Adaptive Pursuit of Harmony in Times of Crisis: Wang Yangming‘s (1472–1529) Contribution to the Syncretization of Chinese Thought in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) by Dragana Majhen A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Religion Joint Master‘s Program University of Manitoba/Winnipeg Winnipeg Copyright © 2010 by Dragana Majhen Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge my gratitude to a number of individuals for their critical comments and support in preparing this thesis. First and foremost, I am especially grateful to my thesis advisor professor Albert Welter for his guidance and inspiration. Second, I am indebted to the members of my graduate committee, Ludmila Zamah (The University of Winnipeg), Emma Alexander-Mudalier (The University of Winnipeg), and David Drewes (University of Manitoba), who‘s critical responses enriched this project. Lastly, I would also like to thank my husband Boris for drawing all the maps in the appendix. ii To my family. iii Abstract The pursuit of harmony has always been a great concern of Chinese thinkers. In this process, especially prior to the Ming dynasty, a significant ―borrowing‖ of their basic philosophical elements and their mutually syncretic metamorphosis was a common practice among three religious communities, particularly disseminated during times of crisis. The work of Wang Yangming proved to be an epitome of this philosophical ―collaboration‖, capable of producing new synthetic teachings that directly or indirectly linked two or more polarized teachings. He succeeded in modifying the existing Buddhist idea of inherited Buddha Nature to be now understood as an innate insight, while also promoting the practice of meditation, as a clear example of Chan and Daoist influence. Wang Yangming is probably best known for his emphasis on the simultaneity of the two functions – knowledge and action, viewed as a reinterpretation of non-Confucian ideas in a new Neo-Confucian framework. iv List of Tables Table 1 - Chronological Review of Chinese History………………………………….. 138 v Table of Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. ii Abstract ............................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... v Preface ................................................................................................................................. 3 Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................... 10 Chapter Two: Syncretization vs. Syncretism – Theoretical Groundings ......................... 14 Chapter Three: General Assumptions of the Pursuit of Harmony and Historical Analysis of Times of Crisis in China ................................................................................................ 22 3.1 Late Han [漢朝] to Sui Dynasty [隋朝] (2nd -5th century) ..................................... 24 3.2 Late Tang [唐朝] (9th-10th century) ........................................................................ 39 Chapter Four: Setting the Stage in the Song and Crisis in the Ming (1368-1644) [大明國] – Intellectual Exchange and the Need to Accommodate .................................... 50 4.1 The Debate in the Song Dynasty: Important Points ................................................. 50 4.2 Circumstances that Contributed to the Crisis in the Ming ....................................... 57 4.2.1 Political and Economic Circumstances ............................................................. 57 4.2.2 Religious Circumstances (Focus on Christianity and Islam) ............................ 63 Chapter Five: Wang Yangming‘s Approach to Harmony – Redefining the Old Tradition by Modes of Syncretization and Inclusive Reinterpretation of Previously Contested Buddhist and Daoist Ideas ................................................................................................. 66 5.1 Life of Wang Yangming .......................................................................................... 68 5.2 Essence of Wang Yangming‘s Neo-Confucian Thought ......................................... 76 5.2.1 Classical Confucian View of xìng [性] Nature ................................................. 85 5.2.2 Zhu Xi‘s Interpretation of Nature ..................................................................... 90 5.2.3 Wang Yangming‘s View of Nature .................................................................. 92 5.3 Influence of Syncretization and Wang Yangming‘s Perception of Meditation ....... 96 5.3.1 Classical Confucian Teachings on Meditation ................................................. 97 5.3.2 Daoists and Meditation ................................................................................... 100 5.3.3. Chan Buddhism and Meditation .................................................................... 102 5.3.4 Wang Yangming‘s Neo-Confucian View on Meditation ............................... 111 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 118 APPENDIX 1 ................................................................................................................... 126 APPENDIX 2 ................................................................................................................... 127 APPENDIX 3 ................................................................................................................... 128 APPENDIX 4 ................................................................................................................... 129 APPENDIX 5 ................................................................................................................... 130 Literature Cited ............................................................................................................. 131 vi Adaptive Pursuit of Harmony in Times of Crisis: Wang Yangming‘s [王阳明] (1472–1529) Contribution to the Syncretization of Chinese Thought in the Ming Dynasty [大明國] (1368-1644) 2 Preface The pursuit of moral, physical, and social perfection has always been a great concern of Chinese thinkers and ideologists. This desire can be understood as a yearning to return to their perceived harmonious ancestral origin. Although approached from different starting-points, Confucianism and Daoism,1 as Chinese indigenous philosophies, and Buddhism, as their adopted new spiritual character, strived to promulgate an idea of self-enrichment as their continuous and permanent activity. In this process, especially prior to the Ming dynasty (15th century) when their religious identity became more identifiably structured, a significant ―borrowing‖ of their basic philosophical elements and their mutually syncretic metamorphosis was a common practice among these three religious communities.2 Early Ming China was 1The basic Confucian cosmology is linear, in the sense that cosmology itself is understood as ―principles of order that support integrated forms of being.‖ The Confucian point of genesis was perceived as a result of chaotic beginnings to incorporate the evolution of humanity sequentially to reach this ―order‖, which was achieved by the embrace of ―fundamental humanism, organic naturalism, concrete rationalism and self-cultivating pragmatism.‖ The Daoist and Buddhist cosmology show a circular pattern where the organic harmonious unity was disintegrated and in need of restoration to its original nature. Marshal Sahlins, ―Foreword‖ to Gregory Schempp‘s Magical Arrows: The Maori, The Greeks, and the Folklore of the Universe (Madison, University of Wisconsin, 1992): x-xi; Mary Evelyn Tucker, ―Religious Dimensions of Confucianism: Cosmology and Cultivation,‖ Philosophy East and West 48, No. 1 (1998): 17; Livia Kohn, ―Daoist Monastic Discipline: Hygiene, Meals, and Etiquette,‖ T’oung Pao, Second Series 87, Fasc. 1/3 (2001): 158. 2 In the initial stage of this project it is important to note, first, that in the last millennium Chinese society was commonly perceived as a society where three of its major religio/philosophical traditions, Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism had shaped the intellectual and as well pragmatically constituted the essence of the Chinese tradition. Although this statement is true, this does not mean that other traditions have not been present or in any way failed to contribute to Chinese culture. However, when attempting to characterize “Chinese traditions” I will mainly discuss the interactions among these three traditions (Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism) unless otherwise stated. Secondly, even though I have called these three traditions under their fixed distinctiveness of “Confucianism”, “Daoism” or “Buddhism”, as they are generally indentified as such, these identities are not by and large permanent and clearly defined (this statement will be further argued as a part of this project). Thirdly, similarly to the previous statement, the understanding of terms such as “religion” and “philosophy” should be taken as a generalized terminology. By Western perception (the perception that was largely influenced by 3 characterized by strong, prosperous and progressive society. The power that fueled this dynasty‘s