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JAZZ AGE JESUS: THE REVEREND ADAM CLAYTON POWELL, SR., AND THE MINISTRY OF BLACK EMPOWERMENT, 1865-1937 A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Vernon Calvin Mitchell, Jr. May 2014 © 2014 Vernon Calvin Mitchell, Jr. JAZZ AGE JESUS: THE REVEREND ADAM CLAYTON POWELL, SR., AND THE MINISTRY OF BLACK EMPOWERMENT, 1865-1937 Vernon Calvin Mitchell, Jr. Cornell University 2014 The purpose of “Jazz Age Jesus: the Reverend Adam Clayton Powell, Sr. and The Ministry of Black Empowerment, 1865-1937,” is to illuminate the African American religious developments occurring during the Jazz Age. Additionally the goal is to expand the notion of who the thinkers of the Harlem Renaissance were—making room for religious figures, not simply as ministers, but active players in the developing cultural climate that was proud of being African American and sometimes even racially militant, signaling the beginning of a movement designed to empower African Americans to rise from their inferior status in the American body politic. This is a social history that examines the life and ministry of the Rev. Powell, Sr., pastor of the Abyssinian Baptist Church (1908-1937). Analyzing the rise of African-American Protestantism in New York City, through Powell, Sr., illustrates that the Jazz Age was not singularly about decadence and secular creativity, but that there was a sacred or religious awakening occurring simultaneously. This study maintains that migratory patterns in the early decades of the twentieth century where African Americans moved from rural spaces into urban ones were not simply about the transmission of simply aesthetic culture such as food, clothing, music and speech, but important for this particular analysis is that African Americans brought their faith—believed and practiced. Thus, “Jazz Age Jesus” is the title of this work and the Rev. Adam Clayton Powell, Sr., during this period rose to acclaim pastoring the oldest African American Baptist church in New York State, and by the end of his pastorate had facilitated and encouraged its growth, helping it blossom into the largest Protestant congregation in America, if not the world. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Vernon Calvin Mitchell, Jr. received his Bachelor of Arts degree in History from the University of Missouri-Columbia in 2001, and his first Master of Arts in History degree, also from the University of Missouri-Columbia in 2003. In 2005 he began his work toward his doctoral degree at Cornell University, where he earned his second Masters of Arts degree in 2008. Mr. Mitchell’s Masters thesis from the University of Missouri-Columbia examined the desegregation of the public school system in East St. Louis, Illinois. At that time he was very interested in urban history of the American Midwest, particularly in the decades after World War II and how smaller urban and suburban communities addressed concerns of unequal access to public education prior to the historic Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954. Since entering Cornell his research has shifted to African-American religion and how the organization of spirituality informed political thought. His work in African-American religious and intellectual history in the late nineteenth and early decades of the twentieth century served as the foundation for his dissertation. v This volume is dedicated to the people—family, friends and loved ones who did not live to see this study come to fruition. Though absent from the body, they are present with the Lord. I know they walk beside me. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am a firm believer in the notion that we do nothing in this world solely on our own. This study is a perfect example of this line of thinking. It was completed by the collective efforts of many people along the way. Therefore, I must acknowledge some of the people and institutions that I will be forever indebted. First, and foremost, I thank God for allowing me to finish this voyage of mind and spirit. I am thankful and beyond humbled that I am able to see this through to the end. I would like to thank my dissertation special committee at Cornell University: Prof. Robert L. Harris, Jr. (chair), Prof. Nick Salvatore, and Prof. Derek Chang. I sincerely appreciate their continued support and encouragement throughout this process; it was not easy. Each of them played an integral role in this intellectual marathon, and I am ever grateful for their collective and individual guidance. Prof. Harris, thank you for being there since I arrived on Cornell’s campus. Prof. Salvatore I will not forget our conversations. Prof. Chang, thanks for making time to help me sort and organize my thoughts. I also thank all the professors in the History Department at Cornell who believed in me when I applied for admission and helped me along my intellectual sojourn toward this degree. In that spirit, I am thankful for the mentorship and tutelage of Prof. Margaret Washington. The late Prof. Michael G. Kammen was always very supportive. To my colleagues who occupied the basement of McGraw Hall—the graduate students who put in long hours in the academic trenches, grading and writing over the last several years with me, thank you to each and every one of you, especially. I am particularly thankful to my first office mates: Candace Katungi, Brent Morris, and the late Ann Wilde. The discussions in our office reflected the rigor of intellectualism demanded from our program, but there were also hilarious conversations about life as well that I will never forget. Candace, your perseverance is an inspiration to me; you truly are a friend and colleague, thank you. Brent, our historical jokes were the best. Ann was a light in many lives and she was more than just a colleague; she was a great friend and human being. There were a few that read my work from my dissertation prospectus, grant proposals, vii conference papers, and finally some of the dissertation chapters themselves—thanks to Jessica Harris for providing honest critique, laughter, and keeping me grounded when I needed it most. To the support staff—Barb Donnell, Katie Kristoff, Judy Yonklin, and Maggie Edwards, thanks for allowing me to pester you with questions or just to chat to get my mind off the work at hand. Research can be very difficult at times, but it is made all the better with outstanding staff at the archives and libraries. A big thanks goes to Eric Acree at the John Henrik Clarke Library at the Africana Studies and Research Center (ASRC). Every year Eric worked tirelessly to make sure graduate students in Africana and other departments who worked with ASRC had access to databases, books, and archival material for our research and teaching. Thank you, my brother. Thanks, too, to Michelle Hubbell who was the most important person in Olin Library. She is a miracle worker and I am so appreciative of her compassion and support of graduate students. Finding primary documents on the Rev. Adam Clayton Powell, Sr. was no easy task so I am also beyond grateful for the great work of Prof. Kevin McGruder, who worked as the head of the Abyssinian Baptist Church Archives and History Ministry when I was conducting my research. In 2012, I moved back to my hometown of St. Louis, Missouri, where I wrote the bulk of the dissertation. The administration and faculty at Washington University in St. Louis were invaluable. They provided support and resources to help me complete my work. Special thanks to Vice-Provost Adrienne D. Davis, Prof. Jean Allman, the Chair of the History Department, and Prof. Marie Griffith, the Director for the Danforth Center for Religion and Politics. I am also truly blessed to have colleagues such as Prof. Lerone Martin, who offered critical feedback during the final stages of revision for the dissertation. Special thanks to the Dr. Evelyn Irving and Dr. Jenny Chang, you both taught me that mental health is vitally important. Thank you. There were other professors and mentors that were part of my journey that were never far from my thoughts, Prof. Carol Anderson, Prof. K. C. Morrison and his wife the late Dr. Johnetta Wade Morrison, along with Prof. April Langley and her husband (my brother), Jimi Langley. Also my intellectual and spiritual grandparents, the Rev. Dr. Peter and Dr. Linda Addo, your collective love and spirit I felt every day. Thank you for always believing in me and challenging viii me. Lastly, I am who I am because of my family. Aside from my faith, they are my solid foundation of support and love. My parents, Vernon C. Mitchell, Sr. and Norma K. Mitchell, your “begotten son,” saw it through to the end. To my sister, Victoria, brother Travis and niece Riley, those late night phone calls and FaceTime sessions did more for me than you will ever know (“Chips?”). I give special honor to my maternal grandmother, Mrs. Ilene Wells. Her character, strength, and sincere faith continue to propel me forward. At 102 years young, she continues to uplift us all. Love you Granda! Thanks as well to my other parents and sister, Fred, Ann, and Anissa Harris. To the rest of my family tree—the Mitchells and Wells families and all its branches, I love you all. I could not get to this pinnacle of my education without each of you. Thanks too to all my beloved fraternal brethren in the bonds of the black and old gold! To my guys—those brothers from other mothers: much respect to Shed “Pianoman,” Thomas, CEC, Fouche, DH, Larry, Gee, BW, Marv, Kenny and Spank.

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