One Man Against the Nazis— Wolfgang Kohler MARY HENLE New School for Social Research ABSTRACT: This is the story of Wolfgang Kohler's papers, both theoretical and experimental, many courageous struggle against the Nazi authorities to try of them in perception but also in other fields. His to save the Psychological Institute of the University translation of his book, Gestalt Psychology, into of Berlin. The period covered is 1933 to August 1935. German was published in 1933. Lewin's early The account is based on contemporary letters and papers on perception and on association appeared, other documents, mainly heretofore unpublished, many and then the long and influential series, published of them translated from the German. Eyewitness re- ports that could be checked are also used. with his students, on Handlungs- und Affektpsy- chologie. In the 1920s and early 1930s, psychology was Among the students at the institute, I will men- flourishing at the Psychological Institute of Berlin tion only a few, mainly names we know today. University under the direction of Wolfgang Kohler. Rudolf Arnheim and later Werner Wolff worked in There was truly an all-star cast of characters. In the field of expression; Metzger's work on visual addition to the director, Max Wertheimer had perception was under way, including the work on been there from about 1916 until 1929, when he the Ganzjeld. Gottschaldt's studies on the influ- left to accept the chair at Frankfurt. Kurt ence of past experience on visual form perception Lewin, too, came to Berlin after World War I came out of the institute; his figures are still in and remained until his resignation in 1933. Koh- use in the Embedded Figures Test. Hans Wal- ler's last assistants in Berlin are still known, lach did his first work there. Kopfermann's beau- although all of them died young: Karl Duncker, tiful experiments on depth perception, Ternus's on whose studies of problem solving and of induced movement remain classics; von Lauenstein, who is known mainly for his theory and investigation Acknowledgment is gratefully made to the Harvard University Archives for permission to publish the three of time errors—an important problem, since time letters from Kohler to Ralph Barton Perry; to the Ar- errors offer a good opportunity to study the be- chives of the History of American Psychology for per- havior of young memory traces; von Restorff, mission to use Kohler's letter to Donald K. Adams; and to the Library of the American Philosophical Society for whom we know for her work with Kohler on the permission to publish all the other documents and letters isolation effect (sometimes called the Restorff here included. I would like to express warm thanks for effect) and on theory of recall. The Chief Assist- cooperation to Whitfield J. Bell, Jr., and Murphy D. ent at the institute, Hans Rupp, chief by virtue Smith of the American Philosophical Society and to John 1 A. Popplestone and Marion White McPherson of the of seniority, will hardly figure in our story. Archives of the History of American Psychology. Berlin, with Kohler and Wertheimer, was the I am grateful to Margaret Speicher, who translated some of the documents and who checked all of my translations. seat of Gestalt psychology in those days, along This article is to be a chapter of a larger work on with another highly productive seat at Giessen Wolfgang Kohler. It is the story neither of the de- under Koffka until 1924, when Koffka came to struction of German psychology by Hitler nor of the fate of the Gestalt psychologists after the Nazis' rise to America. Berlin had seen the publication of ma- power. (For a good account of the latter, see Mandler jor theoretical and experimental contributions to and Mandler [1968].) It is, rather, a chapter in the life Gestalt psychology. Wertheimer published, among of Wolfgang Kohler. Requests for reprints should be sent to Mary Henle, others, major papers on Gestalt theory, including The Graduate Faculty, New School for Social Research, the paper on perceptual grouping. Kohler's Die 65 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003. physischen Gestalten in Ruhe und im stationdren 1 It should be mentioned that at that time an Assistent in a German university already had the PhD but was Zustand appeared in 1920. His work on chimpan- not yet habilitiert, that is, had not yet the so-called right zees was still appearing, and there were numerous to teach, which was conferred after a second dissertation. AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • OCTOBER 1978 • 939 Copyright 1978 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0003-066X/78/3310-0939$00.75 phenomenal identity, von Schiller's on stroboscopic fact that everybody expected Kohler to be ar- movement, and much, much more excellent work rested for it. were all products of the Psychological Institute. Why, ask the powerful men who rule Germany, A number of young American PhDs came to study have many valuable people not joined the Nazi and work at the institute, for example, Robert B. party? Of them Kohler comments, "Never have MacLeod, Donald K. Adams, Karl Zener, Carroll I seen finer patriotism than theirs." Regarding Pratt, Leonard Carmichael, and others. the wholesale dismissal of Jews from universities On January 30, 1933, the Nazis came to power. and other positions, he continues, The first effects on German universities were dis- missals of Jewish professors and others considered During our conversation, one of my friends reached for to be hostile to the new regime. This story is well the Psalms and read: "The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want. ." He read the 90th Psalm and said, "It known. The dismissals ranged from Nobel laure- is hard to think of a German who has been able to move ates (including Einstein, Haber, Franck, Hertz) to human hearts more desply and so to console those who Assistenten. Hartshorne relates an anecdote which suffer. And these words we have received from the Jews." Another reminded me that never had a man struggled he says was widely believed—that Max Planck, more nobly for a clarification of his vision of the world the great physicist, petitioned Hitler to stop the than the Jew Spinoza, whosa wisdom Goethe admired. dismissal of scientists for political reasons; he My friend did not hesitate to show respect, as Goethe did. Lessing, too, would not have written his Nathan the Wise stressed the importance of science for the country. unless human nobility existed among the Jews. ... It Hitler is said to have replied, "Our national poli- seems that nobody can think of the great work of Hein- cies will not be revoked or modified, even for sci- rich Hertz without an almost affectionate admiration for him. And Hertz had Jewish blood. entists. If the dismissal of Jewish scientists means One of my friends told me: "The greatest German the annihilation of contemporary German science, experimental physicist of the present time is Franck; then we shall do without science for a few years!" many believe that he is the greatest experimental physicist of our age. Franck is a Jew, an unusually kind human (Hartshorne, 1937, pp. 111-112). being. Until a few days ago, he was professor at Gottin- About the dismissed scholars, their university gen, an honor to Germany and the envy of the inter- colleagues kept silent. As Kohler remarked years national scientific community." later, "Nothing astonished the Nazis so much as Perhaps the episode of Franck's dismissal the cowardice of whole university faculties, which shows the deepest reason why all these people are not did not consist of Nazis. Naturally this corrobo- joining [the Party]: they feel a moral imposition. They rated the Nazis' contempt for the intellectual life" believe that only the quality of a human being should determine his worth, that intellectual achievement, char- (Kohler, Note 1). acter, and obvious contributions to German culture retain The future of an independent professor was, their significance whether a person is Jewish or not. of course, uncertain. As early as April 1, 1933, Expecting arrest, the Kb'hlers and members of Kohler, briefly outside of Germany, wrote to Ralph the institute spent the night of April 28 playing Barton Perry: chamber music. But the Nazis did not come. Nobody in Germany with any decency in his bones . Four months later, reprints of this article were knows very much about his near future. If nothing still being circulated. Letters poured in, for the happens, I shall be in Chicago for the meeting of the American Association. most part from strangers, occasionally critical, As to myself, my patriotism expects the Germans to but the overwhelming majority was full of ad- behave better than any other people. This seems to me miration for Kb'hler's courageous stand. Warm a sound form of patriotism. Unfortunately it is very different from current nationalism which presupposes that thanks were expressed by Jew and non-Jew alike. the own people are right and do right whatever they are The following letter, as a single example, was and do. However, .there will still be some fight during signed only "A German Jew": the next weeks. Don't judge the Germans before it is over. Today I read your article, "Conversations in Germany." I am not ashamed to admit that, despite my 65 years, I With the dismissal of James Franck, the great was deeply moved by it and tears came to my eyes. I experimental physicist, Kohler made public his asked myself: Are there really Germans in Germany who stand. The fight had begun. On April 28, 1933, can still muster such courage ? I am a Jew, born in Germany as were my father and he wrote, for the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, grandfather.