle diseases a Building Materials department, destined to aid substan­ and malaria. In Europe the eradication of lice in Naples tially in the advancement of new and changing forms of by means of D.D.T. may be held to have averted a very building construction, though so far the products have had serious typus epidemic in that neighbourhood when we to be used almost exclusively in the war effort. There is occupied it. As a parting shot, Mr. Churchill assured his a Cane-ite factory making bagasse board, a plaster mill hearers “ that the war against the Japanese and other in New South Wales, blue crocidolite asbestos mines and diseases of the jungle will be pressed forward with the a mill are being worked in Western Australia, and there is utmost energy.” a mill in Tasmania for the production of chrysolite as­ bestos fibre—all under the Company’s control. They also A Large Food Laboratory 2— A laboratory m aintained run a grain alcohol distillery. by J. Lyons & Co., Ltd., the well-known London catering firm, is doubtless the largest of its kind in the U.K. Started “ T u n g u m ” A l lo y .—This is an aluminium-nickel- 25 years ago, it now has a staff of some 200 persons, in­ brass alloy, which is resistent to corrosion to a high degree cluding 90 science graduates, the chief chemist being and by suitable treatment can be used for spring making. Dr. L. H. Lampitt, who is also a director of the company. In fact, it is very much like steel in the manner in which Under him are the assistant chief chemist and the chemist it can be worked. It can be east, steam pressed, forged, in charge, besides the laboratory manager, the statistician, rolled, hard-drawn, and extruded, from which form it the librarian, and several organizing chemists. Under can be machined and fabricated for all those uses for which them are various sectional chemists and their assistants mild steel would be suitable if it did not corrode. It is undertaking factory control, inspection work, sugar and available as wire, sheet, strip, tube, rod and bar sections confectionery analyses, etc. A considerable amount of and machine parts, forgings, spinnings and pressings, etc. fundamental research of a varied character is carried out. It can be readily brazed, welded, soldered, spun and There is a library containing 1200 reference books ; machined. It can be produced in varying degrees of and 90 periodicals aro regularly filed. temper ranging from soft to dead hard. G l e d h o w -Ch a k a ’s K ra a l Co.—This South Afrit an sugar company reports for the year ended March, 1944, a E conomic D e v el o p m e n t in S o uth A frica.—The net profit, less depreciation, of £135,932 (against £128,269 South African Sugar Journal records that the Hon. S. for 1942-43), to which has to be added a balance brought F. Waterson, the Minister of Economic Development forward of £97,012. After sundry payments (including in the Union, recently paid a first visit to the sugar belt an interim dividend of 3£ per cent.), adjustments and in Natal and was impressed by what he saw. He occupied transfers, the net sum available for distribution was himself in an intensive investigation of the lay-out and £114,420 ( against £121,012) out of which is being paid equipment of mills, the housing facilities and social a final dividend of 4 per cent-., plus a bonus of 1J per cent., amenities available to European employees, the living absorbing £33,000 and making a total of 9 per cent, conditions of Indian and native workers, the modern for the year (against 7£ per cent.), while £81,520 is carried farming methods in general practice and the operations of forward. The total quantity of cane milled during the the sugar industry’s Experiment Station. Mr. Waterson, season was 477,040 tons (including planters’ cane), resulting since he joined the Cabinet, has revealed a remarkable in an output of 52,412 tons of sugar. Prospects for the appreciation of the economic situation in the Union, and current crop are favourable, preliminary estimates indi­ there is much hope that under his aegis the economic cating a crop equal to that of 1943-44. development of the country will be greatly stimulated. 1 See 1944, p. 266, for particulars. z Discovery, Aui b, 1944. 3 Mechanical Engineering, August. 1944, pp. 515-518. 308