Reviews 2010 & 2011 the Royal Society of Edinburgh

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The Royal Society of Edinburgh T h e R o y

a Reviews 2010 & 2011 l S o c i e t y o f E d i n b u r g h R e v i e w 2 0 1 0 & 2 0 1 1

Printed in Great Britain by Henry Ling Limited, Dorchester, DT1 1HD

ISSN 1476-4342 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

REVIEW OF SESSIONS 2008-2009 (6 October 2008 -5 October 2009) 2009-2010 (5 October 2009 - 4 October 2010)

PUBLISHED BY THE RSE SCOTLAND FOUNDATION ISSN 1476-4342 The Royal Society of Edinburgh 22-26 George Street Edinburgh, EH2 2PQ

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Printed in Great Britain by Henry Ling Limited, Dorchester, DT1 1HD CONTENTS

ACTIVITIES OCTOBER 2008 - OCTOBER 2010 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ORDINARY MEETINGS ...... 3 PROCEEDINGS OF THE STATUTORY GENERAL MEETINGS ...... 7 5 OCTOBER 2009 ...... 7 4 OCTOBER 2010 ...... 23 EVENTS ...... 45 2008-2009 ...... 45 2009-2010 ...... 273 PUBLICATIONS ...... 385 POLICY ADVICE ...... 387 SCOTTISH BIOINFORMATICS FORUM ...... 391 EVENTS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE ...... 393 RESEARCH AND ENTERPRISE AWARDS ...... 395 MEDALS, PRIZES AND PRIZE LECTURESHIPS ...... 407 GRANTS COMMITTEE...... 409 INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME ...... 413 FELLOWS’ SOCIAL EVENTS ...... 421 GRANTS, SPONSORSHIP AND DONATIONS ...... 423 SCHEDULE OF INVESTMENTS ...... 425 FRIENDS OF THE SOCIETY ...... 433 CHANGES IN FELLOWSHIP DURING THE SESSIONS ...... 435 STAFF CHANGES DURING THE SESSIONS ...... 439 TRUSTEES’ REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS EXTRACT FROM TRUSTEES’ REPORT TO 31 MARCH 2009 ...... 441 ACCOUNTS 2008-2009 ...... 451 EXTRACT FROM TRUSTEES’ REPORT TO 31 MARCH 2010 ...... 475 ACCOUNTS 2009-1010 ...... 485

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ORDINARY MEETINGS SESSION 2008-2009

1 December 2008 15 June 2009 Chairman Chairman Lord Wilson Of Tillyorn KT GCMG Lord Wilson Of Tillyorn KT GCMG PRSE PRSE Lecture Formal Admission to Fellowship Professor David Porteous, Medical Mr Owen Dudley-Edwards FRSE, Genetics Section, University of Honorary Fellow, School of History, Edinburgh Centre for Molecular Classics and Archaeology, Universi- Medicine, Institute of Genetics ty of Edinburgh, Edinburgh signed and Molecular Medicine. Bruce the Roll and was admitted to the Preller Prize Lecture - Our Genetic Fellowship. Inheritance: for better or for Lecture worse, in sickness and in health. Professor James Hough FRSE, 1 April 2009 Associate Director, Institute for Chairman Gravitational Research, University Professor Hector MacQueen FRSE, of Glasgow delivered the 2009 Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize MA, HONDLITT , Vice-President lecture Ripples from the Dark Side Lecture of the Universe – the Search for Dr Alan Rutherford OBE, founder Gravitational Waves. of Airborne introduced Dr 7 September 2009 Andrew McLellan, HM Prisons Inspectorate and called on him to Chairman deliver the Airborne Initiative Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG Public Lecture entitled Realistic PRSE Alternatives to prison for young Lecture offenders. Professor Veronica van Heyningen, Announcement of Scrutineers University of Edinburgh, Institute of Genetics and Molecular The President announced that the Medicine/MRC Human Genetics ballot papers for the election of Unit. Making Eyes – Lessons from the next cohort of Fellows would Failed Miracles. go out to the Fellowship early in December. Professor John Spence Announcement of Scrutineers and Mr Edward Cunningham had The President announced that agreed to act as Scrutineers for Professor Andrew Walker and this ballot. Professor Gareth Pender would act as Scrutineers for the 2009 election of Council members.

3 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

SESSION 2009-2010

7 December 2009 7 June 2010 Chairman Chairman Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG Professor Hector MacQueen FBA PRSE FRSE, Vice-President Formal Admission to Fellowship Changes to Laws Mr Douglas Crombie Anderson The Vice-President announced OBE FRSE, Executive Director that Council had decided that the Optos plc signed the Roll and was category “Ordinary Fellow” formally admitted to the Fellow- should be replaced by “Fellow” as ship. referring to Fellows as Ordinary Lecture seemed both archaic and inappro- Dr Paul; Foster, Senior Lecturer, priate, given the high level of New Testament, School of Divinity, distinction required to become a University of Edinburgh. The BP Fellow. The phrase Ordinary Prize Lecture, The Apocryphal Fellow is defined in the Society’s Gospels – Then and Now. Laws and before it would be possible to drop use of the word 1 March 2010 Ordinary, the Laws will require to Chairman be changed. A vote will take place Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG at the Annual Statutory Meeting PRSE in October to decide if this Law should be changed. Ballot The President announced that Lecture Professors Jane Bower and Dr Deirdre Heddon, Department Michael Forde acted as Scrutineers of Theatre, Film and Television for the Ballot for the election of Studies, University of Glasgow. new Fellows. They reported that The BP Prize Lecture, The Art of 48% of the Fellowship returned Women Walking: an Embodied ballot papers, and that the names Practice. on the list were approved by ‘an overwhelming majority’. The list of new Fellows was released to the media earlier in the day. Lecture Professor Jonathan Rees, Grant Professor of Dermatology, Univer- sity of Edinburgh. The David Anderson Berry Medal Lecture, The Importance of Being Red.

4 Proceedings of the Ordinary Meetings

21 September 2010 Chairman Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG PRSE Council Ballot The President announced the Scrutineers for the Ballot Count for membership for Council, explaining that the Ballot Count for the 2010 election for Council members requires that two Fellows be nominated by the President to act as Scrutineers. Professor Janet McDonald and Professor Andrew Ranicki were nominated to act in this capacity. . Formal Admission to Fellowshp Professor Edgar Peltenburg, Emeritus Professor of Archaeology and Honorary Professorial Fellow, University of Edinburgh, elected in 2010, signed the Roll, therefore completing his admission to the Society. Lecture Lord Krebs Kt, FRS, FMedSci, Principal, Jesus College, University of Oxford. Facing up to Climate Change.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE STATUTORY GENERAL MEETING Minutes of the Statutory General Meeting held on 5 October 2009, ending the 226th Session The Annual Statutory Meeting took place in the Society’s Wolfson Theatre on Monday 5 October 2009 at 6 pm. Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG, President, took the Chair. Lord Wilson reported that the meeting was being recorded and would shortly be available to listen to on the Fellows-only section of the Society’s web site. A. FORMAL BUSINESS 1. Minutes The Minutes of the Annual Statutory Meeting held on Monday 6 October 2008 were taken as read, approved by those Fellows present and signed by the President as a correct record. 2. Matters Arising There were no matters arising. 3. Report on Activities for Session 2008/09 The meeting noted a Report on Activities for Session 2008/09 prepared by the General Secretary, which had been distributed to Fellows in advance. The President suggested that any discussion of the report should take place after the Office Bearers’ Reports had been delivered. 4. Office-Bearers’ Reports a) General Secretary’s Report Professor Geoffrey Boulton gave the following report: In keeping with charity law our activities during the fiscal year April 2008 to March 2009 are recorded in the Annual Trustees’ Report and Accounts for that period. This has been approved by Council in its capacity as the Society’s Trustees and a copy is available to any Fellow. “In addition to the papers received for this evening, all Fellows received an Annual Review which summarises the main activities described in the Trustees Report and includes an approved summary of accounts on which the Treasurer will report later. I do not propose to comment on each and every activity mentioned in the very full and varied programme of activities recorded in the Report on Activities for Session. I will let them speak for themselves, but would like to say a few things about the new things that have happened and in part, at least, provide a basis for things we hope to do in the future.

7 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

One of the major developments on which I reported on last year has been a considerable growth in the Society’s policy-related activities, the purpose of which is to better utilise the expertise and breadth of the Society to benefit the broader society of which it is part and, in particular, utilising the rigour that we are able to contribute to public affairs and also our independence. In the last year we produced over 20 Advice Papers, which involved about 150 Fellows in their preparation. These have been directed primarily in response to government consultations from Holyrood, Westminster and Brussels and, indeed, many of them we have followed up to ensure that they have impact. We only respond to these consultations when we believe we have something to say and when we believe that by saying it we shall have some effect. What we wish to do progressively, however, is to move from a reactive mode in which we are responding to government consultations or consultations by other bodies, to a proactive mode where we believe there are important issues that need to be addressed in the public domain and where we think we can bring them to the public attention in an effective fashion. There are two proactive reports that are in preparation at the moment, or at least are being prepared for. One of them is likely to be entitled Digital Scotland, the other will be on health demand and provision in Scotland. We believe that both of these can be done reasonably expeditiously utilising the expertise in the Society. We have also produced, at very short notice, briefing papers immediately prior to parliamentary debates, for example, early this year we produced one on swine flu and last week we produced one on energy. The purpose of these is to set out, insofar as we are able to, the facts and options and leave the politicians to argue about the politics. We have also established two very important committees in the last year in response to two vital policy areas. The Education Committee, on which Lord Sutherland will report shortly, and the Business Forum, on which I will report later. They are distinctive Committees in being directed towards policy. The year also saw a merger with the Caledonian Research Foundation (CRF). The CRF established in 1990 to support research in Scotland, particularly in the field of biomedical sciences, merged with the RSE Scotland Foundation. As a consequence of that merger there was a capital transfer into the Society of over £6 million, but unfortunately and largely because of the credit crunch,

8 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

the inherited commitments of the CRF exceed income. The plan is therefore to draw down some capital to cover the shortfall and to put income and expenditure in balance in 2011 by a small reduction in CRF-related activities. An important event of the year was the unveiling of the James Clerk Maxwell Statue for which past President Sir Michael Atiyah was the driving force. Michael chose Alexander Stoddart to produce the statue, an inspired choice, raised the money, and master minded an outstanding one-day conference, which included the statue unveiling. It is owned by the Society and is one of the best, if not the best, statues in Edinburgh. The conference also saw the unveiling of a hologram of the statue, which rests proudly in the Society’s James Clerk Maxwell room. Professor Andy Walker deserves great credit for making this happen. This year too we had the first ever collaboration with the Edinburgh International Festival. We had a long series of lectures on the Scottish Enlightenment, delivered by a very distinguished cast of speakers, many of whom were Fellows of the Society. Looking ahead we are very aware that the financial environment within which the Society works might be a very harsh one over the next few years, and Council is planning to ensure that our fundamental objectives can be sustained even if the funding environment markedly deteriorates, with a particular eye on the probability that public sector finances will suffer considerably in the next few years. What has been achieved over the last year would not have been possible without the willing and voluntary involvement of a large numbers of Fellows, the support of the Society’s hard working staff, and the voluntary input of many others beyond the Society. On behalf of the Society I would like to thank them all for their contribution. A number of Office Bearers, Councillors and Convenors step down today having completed their terms of office. They are: Lord Patel as Vice-President, Life Sciences, Tom McKillop as Vice-President, Business, Professor Andrew Miller, as RSE Scotland Foundation Chairman, Professors Sue Black, April McMahon and Chris Whatley as Councillors and, last but not least, the Programme Convenor, Professor David Ingram. On behalf of the Society, I would like to

9 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

thank each of them for their contribution to our work, which was done whilst fulfilling considerable other commitments elsewhere. b) Treasurer’s Report Mr Ewan Brown gave the following report: I would like to speak principally to the summary financial information on pages 14, 15 and 16 of the Annual Review for 2008/09 that was sent to all Fellows. Before doing so I should remind you that what is being presented are the consolidated accounts of the RSE and the RSE Scotland Foundation and therefore present the overall picture of the Society’s activities. First the consolidated balance sheet at the foot of page 15 you will see there that total funds are up by £6.7 million. That is the net outcome of the transfer of approx £6.3 million at the time of funds to the Society from the CRF, the receipt of a major legacy of over £2 million from Dr Thomas, a larger amount that was anticipated when my predecessor Sir Edward Cunningham addressed you last year, a reduction of over £1.5 million in the value of investments during the year and the Society’s share of the pension fund asset, and a virtual break even on our operating activities. These are the four constitu- ents that take us from the 11.87 million to the 18.6 million. The individual fund movements for the General Fund, the Restricted Fund and the Designated Funds are shown at the top of page 15. Excluding the 6.3 million of CRF money, they aggregate to a figure of £2.1 million, and that compares with £174,000 the previous year; the difference is almost entirely explained by the legacy that was received. On page 14 there is a reconciliation of this £2.1 million figure, to what we consider to be the real underlying operating surplus for the year, it’s a rather fragile number at £39,000, but it’s better than the operating loss that was budgeted. The top half of page 16 shows the split of incoming resources as we are required to describe them to satisfy the accounts speak of charitable bodies; the bottom half of page 16 shows how the money was spent. Our finance director Kate Ellis and her team have made considerable progress in breaking these figures down so that we now know with much greater precision how much the Society’s various activities cost and how much they contribute. What we see from the income figures is that around £1 million came from rentals, investments and operations, which included journals, and the provision of conference facilities, and almost £200,000 came

10 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

from Fellows. Excluding the distorting effect of the legacy the main income sources totalling over £2.3 million continue to come from the Scottish Government (and that is up from previous years) to fund agreed programmes, from other public bodies and from charitable trusts. The bulk of the resources expended went, as in previous years, to support the core public benefit purposes of the Society in relation to world-class researchers, innovation and business, promoting science as a career, public appreciation of science and culture, informing and influencing public decisions and fostering international collaborations; a total of £4.2 million, including support to the Scottish Bioinformatics Forum. The Society does a lot with a little and this is well evidenced in the earlier pages of the Annual Review. The messages conveyed to Fellows in previous years are dependant on a relatively narrow range of funded programmes and sponsors and the need to increase our income by broadening the funding sources if we want the Society to be doing more. The need to monitor costs very carefully and to understand what makes and what costs money has become all the more important in the last twelve months as the economic dark clouds have moved in. The accounts that I am presenting to you this evening are satisfactory but historic. Our current concern is to ensure we understand the potential vulnerabilities that we could face if we had any material income shocks, to be active in developing new sources of income and to ensure that the Society is in a position to support new initiatives that will engage the many talents of Fellows to contribute to the social, cultural and economic wellbeing of Scotland. c) Fellowship Secretary’s Report Professor Peter Holmes gave the following report: Thank you President. It is my pleasure to be the Fellowship Secretary and I just want to cover three aspects essentially; a little bit about the current Fellowship, the recent elections and a little bit about the process we are in currently in terms of selection. With regard to the current composition of the Fellowship, it is, as you can see, essentially 1500 Fellows, with 1400 of them as Ordinary Fellows, and that has not changed too dramatically since last year. The distribution is as follows, with 36% in Life Sciences, 37% in the Physical, Engineer- ing and Informatic Sciences, 19% in the Arts and Humanities and 8% in Economics, Business and Industry.

11 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

We’ve always been aware that the economics, business and industry elements of our Fellowship have of course been lower, and we’ve been looking at ways of addressing that, as some people perceive it as being too low. So that I think is of great interest. Two aspects that have always attracted some attention are the success rates of being elected and the gender balance. If we look first of all at the success rate for the four sectors. The success rate is significantly higher for the sector of Business and Education than for the other three, although it should be noted that the number of candidates coming forward is significantly lower as well. If we look at gender balance overall, I think we see a significant improvement in this area; 9% of our Ordinary Fellowship is now female. From last year’s election of 39 Fellows, eight were women and I think that’s very good. In fact 42%of the women put forward were successful in being elected, compared with 33% the previous year. Of the men elected, it went down from 36% to 21%. The next stage following the election last winter was of course the Fellows’ Induction Day held in May, which was a very successful day and hopefully that tradition will continue. So if now move to the next stage, which is essentially the election cycle we are currently in. This year we have 182 candidates - 169 are for Ordinary Fellowship and that compares with 149 last year. From the Sectors we have 63 for Sector A, 54 for B, 26 for C and 24 for D this year. Last year we had 15 candidates for Sector D, so we’ve seen the largest increase in fact in this Sector. On gender, there are again 19 female candidates put forward for Ordinary Fellowship, the same as last year. The Council every year of course debates the allocation, the total and the allocation to each Sector of places for Fellowship, and this is essentially decided on a variety of factors. What you have in front of you the quota for this coming year which is, in fact, the same as the quota for last year. The five factors that we take into consideration are: the relative numbers of nominations in each sector; the proportions of senior academic staff in Scottish universities and the extent of which there is need for moderating this number in the light of the strengths of the field beyond the academic world; the current balance of the Fellowship; and previous success rates. When all those were taken into account it was agreed to keep the number electec at 40 and that the quota between the different sectors should not alter. In 40 we have two floating places, which essentially are for people who

12 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

fall between the main sector groups, and I think that has been a very useful development. So that’s essentially where we are at the present time. And if finally I could just point out a couple of things concerning the election process, which is a kind of distillation process. We are getting towards the end of the sectional committee meetings, the top six names are going forward into the sector group meetings who again debate, and so it moves up to the Fellowship Committee and Council and then of course finally goes out to the Fellowship as a Ballot. There is an important other point to mention on this, and that is that under Sector D we have a new Sectional Committee, which essentially is Education and Public Understanding of Science and Letters, and we think that is a very important development. Two other points to make. We have 14 Sectional Committees, and the average membership is 15 Fellows per Sectional Committee, so over 200 Fellows are involved in the process of electing Fellows, which I think is a very significant portion of the Fellowship. Our thanks to them for doing what is really a very important task; also a very special thanks of course to Dr Lesley Campbell who plays an outstanding role in keeping all this moving along so smoothly and so fairly. Ther e are a couple of new issues which I think we should point out in terms of the role of Sectional Committees. Sectional Committees are now being asked to do two things perhaps slightly more novel - one is to suggest names to assist Geoffrey Boulton and others in policy advice, and that’s a very important and growing role of course in the RSE, but another is to be proactive and identify issues which they feel the Society should be giving attention to. Finally, just one point which you might care to consider, and that is that recently there has been a suggestion that we perhaps again should consider the idea of a junior or young academy. The average age of the Fellowship currently is about 55 years and this doesn’t change very much. There is a feeling that we should perhaps be trying to engage with younger groups, younger academics and others in a way that would give some empowerment to them by association. It wouldn’t necessarily mean of course that they would become Fellows of the RSE. Several academies in mainland Europe have gone down this route and I think it is something the Fellow- ship Committee is going to look at over the next few months. Of course, it will be a long process if it ever comes to fruition, but I

13 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

think it is an interesting concept, and we would appreciate feedback on that at some point. d) Discussion of Office-Bearers’ Reports Professor John Francis asked the General Secretary to comment on the proposed Inquiry on climate change impact, and, in particular, exactly what the Inquiry is likely to address and how it plans to go about its task. Professor Boulton replied that climate change is, arguably, the biggest single challenge to which the human species collectively has had to respond. Under those circumstances, it’s crucial for us not only to be able to be concerned with potential mitigation of climate change, but also with adapting to change. The exact issues to be addressed are a matter for the excellent inquiry group, which has been put together across a wide range of disciplines. One of the issues that is, however, vitally important is the indirect effect of climate change, which will be much greater than the direct ones; in other words those that come about as consequence of dislocation in global patterns of trade and the global economy. The Inquiry will be launched on 19 October. It is premature to anticipate when it might be completed, but hopefully within around a year. One of the things that will happen is carrying on the tradition that’s already been begun by the Energy Inquiry and carried forward by the Hills and Islands Inquiry, which is to enhance the amount of public engagement that takes place both before and during the progress of the report, and afterwards too. Public awareness of these issues is crucially important if the political response is going to be appropriate to the challenge. Professor James Irvine commented on the Inquiries. On climate change, he stressed the importance of considering the economics. He also referred to the Hills and Islands report appended to the 2008 ASM Minutes and specifically to a mention of farmers getting subsidies for cutting the grass and a few other little things, which he considered to be extremely important activities which keep land in what was traditionally called ‘good heart’, but which bureaucrats now call ‘cross-compliance’ with a restricted number of things they can check on and issue big penalties. He expressed disappointment that such activities were dispelled as almost trivia and a misuse of government money, because if you lose the quality of the land you lose farming in Scotland, in the hills, entirely. He therefore asked that future reports be better balanced. He added that it is important

14 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

that reports, with clear recommendations, are issued quickly, as delays are not helpful and normally lead to procrastination. Professor Gavin McCrone, Hills & Islands Inquiry Chairman, replied that the issue that had concerned the Inquiry and indeed many other people, was the number of examples of land farmers who were able to draw direct support in the single farm payment, but do extraordinary little in return. The Inquiry even discovered some who had left their farms, but who were still drawing single farm payments. Professor McCrone concurred with Professor Irvine on the importance of keeping land in good agricultural condition, not least because we don’t know when we might need to use it more intensively again, which may very well be the case as the world population rises, and people become wealthier and eat more meat products across the globe. He stressed, however, that the report did not intend in any way to disparage what a lot of farmers do quite properly in tending their land, but that there are quite a number who are not doing very much. Professor Hector MacQueen referred to the James Clerk Maxwell Statue and suggested that, should the Society ever consider commissioning another statue, perhaps it might appropriately be a female subject and that Elsie Inglis might be an appropriate figure, particularly as she not already commemorated in the City in this way. Professor Malcolm Wilkins invited those present to express the Fellowship’s appreciation of the magnificent bequest of the late Dr Thomas. He asked if Dr Thomas had given any guidance to the Society about how the funds should be used and if he hadn’t, if Fellows could be assured that the Council will invest the whole of capital so that the income will be enjoyed by the Society in perpetuity to give it an element of freedom from the sort of funds which have got strings tied to them, and to help worries about the security of funding in the years ahead. He added that, as a result of the bequest, the Society had an excellent opportunity to have a bit more independence in its income and expressed a hope that the capital isn’t frittered away on building alterations or redecoration. The President said Dr Thomas had not laid down any specific conditions as to how his legacy should be used and agreed that the more “independent” money the Society can get the better. Dr Duncan, Chief Executive, added that the legacy had been put in a fund that kept it at arm’s length from the day-to-day running of the building.

15 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Ewan Brown added that the Society would, of course, like to have additional legacies, and part of its ability to secure these will be influenced by the extent to which it can demonstrate tangible benefits arising. He remarked that the Royal Society, in approaching its 350th anniversary, couldn’t decide whether to look for £50 million or £100 million of new money in an appeal and after long discussion decided on £50 million. A few days after this was decided, an unexpected gift of £48 million arrived from Australia, from somebody who had only visited the Society on about two occasions, but thought the Society was doing extremely good work. Within this wider context, Council has decided to use the Thomas legacy over a defined period of time, probably about 15 or 20 years, rather than taking the capital into perpetuity, where often it loses its value simply by being invested. It will be used to support activities benefitting the wider Scottish society. In doing this there will, of course, be due recognition of the contribution made by Dr Thomas. Professor Boulton commented on the issue of the Fellowship profile, raised by Professor Holmes in his report. He said that, for one reason or another, many people are managing to survive and that this has two consequences. Firstly, the age profile of the Fellowship is bound to get older and older. Secondly there will be fewer available slots for younger Fellows. He said he was not particularly enthusiastic about the idea of “Junior Academy”, but was concerned about there being so few slots available for the new Fellows at an age when they might well be able to contribute a different point of view from a different generation, and wondered whether consideration had been given to having a new category of Fellows over a certain age, who would no longer be counted in the total Fellowship for the purpose of determining the quota of new Fellows. This, he thought, would be a way of introducing more new Fellows without going in the direction of a “Junior Academy”, acknowledging that the two ideas were not necessarily mutually exclusive and urging that they be considered seriously. Professor Holmes responded that this was a very useful and interesting idea, which might go with the idea of a “Junior Academy”. He added that it might be slightly controversial to some Fellows.

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5. Election of Council and other Office-Bearers for the 227th Session Lord Wilson reported that all Fellows entitled to vote had been sent a ballot paper. The returned papers were examined by the scrutineers, Professors Andy Walker and Gareth Fender, who reported 645 returns - considerably more than the 515 returned the year before. All those proposed were elected either unanimously or by an overwhelming majority. The President congratulated the newly-elected Council members and thanked all those who were standing down. Membership of Council and the Executive Board for the next Session would be:

Council Executive Board President General Secretary Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT Professor Geoffrey Boulton OBE Vice-Presidents Treasurer Professor Jean Beggs CBE Mr Ewan Brown CBE Professor Tariq Durrani OBE Curator Mr John McClelland CBE Professor Duncan Macmillan Professor Hector MacQueen International Convener General Secretary Professor Sir David Edward KCMG, Professor Geoffrey Boulton OBE QC, PC Treasurer Programme Convener Mr Ewan Brown CBE Professor John Richardson Fellowship Secretary Research Awards Convener Professor Alan Miller Professor Peter Holmes OBE Ordinary Members Young People’s Convener Professor Sir John Arbuthnott Professor Mary Bownes OBE Professor Cairns Craig OBE Professor Anna Dominiczak OBE Dr Iain Halliday CBE Professor Sue Manning

6. Any Other Business There was no other formal business.

17 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

B. TOPICAL PRESENTATIONS 1. Education Committee Lord Sutherland of Houndwood KT, PPRSE and Education Committee Chairman, provided the meeting with the following overview of the Committee’s work. This new Committee arose from an informal group gathered together by Professor Boulton. From that, the Society’s Council decided it would like to have a Committee that was formally part of the Society’s structure, which would present a report and would, within reasonable limits of time and financial and staff support, speak to the outside world on education-related matters. Now this is fraught with danger because individuals have their views, committees have their views and indeed the Society might have its views and these might not be all the same. It might not be possible to issue reports and comments that says the Society in its totality thinks x or y because there can be controversial issues, but we will do our best and we have put together a Committee which has able people from the school sector, the administrative sector and from the university sector, and indeed from research and from people with very strong research records as well, both in education and other related areas. I am delighted to say that Professor Sally Brown, who has immense experience in this area, has agreed to be and is serving very well indeed as the Deputy Chair of this Committee and she keeping a finger on the pulse of what’s happening in the interactions currently between school teachers and the national administration in government. So we will try to do our best; we will be as balanced as we can, but we cannot promise that your views will always be the views of the Committee. We will get as near to that, but as you may have seen in the press recently that two members of the Committee, and I put my hand up to this as being one, have sounded off in The Scotsman on educational issues. These are our personal views and we don’t hand them over to the Society. The Committee is currently exercising its mind in relation to three areas that are of huge importance for education within our country. The first is the introduction of CfE (Curriculum for Excellence), which is due to be introduced next autumn. Such a major change in structure and shape in forms of delivery needs careful preparation. If you ask for a series of major changes you have got to help teachers make the adjustment, which is continuing professional development with a very sharp edge to

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it. There is an issue to be addressed and the Society has already, through the embryo committee, made two or three submissions to those responsible for introducing this new CfE. These submissions have been well regarded by those who have received them. No one could dissent from the CfE’s intentions of promoting successful learners, confident individuals, effective contributors and responsible citizens. To implement a more flexible curriculum and give teachers more freedom to exercise their professional creativity, again one of the aims, is laudable, but it’s the detail that is lacking and many teachers are commenting on this to help them prepare exactly what is being required of them. Exercising professional creativity is something good teachers do anyway and I’m sure the smart ones find ways of exercising their freedom whatever the formal details; they want successful learners, confident individuals and so on. All that’s true, so what’s going to be different? It’s trying to persuade the powers that be to give adequate time and a firmer fuller clearer statement of what’s involved that is one focus of the Committee’s interest. We’re trying to balance critical comment with effectively getting into the business in detail of preparing for how this new curriculum will be. One way in which we are doing this is by seconding a Chemistry teacher to undertake an exemplifica- tion project study for creating classroom material in chemistry, one of the subjects in most difficulty in most schools and universities today. This is being jointly funded by the Society and the Royal Society of Chemistry, at a total cost of 36,000. It is a pilot working with classroom teachers in the relevant area. This is practical input and it’s marvellous to be associated with it. The Society has also engaged with various civil servants who have primary responsibility in this area and has been working with them to suggest mechanisms involving teachers from different schools collaborating and cooperating. The other topics on the Committee’s agenda are: the introduction of a Scottish Baccalaureate; and higher education funding. The Baccalaure- ate is not the international one, but a Scottish version involving elements of Highers. This is now moving ahead and the Committee represented the Society at a meeting organised by the Scottish Qualifi- cation Authority (SQA) to consider the implications of such a qualification. The Society, through the Committee, has an important ongoing role to play here given, its independence from the SQA and the others involved.

19 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Higher education funding is once again making media headlines. I think it inevitable that there will be a lifting of the current barrier on fees south of the border and that of course will raise the question of the Scottish position. The Committee has met with officials from Universities Scotland to keep in touch with developments in this area. We hope to be able to spend more time on this particular issue, but the CfE is so imminent, so important and so totally encompassing of what goes on in our schools, that that’s where the weight of our activity has been so far. Discussion Professor Roland Ibbett commented on an article in The Times that day about schools not being willing to undertake chemistry experiments anymore because of over zealous health and safety rules and wondered if any of the chemistry funding would go towards encouraging actual practical experiments again in schools. Professor Ian Halliday agreed that there was a serious and ongoing health & safety issue about low level people setting their own standards because those at a higher level, i.e. Government, were not making the rules clear, and that this should be tackled. On implementing the Curriculum for Excellence, he added that the difficulties, particularly in relation to long-serving teachers, must not be underestimated. Sir David Edward suggested the Committee should, at some stage, consider the crisis in language teaching in Scotland. In response to Professor Halliday’s point, Lord Sutherland commented that the Scottish Government has said the changes in education must be financially neutral, but there is a great deal of experience which suggest that major and radical reforms of educational systems and curricula invariably fail unless the resources are put in to make them possible and what happens is there’s a tremendous perturbation of the system to no good effect, and that’s exactly what must somehow be avoided. 2. Business R&D Forum Professor Geoffrey Boulton provided the meeting with the following overview of the Committee’s work. I speak on behalf of the Forum because the Chairman and Deputy Chairman are unable to attend this evening, otherwise one of them

20 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

would have been presenting this report. The reason the Forum was created was that looking back 13 years or so, the Society was involved with Scottish Enterprise in a Commercialisation Inquiry, an outcome of which was the start of a process of changing the mind set of the universities in relation to engaging with the commercial and business world. Many of us believe that, on the supply side of the equation, the universities are doing as well as one can reasonably expect, but the problem is our ability to exploit the excellence of the research base and, as a result, we have had poor rates of economic growth over the last 10- 15 years. We hear the same debates year in year out and increasingly CEOs of highly successful companies located here in Scotland simply don’t involve themselves in these issues. The Forum is intended as a vehicle to bring together senior business people who have and do run major and significant companies in Scotland, with a view to them indicating where they, on the one hand, feel the priorities are in exploiting the excellent research base that we have and, on the other hand, setting out policies which they, from their experience as “high level technicians”, feel should be in place. It is a group of senior business Fellows, which will be chaired shortly by John McClelland, who will be taking over from Sir Tom McKillop, who has chaired it over the last six months. It has already recognised that the last thing needed is yet another piece of research by a consultant. Instead, it has established a set of propositions, based on various experience, about the key things that need to happen in the Scottish business environment to exploit the research base and to set a sensible forward path. One of the propositions is that we need to clear the undergrowth from all the numerous previous interventions of this sort put in place by Scottish Enterprise and others and look for stronger leverage mechanisms. Individually, Forum members are speaking with the CEOs of major companies to ask if the propositions are ones which they would sign up to. The aim is to gather a strong view of the priorities for business development in Scotland. The Forum is not a shadow group for the First Minister’s Council of Economic Advisers, which is a very high level macro economic group. The Forum is essentially a group of high level technicians who know how business works. We hope its consultative work will be completed by its next meeting in December. It will then discuss how it might best present its view to government, with the objective of creating mechanisms that are much more likely to create the sort of developments we like to see in Scotland.

21 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Discussion Professor James Irvine said small businesses must not be forgotten, as they are an enormous part of the business environment and are so often actually left out of the equation. He welcomed the initiative which brought together Fellows for discussion, but commented on the remarkably few occasions available for groups of Fellows to actually discuss a topic of interest, such as the one being considered by the Forum. Professor Boulton replied that the Society was always looking for ways to stimulate debate and discussion involving its Fellows and lots of activities taken place, with various groups coming together to address major policy issues. There has been real intellectual engagement in this area involving over 150 Fellows in the last year or so. It is of course continually looking for ways in which it can be a hub of debate and discussion. In response to the point about small businesses, Professor Boulton said that the Forum considered that while small businesses are important, that there had been an excessive concentration on them in Scotland and if one asks why little growth has taken place it might be argued that it’s actually because of the lack of major companies, which have significant large supply chains and are the “food stock” for small to medium enterprises, which can sell their expertise and sell their ideas to them. OECD statistics for a country like Scotland – same size, same character of economy – shows that one of the things Scotland lacks is not small to medium enterprises, but major companies. If Scotland were at the average level in OECD terms, it would have 75 more companies that were worth more than a hundred million pounds per annum, and that is therefore the area in which Scotland is lacking. Professor John Francis asked if the Forum would consider the possibility of championing various areas of technologies. Professor Boulton said this was not something which the Forum had discussed. The President thanked all those who had attended the meeting and contributed to the reports and discussions, and declared the meeting closed. Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG ...... 4 October 2010 President

22 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

Minutes of the Statutory General Meeting held on 4 October 2010, ending the 227th Session

The Annual Statutory Meeting took place in the Society’s Wolfson Theatre on Monday 4 October 2010 at 6 pm. Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG, President, took the Chair. Prior to the commencement of formal business, the President invited two recently elected Fellows, Jonathan Mills, Director of the Edinburgh Interna- tional Festival and Dr Louise Richardson, Principal & Vice Chancellor of the University of St Andrews, to sign the Roll. A. FORMAL BUSINESS 1. Minutes The Minutes of the Annual Statutory Meeting held on Monday 5 October 2009 were taken as read, approved by those Fellows present and signed by the President as a correct record. 2. Matters Arising There were no matters arising. 3. Report on Activities for 2009/10 The meeting noted a Report on Activities for Session 2009/10 distributed to Fellows in advance. The President suggested that any discussion of the report should take place after the Office-Bearers’ Reports had been delivered. 4. Office-Bearers’ Reports a) General Secretary’s Report Professor Geoffrey Boulton gave the following report: As required by Charity Law, the accounts for the period 1 April 2009 –31 March 2010 have been approved by RSE Council in its capacity as the Society’s Trustee and are available to any Fellow through the website or in printed format, and our activities covering the same period as the accounts are reported in our illustrated Annual Review, a copy of which has been made available to all Fellows. My report this evening covers activities during our 227th Session, which ran from the 2009 Annual Statutory Meeting until today. What I wish to do is spin through the important activities and milestones during the period and also look to the future. I’d like to start with a sense of purpose. The Society’s original charter is the advancement of learning and useful knowledge, but to what extent have we fulfilled these aspirations? For the purposes

23 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

of delivery and management, our work is broken down into a series of activities which support and recognise research and excellence across the whole range of scholarship and learning; events which are designed for the public; a very active schools programme; the provision of evidence and advice, particularly to the Parliaments which we address – Holyrood, Westminster, Brussels, and associated governments and civil service; international connections; and, of course, activities which are specific to Fellows. We continued to award Research Fellowships and moved on to a position where we are covering full economic costs. That’s an important shift, but one that will need to be carefully considered as we move into a tougher financial climate. Over the last seven years, £5 million, which has supported Personal Research Fellowships, has levered around an additional £37 million in research funding. Our Arts and Humanities Research Awards were also particularly successful in the last year and, although the total amount of funding available for this is relatively small, this is a really important area as it’s very easy in the domain of research to forget the humanities and social sciences with the drive from the life and physical sciences. Our Enterprise Fellowships continued to be highly successful and are now a proven model, with UK Research Councils picking them up and asking to engage with us in relation to these. In the last 13 years. these Fellowships have levered over £92 million of additional investment. Another key part of our role is, of course, communicating knowledge. Through our Meetings Committee we ran public lectures, discussions and conferences, which were attended by more than 5,000 people; and our schools programme was rich and diverse, with over 3000 pupils taking part in an interesting range of activities. Providing evidence and advice in relation to public policy matters is something we have driven strongly forward in the last two or three years. In this last year we have produced 17 Advice /Briefing Papers for Parliamentarians immediately prior to Parliamentary debate and the production of these involved about 170 Fellows. This, I think, is part of the benefit the Society brings to its Fellows who are enthusiastic to do these things. It provides a vehicle through which they can utilise their expertise to influence public policy. The sorts of subjects we covered were: fisheries policy, a proposed Alcohol Bill, an End of Life Bill, and high activity radiation waste policy. We will also shortly publish a paper on Digital Scotland, which in my view

24 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

will make a really major contribution and hopefully act as a major incentive to government. We have also had meetings with Govern- ment Ministers, civil servants, MSP’s and MP’s. Last, but by no means least, our major Inquiry on Facing up to Climate Change has taken a diverse range of evidence and is expected to report its findings in the early part of 2011. We have two important committees which oversee some of our evidence & advice activities. These are our Education Committee and Business Innovation Forum. The Education Committee has been very heavily involved in the Curriculum for Excellence. We have funded, together with the Royal Society of Chemistry, a project producing exemplar materials in relation to how chemistry might be taught in the context of the Curriculum, and at the moment a working group is exploring whether that might also be appropriate in the domain of history. The Committee is also heavily involved in advisory groups to the Government and is planning a seminar which is tentatively entitled “What are universities for?” on the basis that before you decide how to fund them or how much it might cost, you might actually want to ask the question what are they for anyway. The Business Innovation Forum has had a slow start but, in my view, is now beginning to have a real impact. It is designed primarily as a group of very experienced business people, with a small sprinkling of academics, with a view to utilising the knowledge and experience of these business people in identifying some of the large issues for innovation and business in Scotland and trying to present the case to Government for innovations which they believe are going to be important. Our outreach activities include a great variety of publications and some of us are rather concerned, essentially in a deliberate way, to review whether the spectrum of publications that we currently produce is appropriate to the modern age. One of the areas we want to enhance considerably is our use of the website as a means of reaching out to a wider diversity of people and we are well down to the road in doing that, with a new site expected to go live in Spring 2011. We also have substantial outreach and public engagement activities associated with our Inquiries and reports, and it is pleasing that we have been able to take these activities, and the expertise that Society’s Fellows can offer, to the whole of Scotland, including rural areas.

25 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

The international programme has been diverse in the last two or three years and we have developed increasing connections with China – which is recognition of the role that China is increasingly playing in the modern world. The international programme is, however, an area where we feel we could be much better focused and the International Convenor during this year, his last year as Convenor, is going to focus on developing a new strategic approach for consideration by RSE Council. We are aware that one of the things we have to do if we are going to engage in outreach and policy is to ensure that our external communication and relationships are very good. Peter Holmes will talk later about a new “Future Leaders Academy” initiative, an interesting idea that stems from the concept that in modern societies there is a strong recognition that the talent of the emerging young is crucially important to support. There have been two or three similar initiatives in Europe, particularly run by the Dutch Academy and the Leopoldina, the German Academy, which have had so-called ‘young academies’ running for several years. These have proved to be highly successful, they’ve attracted the very best and brightest talents, they’ve found ways of giving them things and opportunities which otherwise wouldn’t be accessible to them, and we think this a potentially extremely important development. We also want to review our Events Programme and, in particular, look at one of the areas which, some of us at least, believe we inadequately cover, that is careful deliberative discussions on crucial issues of the day involving primarily the Fellowship. During the year the Society has, once again, advanced learning and useful knowledge through a wide range of public benefit activities, which reached many people and places across Scotland and beyond. This would not have been possible without the willing and voluntary contribution of Fellows, the support of the Society’s hard working staff, or the voluntary input of others. On behalf of the Society, I would like to thank all of them for their contributions. Finally, Vice-President Physical Sciences, Professor Tariq Durrani and Council member Sir John Arbuthnott’s terms of office end today. On behalf of the Society I would like to thank both of them for their valuable contributions to the Society’s work, whilst at the same time fulfilling the many other demands on their time. That concludes my report. I would be happy to take any questions which you may have.

26 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

Discussion Dr John Francis:”listening to the General Secretary this evening it occurs to me that he’s charted a very interesting path going forward, but I seem to remember in a not too distant past that we had something within the Society which was vaguely referred to as a Strategic Plan and I wondered whether any of the elements of the Strategic Plan are now in conflict or under resourced in relation to some of these new ideas that he’s putting forward?” Professor Boulton: “strategic plans age and we are a long way down the track of the current plan, which finishes at the end of next year. Of course, the prospect you have in the beginning and the prospect you have at the end of such plans are rather different. On the other hand, it is very important to work along that pathway. In my view, one of the most important ways in which we should deal with the evolution of the Strategic Plan is to have an annual planning cycle where we can see which of the pathways we set are still appropriate and ones where we need to make changes so that we can prepare ourselves for the next plan. My view is that societies like one this need to reassess what they are doing from time to time because circumstances change, the demands and opportunities on them change and I think that’s very much what we are trying to do at the moment. It will be apparent to everyone here today, that at this moment funding is becoming extremely tight and we have to have a clear sense of where our priorities lie; for example, if our funding were to diminish dramatically we would need to know what should or should not continue, so we are trying to be very strategic about it, and I have no doubt that the next Strategic Plan we will be an evolution of current one, but I suspect it will look rather different in reality.” Dr Chris Masters: “it’s very impressive to hear all that we are doing, but my worry is, are we trying to do too much? Is there a danger that by trying to do too much we actually end up doing a lot of things not very well? How do we actually make sure that we retain the quality of what we are doing and perhaps decide to do less, but perhaps do it better, or at least improve it?” Professor Boulton: “I think that is exactly the rational for wanting to, if you like, annually address priorities. I think that priorities ought to lie in those areas where we are uniquely able to bring benefit to the society around us. Where we are simply doing things that others can do equally well my view is we should retire from those. That of course is easy to say, but much more difficult to do because people commit a great

27 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

deal of time and effort to running very creative very exciting activities, and saying to people that’s not a priority anymore is not an easy thing to do. The key issue is deciding what not to do. It’s really easy to decide what to do, it takes a lot more discipline to decide what not to do and societies like this don’t quite have the rigour and the discipline of businesses, which have to address markets, so changing direction is often quite difficult.” Professor Ian Halliday: “can I reflect some trouble I got into last week where, at a meeting of European Heads of Research Councils, I gave a speech which had a lot of overlap with what has been discussed, but in a different context. It concerned providing advice, and at a certain point a lot of heavyweight government funding agency people cried - we don’t want advice, we want input to make decisions, there is no shortage of advice it falls from heaven. So the question is how do you actually make it effective advice? Equally importantly for this Society is how do you communicate to the outside world, without too much boasting or telling lies, that your advice is having an effect? I am very aware that the most effective way to give advice is to get others to think it’s their idea, but then you can’t claim any credit. You’re aware underneath you had an effect, so it’s how do you measure and then tell everybody that we are making an impact? I think this is as important as providing the advice.” Professor Boulton: “I think firstly getting an organisation like this to really address policy advice and public policy issues is a learning process. Some people are already profoundly familiar with the sort of relationships that you need to have to make it work, but many levels aren’t and I think it’s taken us two or three years to realise how we go about doing things, and increasingly what’s happening is we are seeking to evaluate the impact. Before we start a report now, we ask ‘do we have anything to say?’ The second question is can we make an impact and what is the route through which impact will be created? If the answer to either of those questions is no, then frankly the rationale for doing it is very limited. We have certainly become more aware that one of the things one needs to do is address the people who you are trying to influence, address them directly, understand that psychology, understand where benefit lies for them and preferably at an early stage talk to them about where you can be helpful and useful. The other key thing is to follow things up. What one must not do is simply produce the paper and suppose that somehow everyone is going to adopt it. Of course, the more you do that the more difficult it is and the greater the difficulty in creating

28 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

new things. On the other hand what’s beginning to happen is that we can see that we are actually filling the policy space and we have now done work in many areas which are key areas for Scottish Government. In a sense, very frequently we don’t have to start afresh. We revisit groups and thoughts we have had before and amend them to current circumstances, so I think in the Scottish case it is very much more of a dialogue and one of the reasons why engagement and media relationships are so important.” b) Treasurer’s Report Mr Ewan Brown gave the following report: The summary accounts for the year to 31 March 2010, as set out at the back of the Annual Review document, are fairly straightforward, but the vagaries of accounting for charitable bodies still needs some explanation. First, a reminder that what is presented are the consolidated figures for the RSE and its connected charities, the RSE Scotland Foundation and the BP Research Fellowship Trust. However, the BP accounts are consolidated and are for the year to 30 September 2009, with the market value of its investments updated to 31 March 2010. Since there are no material issues involved, we have decided to remove this anomaly by changing the BP year end to March – so that future Annual Reviews will show all the component parts in the same form for the same periods. The largest elements of income and expenditure – the money received for the grant of research and enterprise fellowships and the amounts paid out in support of these fellowships – increased by 15%, a substantial step-up reflecting the implementation of earlier recommendations from Sir John Enderby. Elsewhere, costs were kept under tight control, with governance and management costs representing less than 3% of income. In these difficult times, it is very important that we are able to demonstrate to the Scottish Government that we are working to achieve efficiency savings and improve delivery output. The consolidated operating deficit for the year was £62k. You may recall that the £2.11m surplus for 2009 shown in the Annual Review included the legacy of £2.16m received in that year – the comparable figure for 2009 was a surplus of £39k. The 2010 deficit was planned – because Council knew that the RSE would be meeting award commitments made by the Trustees of the

29 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Caledonian Research Foundation before it was absorbed into the RSE, and there was also further expenditure on improving our systems. Total funds grew from £18.6m to £21.2m – an increase of £2.6m. Again this needs some reconciliation. On the negative side was the operating deficit of £62k and, of some real concern, an adverse pension valuation of £607k. On the positive side, the investment portfolio produced realised investment gains of £340k and unrealised gains of £2.87m. The unrealised gains, by definition, are not real; they simply reflect a snapshot of the value of our investments at the balance sheet date. The adverse pension deficit is not real either – accounting valuations are proving to be as opaque as actuarial valuations, but what is clear is that we can expect year-to-year volatility as discount rates and equities go up and down and as we live longer. What is real is being able to meet liabilities as they fall due. Al- though net current assets were down by £235k – attributable principally to higher deferred income – they were very close to £2m, which is a healthy position. The future of public sector funding is uncertain, but our scenario planning for the next spending review is well advanced. The delivery of the RSE’s varied programme of activities with public benefit outcomes will be guided by the priorities set by Council to ensure continuing financial stability. In challenging times, the RSE continues to seek new opportunities and develop existing activities, to enhance its contribution to Scottish society. In this connection, the major legacy to which I referred last year has already proved a most useful helping hand. I hope that Fellows generally will give serious consideration to leaving legacies to the RSE. I would be delighted to answer questions on the figures, reserving the right to pass the difficult ones to our Finance Director, Kate Ellis, whom I would like to thank for all her efforts c) Fellowship Secretary’s Report Professor Peter Holmes gave the following report: This is my annual opportunity to say a little bit about the Fellowship. I will begin by saying a few words about the composition of the Fellowship. As it stands at the present time, we have over 1500 Fellows in total, 9.3% of whom are female. The Fellowship is divided between four sectors which cover all the range of disci-

30 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

plines. Within those different sectors, we have 14 Sectional Commit- tees that cover a whole range of different subjects within a discipline. This involves almost 200 Fellows in the electoral process. At the moment 36%, of the Fellowship is within Sector A – the life sciences; 37% within Sector B – physical, engineering and informatic sciences; 16% within Sector C– the humanities and creative arts; and 11% in Sector D – social sciences, education, business and public service. As you might recall from previous years, Sector D is the area that we would like to try and grow. The success rate of election to Fellowship is of interest. From the figures for the last three years you can see it is highly competitive, and if you look particularly at 2009–2010 you can see that, in general, 24% are elected of the candidates being considered. Sector D, as I mentioned, is an area we are trying to grow and where we have had a high success rate. In 2007– 2008 it was 78%, it is now down at 33% and this success rate has some bearing on the distribution of places for the coming year, which I will refer to in a moment. Looking at the gender balance of our Fellows elected last year, we can see that 21% of the males presented for election were successful and 42% of the females presented were successful. This year this was 23% and 32% respectively so we are doing quite well in that respect I think. An important part of the year is the New Fellows’ Induction Day which is held in May every year. I’m pleased that on the 3rd of May this year we had 38 new Fellows admitted to the Fellowship. If we now look at the new election cycle which we are really just beginning, that is the 2010– 2011 cycle, we currently have 158 candidates under consideration. They are not all of course in their first year because candidates stay on the list for up to three years. We have four for Honorary, five for Corresponding and 149 for Fellowship. You can see from the distribution of those 158 candidates that the largest number by far are coming forward in the life sciences. There are many from the physical sciences but low numbers from Sectors C and D. You may recall that for many years we elected around 55 new Fellows each year, then two or three years ago it was reduced by Council to 40. Council would like to hold it at 40.

31 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Every year Council decides the total to be elected and the distribution amongst the various sectors, taking into account the size of the community, the number coming forward, and the balance of the Fellowship as it exists. Sector Groups Quota 2010–2011 Group A (4 Sectional Committees) 13 +1 possible Group B (4 Sectional Committees) 11 Group C (3 Sectional Committees) 5 +1 possible Group D (3 Sectional Committees) 7 +1 possible Floating 2 +1 possible Total 40 There will not be more than 40, but we do feel it is important to have some flexibility between the sectors. The final allocations will be decided by the Fellowship Committee and those recommendations then go to Council for approval. A group which I think is very important are the cross–discipline candidates. These are people that are strong in more than one field so don’t fit neatly into our Sectional Committees and Sectors, usually between sectors in fact. For these candidates, we have a small number of what we call ‘floating places’ and in the past some very valuable Fellows have come in through that route. So again it is 40 places in total for this coming year. Currently in the election process we are at the stage where we have a few remaining meetings of Sectional Committees considering this long list of candidates. They each rank their top six candidates and their lists then go forward to meetings of the sector groups who again do further distillation of these names. The names then finally move forward to the Fellowship Committee and to Council, and then of course out to the Fellowship for final endorsement. So it has a natural cycle and we are well under way this year and of course it is all complete by May next year. I am very happy to take any questions on the Fellowship issue, but whilst I am here if I could also say a few words about the Prizes Review, which started in 2009 and which I was asked to chair. There was a feeling that although we have some important prizes, the management of the scheme for prizes was really not ideal. Not all of them were awarded because it was difficult in some cases for names to come forward, and some of the topics covered by some of the prizes were rather out of date. It really was less than ideal and the

32 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

small committee felt we could have a much better and simpler system. We suggested that we should essentially have eight prizes across the four sectors. In the past, some sectors had several prizes, other sectors had almost none, so we believe it should be a senior prize and a junior prize in each of the four sectors. The winner of the Senior Prize will be invited to deliver a lecture, the Junior Prize winner will receive a medal. They should be awarded annually to get away from the confusion about which year we award a particular prize, and they will be awarded in each of the four sectors. We believe that the titles of the prizes should include ‘RSE’ in the name and be linked to very distinguished people associated with Scotland and the RSE. The suggested names and spread of the prizes are: in the Life Sciences, the Senior Prize named after Sir James Black and the Early Career medal after Patrick Neil; in the Physical Sciences, the Senior Prize named after Lord Kelvin and the Early Career Medal after Sir Thomas MacDougall Brisbane; in the Humanities and Creative Arts, a Sir Walter Scott Senior Prize and a Thomas Reid Medal, and in Sector D an Adam Smith Prize and a Henry Duncan Medal. Our suggestions have been endorsed by Council and we believe everything is now in place to move forward with this scheme in November for the coming year. The Royal Medals will be continuing. The IEE/RSE/Wolson, James Clerk Maxwell prize and award will continue and we hope that the Innovation Award, which has been funded by the Gannochy Trust for the last seven years, will also continue. Finally, I would like to thank RSE staff and particularly Dr Lesley Campbell and Mrs Anne Fraser for all their help during the year. Mr Ian Ritchie: you said quite rightly that we are trying to increase the number of candidates from Sector Group D and I think that’s very important. But the fact remains that our academics will naturally want to become Fellows of the Society as they see it as a career enhancing move, but the industrial sector don’t see that, so I think we really need to do something about this. I am a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering and we have a proactive campaign to bring in not only industrialists, but women too and it is quite separate from the membership programme. What they do is they actually go scalp hunting, find the case, persuade them it is worth doing and get the evidence. I think we should consider doing this.

33 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Professor Holmes: I agree with you. I think we have to be much more proactive in this area; the topic of doing more in this area was discussed at Council’s Away Day this summer and we intend to be more proactive in the coming year. Professor John Laver: I would like to ask a question about the success of women candidates. I am rather disappointed to see it is only 9% and I wonder what the possible reason is. I cannot believe, for example, that in academia or in enterprise, women of sufficient quality are not being promoted to the right ranks as it were. So I wonder if you could offer a view as to what the right reason is for the relatively slow progress of increasing the number of women candidates successfully elected, and whether there is something productive Council could do about that in the way of laying down relatively forceful encouragement, perhaps to sectors to do their very best to increase this at a sharper rate. Professor Holmes: it is a very important issue. I think the 42% success rate of female candidates is encouraging The Committees are giving as much support as possible, but we do need to be perhaps a little bit more proactive. In part we reflect the academic community, if you look at the gender balance of chairs in Scottish universities. It has been quite a slow process improving what is a very small percentage and I think part of our problem is reflected there, we have to give more encouragement. The larger problem is the progression of women. If we take the university route from undergraduate, postgraduate studies to postdoctoral studies you find a dramatic fall off in later years in many areas, for example science, where over the years the proportion of women has increased but you still get exactly the same fall off – indeed international evidence why this happens is really quite conflicting. Addressing this larger problem, would help us to resolve this particular issue. Professor Hector MacQueen: I do think that one of the difficulties we have, and I have expressed this view in the Fellowship Commit- tee and elsewhere, is that the current Sectional Committees and indeed their Convenors and myself as Vice-President, aren’t in a position where we are allowed to actually make nominations. We can do our best to encourage and facilitate, but basically what you have to do is go out through your Sectional Committee inspired and enthusiastic about improving things. The number of women is certainly one of the things in which considerable improvement can be made, but one cannot actually actively put ones’ name to

34 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

documents and carry out the nomination process, someone else has to do it. We are making our processes difficult for ourselves in our efforts to avoid the problem, which I think is actually a rather minimal problem, of conflicts of interest. Professor Holmes: this topic has been discussed in the past and there is a balance of view about the issues around conflicts of interest and the point that Hector has been raising, particularly with regard to the minority groups. We do however really have to try and encourage admissions from these groups. 5. Laws Changes The meeting approved changes in the Society’s Laws to reflect a decision by Council that the category “Ordinary Fellow” should be replaced by “Fellow”. Council felt that referring to Fellows as Ordinary is inappropriate given the high level of distinction required to become a Fellow. The phrase Ordinary Fellow is defined in the Society’s Law 1, and referred to again in Laws 29, 39 and 48. Appendix II lists those existing Laws and alongside them the changes approved. 6. Election of Council and Other Office Bearers for the 228th Session Lord Wilson reported that all Fellows entitled to vote had been sent a ballot paper. The returned papers were examined by the scrutineers, Professors Jan McDonald and Andrew Ranicki. All those proposed were elected either unanimously or by an overwhelming majority. The Presi- dent congratulated the newly-elected Council members and thanked all those who were standing down. Membership of Council and the Executive Board for the next Session would be: Council President General Secretary Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT Professor Geoffrey Boulton OBE Vice-Presidents Professor Jean Beggs CBE Mr John McClelland CBE Professor Hector MacQueen Professor Wilson Sibbett CBE Treasurer Fellowship Secretary Mr Ewan Brown CBE Professor Peter Holmes OBE Ordinary Members Professor Cairns Craig OBE Professor Anna Dominiczak OBE Professor Iain Halliday CBE Professor Sue Manning Professor Sheila Rowan

35 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Executive Board General Secretary Treasurer Professor Geoffrey Boulton OBE Mr Ewan Brown CBE Curator International Convener Professor Duncan Macmillan Professor Sir David Edward KCMG, _ QC, PC Programme Convener Research Awards Convener Professor John Richardson Professor Alan Miller Young People’s Convener Professor Mary Bownes OBE

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B. FUTURE LEADERS ACADEMY Professor Holmes presented the following paper which was then discussed and welcomed by the meeting as an initiative that should be progressed. 1) Why should the RSE create this new body? What are the “issues” we are seeking to address? The RSE Council believes that it is timely for the RSE to examine how it can interact more effectively with and support early-career researchers, scholars and professionals. One way of addressing this issue would be to create within the RSE a structure which supports this group and provides them with a forum in which to undertake a range of activities. The working title for this development is Future Leaders Academy. (The term ‘Young’ in the title is not favoured. Another possible title is Early Careers Academy, but a range of other titles are being considered and suggestions from Fellows would be welcome). Acting in this way would be in keeping with a growing interest by European national academies in developing ‘Young Academies’. The first was formed in Germany in 2000. This led to the development of one in the Netherlands five years ago and more recently in Austria, Turkey and Hungary. A number of other national academies in Europe are now actively discussing the creation of their own ‘Young Academies’. These countries include Belgium, Sweden, Finland and Switzerland. 2) What are the benefits? The Council believes that the creation of the Academy would demonstrate to Government and the wider community a vibrant RSE which is addressing the issues of younger scientists/scholars/ professionals and stimulating inter-disciplinary exchange, and that the RSE wishes to provide ongoing support for research fellowship- holders during and beyond the tenure of their fellowship. There would also be a strong alignment with the government priority of sustainable economic development. The development of a Future Leaders Academy for early-career researchers, scholars and professionals would provide considerable benefits to (a) themselves as individuals, (b) their careers, (c) the RSE and (d) the country more widely.

37 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Activities to achieve the above benefits: (a) will be achieved through social interactions – e.g. social gatherings, personal development events, shared e-mail lists, web-based social networking, etc. (b) will be achieved through professional interactions – e.g. meetings aimed at understanding one another’s research and seeking opportunities for collaboration (both intra- and inter- disciplinary), self-help sessions, facilitated professional/career development events, etc. (c&d)will be achieved through involvement with experienced representatives of various relevant groupings – e.g. senior researchers, senior university academics, government representatives (both politicians and civil servants), leaders of industry, entrepreneurs, etc. These interactions would be in both directions – permitting the opportunity for the member to better understand the complexities of the organisations upon which they depend and to influence and shape decisions and policy development. 3) What will the Academy do? The Academy will provide: (i) a forum and focus for younger researcher/scholar/professional activities; an opportunity for early-career research and professional leaders to generate networking and/or mentoring contacts and exposure to those in very different disciplines and professions to foster interdisciplinary exchange; (ii) a structure for young researchers/scholars/professionals to organise symposia, conferences or activities on topics of current interest (whether purely academic or policy/ethical/ cross-discipline); (iii) the opportunity for young researchers/scholars/professionals to provide independent advice to the RSE, government and other national bodies on issues pertaining to young researchers/ scholars and policy more broadly, and provide a pool of disciplinary expertise, opinion and assistance to the RSE, and for government or media to tap into; (iv) empowerment of younger researchers/scholars/professionals as a defined group within Scotland and the opportunity to

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provide a defined ‘voice’ of younger researchers/scholars to media and policy makers on national issues; (v) participation in RSE functions at all levels, providing a balancing influence on decisions and actions; (vi) promotion of outreach and provision of links between younger researchers/scholars and society; highlighting research conducted by young researchers to the media and society; (vii) inclusion of inputs from young researchers/scholars/professionals on all RSE policy consultations and expert documents; (viii) inclusion of young researchers/scholars/professionals on the Young Peopple’s Committee, the Meetings Committee and other committees; (ix) possibly a programme of “young leaders” meet “old leaders” networking and dinners and have formal inclusion in RSE events – meeting politicians etc. 4) What will be the relationship to the RSE? The Academy will be closely linked into the RSE and its management group will include RSE Council members and senior officials who, initially at least, have control of what the Academy does. It will be administered by the RSE. It is important to stress that the RSE Council is not seeking to create a ‘Junior Fellowship’ although it is expected that, since the membership of the Academy will consist of highly able people, many of them will later become potential candidates for election to the Fellowship. 5) Academy membership It is proposed that the membership of the Future Leaders’ Academy should embrace younger researchers, scholars and young professionals across the wide range of disciplines covered by the Fellowship of the RSE and who are based in Scotland. The criteria for selection will be refined by the RSE Sectors and Sectional Fellowship Committees. Initially each of the fou Sector Committees will be asked to identify up to a maximum of up to 50 possible members. Although the criteria may vary between the Sectors, they will all strive to nominate high quality individuals in the suggested age range of 30-40 years, with a good gender balance and geographical spread across Scotland.

39 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

A sub-committee of the Fellowship Committee will review the nominations and recommend a short list to the Council of those to be invited to join the Academy. Members will serve for between three and fve years. This will allow the Academy to be established with a modest initial membership (perhaps about 60 in the first year) building up to a steady state of about 200. The criteria for membership are likely to include those who have been successful in existing competitive research fellowship schemes conducted by bodies such as the RSE, Research Councils, the Royal Society and the British Academy researchers. For others, it would require young professionals who have been identified as ‘rising stars’ by their firms and professional organisations. 6) What will it cost and how will this be funded? Supporting the work of the Academy will require £30k-£50k per annum, inclusive of staff costs. The RSE will raise this additional funding before the Academy is launched. We will not be seeking Government funding for the Academy, although we hope the Government will be supportive to its aims. It is anticipated that the members will pay an annual subscription, but careful consideration will need to be given to the level, so as not to be a disincentive to membership. 7) What are the main risks to RSE and how will these be mitigated? The RSE Council recognises that the creation of the Academy carries some risks. These include; reputational risk if the Academy is not a success or if it becomes very controversial in its policies; and financial risks if insufficient levels of external funding can be raised initially and maintained in order to sustain the Academy. The Council believes that by maintaining close links with the Academy the former risks at least can be mitigated. 8) Timescale for implementation. The purpose of this paper is to seek endorsement from the ASM for the Council to move forward with plans for the Academy. The launch of the Academy will be dependent upon the identification of adequate external financial resources. It is hoped that these can be secured in the next six months and the Academy can be launched during 2011.

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Discussion Professor Andrew Miller: I do hope it is possible to go ahead with this. The group we are talking about are very active academic and professional people and are the people we really want to connect to the Society. It must, however, be clear that we are listening to them. It would be interesting to know what they think would be in it for them and what do they feel they could give to the Society by being a member of such an academy. The only criticism I can give is that there are too many ideas. Why don’t we canvas that group and ask them what they would like to see coming from such an academy. Mr Jonathan Mills: the paper didn’t mention the age group. I assumed that it was 30-40 years, but there will be some people who are very advanced in their careers at the age of 25 and there will be people who are very immature very much at the beginning of their career at the same age. Do you have any sense of an upper age limit and lower age limit? I think both are very important. Professor Holmes replied that under current legislation it would be very difficult to say nobody younger than 30 and older than 40, but in reality it would be what might be called “early-career academics and professionals” and they are likely to fall into that age range. Professor Rona Mackie: can I just make three specific points? The first one is establishing if the potential members of such a group feel they have time to participate. For example, it is a very productive time in the life of medical researchers, although I am sure they would be keen and willing to give sometime to do this sort of thing. Secondly, there must be an exit strategy. Thirdly, to what extent do you foresee that in the future this would be the entry route to the RSE Fellowship? Professor Holmes replied that the Academy would need to offer very high quality activity because of the enormous pressures / demands potential members are already under, but that initial ‘market testing’ had produced a positive response. On exit strategy, the feeling is that the membership should probably be restricted to possibly four or five years in order to get due turnover, and that is the kind of pattern that seems to be evolving within Europe. Whether the alumni stay connected is a possibility, but its important there is a limit on membership and that it is not a fast track into the RSE Fellowship. It is not, however, unreasonable to think that members will be very high quality people and in time some of them will come forward as candidates for RSE Fellowship, but there is no connection to be made between a member of the Academy and an RSE Fellow.

41 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Professor Murray Pittock: there is a lot to be learned from the Dutch and German experience, but the situation in the UK is significantly different. Firstly what universities here are already doing to promote and develop early career researchers, so that there is no duplication of effort. Secondly, to resonate with Research Councils and similar other career awards. My own view would be if someone possesses such an award they should automatically gain entry to the junior academy. Another thing that struck me was the extent we talked about age group and so on. How far do you want to specify other careers as such in terms of Research Councils UK language? Should this be consistent or should it depart from that and if so why? A further issue concerns focus. One thing it could focus on, which I think is particularly pertinent to the strengths we have here in Scotland, is exchange with others. Professor Holmes replied that universities have to some extent woken up to this, particularly aided by the Roberts money, and they are doing more in terms of generic skills training. What happens after the Roberts money dries up is another issue for universities, but it’s something that we shouldn’t duplicate and we should speak to the Research Councils. Taking prestigious fellowship-holders as a kind of criteria would be an easy way in and we would probably expect people to have that type of award. The problem is that Scotland has a lot of these and we would be way over 60 into the 300+. We have to develop this, including how we identify and select young lawyers and young business people as members. Mr Ian Ritchie: you are right about finding young lawyers and so forth, but it would probably be more difficult to find young artists, young creative people and young musicians and poets, who are also important. I was surprised to hear a limit of 60–200 members. There is an enormous amount of talent out there and obviously the way professional institutions are calculated is that the fellows are the elite of a much bigger group, say 10% of a bigger group, and I suppose you must have thought of whether you wanted to go that way and have, say, about 20000 members and the fellowship would be the elite of that. Is that something you’ve considered? Professor Holmes replied that it had been considered to some extent. Some countries have huge numbers and call them a forum, but it was felt that we should be more restricted, starting with 60 members and building up to 200. If membership is for 4-5 years, this phased approach is needed. Professor Robin Knops: it does seem to me that there’s slight confusion over the objectives that you’re trying to specify. One of them is that membership should be in some sense honorific and this takes up what

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Ian Ritchie is saying that perhaps in some of the objectives, namely networking and all the rest of it, it would benefit all the relevant community, not just those selected for this particular activity. Secondly, maybe if this is successful, and hopefully it will be, in the right format it will take on a life of its own and start to set its own agenda and actually present some sort of competition to the established society. Professor Holmes replied that we must be selective and have very high quality people who are motivated and create disciplinary mix. It could be that it organises events, which perhaps spread to a much wider group. A key issue is how much freedom it should have. The intention is a lot because it has to set the agenda. On the other hand there’s a reputational risk to which we always have to be sensitive. Professor John Laver: I am very pleased to see this initiative beginning to move forward in this promising way and want to offer two points of view. First, it would be extremely helpful, I think, for recruiting people of the right calibre and the right sorts of research interests and so on, if there was some tangible benefits immediately available, for example, being able to tap into some restricted portion of the Society’s funds, for example, travel abroad to begin to negotiate cooperative interdisciplinary projects with other members of the young academies in Europe. Secondly, you have repeatedly said there is not a connection with a direct route to becoming a RSE Fellow. I think if you are going to be successful with the Future Leaders Academy there will be an inevitable organic growth towards that and indeed it would be absurd if some people didn’t emerge rather quickly as potential candidates for RSE Fellowship. I wonder whether it is possible to be quite so absolute about no connection whatsoever. Professor Holmes replied that there cannot be any promise that being in the Future Leaders Academy will mean members automatically become RSE Fellows, but it is not an unreasonable expectation that many members would in fact move forward and may be identified at an earlier stage. Tangible benefits, such as travel grants should also be considered, as well as the funding implications of these. Sir Brian Ivory: on further reflection I would drop the word ‘future’ as I think the development element is covered by the word academy. It’s slightly presumptuous saying we’ve selected the future leaders. I think we should just call it the Leaders Academy; they are after all leaders and hopefully will be or are already the leaders of their own generation. Professor Andy Walker: I was involved in the early days of this and am very pleased to see how far it has progressed. We have heard about

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Scottish Crucible, which brings together a very dynamic group of selected individuals for around Scotland. I’ve seen it operating and indeed, I had a good opportunity to bounce this idea off them at a session that we had earlier and the response was very positive. There were some very interesting comments. They wanted to know more about us and I do think it’s a very sensitive area that we have got to get right. Professor Ian Halliday: we do have to be a little bit careful about how we label such people in the future and I am just a little nervous. In Scot- land “academy” has its one meaning, in Europe it has a different overtone altogether. If the members are so good, I am also a little nervous about giving them money. I think the attraction for them will be being able to engage with issues, decisions and high level people that their everyday activities don’t facilitate. This is certainly the attraction in Germany and I believe in Holland. There being no further comments the President thanked all those who had attended the meeting and contributed to the reports and discussions, and declared the meeting closed.

Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG ...... 3 October 2011 President

44 EVENTS 2008-2009 Perspectivies of the Arab World ...... 47 Jihad and the Surge in Iraq ...... 47 Images of Saladin: Past and Present...... 48 Reflections of Islamic Art ...... 49 Islam and the Day of Judgement ...... 50 Writing the First Qur’ans: Running the Early Islamic State ...... 51 Seven Wonders of the World – The Bell Rock Lighthouse ...... 53 Regenerative Medicine: How will it change my life? ...... 58 Extracts from Celebrating the Achievements & Legacy of James Clerk Maxwell ...... 64 Our Genetic Inheritance: for better or for worse, in sickness and in health ... 68 Taxation without representation ...... 71 Science and Arbroath in the 21st Century ...... 74 The Royalty of the Man: How the Globe read Burns ...... 79 Robert Burns in Global Culture ...... 83 Cultural Flagships: Being a ‘National’ – Museums and Galleries ...... 89 UK–Taiwan Workshop on Tidal Current Energy ...... 102 Alcohol – Our Favourite Drug: from Chemistry to Culture ...... 115 The Gannochy Trust Innovation Award Prize Lecture ...... 128 The i-LIMB Hand - engineering innovation drives business success ...... 132 Meet Danny – The insanity of prison ...... 134 Drugs of the Future: Personalised Medicines for the Over 65s ...... 137 The Higgs boson: what, why, how? ...... 149 Scottish Aquaculture - A sustainable future ...... 159 Science, Politics and Drama ...... 179 After effects of Copenhagen - Fiction or faction? ...... 179 The Drama of Nuclear Weapons ...... 183 Robert Cormack Bequest Meeting ...... 192 Stem Cells as Therapy. Where have we been; Where are we now and where are we going (and how fast?) ...... 194 Today's EU : all passion spent ...... 206 Ripples from the Dark side of the Universe the Search for Gravitational Waves ...... 210 Malaria, Mosquitoes and Models ...... 214

45 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

The Financial Sector after the Credit Crunch ...... 217 The Enlightenment – the international influence and impact of Scotland and the Scots ...... 222 The Enlightenment – An 18th Century Revolution of Thought ...... 225 Visual Art and the Enlightenment...... 228 Scotland Exports the Enlightenment ...... 231 Islam and the Enlightenment ...... 234 The Ages of Optimism and Pessimism: Utopian and Dystopian Ideas ... 237 Science and Tolerance...... 240 Music and the Enlightenment ...... 243 On the Dark Side: Witchcraft and the Theatre ...... 244 Science and the Enlightenment ...... 246 The Face of the Enlightenment ...... 249 Moral Universals and Moral Progress: The New Science of Good and Evil...... 251 The Enlightenment and the Academies ...... 254 Political Economy: Adam Smith and Others ...... 256 Engineering Scotland and Japan: Past, Present and Future ...... 259 Making Eyes – Lessons from Failed Miracles Henry Dryerre Prize Lecture ...... 264

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PERSPECTIVES OF THE ARAB WORD LECTURE SERIES November 2008 – March 2009 Between November 2008 and March 2009 the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in partnership with the Centre for the Advanced Study of the Arab World, hosted a series of five lectures aimed at providing both academics and members of the public with a greater perspective and insight into various aspects of the Arab World. The series drew on the expertise of both leading academics and influential public figures in presenting on areas of the Arab World as diverse as culture, history, politics and religion. As a measure of the series’ success, each lecture was fully booked, with over 600 people attending in total. After each lecture, a question and answer session followed, which gave members of the audience the opportunity to ask the speaker to elaborate on various aspects of the lecture as well as opening up new lines of enquiry. Both the Centre for the Advanced Study of the Arab World and the Royal Society of Edinburgh would like to thank warmly both the speakers and the audience for their participation in this exciting lecture series.

Major General Simon Mayall Assistant Chief of the General Staff Jihad and the Surge in Iraq 7 November 2008

Major General Simon Mayall, the interpretation of Jihad has been current Assistant Chief of the altered over time and, more General Staff, opened the series recently, how it has been manipu- with an insightful examination of lated at the hands of militants and the war in Iraq, taken from the extremists. Closely connected to perspective of both a scholar and this problem, General Mayall an experienced military command- assessed the political and histori- er. cal situation of Iraq, noting the General Mayall began his presen- confluence of religious, ethnic, tation with a critical analysis of the and cultural ‘fault lines’ within the concept of Jihad, assessing its country, and how the Coalition’s philosophy and development invasion unleashed many of these since the shattering of the latent tensions. Ottoman Empire and creation of General Mayall then proceeded to nation states within the Middle give a strategic view of the war, East. He discussed how the

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noting the many mistakes made stood strategy which has included by the Coalition: a brilliant military not only a rise in troop numbers, campaign, but a woefully ineffec- but also a coordinated increase in tive occupation. General Mayall economic development, recon- noted the comparative strengths struction, reconciliation, and of the insurgency at this time, transferal of responsibility to the among them a sense of general Iraqis themselves. General Mayall opposition to the invaders, a concluded that, despite many sense of paranoia, and influx of initial mistakes, much progress foreign fighters, observing that has been made, and the future for this combination brought the Iraq looks promising. country to the brink of civil war. Major General Mayall’s presenta- General Mayall moved on to tion exhibited both a deep compare the admittedly dire understanding of the history and situation of the first years of the politics of the Middle East and a occupation to the recent past, wealth of first-hand knowledge focusing on the positive effects of and experience of the region. the ‘Surge’ – a much misunder-

Professor Carole Hillenbrand OBE FRSA FRSE Images of Saladin: Past and Present 10 December 2008

The first non-Muslim to be Crusaders. A young noble of awarded the King Faisal Prize for Kurdish origin, Saladin was the Islamic Studies, Vice-President of protégé of the successful com- the British Society for Middle mander Nur ad-Din. He built on Eastern Studies, and Islamic his master’s success, and pro- Advisory Editor at Edinburgh ceeded to construct a strong University Press, Professor Carole powerbase through conflict and Hillenbrand shared some of her intrigue against his fellow broad knowledge and experience Muslims. Professor Hillenbrand about the image and reputation then discussed the darker sides to of Saladin throughout history. this charismatic and passionate Professor Hillenbrand began by figure, whose sense and aware- attempting to separate the ‘myth’ ness of image extended to the from the ‘reality’ concerning the employment of two ‘spin-doctors’. great military leader who, having Saladin’s reputation in the West, united the Arabs behind him, both during and after the Cru- recaptured Jerusalem from the sades, was discussed at length.

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Professor Hillenbrand noted the Hillenbrand exhibited a number of adoration and esteem with which intriguing examples of the image authors such as Dante and Scott of Saladin being usurped for the regarded Saladin: portraying him attainment of modern political as the paradigm of heroism and currency: stamps from Jordan, Christian chivalry. Contrasted to films from Egypt, bank-notes from this was the disdain and fear Iraq, all using the resonance of which was shown towards Islam Saladin’s image to glorify the and the Arabs, concurrent and current regime. seemingly contradictory to such Professor Hillenbrand concluded adulation of their leader. that Saladin’s role in recapturing The image of Saladin in the Jerusalem, an emotive city for Middle East was then discussed, Christians and Muslims alike, was and it was noted how his reputa- the definitive act which secured tion was rekindled remarkably both his fame and his mystery, recently by Christian Arabs and ensured that his name would translating texts for their Muslim live on through the ages. neighbours. From there, Professor

Professor Robert Hillenbrand FRSE Reflections of Islamic Art 14 January 2009

Having lectured on Islamic art for religious, and that it privileged over 30 years at some of the easel painting and sculpture. He world’s most prestigious institu- went on to demonstrate, through tions, serving as the Editor of a richly illustrated presentation, leading journals in the field, and that Islamic art, by contrast, found widely regarded as the world its most apt expression in more expert on Islamic art, Professor practical manifestations: textiles Robert Hillenbrand was ideally and carpets, bowls and candle- placed to deliver an introduction sticks, buildings and book to this diverse, fascinating, and painting. much misunderstood subject. Moreover, Professor Hillenbrand Professor Hillenbrand began by discussed the roles of architecture calling for the audience to ‘leave as a means of conveying complex their baggage behind’ when power-relationships within contemplating Islamic art, and to society: from shared features in jettison all preconceptions that mosques from Spain to India, to medieval art must be figural and megalomaniacal city plans

49 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

employing concepts from astrolo- contrasts of colour and texture, gy and geometry to produce light and dark, solid and void, as impressive displays of wealth and well as employing devices of control. Allied to these architectur- rhythm, repetition, echo and al statements were commissioned symmetry to secure effects of paintings and illustrations which abstraction and concentration. depicted the rulers and their Throughout his lecture, Professor courts living in considerable luxury Hillenbrand used the artwork and decadence. which he was discussing to Professor Hillenbrand proceeded analyse medieval Islamic society, to consider the commonest forms providing penetrating insights on of expression in Islamic art – its conception of religion, politics, geometry, vegetal themes, and and the Cosmos. calligraphy – in their many Professor Hillenbrand’s presenta- manifestations. These achieved an tion provided both a uniquely unusual intensity in the hands of entertaining and accessible medieval Islamic craftsmen, well- introduction to such a specialised versed in mathematics and studies subject. of the natural world, using

Professor Mona Siddiqui FRSA FRSE Islam and the Day of Judgement 12 February 2009

Professor Siddiqui is currently the on descriptions of the Day of Professor of Islamic Studies and Judgement as presented in the Public Understanding, as well as Qur’an, as well as on the works of the Director and founder of the medieval theologians and modern Centre for the Study of Islam, at scholarly commentators, in an the University of Glasgow. She exceptionally well-researched also provides numerous consul- address. Simultaneous to this was tancy services to Government, and a close reading and deep analysis publishes and broadcasts exten- of the Qur’an, combined with an sively in the national media. An evident spirituality which also, on expert on Islamic theology and occasion, served as a powerful thought, Professor Siddiqui and personal interpretive tool. delivered her thoughts on the Day The lecture was concerned not of Judgement, as envisaged only with the Day of Judgement within Islam. itself, but also dealt with such Professor Siddiqui’s lecture drew philosophical issues as divine

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agency, free will, the nature of answer session expanded on God, and the position and role of Professor Siddiqui’s understand- man within God’s world. Professor ing of the precise nature of the Siddiqui’s thorough knowledge of after-life, and questions of Islamic, Christian and Judaic ‘salvation’, ‘sin’, and ‘forgiveness’, theologies was exceptional, with as explored within the Qur’an, many comparisons between the were abundant. basic tenets of the three mono- Professor Siddiqui, in characteris- theistic religions being made at tic fashion, managed to distil a various junctures throughout the considerable amount of expertise lecture. and knowledge into a clear and A particularly lively question and comprehensible lecture.

Professor Robert Hoyland Writing the First Qur’ans: Running the Early Islamic State 12 March 2009

Professor Hoyland, Professor of on coinage and in bilingual Arabic and Middle East Studies at administrative documents: with the University of St. Andrews, such sophistication as to indicate discussed his latest research into a long tradition of writing, the use of Arabic both before and influenced by the Graeco-Roman during the early Islamic conquests. World in style and content. A Beginning with the Islamic bilingual administration began to conquests and early empire, be deployed at this time, coupled Professor Hoyland examined and with an increasing involvement of challenged assumptions that the Arab officials in the everyday lives Arabs, in their first period of of their subjects. expansion, did not implement In the second half of his address, their language within the machi- Professor Hoyland considered the nations of empire. Professor pre-Islamic use of Arabic, begin- Hoyland discussed the initial ning in its oral form around the private usage of Arabic, confined middle of the first millennium BC. to supplicatory and funerary Professor Hoyland discussed inscriptions, as well as in numer- numerous examples of Arabic ous copies of the Qur’an, which being written in local scripts as begin to appear from the latter early as the first century AD, half of the seventh century. Soon, before noting the emergence of a however, Arabic began to be seen recognisably Arabic script only

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one hundred years or so before Professor Hoyland concluded with the advent of Islam, in a number a discussion of the importance of of bilingual documents, alongside Arabic in the Qur’an, noting the Greek. many references in the Qur’an not Professor Hoyland accounted for only to itself, but to parchments, the emergence of a distinctive scriptures, and tablets, as well as Arabic script with the develop- the self conscious nature of the ment of incipient state structures Book as being written in Arabic, among the Arab peoples, which for Arabic speakers, as the were created by an increasing language of the Arab people. interaction with the Roman and Professor Hoyland’s lecture, richly Persian empires. The effect of illustrated with inscriptions, regular contact with Christian parchments, and papyri, coupled missionaries was also noted as a with an evidently deep knowledge potential stimulus for the devel- of the Arabic language, provided opment of an Arabic script. a stimulating insight into a topic on which still very little is known.

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Bob McIntosh Engineer, Northern Lighthouse Board Seven Wonders of the World – The Bell Rock Lighthouse 10 November 2008

For nearly 200 years the Bell Rock Improvements came in the 1780s Lighthouse has helped protect when new technology, developed mariners around the great firths by Thomas Smith, that used of the Tay and Forth. Its design parabolic reflectors to boost the and construction were triumphs power of lights – and was already of engineering and human providing gas street lighting in determination. Mr McIntosh, Edinburgh – was employed by the whose career has been dedicated Northern Lighthouse Board to to maintaining and building establish a string of new light- lighthouses, explored the origins houses. and history of the elegant stone According to Mr McIntosh, it was tower and why it qualifies as an an urgent task. The structures at engineering wonder of the world. Kinnaird Head, the Mull of The engineering challenge was to Kintyre, Dennis Head on North build a lighthouse of great Ronaldsay, and Eilean Glas on strength, largely by hand, on a Scalpay, were completed in small rocky reef that was twice- around two years, even though daily submerged beneath five only one site was served by a road. metres of swirling and hostile sea. Smith was also stepfather of In the 18th and 19th centuries Robert Stevenson, of the great trade from Scotland’s great ports civil engineering family, in whose was on the increase but sailors, footsteps Mr McIntosh said he felt ships and cargoes were all at risk privileged to follow. from its coastal hazards, especially “Robert Stevenson learned the years of great storms such as craft of civil engineering in 1782. As far back as the 10th general and lighthouse construc- Century there are records of the tion in particular under the monks of the Isle of May lighting instruction of his stepfather, and beacons as a warning to vessels. he was the founding father of this Purpose-built structures began dynasty of engineers, and as such appearing in the 16th and 17th was responsible for the construc- centuries but were small and tion of some 15 lighthouses inefficient, relying on coal fires to between 1811 and 1833. He cast a powerful enough light to started in Arbroath with what was guide distant ships. possibly his most famous, the Bell Rock.”

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The project was necessary because loosely based on the trunk of an in the early 19th Century there oak tree, adopted the cycloidal was so little help available to curve tapering upwards so waves mariners. There were just three would sweep round it, minimising lighthouses round the firths of their impact on the stonework. the Tay and Forth – and ships did Every piece of the tower was not even have the benefit of the individually planned so the stones background lighting to illuminate would connect to each other like a the coast that comes from today’s jigsaw. “The yard established in coastal villages and towns. Arbroath was the land base and The Bell Rock, 600 metres long focal point for the construction and 12 miles out to sea, was in works. Every one of the stones direct line of Dundee and Edin- was cut, shaped and dovetailed burgh shipping, making it an there before it was shipped out to important place for a light and the rock.” Only once the third and also an incredibly difficult place to fourth courses were complete reach, let alone build a 36 m high were the workers above the tide tower. It was a location so danger- and such was the need for ous, that centuries before a bell strength of construction that the had been placed upon it to warn first 10m of the tower are entirely vessels to keep away. solid. One indication of the quality of workmanship is that the When work began in 1807, a cast iron railway completed in wooden beacon house was built 1809 to allow the easier landing to keep the blacksmith’s forge and moving of 1,000 tons of above the tide and which would stone has survived to the present later provide safe accommodation day despite the ferocity of the for workers. Labourers also started ocean. to cut circular foundations 12.8m in diameter and 60cm deep to Despite the enormous care that take the base of the tower and went into the preparatory work, prevent it being washed away. the challenges of the job meant One of the jobs that kept the that many pieces of equipment smith busy was re-sharpening the were developed or refined as work picks used to chip away at the progressed. One piece of equip- rock. Each time the tide receded ment that resulted from the the hole had to be pumped out, project, variously attributed to reducing the working day to a few Stevenson or his junior engineer, hours. was the balance crane which is now used on construction sites Stevenson had spent some six worldwide. years working on the design of the lighthouse,for which although Stevenson was determined that 1810 should be the last season of

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construction work and the final cramped but their work in stone was laid on 3 August. maintaining the lights and During the project, Stevenson had winding the clockwork mecha- won the admiration of the nism every 45 minutes was vital. workforce. Mr McIntosh said: “His Over the decades, the light itself drive and enthusiasm was greatly was changed and upgraded to respected. He was always con- use rape seed oil, then paraffin, cerned about safety on the ships followed by acetylene lamps from and on the rock and for looking Swedish company Aga when the after the men if they were injured, site was first automated in the or their families if they lost their 1980s. Nowadays, it has electric main breadwinner. He was well- lights powered by large batteries known for his strong religious with a diesel generator, and beliefs but almost more so for his maintenance work is carried out belief in the need for the project by NLB Engineers flown in by to succeed and for mariners to be helicopter. protected from the hazards of the Mr McIntosh described how Bell Rock.” technology has transformed the There was great relief when the job of providing hazard lights, light finally went on 1 February showing pictures of a small solar- 1811, using parabolic reflectors to powered unit with LED lights that increase the power of the lamps, he was involved with creating on a which were fuelled by sperm small island near Skye. whale oil. There are some 80 Scottish Stevenson had used winter lighthouses which are listed months away from the rock to buildings, in recognition of their experiment with the best colours architectural or historical impor- and settled on alternating red and tance. white. But after long and valuable service While Stevenson’s name is most they are now occasions when, as a closely associated with the feat, it result of consultation with users, a was John Rennie who held the few of the lighthouses are title of chief engineer, and identified as no longer required disagreement continues over the by the mariner. Questions are amount of credit each should be being raised about their future – awarded. not least because many are Once operational, Bell Rock remote and finding new uses became workplace and home, for could be difficult but at this stage shifts of a month at a time, to the users still use lighthouses as generations of lighthouse part of the Aids to Navigation keepers. Their conditions were system. Mr McIntosh said the

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Northern Lighthouse Board would if there were moves to safeguard continue looking after its light- the future of the buildings that houses so long as funding was are such an important part of our available. heritage. Mr McIntosh said the In closing his talk he pointed to Board is looking at a system to the continuing role of the Board grade properties in terms of in ensuring the safety of mariners importance to try to ensure the and quoted its motto – In Salutem preservation of good examples Omnium – For the Safety of All. from each era. The Northern Lighthouse Board Asked if there was a role for operates under statute – the councils in the future of light- Merchant Shipping Act 1995 – houses, Mr McIntosh said and is the General Lighthouse authorities had taken differing Authority for Scotland and the Isle approaches to getting them listed. of Man. The Board currently He said that while listing brings operates: 209 Lighthouses, 162 protection it also creates restric- Buoys, 37 Beacons, four Differen- tions, as special consent has to be tial Global Positioning System sought for major changes to the Stations, 27 Racons and one buildings. eLoran. The Board is funded Professor Black asked if ship entirely from the General Light- owners now argue that in the age house Fund, sourced by “Light of GPS they should no longer Dues”, a levy paid by shipping. have to pay a levy for lighthouses. The Board receives no direct Mr McIntosh responded that this funding from the Exchequer or was the case, but that lighthouses taxpayer. The other General act as a standby in case the GPS Lighthouse Authorities are the system fails. He added that there Commissioners of Irish Lights is a move away from using them (Republic of Ireland and Northern to mark coasts to a situation Ireland) and Trinity House (Eng- where they alert mariners to land, Wales, the Channel Islands hazards in difficult areas. and Gibraltar). Mr McIntosh was asked why the Following the lecture, the Chair of lighthouse levy falls on commer- the session, Professor Sue Black cial shipping, which often doesn’t OBE FRSE, thanked Mr McIntosh use lighthouses, rather than and led a question and answer leisure craft. He responded that session. there is a commitment to the As ships make increasing use of principle that the user should pay, GPS, rather than relying on but that no effective mechanism lighthouses, Professor Black asked has yet been designed for charg- ing leisure crafts.

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Asked about the power of the strength, modern ones are in the lights, Mr McIntosh said that millions. hazard markers are normally Arbroath Academy headmaster visible for 11 miles and full- David MacDonald ended the intensity lighthouses could be session with a vote of thanks for seen for 23 miles. Early lights were Mr McIntosh. hundreds of candlepower in

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Discussion Forum Regenerative Medicine: How will it change my life? Supported by the Beacons of Public Engagement (Edinburgh Beltane) 24 November 2008

Definition: Broadly, regenerative ment, asked what regenerative medicine is the umbrella term for medicine was and what it might innovative medical therapies do. Three distinguished speakers which allow the body to repair or – Dr Noble, Dr Anna Krassowska regenerate damaged or diseased and Professor Hamish Simpson – cells, tissues or organs. This gave short presentations, then the includes technologies which use bulk of the evening was made up stem cells’ capacity to ‘grow’ into of discussion and questions. the different cells of the body. Dr Anna Krassowska, formerly Introduction/Summary research manager with the UK Writing in the 17th century, Stem Cell Foundation, gave an Joseph Glanvill, a founding overview of the current state of member of the Royal Society, said play and potential of stem cell that one day grey hairs might be research. restored to ‘juvenility’ and that Dr Noble described some of his ‘exhausted marrow’ might be laboratory-based research, which renewed without a miracle. is working with stem cells to grow Almost 350 years later these lines bone and cartilage and make were quoted at the RSE, this time them into therapies. by Dr Brendon Noble, a scientist Dr Simpson, an orthopaedic who is helping to make them surgeon, spoke of how such come true. He and colleagues at technologies could benefit Edinburgh University’s Centre for patients in practice – and, impor- Regenerative Medicine – which tantly, said some could be had been launched officially available in the next few years. earlier that day – are using stem A number of challenges were cells to regenerate bone and brought out during the discus- cartilage, work which will poten- sion, including the need for a tially revolutionise treatment for strong, well-funded research base people with conditions including in Scotland and the importance of arthritis and bone fractures. a regulatory environment which is The RSE event, supported by robust and safe, but does not Edinburgh Beltane, one of the stifle innovation. The importance UK’s beacons for public engage- of engaging the public with the

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issues was emphasised through- are particularly flexible in terms of out. the type of cells they can grow Dr Anna Krassowska, former into. She also spoke about adult Research Manager, UK Stem stem cells, which are less flexible, Cell Foundation but have potential in a number of therapeutic areas. Dr Krassowska described how regenerative medicines, including Stem cells can be taken from a stem cell technologies, have person’s own body – for example, potential in many different from bone marrow or (with chronic conditions which are planning ahead) from umbilical caused by the loss of specific cell cord blood – which lessens the types. These include diabetes, risk of the body rejecting them where there is a loss of insulin- because of an immune response. secreting cells, and Parkinson’s, But Dr Krassowska also described where the dopamine-secreting allogeneic treatments, where a cells are lost. Others include spinal bank of cells is created and stored cord injury, osteoarthritis and at hospital sites to be used when heart disease. needed. Again there are challeng- “The idea is that one can take es, including making sure the damaged cells and replace them stem cells grow into the right by transplantation or encourage thing. “You don’t want bone endogenous cells to replenish,” growing in the heart,” she said. she said. There were several areas “Although there is promising with proof of concept – the first research, for example in heart real evidence that something disease, it is still early days.” works – including a Canadian Dr Brendon Noble, MRC Centre study where insulin-secreting cells for Regenerative Medicine, were transplanted into patients University of Edinburgh with diabetes, who then became Dr Noble began by describing the less dependent on insulin. There mythical Hydra – the creature were challenges, however. For which grew two heads for each example, the diabetes study one that was cut off – calling it an required cells from 2–3 donors for early experiment in regenerative just one patient, which would medicine. His work in Edinburgh, hinder large-scale treatment however, is concerned with bone programmes. rather than monster heads. She described the different types He talked about mesenchymal of cells which had the ability or stem cells, which are found in potential to develop into other bone marrow and which have the cells in the body. In particular, she potential to grow into bone and spoke about the stem cells which cartilage, among other cells. come from embryos, and which 59 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Although work in the lab has for bone injury and disease, talked been relatively promising, he said about conditions which might there is a need for a ‘reality check’. benefit from stem cell technolo- Persuading the cells to survive in gies then gave his assessment of real patients is more challenging, how soon treatments might be partly because they are going into available. He also emphasised the a harsh environment – the importance of translational previous bone or cartilage cells medicine, which is taking discover- didn’t like it there, so why should ies from the lab bench to the the new ones? Rather than send patient bedside and back again. in the new cells unarmed to a And he spoke about the human hostile environment, his scientists side of musculo-skeletal prob- are trying to find a way of protect- lems, including a patient who had ing them. This can involve a to undergo years of treatment, protective, bioactive scaffold losing his job and marriage in the which keeps the cells alive so that process. they can do their stuff. Hip and knee replacements had In Edinburgh, Dr Noble and his been a great boon, he said, but team have been testing different did not suit everyone and were materials to see which ones the difficult to repair. Better alterna- cells will be happy with. Early tives were needed. results have been promising, he Similarly, although 95 per cent of said, with bone growing where it fractures heal well, the remainder, wouldn’t have done and authen- the ‘non-union’ ones, fail to heal. tic-looking cartilage being produced. He described work which has been done to ‘regrow’ bone to fill If successful, some of Dr Noble’s gaps left where bone has died work will be placed in a clinical and had to be removed. He is trial in two years time. optimistic that treatment will be Professor Hamish Simpson, available within a very few years to Scottish Centre for Regenera- repair small, localised defects in tive Medicine and Professor of cartilage, which affect some 2,000 Orthopaedics and Trauma at people in the UK each year. the University of Edinburgh Similarly, ways of dealing with Following on from Dr Noble’s non-union fractures should be description of the work being available in the short term. Using done in the laboratory, Professor stem cells to treat osteoarthritis Simpson gave an overview of what and large bone defects are long- it could mean for patients. term ambitions, however. He described the great clinical He spoke of the challenges in need for more effective treatments clinical trials, including developing

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objective outcome measures and cartilage-forming stem cells finding enough similar patients to added. Professor Simpson added take part. Getting cells of suffi- that the trachea, which had been cient quality and winning ethical taken from a cadaver and had had approval can also be difficult. all its own cells removed, would Discussion have acted as a kind of mechanical strut to allow the stem cells to The discussion session was grow. chaired by Professor Mary Bownes, Vice-Principal for Re- One member of the audience search, Training and Community asked if the development of Relations with the University of regenerative medicine would put Edinburgh, who also heads the people under more pressure to Edinburgh Beltane. She opened have treatments or if perhaps they with a short explanation of the would choose to terminate their work of that project, which lives earlier. includes all the higher education The panel responded that, in institutions in Edinburgh and effect, it was just another medi- other organisations including the cine or therapy, which people RSE. One of six UK beacons of would have the right to refuse, so public engagement, its aim is to it didn’t change the current help scientists engage more with situation. Professor Simpson the public and vice-versa, chang- added that new therapies might ing cultures, improving be more about improving the understanding and influencing quality of life, not extending it in policy. all cases, and that this improved The involvement of Edinburgh quality might change people’s Beltane proved topical, with more minds about whether they wanted than one member of the audience to undergo treatment or not. asking for more information and One questioner asked about engagement. collaborative research across The questions ranged from the universities, remarking that personal and specific to more Scotland appeared to be leading general points. the way with regenerative medicine. Dr Noble said that the The recently reported case of the Scottish Stem Cell Network was a operation performed on a woman fantastic way of promoting in Spain to replace her windpipe collaboration and networking and was raised several times. Asked Professor Simpson said that trials about its relevance to regenerative involved many centres. medicine, Dr Noble explained that the patient had been given a Asked if stem cell therapy might trachea which had her own be used in birth defects, such as

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those related to thalidomide, Prof several, including funding, the Simpson said that would be a regulatory environment – getting bigger challenge because it would over the various hurdles to run involve growing muscle as well as trials and licence treatments – and bone. But Dr Noble said that the importance of keeping a treatments for even genetic workforce with expertise in conditions were not ruled out. Scotland.Professor Bownes asked One woman in the audience how much regenerative medicine offered herself up as a guinea pig would cost. Dr Noble said it would for Dr Noble’s research and asked be similar to other drug discovery what was being done to make – expensive to develop and bring GPs aware of new developments. to market, but less expensive later. She also asked if steps forward in Dr Krassowska has a vision of ‘off treatment would be patient-driven the shelf’ products, such as heart or if she had to wait for her GP. cells which have been frozen in Dr Noble said it was too early to vials and used to treat people who say which patients would be come into hospital needing suitable for trials and Professor urgent therapy. Professor Simpson Simpson said that patients would pointed out that current treat- probably be recruited from ment for a person with severe orthopaedics clinics, so it was bone trauma can run into hun- important that colleagues knew dreds of thousands of pounds. where trials were happening. He Asked if it would be possible to defended GPs, saying they had a grow large organs like hearts or lot to keep up with so wouldn’t lungs, Dr Noble said that while necessarily know about possible this was not possible at the future trials. moment it might be one day. Asked about the difference “Who knows?” he asked. Profes- between adult and embryonic sor Simpson said it was difficult to stem cells (to which some people get the interconnectivity right – have an ethical objection) the the liver has to hook up to several panel said that while they could vascular systems, for example. be used for many of the same Talking about the regulatory things, embryonic cells could environment in the UK, Dr Noble develop more cell types. However, said that although it involved Dr Noble said that he was con- hurdles, he was glad it was there. vinced that patients would be Dr Krassowska said clinics in other informed about the origin of the countries are offering expensive cells. stem cell therapies which have not Asked about the main policy been proven and could be issues, the panel mentioned dangerous, to vulnerable, desper-

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ate people. “There’s no long-term scientific colleagues regularly gave follow-up, nobody is learning talks to such groups. anything,” she added. Professor Bownes said that this is The audience was keen for the the sort of thing that the beacons public to learn more. One said of public engagement are trying medical meetings should be to promote. The debate wasn’t opened up. The panel said that closed with the end of this the public could attend many meeting, she said, and asked that medical meetings and that patient anyone who had further points or interest groups and charities were suggestions get in touch with the a good source of information. Dr Edinburgh Beltane. Krassowska said that many of her

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James Clerk Maxwell Conference and Statue Unveiling 25 November 2008 Extracts from Celebrating the Achievements & Legacy of James Clerk Maxwell (Proceedings of the Conference marking the unveiling of the Clerk Maxwell Statue) ISBN: 978 0 902198 85 2 James Clerk Maxwell became a Maxwell’s work on this and many Fellow of the Royal Society of other aspects of physics is today Edinburgh in April 1856 when he recognized as work of genius. We was aged twenty-four, having celebrate today the historic presented his first paper to the occasion of the unveiling of the Royal Society of Edinburgh at age statue of James Clerk Maxwell in fourteen (or rather Professor George Street, Edinburgh. Forbes, FRSE, the Professor of Introduction Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh The President of The Royal Society University presented it on Max- of Edinburgh: Lord Wilson of well’s behalf as Maxwell was Tillyorn, KT, GCMG, PRSE considered too young!). There is something particularly James Clerk Maxwell, FRS, FRSE is pleasing about gathering to revered today as Scotland’s celebrate the achievements and greatest scientist. His ‘mathemati- legacy of somebody who was sation’ of Michael Faraday’s field both a genius and a man of concept and his creation of modesty. That James Clerk ‘Maxwell’s equations’ are funda- Maxwell is not a household name mental to physics as they unify the in the UK cannot be due solely to forces of electricity and magnet- the complexity of his work, as ism. By means of these equations, many who know the names of Maxwell established the theoreti- Einstein and Newton would lay no cal foundation for the existence of claim to understanding their a whole spectrum of electromag- equations. Clerk Maxwell’s self- netic radiation of different effacing nature and antipathy to frequencies. The mere mention of self-promotion may offer clues to light of different colours, wireless, his relative obscurity. Perhaps micro-waves, mobile-phones, today’s conference will offer other radio-astronomy, x-rays, gamma- answers. It is a remarkable fact rays... illustrates the profound that James Clerk Maxwell is significance for mankind of the represented on postage stamps in progressive discovery of the extent Mexico and has a crater named of the electromagnetic spectrum. after him on Venus yet, until

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today, there has been no monu- Many people have been involved ment to Clerk Maxwell in in the production of this statue. Edinburgh, the city of his birth. Our thanks are due to all of them. At Sir Michael Atiyah’s instigation, But I should like to singleout two The Royal Society of Edinburgh individuals. In a spirit of genuine was much engaged in collabora- modesty, befitting Clerk Maxwell tive efforts in 2006, the 175th himself, Sir Michael Atiyah would anniversary of Clerk Maxwell’s not countenance any reference on birth, to raise his profile here in the statue’s plaque to him as the Scotland. With valuable input statue’s “Patron”, nor any from the James Clerk Maxwell acknowledgement of his being Foundation, a great deal was the driving force behind this done towards achieving this. In an commission. He could, though, obituary notice, Professor Peter- rightly be described as both. Guthrie Tait, who was General Without Sir Michael’s commitment Secretary of the Society (1879- to this endeavour; without the 1901) and James Clerk Maxwell’s great energy that he put into contemporary at the Edinburgh fundraising for it; and without his Academy and at Cambridge, steadfast confidence that, referred to the “imperishable through much effort and good- writings of Clerk Maxwell”. As will, the statue would be in place James Clerk Maxwell’s work on by November 25th, we would electromagnetism is the basis of never have had this very fine all the relevant technology, his statue. A mathematician of world- legacy is indeed enduring, in the wide renown and my immediate form of computers,mobile predecessor as President of the ‘phones and other crucial ele- Society, I offer my congratulations ments of modern-day life. to Sir Michael on this legacy. Using red, green and blue filters, Individual praise too is deserved he produced the first colour for the Sculptor, Alexander photography of a tartan ribbon, Stoddart. In recent years, he has and so also paved the way for already made his mark on Edin- today’s colour photography. burgh with the statues of David Hume and Adam Smith in the It seems extremely fitting that The Royal Mile, as well as the Robert Royal Society of Edinburgh, of Louis Stevenson memorial in which James Clerk Maxwell was a Corstorphine.Whilst he would be Fellow, should commission a quick to credit a large cast of lasting monument to this great characters who played a part in man in what the Sculptor, Alexan- this project, it is inspiring to der Stoddart, has called reflect that he has done the vast “deathless bronze”. majority of the work single-

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handed. I am delighted that Sandy statue would never have been Stoddart, who is increasingly erected on such a prominent site, regarded as Scotland’s National and in such a short time. It is a Sculptor, has created this monu- tribute to the genius, humanity ment to the man who was and modesty of Maxwell that we arguably Scotland’s greatest have had such universal backing. scientist. In 1865, Clerk Maxwell Our sculptor Sandy Stoddart described the Royal Society of always said that he hoped to Edinburgh as a “very sociable produce a statue of Maxwell for body, most of them good speak- Edinburgh to follow the statues of ers as well as sensible men”. I those other icons of the city’s hope that James Clerk Maxwell history, David Hume and Adam would feel that today’s event lives Smith. He was only waiting for the up to that characterisation and order to be given, and the that you will agree. outcome is the fine sculpture Preface which we can now admire. He has Sir Michael Atiyah, OM, PPRS, fulfilled all our expectations and PPRSE has worked long hours to complete the task in record time. The unveiling of a statue of James Clerk Maxwell in George Street at His lecture at the celebratory last gives due recognition by the conference will chronicle and City of Edinburgh to its greatest illustrate the progress of the work, scientist. The Royal Society of and the exhibition organised by Edinburgh, whose premises are David Forfar will embed the statue only a short walk from the project in a larger historical location of the statue, is proud to context. On the scientific side, have been the body responsible Malcolm Longair, formerly for commissioning the statue, Astronomer Royal of Scotland and raising the funds and organising more recently from the Cavendish the unveiling ceremony. Laboratory in Cambridge, is lecturing on Maxwell’s science and As President of the RSE for the has also been involved in advising past three years, I have taken a on the design of the friezes on the strong personal interest in this plinth. The statue will very project and I am delighted that my appropriately be turned into a successor, Lord Wilson of Tillyorn, hologram, based on the technolo- joins me to celebrate this great gy of light-waves, as will be occasion. We have been fortunate explained by Andy Walker, who to have had the enthusiastic has worked very hard to fit into support of many individuals and our tight schedule. Our final organisations, without which the lecture today will be from our

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American colleague Lew Terman ultimately on Maxwell’s electro- of the IEEE, who will turn our magnetism. Standard Life is both attention to the future. a major financial institution based The financing of the statue is a in Edinburgh and has offices in task which I felt it was my duty to George Street just opposite the oversee, not only as the then Maxwell statue. They are very President of the RSE but also as a kindly hosting the drinks recep- former Master of Trinity College, tion on their premises that will Cambridge and a former President follow the close of today’s of the Royal Society of London. conference. The City of Edinburgh Maxwell belonged to all these has throughout been supportive bodies and it was highly appropri- of the project. Both the present ate that they all contributed to Lord Provost and his predecessor this project. Lesley Hinds have given their backing and the officials involved The full list of the major financial in the planning application were sponsors is recorded on the plinth most helpful. of the statue and a fuller record of all contributions, both personal Many members of the Scottish and institutional, is contained in a Parliament have, in recent years, book placed in our Clerk Maxwell pushed for appropriate public Room. Perhaps, from among our recognition of Maxwell and one sponsors, I can single out three of these, Alex Fergusson, now for special mention. First there is Presiding Officer of the Scottish the Edinburgh World Heritage Parliament, has agreed to unveil Trust, who joined us at the very the statue. To cheer the proces- start and gave us the respectability sion from the RSE to the statue, that opened many doors. The bagpipes from Edinburgh Acade- other two I want to mention are my, Maxwell’s old school, will lead the David and Elaine Potter the way. Foundation and Standard Life, Finally, I must record the hard both of whom gave very generous work put in by the RSE staff in financial backing. David Potter connection with the whole was, like Maxwell, a physicist and project. Special thanks are due to a Fellow of Trinity, and he built up Stuart Brown, our former Public a very successful company explor- Relations Manager, and William ing technology that rests Duncan our Chief Executive.

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Professor David Porteous Medical Genetics Section, University of Edinburgh Centre for Molecular Medicine, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine Our Genetic Inheritance: for better or for worse, in sickness and in health Bruce Preller Prize Lecture 1 December 2008

Delivering the Bruce Preller Prize longer than ever before. From the Lecture, Professor David Porteous situation early in the last century, set out his vision of how the new where only a very few people genetics has the potential to reached what we would now call a transform our health. He spoke ripe old age, we’re heading for a about the Generation Scotland time where the number of people project, where volunteer families in their 60s and 70s outstrips are helping to build up a picture those in any other age group. This of the importance of genetic ageing population brings with it a history. And he made particular growth in chronic disease. The reference to how mental health west of Scotland has a particularly problems can be addressed grim tale to tell in that respect, through genetics. with high rates of heart and lung Professor Porteous’ lecture added disease and cancer. grist to the mills of those who Nature and nurture have roles to want to blame their parents for play in whether we succumb to everything – but quickly made it these diseases. Professor Porteous clear that it’s not all mum and described the “role of the genetic dad’s fault. Family history has an dice”, which determines our important role in determining our genetic likelihood of developing health, he said, but it isn’t the disease. whole story. There’s a balance, of Our greater understanding of nature and nurture. Our genetic DNA – the stuff of life – has inheritance probably accounts for revolutionised our understanding about half our risk of developing of our genetic inheritance. From a given disease, but other factors, the solving of the structure of including lifestyle, environment DNA in 1953 to the mapping of and what we do for a living, the human genome in 2003, our account for the other knowledge of this area has moved 50 per cent. on tremendously in the last few In the Bruce Preller Prize Lecture, decades. What we have learned, Professor Porteous set the scene among many other things, is that by showing that we are living we’re all pretty much 99.9 per

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cent the same; it’s that 0.1 per they are prescribed, with 10 per cent which accounts for individual cent suffering serious adverse variation and whether we’re at risk effects. of getting diseases. Having outlined the current The hunt for genes implicated in position and the potential disease has also moved on apace. benefits of genetic research, More than 2,400 genes for single Professor Porteous went on to gene disorders – such as cystic describe Generation Scotland, a fibrosis – have been found. These pioneering, family-based study tend to be rare, however, affecting which aims to cast new light on only small numbers of people. how and why we develop diseas- In the same period, more than es. Generation Scotland 100 genetic risk factors have been (www.generationscotland.com) found for common disorders, involves all four Scottish medical including cancer and mental schools and is supported by a illness. These affect far more number of other organisations people and rates will continue to including Scottish Enterprise and rise as populations age. the Scottish Government. The technology has moved on so Scotland is a good place for such much that it has become cheaper, a study, he said, partly because of less labour-intensive and much our high levels of ill-health, but quicker to sequence or read also because the population is human genomes. We are almost relatively stable and supportive, at the point where an individual which makes family-based can get an entire genetic printout research possible. Scotland also for $1,000, with results on the punches above its weight academ- same day. Advances have moved ically and has a strong hand-in-hand with computer background in clinical and other technology, however, which is research. The NHS, with disease essential for storage of informa- registers and cradle-to-grave tion, for example. health records is also a valuable resource. Professor Porteous showed a slide which gives a vision of a future Those taking part in the research where patients receive medicine are all volunteers. The process which is personalised to them, involves filling out questionnaires depending on their genetic make- about the history and health of up. This should revolutionise individuals, as well as clinical treatment and help move away testing to build up a biological from the current system which picture. The aims include identify- means that only 30 per cent of ing genetic risk factors, people benefit from the drugs understanding the origins of

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disease, devising new approaches The most important of these is to treatment and prevention, DISC1. Those with a damaged finding new (cheaper and better) version of that gene have a ten- medicines and making better use fold raised risk of schizophrenia or of existing treatments. bipolar disorder and also are at As an example of the huge more risk of major depression. potential benefits of using Although the research was genetics to help solve health dismissed at first, it has since been problems, Professor Porteous backed up by studies worldwide looked specifically at mental and has provided valuable illness. Around 450 billion people information about the biology – 10 per cent of the global adult behind the conditions. It appears population – are affected by that DISC1 is active at the point of mental disorder and in the UK it is our brain where connections are estimated that one in four will made and where learning and experience mental illness during memory take place. In other their lifetime. Mental ill health is a words, damage to the DISC1 gene huge burden, both personally and suggests our memories work in a globally, in terms of years lost to disrupted way. Professor Porteous disability and its use of NHS described DISC1 as the conductor resources, yet there are no in an orchestra of the brain: if it laboratory tests to diagnose it. isn’t working, the music won’t Drugs such as anti-depressants sound the same. The hunt is now and anti-psychotics have been on to find other leading players, great steps forward and do save such as the ‘first violin’, or other lives, said Professor Porteous, but genes which are involved in the aren’t good enough. Some people pathway. Some promising genes don’t respond, or respond badly have already been found. and there are significant side- Professor Porteous widened his effects. A new approach is orchestra analogy to the rest of needed. He looked particularly at the mind and body, describing schizophrenia, explaining that the mental and physical health as a biggest risk factor for developing ‘long orchestral performance the condition is a family history of played out by nature and nurture’. it. Professor Porteous described There is hope, he said, and work research he conducted in Scotland being done through Generation with colleagues, which has Scotland and elsewhere is helping identified genes implicated in to make his vision of the next schizophrenia. generation of predictive and preventative medicine a reality.

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James Kynge Taxation without representation Part of the Edinburgh Lectures Series 3 December 2008

Middle Kingdom, Middle Class 120 million in households According to James Kynge, the earning the equivalent of up to challenge for the Western world is £40,000 a year. not to make China become more Add to this the Chinese people’s like us or measure its develop- attitude to education, with ment according to how children spending up to 14 hours ‘democratic’ it is but to welcome a day in school and extra lessons, the progress that China is making and the future is anyone’s guess... — and be more humble about our James Kynge, who has spent most own ‘broken society’ instead of of the last 25 years in China, criticising one of the world’s working for the Financial Times greatest civilisations… and the Pearson Group, ap- The figures may vary, but the rise proached the big issues by of China’s middle class is truly painting a portrait of the typical spectacular. Some observers middle-class family in China. ‘Mr estimate that there are already and Mrs Wang’ earn £1,700 a 300 million ‘middle-class’ people month (equivalent to over in the ‘Middle Kingdom,’ expected £4,000), out of which they to double by 2025. More conserv- manage to save 10 per cent. They ative estimates talk about 120 have one child (who loves watch- million middle-class people today, ing the Teletubbies) and two cars rising to 150 million over the (Mazda and Chevrolet). Their same period. modern apartment is worth about The definition of ‘middle-class’ £158,000 and they borrowed the also varies. Some commentators deposit for the 20-year mortgage use the ‘Big Mac Index’ (compar- from relatives, paying it back at ing incomes in terms of how many 6% interest a year. They have Big Macs to the dollar) while furnished their apartment from others use ‘purchasing power Ikea, and have China-made parity,’ but whether you multiply products for home use and by 2.5 or 4.5, the disposable foreign-brand products for show. income of the average family in Education used to be free but is China is increasing fast, with 300 getting more costly, largely million people in households because of the extra tuition in earning £1,800 a year (equivalent subjects such as English, Chinese to roughly £4,000 – £10,000) and and Maths.

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This growing middleclass is a rich and poor is widening, but ‘force to be reckoned with’ as it ownership of land provides integrates with the global econo- security to farmers, while the my, but what are the political middleclass now have their implications? Do China’s middle pensions. There may be some classes want more democratic unrest, but no-one wants to rights or do they think it’s better overthrow the government or not to rock the boat? make it change its policies. Echoing the mantra of the early Dissenters tend to focus on the USA, “No taxation without minor details, not the big issues. representation,” Kynge borrowed People may be learning to exercise the title of his lecture from a car their property rights, for example, number plate spotted on the but private-sector businesses work worldwide web, to investigate hand-in-hand with government, whether Joseph Schlumpeter’s and many entrepreneurs are also idea that “modern democracy is a members of the Communist Party, product of the capitalist process” and seek to change it from within. rings true for modern China. From the outside, said Kynge, During the ill-fated Tiananmen China looks like “a monolith of Square demonstrations in 1989, a authoritarian rule,” but it is also few of the new class of entrepre- adaptable and moves with the neurs helped the students, said times. Kynge, but the “transmission Kynge even suggested that some mechanism from capitalism to degree of corruption can also democracy” did not transpire, and facilitate getting things done – for even though there are thousands example, local authorities set up of protests every year, these are thousands of ‘illegal’ investment mainly organised by farmers, not parks over the years which the the urban ‘elite’ who benefit from government quietly left well China’s pragmatic and adaptable alone, simply because they were one-party system. Kynge also working. To clean up corruption suggested that the higher-income would also require an independ- groups don’t even discuss ent judiciary, and this would mean democracy much and think it is surrendering too much political best to stay silent – rather than power. Much of what happens confront the People’s Liberation may be counter-intuitive, but “if Army. it’s not broken, don’t fix it” could Later, in response to an audience well be the motto of the People’s question, Kynge said there was no Republic, along with one of ‘powder keg’ about to explode in Kynge’s expressions: “Money buys rural areas. The gulf between the freedom.”

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In another example of China’s to public opinion at general adaptability, Kynge described how elections. The Chinese people government came up with a novel know they have an environmental solution to the problem of problem, he added, but this may cheating in high-school exams, be the price of their ‘right to devolving the examination process develop.’ to the provinces and introducing Do Chinese people want democ- new technology – including racy or larger families? Kynge even cameras in every exam hall. In this suggested that families may ‘buy’ way, he explained, the new the right to have more children. technology helps China overcome And what about Tibet? Kynge the single greatest weakness of said that Western criticisms may the single-party state – local have backfired, encouraging the versus central control. He also ‘angry youth’ to become more talked about the idea of authori- assertive and nationalistic than tarian government at the centre, the older generation. The worst surrounded by the ‘disobedient’ thing for a Chinese person, Kynge provinces. added, is to be seen as a traitor; Ultimately said Kynge, critics of supporting independence for China should be careful when it Tibet or other regions is to side comes to looking at cause and with interfering foreigners who effect. Rather than the govern- also seek to hold back China’s ment having a master-plan to economic growth. neutralise pressures and stimulate Kynge concluded: “It’s about time the economy, it has improvised the West just accepted China for many of its policies over the years the way it is and recognised the and allowed things to happen, improvement in human rights – thriving in the “chaos under stopped criticising and acknowl- heaven” so exulted by Mao. edged the progress that China In the Q&A session which fol- has made.” Attempts to “incul- lowed, Kynge also focused on the cate the building blocks of ‘pros and cons’ of democratic democracy” are now becoming government in relation to issues counter-productive, he added. such as carbon emissions, sug- “The challenge for Western gesting that although China will governments is that a whole probably increase its dependence generation of young Chinese on coal-based power to drive people misguidedly believe we are economic expansion, it is also in a against them, so perhaps we position to change direction more should go easy on our criticisms quickly and more easily than and interventions and be more Western democracies, because it humble about the shortcomings does not have to answer directly of our own democracies.”

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Professor Anne Glover Chief Scientific Adviser for Scotland Science and Arbroath in the 21st Century The Christmas Lecture 2008 10 December 2008

Scotland has a remarkable legacy ment about a life in science is I as the birthplace of many great feel that science isn’t shared scientists. This tradition is alive enough with all of our commu- and well today as the country nity.” She continued that its continues to be a leader in science sophistication has made it seem and technology. These are remote and inaccessible to those strengths of which Prof Anne without a background in the Glover, who spent her early subject, when it should be childhood in Arbroath, believes something with which we can we should all be proud and on readily engage and which we which we can build a great future. celebrate. Nonetheless, independ- Yet the future, not just for ent research shows Scotland is Scotland, but for all mankind, is in held in higher esteem than any dire danger from the effects of other country in the world for its man-made climate change. The scientific research. “That’s some- threat to the planet can only be thing I feel we should be proud averted if scientists, politicians of. But it will also be our future. and individual citizens act togeth- Our economy, our prosperity and er to bring about real change and our wellbeing will depend on our create sustainable lifestyles. excellence in science, technology Science is exciting – influencing and engineering, because we every aspect of our lives from the don’t need an economy that moment we are born. But unlike makes cheap widgets. If you are the arts, music and cultural the cheapest at making some- activities it can seem distant and thing there is always someone out inaccessible. Yet, from life-saving there who can undercut you, but medicines to iPods we are sur- if you are the smartest it’s very rounded by the benefits that hard for others to compete.” science, technology and engineer- According to Professor Glover, the ing have brought. recently launched Large Hadron Professor Anne Glover, Chief Collider at CERN, near Geneva, is Scientific Advisor for Scotland, a prime example of the impor- said: “Maybe my only disappoint- tance of science. “To me this defines what it is to be a human.

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It highlights the difference us penicillin, and with it the cure between us and any other species to many once-fatal illnesses. Then on the planet that we can build there was Alexander Graham Bell, this.” credited with inventing the The collider is located in a tunnel telephone, and the founder of the 27km in diameter and is used to National Geographical Society. accelerate sub-atomic particles, Another great Scottish scientist heading in opposite directions, to was James Clerk Maxwell, father just below the speed of light of modern physics, who Professor before allowing them to crash Glover said “taught Einstein into each other. The results of everything he knew – metaphori- these collisions can tell us about cally speaking”. the fundamental nature of matter. Today we continue to excel, as the This research could yield immense home of great scientists such as practical benefits. It may hold the Sir Ian Wilmut, whose cloning of key to advances such as nuclear Dolly the sheep paves the way for fusion plants which would, unlike cures to devastating illnesses such the fission ones of today, create as Alzheimer’s. energy without radioactive waste. At the same time, the software It is helping us learn how to create behind famous computer games medical devices that can cure and the technology that gives us cancers by targeting individual iPods, are all the result of Scottish cells in areas of exceptionally ingenuity. sensitive tissue such as the brain. Scotland has also developed the Indeed, we already have enor- world’s smallest TV screen. This is mous benefits from the collider expected to lead to the develop- project, as its development ment of one-way glasses that demanded a whole new approach allow wearers to see programmes to the sharing of information on the lenses in front of their across the globe – giving rise to eyes. Similar imaging technology the internet. “The Large Hadron is also already being used to help Collider is an amazing achieve- blind people see basic shapes and ment. Sadly, there is much human in future may allow some fully to activity about which to be disap- regain their sight. pointed, but this has to be one of our ultimate achievements.” Science also has a critical role in addressing what Professor Glover Professor Glover looked at the described as “one of the biggest contribution Scots have made to challenges we all face; rapid man- the world through science in the made climate change”. This is past. This included Nobel Laureate because it allows us to observe Sir Alexander Fleming, who gave

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change, explain what is happen- created as human activity causes ing, reduce uncertainties and the release of more and more identify solutions. In the case of greenhouse gases, particularly climate change this may include carbon dioxide, into the atmos- carbon capture technology or the phere. This traps heat rather than use of renewables. allowing it to escape into space. To do its job, however, scientists We only know this is happening must be allowed to carry out pure thanks to rigorous scientific research and this will sometimes research. By analysing ice core involve decades of study. The samples from the Antarctic we can weather observations carried out look at the amount of carbon in the Antarctic from the 1950s dioxide present in the atmosphere onwards did not at first sight offer in the past which became trapped any practical returns on invest- as ice was laid down. This shows ment. But over 20 years scientists that it fluctuates naturally due to began to see changes taking place wobbles in the Earth’s rotation, and discovered that the CFCs, the meaning the planet shifts be- chemicals once used in fridges tween ice ages and warm spells and aerosols, were creating a hole every 120,000 to 130,000 years. in the ozone layer which protects Over the past million years the

us against damaging ultraviolet concentration of CO2 in the (UV) radiation from outer space. atmosphere has varied between “UV radiation causes cancers, skin 180 parts per million (ppm) when cancers for example, so it’s very the world is cold to 280ppm dangerous. Ozone protects us when it is at its warmest. Even from that and the ozone layer is though we are just 30,000 years very fragile. “But the really out of the last ice age, the current

comforting thing is that the levels of CO2 have changed world’s population and our dramatically. “I hope it will shock political leaders recognised what you to learn that the present levels was happening, they understood are over 380ppm. Never in history, the science, and put a ban on as far as we have been able to go CFCs. “The outcome will be that back through the ice core, has the hopefully by the end of this concentration ever been that high. century we will have repaired that “And that is because of human hole in the ozone layer. “So that activity.” gives us cause for optimism that Since the 1950s , there has been we can face big problems and do an enormous increase in popula- something about them.” tion, energy production, air travel, The big problem we face now is car use and the consumption of the greenhouse effect being goods, especially plastics. “We are

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responsible for all these extra “Why it’s different from in the greenhouse gases. What it does is past is that we fly everywhere and act like a fleece blanket. What we think nothing of it; we think are doing is putting more fleece nothing of driving around as a blankets round the Earth and single person in a car; we demand that’s warming up the surface of goods and services and foods the planet.” This causes the ice at from overseas; we are not content the poles to melt, which threatens only to have our raspberries and to raise water levels by six to seven strawberries at a certain time of metres – which would leave places year. The only way we will be able such as Arbroath submerged. “If to cope with this problem is if all you think of much smaller rises, of us change. And actually it is they would leave countries such as one thing where tiny acts by Bangladesh entirely underwater. individuals can make an enor- That’s going to affect all of us mous difference.” This might be because when that happens the directly by walking not driving, or people of Bangladesh have to go through example by holidaying in somewhere. All round the globe this country rather than abroad people will be fleeing from coastal which encourages others to do regions and if you think about the same. where our population is it tends Professor Glover said she is very to be in coastal regions.” proud that Scotland has just Current predictions are that the announced the £10 million Saltire heatwave of 2003, which brought Prize, the biggest-ever environ- a wave of deaths in Europe, will mental prize to be awarded for seem like a cool summer by 2050. the generation of a threshold At the same time, new diseases amount of power from wave or such as Blue Tongue, which is tidal resource. “Scotland, a very already affecting UK livestock, will small country, is doing something arrive as there are fewer cold very big to address a global spells to kill out the carriers of problem and this is displaying disease in the winter. scientific leadership.” Professor Glover showed maps of The Professor called on everyone how the coastline might change if to save energy and reduce worst fears are realised. Within consumption. “What’s the reward around 40 years, low-lying areas if we do this? The reward is that of Scotland, such as the Old we protect the planet on which Course at St Andrews, could be we live. It is the most awe- swallowed by the sea and by 2100 inspiring planet, no matter how the British mainland could be a flashy Saturn is with those rings, scattered patchwork of islands. there’s nothing quite like this and

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we need to protect our place on The Professor was asked her view the planet.” on the USA’s decision to invest Professor Glover ended with an large sums in propping up a car observation she found optimistic, industry that causes pollution. She but said others might find responded that we are not always pessimistic. “We are a very young good at swift changes of direc- and inexperienced species and it’s tion. But we do have a window of very hard for us to cope. We think about 10–15 years during which we are smart, we think we are relatively modest changes will be sophisticated, but we are not and able to mitigate the affects of we are making a mess of things at climate change. the moment. It’s possible that we Asked if Scotland can meet its won’t get ourselves out of this simultaneous targets for econom- hole. But for me the comforting ic expansion and major cuts in

thing is that if we disappear from CO2 emissions, she said both the planet there will still be might be possible, in part because microbes, and the thing about the country has 40% of Europe’s them is they grow, they develop, renewable energy resources. But they evolve. the Professor went on to question “Maybe next time round there why we are seeking growth and might be the evolution of a argued that the emphasis must be species of human that is slightly on sustainability. more considerate about the Professor Glover was questioned planet than we are.” on whether she thought the Following the lecture, the Chair of increasing inequalities in society the session, President of the RSE, fuelled consumerism by encourag- Lord Wilson of Tillyorn, thanked ing people to desire ever-more Professor Glover and led a products and services. She question and answer session. responded that ordinary citizens have a role in making it easier for Asked if she believed humans politicians to propose measures were capable of moving away that will change society to make it from the use of fossil fuels and a more sustainable. consumerist society before it’s too late, Professor Glover said the The vote of thanks was given by choices are stark. One reason for Dr David Keeble of the Institute of hope is that research suggests Physics, which was the joint people were happier when life sponsor of the event. He noted was simpler in the 1950s, so we that it was the last in a successful might discover we prefer another year-long series of RSE events in way of life. Arbroath for which he also thanked the Society and its staff.

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Neal Ascherson The Royalty of the Man: How the Globe read Burns Robert Burns in Global Culture Lecture 22 January 2009

The RSE organised a series of hard to think of another poet who events to mark the 250th anniver- has achieved such a colossal, sary of the birth of Scotland’s global readership, yet had so little foremost poet, Robert Burns. As perceptible influence on how well as the lecture from the subsequent writers wrote. distinguished author and journal- He quoted Murray Pittock in 2002 ist Neal Ascherson, there was a saying that Burns has 1,030 clubs concert; a Burns Supper; and a and societies with 80,000 mem- major one-day conference on bers in 18 countries and statues Robert Burns in Global Culture. standing across at least three In placing Burns in a global continents. His books have been context, Mr Ascherson set the translated 3,000 times into 51 tone for the events – and, indeed, languages, but since the Second more broadly, for Scotland’s Year World War Burns has “almost of Homecoming. vanished from the canon of what Views about the literary influence the critical academies choose to of Robert Burns diverge widely – define as Romanticism”. and Neal Ascherson said he could Burns, then, is hugely popular but “snowball-fight with contrary has become ‘British literature’s verdicts all night”. For example, invisible man’, Professor Pittock while Christopher Grieve – better said. Mr Ascherson agreed with known as the poet Hugh MacDiar- this – as far as the late 20th mid – contended in 1928 that Century English-speaking literary Burns had “no living literary criticism industry is concerned. But influence whatever”, biographer he said that even a hundred years James Mackay said in 1992 that before, Burns’ impact on how he was “universally recognised as world writers wrote was strikingly one of the greatest poets of all hard to trace. Although a number time”. In his wide-ranging talk, of would-be ‘Burnses’ sprang up Mr Ascherson discussed the after his death, they weren’t very difference between the influence good and, possibly, got in the way of Burns and of his literary of Scotland’s literary development. influence, which he contended Indeed, it might be that Burns – were two different things. It is

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writing as he was at the cusp of ty and currency of his work with industrialisation – was at the end his own people. While Goethe’s of a tradition given life by poets own songs were sung by pretty such as Dunbar and Fergusson. girls at pianos, Burns’ were sung Overseas, it’s a similar story. While by the ‘people’, in the fields and Burns has been popular, it has in the pub. In Germany, as been argued that his influence on elsewhere, Burns was admired for literature is limited. Mr Ascherson being a conduit for old folksongs quoted Robert Crawford, saying and the rural tradition, but then that Ossian and Walter Scott are was welcomed as a political ally in more influential. Mr Ascherson the liberal struggle for democracy. discussed possible reasons for the In particular, A Man’s a Man for a’ paradox of readership versus That, translated by Frederick influence – for example, could Freiligrath in the run-up to the dialect and metre have got in the 1848 revolutions, caught on to way, particularly for English- such an extent that it is quoted to speakers (translators wouldn’t this day on a plaque off Berlin’s have these issues with vocabulary). Friedrichstrasse. Mr Ascherson believes that Burns In Germanic lands, he was also translates with varying success – recognised as an apostle of awful in French, ‘pretty good’ in localism – a preacher of healthy, Slav languages. Russia, in particu- rural farming values and thus lar, is the greatest success story in helping to preserve people in their reuniting Burnsian form and natural virtue. Burns was particu- content, he said. larly popular in areas which had Burns’ importance abroad was maintained their own dialect and, highlighted by the worldwide indeed, was claimed as their ally celebrations of the first century of and translated into, for example, his birth. He was also written Schweizerdeutsch Zurich dialect. about in other countries, particu- Burns’s popularity was slower to larly in the French writer Auguste take off in Russia, but again he Angellier’s 1893 Life and Works, was claimed as an ally by different which argued that he should be groups. Translations of his work seen as a European poet. tended to be ‘adapted’ to fit He was celebrated in Germany political or other sensibilities – also, but the literati were unsure mentions of royalty and patriotism about whether he was an ‘artless were fudged or removed, for child of nature’, or a patriot, or example. any one of a number of labels. After the 1917 revolution, his Germany’s foremost poet, Goethe, status grew rapidly – he was was an admirer of Burns; in already in the canon of socialist particular, he envied the populari- song and poetry for the masses, 80 Events 08/09

said Mr Ascherson. In the Soviet Burns is very popular, however, Union the chief translator of particularly among the Scottish Burns was Samuil Marshak (1887- diaspora, with the philanthropist 1964) who made him what Mr Andrew Carnegie, for example, Ascherson called a “not simply “scattering 3,460 sculptures of popular but integral part of Soviet Robert Burns across the United mass culture”. Burns became a States”. His songs – or about a hero of Soviet culture and even dozen of them – became popular Shostakovich set Marshak’s in the US although most people translations to music. Again, didn’t even know who had written however, Marshak (as befits them. someone wanting to survive Mr Ascherson concluded that under Stalin) censored his transla- Burns scarcely ever has been tions, removing references to successfully imitated. This is not, royalty, and, for example, not however, because he is necessarily translating Burns’ (referring to “inimitable” – more like “un- Catherine the Great) mention of repeatable”, he said. ‘Auld Kate’s arse’. Marshak’s His environment – poor, but with monopoly over Burns set up a a wide appreciation of literature; a reaction after his death and rebel at home, a studier of liberty following the fall of the Soviet as it formulated across the world – Union, as his works were seen as was unlikely to be repeated. His part of the Communist culture passions – sex, for example – and apparatus. Burns is still one of his dignity in the face of poverty Russia’s best-loved and best- are also combinations hard to known poets, however. reproduce. He also never went Burns’ reception in the United away – as well as in the English- States was similar: “high apprecia- speaking world and Scottish tion by 19th century writers and diaspora he remains dear and critics, enormous popular reader- familiar to older generations in ship and no perceptible effect on many cultures, including Russia, the evolution of American verse, Germany and Scandinavia. Romantic or otherwise”. Burns “untold millions sing Auld Lang was seen as a poet of liberty, but Syne, who know at most two or also as an ignorant poet of the three of his other songs and few poor, with self-inflicted (booze lines of the poetry,” said Mr and sex) miseries. Walt Whitman, Ascherson. like Goethe, appreciated Burns’ Burns’s poetry is popular, not appeal to his own community, but because it is necessarily profound deplored his lack of spirituality or even always good, but because and his backward-looking in it, people recognise themselves fondness for Scotland’s past.

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and their own feelings and even He was asked about whether feel honoured. “Who else can do classical music settings of Burns that, and with an air you want to songs had helped to make them whistle?” Burns’s take on equality popular. Mr Ascherson said that was the thing that mattered most, they were popular to this day. said Mr Ascherson, saying that the Asked about Burns’ contribution poet believed that ordinary folk to parochial ideas of Scotland of shouldn’t be patronised nor the hills and haggis, when he was oppressed but treated with the writing about equality and social “royal respect due to all human development, Mr Ascherson said beings”. He concluded: “The that Burns would have, for Royalty he meant was not really example enjoyed Burns suppers about Man, but about men and up to a point, but wouldn’t have women, Rob and Jean, you and wanted them confined to institu- me.” tionalise “bardolotry”. “He would Questions ranged over a wide say equality is the chance to be area, from whether Burns – a equally fou,” he said. lowland Scot – had been appro- Just how much of the songs priated by the vision of the attributed to Burns, were actually Highlands, to how ‘liberal’ he written by Burns, was also raised. actually was given he planned to How many were folk songs he had go to Jamaica, possibly to become ‘tarted up a bit’, the questioner a slave-driver. asked. Mr Ascherson said that On the latter, Mr Ascherson while scholars argued about it, he pointed out that Burns had felt it was missing the point. written beautifully about the Burns wouldn’t have really cared plight of the slave, but admitted whether people thought he wrote that the man was “flawed and them; the important thing was contradictory”, as well as living in that they were out there and an era where “everyone was being sung. doing it”. The vote of thanks was delivered by Professor Murray Pittock of the University of Glasgow.

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Conference Robert Burns in Global Culture 23 January 2009

To mark the 250th anniversary of of the slave, but against that, he Robert Burns, the Royal Society of planned at one point to emigrate Edinburgh organised a number of to Jamaica, where his job would events, including an important most likely have been that of one-day conference on the poet’s slave-driver. Professor Leask made place in global culture. the intriguing suggestion that in Leading Burns scholars from the light of the Clan Campbell Scotland and around the world networks in Jamaica, his marriage contributed to the event, both as to Mary Campbell shortly before speakers and in floor discussions. his departure, might have been Topics included the role of Burns advantageous in practical terms, in Scotland’s image abroad, his although of course primarily place in history and contemporary dictated by romantic motives culture and the continuing Professor Leask looked in general celebration of the man and his at Scotland’s role in British works. The audience heard about empire-building, and homed in Burns statues in Canada and on Burns’ own particular case. America, Burns’ influence on the Despite the inherent contradic- rise and fall of the British Empire tions in Burns’ life, poetry and and his role in European democra- letters, Professor Leask contended cy. Delegates were also shown that his work offered resources to direct evidence of his influence on those who wanted to resist contemporary American culture in colonial power. So Burns’ poetry the form of the recent film of Sex influenced, for example, the and the City – and heard about his thinkers behind 19th-Century potential part in the creation of Bengali nationalism, at the same Mickey Mouse. time as it promoted a Scottish Theme 1: Reception of Burns in identity in the empire. Global Culture Without excusing Burns’ plans to Professor Nigel Leask FRSE, go to Jamaica, Professor Leask University of Glasgow gave them an economic context. Scots in Burns’ position couldn’t Burns creates problems for those afford to have a conscience about who try to place him in a colonial slavery and, in any case, their context. On the one hand, he chances of surviving in Jamaica wrote beautifully about the plight were not good. As a conclusion,

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Professor Leask spoke of the which deserves continued invest- contribution made to establishing ment. the Empire by Burns’ children – Theme 2: The Influence of Burns while his poetry helped inspire its on the Image of Scotland downfall. Abroad Professor Ronald Jack FRSE, Professor James Chandler, University of Edinburgh University of Chicago Professor Jack spoke about an The work of Burns has appeared internet project which is helping in hundreds of films and televi- to map and foster Burns’ interna- sion programmes since the early tional presence. The Bibliography 20th Century; Auld Lang Syne has of Scottish Literature in Transla- itself been played or sung in more tion (BOSLIT) is an online resource than 170. These include rendi- hosted by the National Library of tions in classics such as It’s a Scotland. With more than 25,000 Wonderful Life (1946) and When records showing where and by Harry Met Sally (1989) right up to whom Scottish literature has been last year’s hit, Sex and the City, translated, the website is a useful where it is the background for a tool for academics, writers, pivotal five-minute sequence. translators and others. Professor Sometimes Burns is directly Jack described it as a “uniquely mentioned as well. For example, in rich database”, but said it had last year’s Made of Honour, the faced, and still does face, chal- poet is discussed after a rendition lenges in getting funding. This is of My Love is Like a Red, Red Rose. a shame, he said, particularly as Professor Chandler gave some the resource offers a valuable reasons for the popularity in international perspective on romantic comedy of Auld Lang Scottish literature. Burns accounts Syne in particular, suggesting its for the second highest number of connections with Scottish moral records for an individual author sentiment in Adam Smith, and on BOSLIT, with more than 3,000 Scottish notions of sensibility in translations in languages includ- Henry Mackenzie, two writers ing German, Danish, Russian and Burns knew intimately. Burns also French. Professor Jack said that played a potential role in early the resource could pose as many animation, he said, citing a short questions as it answers, but that it Mickey Mouse film, The Plow Boy, gives interesting information where the hero is whistling a about, for example, who was Burns air. Perhaps Burns, specifi- translating Burns and at what cally To a Mouse, with its vivid time. There are gaps, he said, but imagination of a rodentine world, it is an important research tool inspired that cartoon creation.

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Perhaps the Scots invented Mickey now as he might be, but Professor Mouse, too, suggested Professor Prochazka blames the translations, Chandler mischievously. which he says use old-fashioned Professor Martin Prochazka, Czech and do not appeal to Charles University, Prague young audiences. Burns has traditionally been Lunch and Music popular in Czech culture and, in Sheena Wellington and Dr the century from 1850, was the Kirsteen McCue led an informal most translated of Scottish poets, lunchtime concert, in which the admired by those with and audience was occasionally asked without specific links to Scotland. to participate. Sheena Wellington, Professor Prochazka talked about perhaps best known for singing A the importance of the poetry of Man’s a Man for ‘a That at the Burns in helping to construct the opening of the Scottish Parlia- Czech national identity. In a time ment, sang (unaccompanied) a when many Czech poets were number of Burns’ songs, includ- censored, Burns’ work appeared ing ‘A Man’s a Man’. Kirsteen in translation in a number of McCue sang a number of Burns periodicals, both highbrow and songs which had been set to more popular. His popularity music by composers from across stemmed from different traditions Europe, emphasising his global of romantic nationalism and influence. political radicalism. His more Theme 3: The Performance of pastoral works were seen as part Burns in Culture of a folk tradition, a symbol of the Professor Robert Crawford country’s idealised village-based FRSE, University of St Andrews past, but at the same time, his egalitarian poetry, such as A Man’s Professor Crawford began by a Man for a’ That, expressed the paying tribute to the poet Mick strength and equality of the Imlah, who had died the previous people. Translations of Burns week. In particular, he cited could sometimes be vague and Imlah’s poem, The Ayrshire even incomprehensible; in some Orpheus, which refers to Burns – cases, their radical political thus placing both men in a implications were glossed over tradition of Scottish poetry. The altogether. Professor Prochazka bulk of Professor Crawford’s talk, discussed some of the most however, concerned Burns as a important translators of Burns European poet. When T S Eliot and pointed out that he was also spoke of the “mind of Europe” in the subject of literary criticism and the early 20th Century, he asked if essays. Burns is not as popular there was such a thing as Scottish

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literature. To Eliot, Scots were not and Lawrence and Lee’s Annie part of the mind of Europe and, Laurie (1954). These popular indeed, he left Burns out. This renditions, coupled with a critical could have been because Burns move away from biography, have was the opposite of Eliot, who combined to exclude Burns from was a royalist, a classicist and an academia. Anglo Catholic. But Professor Theme 4: Graduate Students Crawford makes a case for placing and Burns Burns in the European literary The relevance of Burns to tradition, saying he should be academia today, from his bawdy considered a poet of European poetry to the way he is commemo- democracy. Professor Crawford rated in North America and believes that Burns has had a Canada, was underlined in the lasting influence on European conference. The last session of the culture. He referred in particular to day provided concrete evidence the composer Arvo Part’s setting that research into Burns is taking of My Heart’s in the Highlands. place in Scotland’s universities. Burns supplements the European Four graduate students described order, said Professor Crawford, their projects in a discussion mutually enriching the way we chaired by Dr Gerry Carruthers of look at his poetry and how we see the University of Glasgow. European culture as a whole. Pauline Gray Professor Leith Davis, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver Burns’ bawdry is a legitimate area for study, although it was seen as Professor Davis examined Burns’ taboo until recently. His bawdy use by creative writers in the last songs contain discussions on the 150 years. She suggested that themes of gender, religion and Burns, more than any other poet politics, which make them ripe for in the English-speaking world, has critical appraisal. Ms Gray spoke been read through the lens of his about gender in particular, and biography. This tendency was exposed some of the contradic- already there in early reviews of tions in Burns’s work. For example, his work, but it was made official he may have had a reputation as a policy in James Currie’s Works of male chauvinist, but his poetry Robert Burns (1800). Fictionalised shows genuine notions of accounts of Burns’ life began after romantic love and appreciation of the Centenary celebrations and women’s bodies. He uses religious continued with such works as language to suggest that sex is a John Drinkwater’s Robert Burns gift from God - “divine blisses” - (1952), the “Immortal Memory” and also writes about women as novels of James Barke (1946–53)

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lustful beings with sexual urges of and the US. In particular, she is their own, rather than being looking at the inauguration passive objects of men’s desire. speeches, as reported in local Burns acknowledges that sex is newspapers, as well as who was complex and often mutual and his behind the building of them. She bawdry deserves a place in the is also looking at how he is canon of his work. represented, and has concluded Ralph McLean that people want to feel they have the best and most authentic This research centres on the seeds representation of the man. It may of the Scottish Enlightenment. be that Burns statues are there for Ralph McLean spoke about Burns’ reasons of nostalgia – a perma- relationship with the Edinburgh nent memorial of devotion to ‘literati’, describing how the poet Scotland from generations of had a “chameleon-like ability” to emigrants. act in the way which would suit him best in a given situation. For Jennifer Orr example, if people wanted to see Jennifer Orr described Burns’ a rustic vernacular poet, that’s influence on the Ulster poets, a what he would be, although he group of labouring class poets in actually wrote sophisticated verse what is now Northern Ireland. In and had read deeply. The literati particular, she is interested in were aware of Burns’ abilities but, Samuel Thomson (1766–1816) at the same, time, Burns appreci- who wrote verse epistles to Burns. ated the literati. Indeed, Burns “Anything but a bardoleter” as was at the heart of the Enlighten- she describes him, Thomson ment, which spread through all nevertheless puts Burns into a levels of society in a myriad of succession of Scottish poets and ways. pits him against English poets of Catherine McBay the time, such as Alexander Pope. She outlined how Burns’ work Are Burns statues erected abroad had an influence on Ulster poets to honour the man and his poetry writing in the vernacular Scots or as an expression of Scottish tradition. There’s a clear need to identity? Catherine McBay is study the influence of Burns on trying to answer this question political circles throughout the with a study of statues in Canada British Isles, she said.

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Burns Supper 22 January 2009 A special Burns Supper held in honour of Robert Burns' 2009 celebration. Contributors included Mr Clark McGinn and the renowned Scottish singer/ songwriter Gill Bowman one of the finest interpreters of Robert Burns' songs performing today.

Concert - Lament for Mary Queen of Scots The Haydn Trio Eisenstadt, Lorna Anderson, Jamie MacDougall. 23 January 2009 Featuring Harald Kosik on piano, Verena Stourhz on violin and Hannes Gradwolh playing cello the Haydn Trio Eisenstadt is one of Austria’s leading chamber music ensembles. Since 2002 the trio have worked closely with the renowned Scottish Singers Lorna Anderson (Soprano) and Jamie MacDou- gall (Tenor). The Royal Society of Edinburgh and the University of Edinburgh was delighted to be able to bring to Edinburgh, for one night only, Jamie, Lorna and the Haydn trio Eisenstadt and to watch all five performers breathe new life into Haydn’s Scottish songs. An exciting link up with one of Scotland’s pre-eminent composers of this generation James MacMillan FRSE added another dimension to the evening as the five performed his newest, as yet untitled, Scottish themed piece of work.

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Cultural Flagships Series Discussion Forum Cultural Flagships: Being a ‘National’ – Museums and Galleries 11 February 2009

The forum was introduced by Lord cutting edge of debates about Wilson of Tillyorn, President of the national identity and culture. Royal Society of Edinburgh, who Professor Macmillan then intro- thanked Professors Jan McDonald duced the four speakers. He FRSE and Adrienne Scullion FRSE pointed out that Belfast-born for their work on the National John Leighton, Director-General of Flagships seminar series, and the National Galleries of Scotland handed over to the Chair for the (NGS), is the first trained painter evening, Professor Duncan to occupy that post for many Macmillan FRSE of the University decades, and outlined his career of Edinburgh, who is also chief before he took over at NGS in visual arts critic of The Scotsman, 2006, which ranged from student and former Curator of the Talbot years at Edinburgh University, Rice Gallery, the University of Edinburgh College of Art and the Edinburgh. Courtauld Institute, to periods at Professor Macmillan introduced the National Gallery in London, the debate by drawing attention and the Van Gogh Museum, to the recent controversy over the Amsterdam. raising of funds to keep the Titian Enrique Juncosa, Director of the painting Diana and Actaeon on Irish Museum of Modern Art public display in Scotland. He (IMMA), was born in Majorca, and quoted the view of Iain Smith has previously worked in Valencia, MSP, Liberal Democrat Culture and at the Reina Sofia Museum in spokesman, that the painting is Madrid. Dr Gordon Rintoul, hardly worth saving for Scotland, Director of National Museums because it has no real Scottish Scotland (NMS), is currently connection. “It’s not even as if it presiding over a major refurbish- was by Jock McTitian”, the MSP ment of the Royal Museum was quoted as saying. Professor building in Chambers Street. And Macmillan said that this contro- Neil MacGregor, Director of the versy reminds us of the questions British Museum, was brought up faced daily by those responsible in Glasgow, before studying for for running ‘national’ galleries the Scottish bar, and moving into and museums in the 21st Century, the world of fine arts via the who often find themselves at the University of Edinburgh, the

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Courtauld Institute and the for encouraging artistic achieve- University of Reading. He was ment within Scotland, but also a Director of the National Gallery in potent sign of distinction to the London before moving to the nation. The Scotsman, at the time, British Museum in 2002. Profes- said that the purpose of the sor Macmillan said that many of collection should be “to teach art the exhibitions Neil McGregor has and elevate taste”; but added that presented at the British Museum in these respects, the existing have shown a strong sense of collections were “quite useless”. topicality, including the current Initially, the galleries had little or exhibition on The Remaking of no acquisition funding, and Iran in the Early 17th Century. depended almost entirely on gifts Professor Macmillan added that in and bequests. The aim, though, his view, culture is the essential was clearly to acquire the finest element from which politics examples of international art that grows, and that politics is only a could be bought or gifted; the function of culture. He therefore remit became more complex later, felt that the approach to national with the general growth of culture of those running major nationalism, and of indigenous national museums and galleries is Scottish schools of painting. Early of profound importance, and directors were soon complaining looked forward to hearing the that the prices of ‘old masters’ views of such a distinguished were becoming prohibitive, so the group of speakers on a subject so debate on acquisitions and critical to our future. spending priorities began early. John Leighton There were also strong class attitudes in the early management John Leighton began by pointing of the galleries. Directors used to out that the National Galleries of employ extra security staff on Scotland are approaching an public holidays, when the working important birthday; they are due classes might be expected to visit; to celebrate their 150th anniversa- and in every sense, the lower ry in March 2009. He said that orders received only a ‘guarded’ when the galleries first opened in welcome from management. 1859, there was general agreement that there was a compelling Nowadays, of course, things have need for the public in Scotland to moved on. John Leighton is have access to great works of art; concerned that it should be clear but there was no great consensus that these are not the ‘National – if any at all – about what the Galleries of Edinburgh’. He is content of the collection should interested in the mission of be. There was a feeling that the creating galleries “without walls”, gallery should be not only a force whose collections become visible 90 Events 08/09

and accessible throughout the of the “same everywhere” culture country. The gallery, he said, in modern art, where similar should not be a “self-contained exhibitions move around a treasure chest”, but should form fashionable circuit from Berlin to part of a wider network across the Paris to London to New York, and nation and beyond. He hoped to seem to have no real identity. He see more collaborations with argued that the easiest way to other collections, both in Scotland have a distinctive identity is to put and elsewhere. some emphasis on the national He felt that the Galleries are, in dimension of a collection, and the broadest sense, educational said that at IMMA, he aims to institutions, and that a continuing assemble the best possible relationship with contemporary collection of contemporary Irish Scottish art should be one of the art, in a good international foundations of the Galleries’ context. The general collection can work. They also play a crucial role be excellent, but the Irish one can in supporting the nation’s tourist reasonably aim to be the best in industry. the world. Mr Leighton said, in conclusion, The Irish Museum of Modern Art that questions of national identity was founded in 1991 with a very are always challenging, and small acquisition fund, and in its should be so. The temptation is to early years tended to use this to try to use institutions such as buy contemporary art from museums and galleries to simplify outside Ireland, along with some national identity, and define it in contemporary Irish work. Mr narrow ways. The duty of the Juncosa has tried to fill in the institutions is to resist that, and to gaps, updating the collection with insist on the complexity of their neglected Irish material created role, and of the culture they between the 1940s – the terminal record and reflect. And he added date of the collections in the that he is delighted by the National Gallery of Ireland – and purchase of the Titian painting, the 1990s. He also observed that which he described as “a sign of when he was appointed to his ambition, as well as a great work post in 2003, one newspaper of art.” article was published objecting to his appointment, and saying that Enrique Juncosa it was disgraceful that a foreigner Mr Juncosa began by observing should hold such a post. But that that people often use the term was the only hostility he encoun- ‘nationalism’ in a pejorative way, tered, and he has found the Irish and always of others, never of arts community very supportive. themselves. He said he is also wary

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He is currently collecting mainly about the relative lack of a focus Irish artists, including those with on Wallace. History is a contested Irish connections who live else- place. When Australia’s National where - Northern Ireland, North Museum opened in 2001, there America, etc. Mr Juncosa noted were so many protests and the paradox that while people in disputes that a government Spain see England, France and commission had to be appointed Germany as the essence of to investigate, and the row led to Europe, British people seem very the departure of the Director. reluctantly European. In Ireland, Dr Rintoul therefore felt that, in though, people are responsive to the first place, it is essential for a the European dimension and national museum, particularly in a enjoy making European links, and small country, to engage in the Mr Juncosa has also linked Ireland continuing debate about the through exhibitions to other ‘new’ history of the nation, and to or recently independent countries, provide a forum for that discus- including India and Pakistan. A sion. It should offer not just the museum in Ireland, he concluded, story of an imagined past, but an has to be Irish; and it also has to opportunity to understand the be much more than that. past through a range of different Gordon Rintoul voices, including those recorded Gordon Rintoul began by observ- through oral history and on film. ing how wide-ranging the Secondly, the national museum National Museums Scotland’s should hsave a role as a national collections are, and how this resource, with a vigorous loans reflects the history of Scotland, programme to other museums and the importance in our and institutions across the national story of Empire, science country. The National Museum and technology. He argued that currently has more than 2,500 national storytelling is always objects out on loan to various fraught with different viewpoints, institutions, and is particularly and that there are pitfalls in pleased that the collection known telling a story through artifacts. as St Ninian’s Treasure has recently There is, for example, not much returned to Shetland for the first about William Wallace in the time since its rediscovery in the National Museum of Scotland, 1950s. because there are no objects in Thirdly, the museum should be the collection relating to him; at involved in supporting and the time of the opening of the enabling others, particularly Museum, the current First Minister smaller museums across Scotland. had made vigorous comments Fourthly, the institution should be

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mindful that being national such as National Museums means being international, if Scotland should seek to act as a Scotland’s story is to be told in force for good, both nationally full. International exchange and and internationally. linkage is of central importance. Neil MacGregor Dr Rintoul said that he hoped the Neil MacGregor used historical revamped Royal Museum building and contemporary images of the would reflect this international British Museum to illustrate his perspective very strongly - for speech, and began by reflecting example, there was an exhibition on the values and ideas which in 2008 called Extremes, about helped inspire the museum’s the Hudson’s Bay Company of foundation at Montague House in Canada, featuring 250 items, 1753. He showed an image of the many of them brought back from steeple of St. George’s Church, northwest Canada by Scots Bloomsbury, close to the museum, involved in the history of the with its statue of King George I at company. The exhibition coincided the very pinnacle of the steeple, with a land claim by the Tlicho and reflected that the museum people of the area around was founded at a time when Yellowknife, whose representa- people were determined to tives visited Edinburgh during the strengthen and consolidate the exhibition; the whole event was idea of the nation – the question particularly moving and well of “which nation?” had after all received. been tested as recently as 1745. And fifthly place, Dr Rintoul Mr MacGregor showed a particu- argued that being national should larly powerful picture of the public mean being a centre for the execution of Jacobite lords at creation and sharing of knowl- Tower Hill following the rebellion edge, particularly through of that year, and said that in the research around the museum’s 1750s, the great and the good of substantial science collection. Britain were essentially saying Research activities could range “Here are the ideas we will from straightforward history of promote, and here are the much science to contemporary research larger group of ideas we will not in natural sciences, using the mention, in order to be able to museum’s collections as a re- live together.” source, and there are exciting The museum was created by a possibilities in this area. vote of Parliament, not by Royal Dr Rintoul concluded that nation- Charter, and was to be run by al status and national funding independent Trustees, not royal also bring national responsibili- appointees. The mood in Parlia- ties, and that national institutions

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ment was of the need to create a mother of all human cultures, society and forge a nation; Mr partly through the study of fine MacGregor reflected that interest artifacts found there. in the idea of a national museum In Neil MacGregor’s view, the often comes from the sense that objects are there in the museum we have a notion of how we want precisely in order to allow differ- our people to be, and want a ent narratives, and resisted museum that in some way reflects narratives, to be presented; and that story and that aspiration. The the civic value of that process is real purpose was to create, not very great indeed. He said that in recount, a national story, and it is London, one person in 20 is now striking that the Trustees were not of sub-Saharan African origin and to be part of government, but free that this is the fastest-growing and independent. They were to be part of the city’s population. He funded by government, but not showed a memorable picture of controlled by it. At the time, a an African study day at the British Royal institution would have Museum, featuring a huge crowd excluded everyone who was of people, including thousands of Nonconformist, Catholic or Londoners of African origin, Jewish, and the foundation of the gathered to hear music and British Museum was an important presentations in the museum’s step away from that. main courtyard. “Our job,” said In the years since 1753, the Mr MacGregor, “is to complicate nations of Britain have changed narratives, and to remind people dramatically, but the objects of how complex they are.” assembled in the collections still He added that museums need the allow us to tell different and resources to make collections competing stories about our available throughout the country history and our society. The idea is and beyond. The idea that the that different populations within British Museum should bring the nation can look at all the together artifacts ‘native and stories in one place, and begin to foreign’ was enshrined in the get a sense of how they fit original Act of Parliament found- together. This is the work that any ing the museum, and today the national museum has to embody, collection should be consultable and national museums must resist world-wide. Mr MacGregor said, any “nationalism” that makes in conclusion, that these remain that coexistence difficult. A good great ideals, and that both the example lies in attitudes to Africa, history and the potential of the which has gone from being British Museum help to demon- patronised as a primitive back- strate what such a collection could water to being recognised as the achieve in the civic realm.

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Questions and Answers and interaction must be good for Professor Sir Alan Peacock FRSE the institution, and there is now a opened the discussion, from the far broader range of ways in audience, by pointing out that the which members of the public can idea of a “national” institution become involved with the work of implies some continuing public the museum. debate about the organisation’s Mr Juncosa said that there is not a purpose and priorities. He simple canon of work which had welcomed the fact that museums to be shown, and that it is a and galleries have become more matter of complex narratives. interactive in terms of the experi- Duncan Thomson, former Director ence of visitors, but wondered of the National Portrait Gallery, how that need for wider public then asked whether modern debate and participation could be museums are speaking the expressed in the governance of language of inclusion, but failing institutions. to practise it. The museums He also questioned whether some themselves have become more of the activities of museums are accessible, but structural participa- not taking on a political education tion is being phased out – there role which could become danger- are no longer trade union repre- ous. Is it not possible, for sentatives on boards, for example. example, that the current Iran Neil MacGregor said that the exhibition at the British Museum British Museum Board are is running this risk? Trustees, not representatives. They Neil MacGregor said that there is are there to defend the interests no question of proselytising, of the public, born and unborn. either in the Iran exhibition or in They need to be strong, so that any other aspect of the British they can fight government if Museum’s work. The public necessary. receive the information, and John Leighton pointed out that literally informs itself through the boards of trustees do not run experience. The idea is to try to museums – directors are responsi- understand contemporary Iran ble for the operations. Museums through its past. The response or Boards have the responsibility to conclusions depend on the monitor and approve the broad individual visitor. strategy, policy and business plans Dr Rintoul said that there is no and if they get too closely involved intention of telling people what in the day-to-day operations then to think. His intention is rather “all hell usually breaks loose”. that the NMS should act as a Gordon Rintoul said there are forum for debate. Participation many ways of encouraging

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participation, for example through museum in Berlin, and wondering open meetings. It is important to what on earth it was doing there. offer the public a range of ways of John Leighton said that he thinks engaging with the work of the works of art acquire a resonance museum. through being exhibited in a The question was raised of the certain place, over time. It would still rather forbidding image of make us much poorer, for exam- formal galleries. Why do people ple, if we could only ever see still think only of official gallery Venetian art exhibited in Venice; it spaces, when it comes to display- should also be seen in other ing art or artifacts? lights. There is also an element of John Leighton said that he is very surprise or disjunction – like the interested in this issue, which was questioner’s experience in Berlin – why he had talked about the idea which can be revealing and of the “gallery without walls”. enlightening. There is a strong tradition of Neil MacGregor suggested that public sculpture in Britain, and of the real question is about how we art in the environment at various understand objects. The compara- sites. Mr Leighton felt that all of tive method is a very powerful tool these developments help to make of understanding, and collections art more accessible and less such as the British Museum are intimidating. founded on it. He argued that we Mr Juncosa said that the Irish cannot understand the world, and Museum of Modern Art has an how different geographical areas extensive programme of lending and traditions relate to one work from its collection to small another, unless objects are towns across Ireland, some of brought together for comparison. which are using informal exhibi- Cultures are contiguous, like a tion spaces such as garages and form of trade. They are shaped by shop-fronts. The ‘national contacts and exchanges, and programme’, as it is called, is an unless we can see objects side by increasingly important part of the side, those relations will not be IMMA’s work. clear to us. The questioner wondered, though, whether the The question was raised of people of Benin feel like that whether it is right to remove art- about their bronzes, which have works from the places were they become the property of the British were created, and to keep them in Museum and other galleries in the other cities and countries. The west. questioner recounted the strange experience of seeing an ancient Another questioner wondered Persian temple reconstructed in a how much sense of ownership

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people have in relation to their institutions have built up their national galleries and museums, own holdings through a combina- and how that could be fostered. tion of purchase, and generous Gordon Rintoul said that the NMS gifts and bequests. has carried out substantial Gordon Rintoul agreed that the outreach work, for example with generosity of private donors is of groups of women from the huge benefit to the national Chinese and Indian communities collections, and recalled a Japa- in Glasgow, although ethnic nese company with a plant in diversity is obviously not so strong Scotland generously donating a a thread in Scottish life as it is in hugely valuable silicon ingot for a London. recent NMS exhibition. A final questioner asked the Professor Macmillan then closed speakers to reflect on the impor- the formal debate, and invited tance of private collectors who Professor Jan McDonald to give donate works to national galleries the vote of thanks. She said that and museums. Among those the discussion had been fascinat- mentioned were the Rockefeller, ing, and had made it clear that Burrell and Bridgewater bequests. national galleries and museums John Leighton said that he agreed have a very complex contract with that it is easy to forget that the the nations they serve. In a sense, stewardship of heritage is, and they are there to help create a always has been, a public–private nation that can only exist if we partnership. Many countries have suspend our disbelief, and allow national collections based on old ourselves to become something royal collections, which have been more than an imaginary commu- nationalised or appropriated. But nity. She thanked all four our royal family still has its own speakers, and Professor Macmil- collection, and the national lan, for an outstanding debate.

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Professor John Beddington CMG FRS Global Challenges in a changing world ECRR Peter Wilson Lecture 17 February 2009

Science to the rescue - Demand for food is projected to Professor John Beddington, the increase by 50% by 2030, Chief Scientific Adviser to HM according to the United Government and Head of the Nations. Government Office for Science, - World grain reserves are at an believes that science and technol- all-time low of 14%, down from ogy must play a critical role in 35% in 1986, and 75% of the tackling the many global challeng- major marine fish stocks are es facing humanity through the either depleted, overexploited 21st Century – and that the or being fished at their biologi- economic downturn is no time to cal limit. be taking our foot off the acceler- - Demand for energy is projected ator for the investments to increase by 45% by 2030 in a required… BAU scenario. Listening to Professor Beddington - Demand for water may increase set out these challenges, you may by 30% by 2030. One in three be forgiven for thinking the future people already face serious is cancelled. He presents a stark shortages in the form of picture of complex, interacting physical or economic water problems, and of transformational scarcity. Potentially forcing changes to be managed alongside more countries to introduce these. charges and with the possibility - World population is expected to of increased tensions and rise from six billion at the start conflicts. of the century to nine billion by - The acidity of the oceans is 2050 – an increase of six million accelerating, with Ph expected people per month, mostly in to drop by approximately 0.4 by developing countries. the end of the century, due to - Urbanisation will accelerate. rising CO2 emissions. Last year, urban population - Economic migration has overtook rural. increased from less than 80 - More than a billion people live million in 1960 to around 200 on less than 50p a day. million by 2005.

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- The world’s mega deltas are worst-case scenario for the rate of particularly vulnerable to climate Arctic melting turned out to be change, and every year there is not as bad as actual observations. already around a 75% chance Further research and data will be of one of the world’s major 136 key to understand whether short port cities being inundated with term fluctuations or more funda- a one-in-a-100-year flood. mental trend factors are the cause. Even some of the good news is In many areas the full impact of bad. Beddington highlighted the changes being experienced or recent research which suggests which are predicted, such as rising that banning aerosols may have sea temperatures, is still not well led to an increase in deforestation understood by scientists. of the Amazon rainforest, due to Whilst spending much of his RSE an increase in droughts. lecture describing the problems, He explained too how economic he talked too about solutions. growth projected for the develop- Beddington remains optimistic ing world, lifting millions from that science and technology can poverty, would at the same time rise to the challenge, if we have increase exponentially the de- the political will and invest mand for energy, water, food and adequately in research and in its other resources. More prosperous effective exploitation. An eco- populations, centred increasingly nomic downturn may not seem in mega-cities and aspiring to the the best time to argue for in- lifestyles of affluent Western creased investment, but nations, will require servicing Beddington believes that there are often by a rural community profits to be made from the crisis, declining in at least relative terms. and that we have no other choice. Looming over all of this is climate Beddington welcomed the change – and other unpredictable inauguration of President Obama, phenomena such as terrorism because the new administration is and natural disasters. It’s no good already taking climate change having a healthy economy if the more seriously, including the planet is killing itself – for exam- appointment of two Nobel Prize ple, a 5º increase in temperature winners with an interest in climate would cause a catastrophic rise in change to the team of scientific sea levels and devastate agricultur- advisors. al production. Our prospects may look bleak, but Unfortunately some of our most Beddington seems to agree with pessimistic forecasts may not be the idea that every crisis means an pessimistic enough, said Bedding- opportunity. And he is very clear ton. For example, even the what this will mean: “We need

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significant investment in science expensive at the moment, but and engineering solutions to Beddington agrees that it will play complex inter-related issues.” a crucial role in substantially For example, the developing world lowering emissions from coal in will inevitably use its massive coal the decades to come. For many reserves to generate energy, but promising technologies, a new carbon capture and storage medium to long– term view of the (CCS) technologies will not only value of investments is needed. help cut emissions but also mean Other positive options are re- profits for the companies who forestation, combined heat and successfully develop and market power plants, biomass and other their solutions. And cleaner renewables such as wave, wind electricity and transport are two of and tidal power. the most critical issues. To promote these solutions, we Reducing emissions by 80% by don’t just need money and 2050 in the UK may seem an technological innovation, but also impossible challenge, but Bed- behavioural changes, said Bed- dington is confident we can reach dington, helped by incentives. our targets by using smart science Carbon trading may work at a and technology, especially if there national level, but individuals are strong international agree- need more persuasion. ments. Increasing food production by 50 Beddington compared a range of per cent in the next 30 years, at solutions in terms of cost- the same time as reducing benefits, suggesting that some agricultural energy and water technologies and policies are consumption and managing more cost-effective at reducing pesticides and fertilisers more emissions than others. For sparingly, may seem impossible, example, better home insulation but there are grounds for hope. would be the cheapest and Grain reserves are so low that our highest-impact solution, since total reserves are literally at sea at households alone contribute any given moment. But if we about 45% to total emissions. could eliminate crop losses and Nuclear energy is another “no other wastage through the food brainer” for Beddington, who chain, food production and food described it as “break even” in security could increase substan- terms of return on investment, tially, even on less land with fewer while other options such as resources. At the same time, sugarcane biofuels generate genetically modified crops he saw savings. CCS is still an unproven as another key technology option solution which appears more with the potential to make a significant contribution.

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Similarly, better water manage- Dwelling for a moment on a more ment like recycling “grey water” administrative aspect of his role, and improving irrigation using Beddington revealed that every new technologies (including government department has a nanotechnology) may mitigate the chief scientific advisor, with the worst effects of future shortages. exception of the Treasury. Some ideas like “fertilising” Just as with the changing eco- clouds and giant sun shades nomic climate however, there are orbiting the Earth may seem like no quick fixes with science. Asked pie in the sky, but Beddington has about birth control, for example, great hopes for fusion power and Beddington described how rapid other breakthrough concepts such changes in population can have a as growing algae to increase negative effect on an economy – absorption of carbon dioxide. while many religions oppose He saw an important role too for contraception completely. Rather climate models, to improve than legislating for the bedroom, progressively our understanding societies are better off educating of future climates. He noted at the women, said Beddington. When same time the difficulties in it comes to climate change and interpreting such models, which other global problems, what we are inherently chaotic, Beddington need is a much more holistic explained. Even tiny changes in approach, including better inputs can lead to dramatic communication and engagement variations in results. The models with people. also currently leave “major Finally, asked if it would be uncertainties”, including potential “madness” to reduce our invest- impacts on monsoons and El Nino ment in science and technology, phenomena. despite the financial constraints of the credit crunch, Beddington answered resoundingly: “Yes!”

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UK–Taiwan Workshop on Tidal Current Energy Organised with the National Science Council of Taiwan, in cooperation with the University of Edinburgh 24 February 2009

Islands linked by science resources, with biodirectional The UK and Taiwan may be islands tidal currents in the Irish Sea, on opposite sides of the planet, the Pentland Firth and around but the workshop on tidal current Orkney, where projects are energy highlighted how much already underway, including they have in common in terms of the world’s first twin-rotor the energy challenges they both tidal current turbine – SeaGen. face, their renewable resources 3. Both are also concerned about and the science required to the environmental impact of develop commercial solutions. developing renewable resourc- And ultimately, this may lead to es, and are working hard to ‘powerful’ partnerships between ensure that we not only have the two, involving industry as well greater knowledge of long- as academic researchers. term effects but also minimise Several themes emerged during potential damage. the workshop to emphasise these 4. Within the UK and Taiwan, common interests: partnerships are key to the 1. As well as the need to develop success of renewable energy renewable sources of energy, projects, because they tend to while reducing emissions and be multi-disciplinary and dependence on carbon-based require close cooperation fuels, both the UK and Taiwan between so many different have enormous resources interested parties, including around them – particularly the government, the general power of the sea. public, universities and business. 2. In Taiwan, scientists are focusing on a phenomenon 5. Similarly, international partner- called Kuroshio – an ocean ships will help to accelerate circulating current which runs progress at national and in one direction up the east global levels by sharing the coast of Taiwan, capable of results of our experience and producing 60GW of power. In avoiding duplication of effort. the UK, we have similar Even though the UK and Taiwan are surrounded by water, when it

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comes to solving our energy practical options, and nor is hydro problems, neither can afford to be power, due to geographical and an island, and the workshop was weather conditions, while nuclear a powerful demonstration of this, energy currently provides only as well as a great demonstration eight per cent of the total. that everyone involved was willing Taiwan is also a major industrial to share ideas and form strategic player, and, as a result, its green- partnerships – and friendships house gas emissions make it which the organisers hope to number 22 in the world in volume renew in the very near future. terms (one per cent of total WORKSHOP PAPERS emissions) and Number 18 in Energy Research and the emissions per capita, growing Kuroshio Power Plant Project faster than most others at a rate of five per cent a year. Clean coal, Professor Chen Falin, Institute carbon capture and gasification of Applied Mechanics, National will be major priorities in coming Taiwan University years, spending £4 billion to Professor Chen set the scene for replace all 18 coal-fired power the workshop by mapping out the plants over the next 20 years, at energy challenges faced by the same time as developing the Taiwan, then describing plans to nuclear sector (if there is political tap the Kuroshio – an ocean backing) and boosting the current which runs up the east renewables sector. coast of Taiwan which could Professor Chen said that Taiwan provide 60GW of power, using will face a huge energy problem in the next generation of turbines. the future if it does not act now, He also revealed that Taiwan’s and that is why the National National Science Council will Energy Program will focus on launch a new National Energy three major issues: Program this summer, investing about £100 million a year in 1. energy security academic research and industrial 2. greenhouse gas reduction projects over the next five years. 3. development of a new energy According to Professor Chen, industry Taiwan’s “inconvenient truth” is As part of this programme, Taiwan that an island one eighth of the also recognises the need to work size of the UK with a population with international partners to of 23 million people relies almost develop its renewables sector, entirely on imported energy, in including photovoltaic cells, wind particular oil, coal and gas. Wind power, biofuels and LED. It is and solar energy are simply not already successful in the photo-

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voltaic industry, with 30 manufac- need to invest in manufacturing,” turers (number four in the world) said Professor Chen, “and we are and LED lighting (number two in looking for international technol- the world). Biofuels are now a ogies, including new mooring and “hot issue,” said Professor Chen, anchoring systems.” but Taiwan is relatively new to Marine Energy Research and wind turbines, with a capacity of Development in the UK 347MW. Professor Robin Wallace, The Kuroshio Project is potentially Institute for Energy Systems, the most important part of the University of Edinburgh equation, however – and also the Professor Wallace provided the greatest technological challenge. British perspective on marine Scientists have already identified energy, focusing on the R&D the best location for a power environment in the UK, discussing plant, in a 100km-wide stretch of recent progress with new technol- water near the east coast of ogies and infrastructure, the Taiwan, which is not just easier to research challenges and opportu- access but also more reliable in nities for collaboration. terms of predictable flow. Even with a tidal flow of only two He recognised and applauded the metres per second, however, the significant progress in the sector, “Black Current” has 100 times noting that in the last five years more power than the Amazon and several technologies had complet- could provide Taiwan with 60GW ed the journey “from artist’s of energy – more than it uses impressions to the real thing” – today. deploying devices at sea. For example, he described the Scientists have already started Wavegen LIMPET, an oscillating surveying the area with a view to water-column shoreline wave building new power plants and energy converter deployed on the installing turbines, exploring the island of Islay, and plans for a environmental risks and archaeo- 4MW offshore breakwater device. logical implications, as well as Other technologies highlighted by likely costs. Professor Wallace included the One problem is that most existing Ocean Power Technology power tidal current turbines are designed buoys, the Pelamis Wave Power for shallow waters, and the wave energy converter (deployed turbines required are still artist’s in Portugal and UK waters), the impressions. The design of the Open Hydro tidal current turbine turbines will therefore be a critical in Orkney and MCT’s SeaGen factor – with each one capable of project (described in detail later in generating 2MW of power. “We the workshop).

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These new wave and tidal-current deployment. Technology evolution generators are full-scale proto- and learning by doing generally types with generators plugged reduces costs as volume deploy- into the national grid, demon- ment increases, but sometimes strating the UK’s achievements in there can be a challenging research and development activity, funding gap in the journey to device construction, open sea commercialisation – what Profes- testing and deployment – and sor Wallace called the “valley of actual power production from the death.” sea. Professor Wallace then talked Like Taiwan, said Professor about the world-class research Wallace, the UK faces an “incon- and development going on in venient truth,” including the fact many universities; some of them that most population centres were part of the SuperGen Marine established above the coalfields in Energy Research Consortium. He the south, with the electricity also highlighted the 1/10th scale supply network following the east tidal test facility at NaREC and the coast, while the greatest potential EMEC wave and tidal test sites on resources are found in the north Orkney. and the west – abundant wind Collaboration is key to success, and marine energy. said Professor Wallace, and many To exploit its rich marine resources energy research programmes in and help solve its energy prob- the UK are collaborative efforts, lems, said Professor Wallace, the with £200 million invested in UK needs to proceed with “a sustainable power generation joined-up campaign of develop- projects involving 14 consortia, ment and deployment and with 38 academic and 80 indus- strategic and prudent investment trial partners. The Energy in the network, to ensure that Technology Partnership (ETP) is good ideas are translated into another example of “outward- real-world solutions, not only facing collaboration,” he added, taking account of the technical by pooling the resources of 250 challenges and constraints but academics and 600 researchers in also the economic realities. It’s a Scottish universities – the biggest long way from dreams to deploy- partnership of its kind in Europe. ment, and important to learn from There are many research challeng- experience”, he added. Above all, es, said Professor Wallace, said Professor Wallace, it’s including the development of important to ensure continuity of better testing facilities, increasing funding for winning ideas and the size and number of devices technologies from concept to and moving into deeper water

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farther offshore, but there are also With a staff of 66 researchers, many exciting opportunities for including 17 with PhDs, TORI will collaboration as the industry also look at seismic activity and evolves in the next few years into the ecology of the ocean, map- second- and third-generation ping the habitats and distribution solutions. of deep-sea organisms, as well as Establishment of a CODAR studying storm surges, coastal System to monitor Ocean erosion and the movement of Surface Currents around sediments, coral reefs, water Taiwan. Dr Yang Wen-chang, quality and atmospheric condi- National Applied Research tions. Laboratories The CODAR real-time observation If Taiwan is going to take full equipment includes site data advantage of its marine energy acquisition systems plus transmit- resources, it is vital to understand ter and receiver, with a range of as much as possible about the 220km. The ultimate aim is to ocean which surrounds it, and Dr cover an area approximately twice Yang’s organisation will play a key as big as Taiwan itself with a role in that process, in the process network of intelligent buoys, and helping in the drive towards installation is scheduled for sustainable development and completion in 2011. better understanding of the full Tidal Current Characterisation effects of climate change. Professor Ian Bryden, Institute Set up last year, the Taiwan Ocean for Energy Systems, University Research Institute (TORI) is of Edinburgh carrying out a four-year project to Professor Bryden started by monitor the Western Pacific using declaring that tidal currents are a a CODAR system and a fleet of mechanistic process that is well research vessels to establish a understood and relatively easy to comprehensive database and mimic, using computers and wave information network, including tanks. Tides are also easy to hydrographic, geological, geo- predict because they are deter- physical and biological data, etc. mined by the push and pull of the It will also develop new ocean Solar System. He also explained exploration technology, including that the North Sea is like a semi- deep-sea ROVs (remotely operated enclosed basin, and that tides vehicles) and has commissioned a produce kinetic energy in a similar new 2,700-ton research vessel fashion to waves or wind. To tap expected to be operational in this power, we need the right 2012. coastal topography, but many countries have accessible “hot

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spots” where this can be found, is better not to interfere too much including the Pentland Firth in with nature or there may be north– east Scotland, where tidal undesirable effects on the currents can reach speeds of up to environment. six metres per second. Even Current Developments in though the hot spots move Taiwan Ocean and Coastal around in the Firth, there are Engineering. Kung Cheng-Shan, enough stable locations where Senior Vice-President, Sinotech energy capture is a practical Engineering Consultant Ltd option, and a channel roughly Dr Kung described a number of 1,000 metres wide by 40 metres marine and coastal projects in deep is capable of producing Taiwan, including five harbour enough electricity to power large development schemes, modeling cities such as Glasgow or Edin- Typhoon Wave and storm surge burgh. analysis. He also talked about how After showing a “scary” film of Taiwan exploited its deep-sea the tide in the Pentland Firth resources, tapping water from moving at less than two metres 300 to 1,000 metres under the per second, to illustrate the huge sea surface for use in cooling amounts of energy available even processes, as well as for drinking, in relative calm, Professor Bryden aquaculture and mineral extrac- then explained that kinetic energy tion. He then described how is only part of the story. Friction Taiwan has established its first and potential changes in the sea offshore wind farm project, and surface level can produce twice as has learned from UK experience much power as tidal currents. The and adapted that to local condi- extraction of energy from a tidal tions (such as typhoon and flow also alters the underlying earthquake). The jacket-type hydraulic nature of the flow, and foundation will be the most this may affect the environment, suitable for future projects. he added. Taiwan is also seeking to achieve Professor Bryden then explained the right balance between nature that if we extract 25 per cent of and human activities, said Dr the kinetic flux in a current, the Kung, monitoring the effects of energy in the current actually offshore industrial estates as well increases rather than decreases, as trying to design the most but he also cautioned that there is suitable dykes to protect the an absolute limit on the amount coastline without damaging its of energy that can be extracted, appearance. based on the laws of physics, and that because tides are turbulent, it

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SeaGen – Moving Tidal Turbines MCT, said Fraenkel, has deployed into Deeper Waters. Professor three of the five tidal turbines Peter Fraenkel, Marine Current now being tested in the UK, with Turbines (MCT) output ranging from 300kW to One of the highlights of the 1MW. He also said that MCT was workshop was the talk by Peter the first company to achieve Fraenkel describing the develop- commercial viability, with SeaGen’s ment of SeaGen, “the largest twin 16-metre-diameter turbines rotating device in the sea,” which producing up to 1.2MW of power the delegation visited later in the – and strong enough to carry week, in Northern Ireland. three double-decker buses. Early versions developed by MCT, such Warning of the risks of “getting as the world’s first tidal current into deep water,” Fraenkel started turbine (deployed in Loch Linnhe by outlining his four conditions in 1994) which produced 15kW, for marine energy projects: or the more recent Seaflow 1. scale – the device should be (deployed in 2003), with a rated able to generate at least 1MW power of 300kW, were experimen- to be economic tal prototypes. 2. access – it should be close to Fraenkel then described the land so it is easy to service installation of SeaGen in 3. reliability – to minimise the Strangford Lough, including the need for repairs/intervention design of a new “Quadropod” – a 4. life – it should last for several temporary platform used for decades construction. Even though SeaGen was up to full power by Then having outlined these December last year, Fraenkel said conditions, he stated that “few that it would be another year or technology developers are two before MCT would have a anywhere near to meeting these reliable system. criteria.” As well as power output, MCT’s Moving on to the technology investment has accelerated over itself, Fraenkel then said that the the years, rising from about design of the rotors was not the £350,000 from 1992 to 1995 to big challenge. The simple rule is £3.4 million in Seaflow and over to use the least amount of £20 million in SeaGen. The next material over the greatest area. step for MCT will be to deploy an When it comes to location, he array of turbines in the Irish Sea by added, “the seabed is not the 2011, capable of generating place to go,” because 75 per cent 10MW, and this will need a of the energy is found in the top further investment of about £52 50 per cent of the water column.

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million, said Fraenkel. Above all, Dr Johnstone then explained how he added, MCT has been able to the design had evolved from learn so much from its experience research into wind turbines. What that the risks should be less and makes tidal current turbines the costs should be lower – different, however, is that they ultimately leading to a lower cost operate in a very different environ- per megawatt than wind turbines. ment, and if they could float in Looking to the future, Fraenkel the water, tethered to a single- said that second-generation point mooring, this would cut designs will need more reliable roughly 40 per cent of the cost – power units, and will have to be the cost of the solid structure capable of scaling up and down, usually used as foundation (like with 24-metre-diameter rotors the SeaGen). maximum size, deployed in arrays The other advantages of contra- with a surface area of 1,5000 rotation are a reduction in torque square metres, as compared to (“zero-reactive torque”), which SeaGen’s 400 square metres. He makes the turbine more stable, a also talked about deploying longer lifetime, greater power- horizontal arrays, incorporating six capture area, and a reduction in rotors, and floating vertical arrays, the turbulent flow downstream of submerged in deep waters, which the rotors. In addition, because it could be the solution for the is possible to pack more into any Kuroshio Power Plant Project in given area, you don’t need bigger Taiwan. rotor blades to increase power A Contra-Rotating Marine output – simply more rotors. Current Turbine. Dr Cameron According to Dr Johnstone, the Johnstone, Energy Systems “unique selling points” of contra- Research Unit, University of rotation are higher power output, Strathclyde reduced environmental impact, Following the discussions of lower maintenance costs and no rotors and mooring systems, Dr need to construct expensive Johnstone described his “revolu- seabed foundations. Add these tionary” design for a together, and the new design fits second-generation tidal current the requirement for deep-sea turbine which would not need a deployment, with the added solid structure for support in the bonus of reduced system and water, thanks to the use of two operational costs. The new device dissimilar rotors (one three-blade also generates power using a and one four-blade) which turn in direct-drive alternator, which opposite directions, thus counter- eliminates the need for a gearbox, balancing each other and while the open-to-water design stabilising the turbine. enables natural cooling, at the 109 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

same time as eliminating the need marine energy projects but also to for complex seals to protect the establish present conditions, to power equipment. help with plans for sewage The development of the prototype treatment, industrial pollution, has already moved on from 1/ aquaculture and agricultural run- 30th-scale testing to 1/7th-scale off. testing to sea trials in the west of After explaining that Taiwan has Scotland (Kyles of Bute and Islay). 118 rivers and streams, and that The results of these trials have 24 of them provide about 85 per confirmed the low deployment cent of the water supply, Professor and maintenance costs (six Wen then outlined the different minutes to deploy and eight conditions affecting the estuaries minutes to recover) and proved and coastal waters of Taiwan, not the viability of single-point just because of rapid industrialisa- mooring. The flexibility of tion and urbanisation but also configuration for different depths because of its sub-tropical climate and resistance to marine growth and historical problems with also make it suitable for deep-sea waste-water treatment. Professor deployment in a wide range of Wen also revealed that despite climates. covering only 0.024 per cent of Geochemical Dynamics and the surface of the planet, Taiwan Anthropogenic Impacts of produces 1.9 per cent of estimat- Estuarine, Coastal ed global sediment discharge. and Shelf Waters of Taiwan. And to illustrate the scale of the Professor Wen Liang-Saw, problems it faces, it is only today Institute of Oceanography, that the capital city, Taipei, has National Taiwan University adequate sewage facilities – a few years ago, less than 60 per cent of To underscore Taiwan’s concerns households had proper sewage about environmental impact, and even very recently, 10 per cent Professor Wen described his were still without modern facili- comprehensive study (from 2000 ties. According to Professor Wen, to 2003) of the estuaries and old industries also cause problems coastal waters surrounding – with disused outlet pipes buried Taiwan. The focus of his study was from view still responsible for on water quality and the balance some degree of pollution. of nutrients found in the water, analysing how the land interacts Professor Wen’s study covered a with the ocean. The results of the number of factors, including study have widespread implica- water quality, precipitation, water tions, not just when it comes to temperature, salinity, particulates, measuring the impact of future turbidity and dissolved oxygen,

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phosphates, carbon dioxide, conservation interest and several nitrogen, copper and silver. One agencies are concerned about the of the findings was that house- danger to wildlife posed by the hold pollution is a more pressing construction of SeaGen and its problem than industrial effluents, giant rotors. with traces of silver (used in The environmental monitoring domestic disinfectant) betraying programme managed by Queen’s the scale of the problem. Profes- University Belfast and St Andrews sor Wen is confident, however, University’s Sea Mammal Research that the silver pollution has a Unit was not just designed to negligible global impact. satisfy the Northern Ireland As a result of the study, the Environmental Agency (NIEA) and government has closed down the the Maritime & Coastguard pig farms on the banks of the Agency (MCA), but also European river, due to excess copper flowing agencies, the general public – and into the water from the cleaning MCT itself. As well as praising agents used on the pig farms. MCT for being so willing to Measuring the effects of sewage support the programme, Dr has also driven policy changes, Savidge also stressed that it was and over the last two years, important to get input from all nitrogen levels have decreased by stakeholders, to avoid missing 50 per cent. anyone out who may raise a “Economic growth over the last concern, especially considering 50 years has brought prosperity the damage which could be and rapid development,” Profes- caused by media images of sor Wen concluded. “This had damage to wildlife. He also serious environmental conse- pointed out that there were risks quences – and now we are trying for MCT, since one of the condi- to fix it.” tions of the programme was that in the event of a “significant Environmental Monitoring in environmental impact,” the Strangford Narrows. Dr Gra- turbine could still be shut down. ham Savidge, Queen’s By welcoming the programme, University Belfast however, MCT was clearing the After describing the advantages of way for future projects by estab- Strangford Narrows for tapping lishing the environmental facts tidal current energy, such as tides right from the start, rather than of four metres per second, easy waiting for something to happen access from land and good and dealing with it after the event. shelter, Dr Savidge then explained “This will soften the pressure on the possible down side – the developers,” said Dr Savidge. lough (lake) is an area of major

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The study looked at the impact on The divers also took a lot of risks common harbour seals, cetaceans, to examine the benthos, Dr birds and benthos (seabed Savidge explained, in their creatures such as hydroid turf and attempts to capture images of life sponges), including tagging seals on the seabed, in the 10-minute with GPS tracking devices, visual calm between fast-moving, observation, acoustic monitoring turbulent tides. of porpoises and sonar to detect The results so far indicate some approaching creatures in the degree of impact but no signifi- water, which could even be used cant damage. Benthic surveys to shut down the turbines show little change. Seabird diving automatically (in about four has increased in the wake of the seconds). Seals are intelligent and turbines, but no major changes inquisitive animals, said Dr have been noticed in activity Savidge, but little is known about patterns. Porpoise activity has their ability for close avoidance of reduced in the area near the hazards, so the researchers went turbines, but SeaGen is already to great lengths to minimise risks becoming part of the landscape. to the seals at the same time as Wave and Typhoon Activity in closely observing their move- the Western Pacific. Professor ments. Kao Chia-Chuen, National The researchers also monitored Cheng-Kung University changes in the flow pattern of the The Kuroshio is a natural phe- Narrows to measure the impact of nomenon with the potential to the turbines on currents. power the whole of Taiwan, but The data gathered covers the two what is provided by nature with years before SeaGen was con- one hand is taken away with structed and the two years another. The island is located in following deployment. The an area of sometimes spectacular objective is to establish the weather conditions which could environmental impact on factors play havoc with future energy such as long-term population and projects, and mean that the short-term behaviour of wildlife. design of any turbines will have to In the process, said Dr Savidge, be extra strong to survive. the researchers learned more Taiwan is in the firing line for about seals than expected, several typhoons a year and some including the discovery that they of the waves observed in coastal behaved more individually (in waters are as large as Tsunamis, some cases swimming long- according to Professor Kao, whose distance, alone) and did not work involves measuring waves always stay in the Narrows in and other oceanic phenomena groups.

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using a network of 12 solar- and the cost of electricity over the powered wireless buoys. long term. His basic conclusion In addition to in situ observation was that the Minas Passage in and analysing the data produced Nova Scotia has the greatest by the buoys, Professor Kao’s potential to generate power. Tidal department uses numerical current energy is reliable and modelling and remote sensing to predictable, said Mr Chang, but keep a close watch on the ocean – his study was also concerned with particularly tides, waves, winds, the large variations in power over pressure and surface currents. The the course of a day, and the critical data is provided to a number of gap at certain times between agencies, including the marine power generation and demand. weather bureau, the water Wake Effects of Tidal Current resource agency and the tourism Turbines. Matthew Topper, PhD office. During major storms or Student, University of Edin- typhoons, the equipment is burgh capable of taking measurements Just when you thought that you every minute, to avoid missing any understood something about large waves, using X-band radar tidal currents, along comes Mr to monitor the sea state. And his Topper with his mathematical equipment has monitored waves theories about the complex as high as 30 metres, with the interaction between the surface of highest recorded wave in October the ocean and the turbulence 2007. created in the wake of turbines – A Review of the Tidal Current or “decomposing power curve Power Plant of the US. Chang free-surface effects.” This is Sen-Tsun, PhD Student, Nation- important, because it helps to al Taiwan University understand why power genera- Mr Chang described his study of tion is so variable with full-scale the various tidal current energy tidal current turbines, and the projects underway in North problem for Mr Topper is that the America, ranging from Alaska all numerical models used to analyse the way to Nova Scotia, via San these highly complex effects are Francisco’s Golden Gate. Taking not good enough – one model into account a number of factors may be very good at understand- such as local topography, cable ing surface dynamics while the installation, structural elements, other may be very good at grid connections and the design analysing turbulence, but neither of the turbines themselves, Mr can cope very well with the Chang’s research was designed to interaction between them. “There compare the cost of installation is more than one type of physics

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going on at the same time,” Mr model free-surface problems, Topper explained, describing the studying the flow and interac- fact that a wind turbine produces tions, but said we don’t know a steady wake while a tidal turbine much about the turbulence effects produces an unsteady wake in high-energy tidal channels because it interacts with the free- which flow at a rate of three moving surface (i.e. waves in the metres per second, such as the water). Mr Topper uses the Pentland Firth and Strangford boundary element method to Narrows.

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Public Discussion Forum and Full-Day Conference Alcohol – Our Favourite Drug: from Chemistry to Culture 26 and 27 February 2009

Introduction/Summary but to those around him or her. As the Scottish Government They learned about how heavy prepared to publish its far- drinking has a disproportionate reaching alcohol strategy, experts effect on poorer populations, from around the world gathered both at our country level and in Edinburgh to take part in two worldwide, and heard a call for a events to discuss what the RSE global framework convention for calls ‘our favourite drug’. alcohol policy. On Thursday evening, Lord Wilson On the more scientific side, of Tillyorn, President of the RSE, advances in imaging and other set the scene for the events by techniques are helping to improve talking about Scotland’s ‘love- our understanding of addiction – hate’ relationship with alcohol. and hence leading to new modes of treatment and prevention. Broadly, the speakers covered two Those present were informed main areas: the science of addic- about the role of genetics and the tion, including genetic complex interplay with environ- components and, secondly, the ment and lifestyle factors and role of alcohol in our culture. Over found out at first hand about the the two days, participants heard huge burden of alcohol-related about young ‘determined drink- disease on our health services, ers’ in Manchester and the habits which is costing us all – individu- of people in urban and rural als, families and societies – so Scotland, many of whom are dearly. drinking far too much but think that they don’t have a problem. The events were supported by the The audience was also told of new Alcohol Education and Research research from Australia which has Council (AERC) and Scottish started to map the social costs of Health Action on Alcohol Prob- drinking – not just to the drinker lems (SHAAP)

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Thursday 26 February have given its name to a drink Public Discussion Forum (Scotch). Scotland has a drinking problem – as evidenced by a visit The public discussion forum heard to any town or city centre on a in particular from three of the Friday or Saturday night. But are speakers who were also to give we passive victims, he asked, or presentations at Friday’s full-day can we do something about it? conference. Professor Anne Lingford- In summary, Professor Anne Hughes, Professor of Addiction Lingford-Hughes spoke of the Biology, Imperial College, biology of addiction, and de- London. scribed how advances in scanning of brain function and chemistry, As an addictions biologist and a for example, are improving our psychiatrist who, until recently, understanding of what alcohol is was treating addicted patients in doing in the brain, and how this is Bristol, Professor Lingford-Hughes leading to new treatments. sees the value in learning more about the effects alcohol has on Dr Fiona Measham sounded a the brain. Alcohol is well-known note of optimism, saying that the to rot the brain, but modern brain alcoholic excess of the last 15 imaging techniques such as PET years in particular may be levelling and MRI are showing us more off, (although figures reported specifically how the substance acts were only for England), but gave a on the brain. valuable insight into the reasons why alcohol consumption has For example, PET scans show us been increasing for the last half that alcohol acts on different century. pathways, which may lead to clues about the best form of treatment, Professor Robin Room outlined prevention and how to stop research which showed the relapse. This includes the use of indirect cost of alcohol – ‘passive new and existing drugs and drinking’ – in its effects on people treatments, some of which might other than the drinker, including replicate the desired effects of families and society in general. alcohol, but less harmfully, while The discussion was chaired by Dr others may help repair the Bruce Ritson, Chairman of damage already caused by the Scottish Health Action on Alcohol drug. For example, for people who Problems (SHAAP). He asked like the endorphin rush of whether there is something alcohol, exercise might be an ‘special’ about Scotland and its effective substitute. relationship to alcohol – after all, She showed slides which indicat- it is possibly the only country to ed that even where the brain has

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been damaged by alcohol, some Professor Room’s team carried out of the damage can be reversed by a national phone survey, which a period of abstinence. In the involved interviewing 2,649 addicted drinker withdrawal from people. This found that a signifi- alcohol also carries health risks, cant number (17 per cent) knew a however. heavy drinker and had been She also sounded a warning negatively affected. The drinkers about drinking in young people. included family members and co- Because the adolescent brain is workers. A small amount of those still forming, alcohol damage at questioned had suffered sexual or that stage might well ‘hard-wire’ other assault and children had damage into the brain, which also been mistreated by heavy could last for the rest of a teenag- drinkers. The research revealed er’s life. that there was a significant amount of social harm – two More details on Professor Ling- thirds said a drinker had disrupted ford-Hughes’s work can be found a social occasion such as Christ- in the conference report below. mas – and also community harm. Professor Robin Room, Director, For example, 13 per cent of those Centre for Alcohol Policy affected by the latter had called Research, Australia the police. Usually, the cost of alcohol is Australia is a country not unlike calculated in terms of the individ- Scotland, and he said that these ual – we’re told how much money other costs should be factored in it costs to treat alcohol-related when drawing up alcohol policy – health problems and the money in much the same way as the costs lost to the economy because the of passive smoking had been a drinker does not turn up for work. driver for change. That’s not the whole story, Dr Fiona Measham, Senior however. Professor Room de- Lecturer in Criminology, Lancas- scribed research carried out in ter University Australia looking at the people around the drinker and the effects Dr Measham sounded a note of that a person’s drinking has on optimism in the title of her talk, them. This, he says, gives a wider The Turning Tides of Intoxication. picture of social costs of alcohol. She put alcohol consumption in ‘Passive drinking’ can affect an historical context – for exam- people around the drinker in a ple, although our drinking has variety of ways. This can range been rising in the last 50 years, it from someone being disturbed by has not reached the highs of the rowdy behaviour to becoming a Victorian era. And although victim of a drunken assault. consumption in the under-16s has

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doubled in recent years, it appears and treatment. From the floor, Dr to be levelling off now, giving Francesca Ducci explained that some hope that the tide may be although there is no single turning again. alcoholic gene, there was a She described some of the genetic component in addiction. reasons for what she called the “It’s not a yes–no phenomenon, ‘carnival’ of excess in the last 15 but some people are more likely years. New types of drinkers – to develop disease,” she said, including women and young adding that it is a complex professionals – are attracted by interplay between genetics, new-style pubs and bars. New, environment and lifestyle factors. sweeter, alcopop-type drinks have Asked about a possible north– drawn in new drinkers and now south divide in drinking habits have a significant market share. and attitudes, at a global level, the The way we drink is changing, panel agreed that even within with men and women of the same Europe there are differences, with age drinking together, rather than the Protestant northern countries in mixed age, same sex groups. tending towards a weekday Getting drunk is seen as the aim restraint/weekend excess model on a night out, usually at week- while Mediterranean countries ends – with the notion that young tend to drink a little wine with people in particular feel they meals daily. But Dr Measham and ‘deserve’ it after a hard week at Professor Room said this is work. As well as the ‘pull’ factors changing, with young people in drawing people to the pub, there France, for example, choosing to are also the ‘push’ factors getting drink beer and condemning red them out of the home. There’s a wine as something drunk by trend of extended adolescence, ‘alcoholics or their parents’. she said, with young people One questioner asked why alcohol staying at home with their parents isn’t banned, when other drugs for longer. Where else is there to are criminalised. Professor Room go but the pub? For more detail responded that alcohol is part of on Dr Measham’s work, see the our lives. While smoking is now conference presentation report essentially a poor people’s habit, below. drinking is familiar to newspaper Questions/Discussion editors, politicians and profes- Questions ranged from whether sionals. Dr Measham pointed out there is a gene for alcohol that drugs such as opium used to addiction to habits and perspec- be available legally but suggested tives in different parts of the that the historic power of the world – on drinking, law-making alcohol industry may have contrib-

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uted to keeping it legal. Professor he said. “The harm to health Lingford-Hughes said that society caused by alcohol-related disease endorses some risks, but not is ‘shocking’” he said – adding others – for example, horse-riding. that there was no doubt that One student in the audience something needs to be done. asked about teenage drinking, Session 1: Science saying that in his experience the Professor Anne Lingford- students who get wild and drink Hughes, Professor of Addiction too much when they come to Biology, Imperial College, university are those who have London previously had no experience of Brain Mechanisms of Intoxica- alcohol. Dr Measham said that the tion, Dependence and Damage American students at her university, unable to buy drink until they Understanding the biology of are 21 at home, “think it is alcohol addiction helps us treat Christmas’” when they come to and prevent it, says Professor the UK. Lingford-Hughes. Recent advances in imaging are helping us see The topical issue of a doctor who more clearly how alcohol affects reportedly ‘cured’ himself of the brain. We know that it is a alcoholism by taking a muscle- ‘rich’ drug targeting many relaxant was also raised. Professor different chemical systems in the Lingford-Hughes said she had brain and we know that it rots the used the muscle-relaxant baclofen brain, but now we are able to see in treatment – and stressed that the specific vulnerable areas of the there were more pharmaceutical brain it affects. Recent advances, products available which might for example, in PET (position prove useful once they had been emission tomography) and MRI fully evaluated. scanning, allow us to get a fuller Friday 27 February picture of how alcohol acts on the Conference brain. Chairman’s Introduction In her talk, Professor Lingford- Professor Harry Burns, Chief Hughes outlined some of the Medical Officer, Scottish Gov- pathways activated by alcohol and ernment other drugs of abuse. For example, drugs, including alcohol and Professor Burns compared alcohol cocaine, increase the concentra- today with tobacco 10– 20 years tions of the ‘pleasure’ chemical ago. “Tobacco used to be our dopamine. This chemical is favourite drug, but we’ve left released through what you might smoking behind and have moved call ‘natural’ pleasures, but also into an era of alcohol addiction”, mediates the ‘high’ of drugs, she

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said. Addicts hit the system so Dr Francesca Ducci, Institute of hard that it stops working so well, Psychiatry, King’s College, she said, which can lead to taking London more of a drug to try to get the Genetics of Addiction same effect. Addictions can be inherited and The dopamine system is modulat- about half a person’s vulnerability ed by other neurotransmitters, is genetic, said Dr Ducci, but it’s a and they might be targets for complex disease and no single possible treatments. For example, gene can be blamed. There is the GABA system is the brain’s specific gene involvement, ‘brake’ on dopamine cell firing. however, with different genes Drugs which increase GABA levels implicated in different people. – such as the muscle relaxant In her talk, she described some baclofen – are increasingly being candidate genes where differenc- used to treat addiction in special- es make a carrier more likely to ist settings and trials in the develop alcoholism and related Europe have been promising. psychiatric illnesses. She focused Other brain systems – such as the on the monoamine oxidase A opioid receptors – also appear to (MAOA) enzyme, which appears to play a fundamental role in play an important role in the addiction and possibly craving, amount of serotonin (the ‘happi- again providing a useful pharma- ness’ chemical) in the brain. ceutical target. Drug treatments, People with a variation in the both new and existing, may help MAOA gene are more likely to treat addiction and prevent develop alcoholism and antisocial relapse. They may also help personality disorder. Environmen- mitigate some of the adverse tal factors are important too, and effects of alcohol addiction, such may interact with the genetic as memory loss and can therefore differences. For example, a study help to make it easier for those of women who had experienced trying to give up drinking to sexual abuse showed that those function in day-to-day life. with the MAOA variation were Although some damage caused to more likely to develop alcoholism the brain by alcohol will be and antisocial personality disor- repaired by abstinence, withdraw- der. The research findings suggest al in itself can be dangerous. that the gene influences sensitivity However, it’s an exciting time in to stress. addiction biology and treatment, The task now is to look for more with a greater understanding of genes which could in turn provide the mechanisms leading to new more targets for treatment. modes of treatment.

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Dr Alastair McGilchrist, Depart- rapid progression to cirrhosis. ment of Gastroenterology, Dr Graham described the current Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh; position in Scotland. While Dr Lesley Graham, Public chronic liver disease rates and Health, Information Services deaths from cirrhosis are falling in Division, NHS National Services most of Western Europe, Scotland Scotland has among the fastest growing Scotland’s Liver Disease Epi- rates in the world. Scotland’s demic: What’s the Story? chronic liver disease and cirrhosis Drs McGilchrist and Graham death rates among 45–64-year- spoke about what the former old men have increased called ‘an epidemic of liver disease dramatically in the last ten years of frightening proportions’. While and are twice as high as in Dr Graham explored the reasons England and Wales, with rates for behind this, Dr McGilchrist set the women in Scotland higher than scene by talking about liver those for men in England. While disease – and alcohol’s role in it. liver disease attacks all sectors of He showed how liver damage society and rates have risen across happens, comparing pictures of a all socio-economic groups, the healthy liver, with one which has rise has been more acute in the become infiltrated by fat, then most deprived, (with, for example, progressively through alcoholic men in the most deprived groups hepatitis to cirrhosis. The process 16 times more likely to die than can take years and can often be those in the most affluent groups) ‘silent’ or without serious symp- ,so contributing to health inequal- toms. With the complications of ities. She presented evidence to cirrhosis, the results could be liver show that the main driver of the failure or cancer. Alcohol is one of epidemic to date has been the three most common causes of alcohol. liver disease, the others being viral She also looked at the figures hepatitis (both B and C) and behind alcohol consumption. At obesity. He described the risk UK level, having fallen in the factors for alcoholic liver disease, beginning of the 20th Century, including how much is drunk, particularly during the two world what is drunk, how often and wars, it has more than doubled how – for example, risk increases since 1950, with a particularly if it is taken without food. noticeable increase since the early Individual susceptibility is also 1990s. Recent revised estimates important. Drinkers who have from the Scottish Health Survey other risk factors, such as diabetes (SHS) suggest that people are or obesity may have increased risk, drinking more than previously while hepatitis C leads to a more

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reported. For example, 40 per cent lead to a reduction in mortality of men and 33 per cent of women from liver disease, with a rise in are drinking twice the daily limits price being one of the most and almost two thirds are drink- effective ways of reducing con- ing over the daily benchmarks. sumption. An effective alcohol The picture could actually be even policy has to be multi-faceted and worse than this, as the SHS tends include targeted approaches as to be completed by healthier well. Hepatitis C and obesity also people, particularly so in deprived need to be tackled. areas. Evidence from work with Panel Discussion prisoners suggests that there is The speakers from the morning very heavy drinking in deprived session took part in a panel groups. Industry sales data also discussion. Issues raised included shows that Scotland is drinking the importance of co-factors, such almost two litres of pure alcohol as hepatitis C; the interplay per capita more than England and between genetics and environ- has the eighth highest consump- ment; and how soon effective new tion of pure alcohol in the world. drugs would be available. Other contributing factors to the Asked about whether alcohol high levels of liver disease in policies should be selective – ie, Scotland could include smoking targeted at individuals at most risk rates, which are higher in Scotland – or population-based (eg, than England, and the type of through increasing price), Profes- alcohol drunk – Scots drink more sor Lingford-Hughes said there spirits than English people, for was a debate to be had. Dr example. Graham said that brief interven- Wider environmental changes may tions are cost-effective and that also account for higher mortality both population-based and rates, such as the liberalisation of targeted approaches in combina- the licensing laws in Scotland in tion were most effective (as the 1970s and the increasing recommended by the World affordability of alcohol. She Health Organisation, WHO). considered whether Scotland has A member of the audience reached a ‘tipping point’ where a pointed out that targeted ap- small change in consumption had proaches tended to be more made a big difference in mortality, popular with the industry and then asked whether something with most governments, partly could be done to make a similar because they didn’t want to be change in a positive direction. seen as ‘nanny’. A reduction in population Asked about the availability of consumption of alcohol would specialist services and the possibil-

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ity of new drugs, Professor those who do are more likely to Lingford-Hughes said it was an drink heavily and suffer alcohol- exciting time with many potential related harm – compounded by treatments, but that it was a social deprivation and social complex process to decide what to exclusion. Bad policy – such as give and when. reducing taxes on alcohol – tends Session 2: Culture to result in everyone drinking more, but affects those in lower Chairman’s Introduction: Dr socioeconomic groups more. Magnus Linklater Good policy, on the other hand, is Dr Linklater said that drinking and likely to reduce negative alcohol- drunkenness had moved from related socio-economic being a private and furtive activity inequalities, he said. and state. Now they are not only The current economic crash, he done openly, but are actually said, could have good and bad celebrated. While it was appalling effects. It is potentially positive that town centres were seen as because it may reduce affordabili- ‘no-go’ areas on Friday and ty of alcohol so people may drink Saturday evenings, he said there less. It is potentially bad, because was a struggle to find the right changes in social dislocation and policy approach. Indeed, politi- cohesion may increase problem cians tended to veer between drinking. He said there was a need standing back from the problem for strengthened alcohol policy, and being interventionist. which reduces the affordability Dr Peter Anderson, Consultant and availability of alcohol. in Public Health and Alcohol At a European level, there are Policy, Ministry of Health, alcohol-related health inequalities Catalonia between eastern and western Alcohol, Inequalities and Health Europe and, in particular, between Dr Anderson focused on socioeco- the Baltic States and the rest of nomic inequalities and looked at Europe. This means there is a what alcohol meant for policies particular need for strong alcohol based on a single country, both policies in these areas – coupled Europe-wide and globally. For with dealing with issues of cross- each, he considered alcohol border trade (which has led to consumption, alcohol-related lower alcohol taxes). Globally, Dr deaths, the impact of bad policy Anderson pointed out that poorer and the potential impact of good countries are hit harder by a given policy. level or pattern of drinking than People in lower socioeconomic more affluent countries. This can groups are less likely to drink, but be due to a variety of factors – for

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instance, poor street lighting and has also observed the factors making drink driving incidents which have contributed to more likely and because poor increased consumption. For nutrition might lead to worse example, as well as various happy- outcomes in liver disease and have hour-type discounts, she found a role in communicable diseases one venue where free vodka is such as TB. Increasingly, he said, served for a specific period. She the alcohol burden will be has also asked young people dominated by the burden in low about their drinking as well as to middle-income countries. looking at the overall epidemio- He said there was a need for a logical evidence. global framework convention for She shared some of her findings alcohol policy and that action was at the conference, and speculated, needed to counteract the activity with some optimism, that we of the alcohol industry, particularly might be seeing the end of the in poorer countries. He gave the last 15 years of excess – the example of a government alcohol ‘carnival’ she called it – and said policy in sub-Saharan Africa, that while the rise in young which was industry-friendly and people’s drinking was levelling which actually turned out to have off, she was detecting that originated from industry. Effective drunkenness might be going out alcohol policy within and between of fashion. countries is likely to reduce First, however, she looked at the alcohol-related health inequali- factors leading to more drinking. ties, he concluded. This could be These include the ‘pull’ factors, needed even more in times of encouraging people to drink, such economic turmoil, where alas new-style pubs attracting new though consumption might drinkers and drinks such as decrease, the potential for harm is alcopops. She also spoke about different. the environment and policies of Dr Fiona Measham, Senior pubs and clubs which encouraged Lecturer in Criminology, Lancas- drinking – such as no seats, the ter University availability of table service, the The Turning Tides of Intoxica- fashion for ‘shots’ (often un- tion measured) and the high price of soft drinks. Dr Measham has conducted research on the frontline – in the She also spoke about the ‘push’ pubs and clubs of Manchester. In factors – the period of extended so doing, she has witnessed the adolescence which means that environment in which people, young people live at home longer particularly young people, drink and want somewhere to go.

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While accepting that binge At the same time, when the media drinking is a problem, she said it portrays drinking problems it isn’t new, giving the example of concentrates on extremes, such as the 19th century gin shop. She drunken violence, which makes it also suggested that it is a particu- easier for many people to distance larly northern European Protestant themselves and not see their pattern of working hard during ‘normal’ way of drinking as a the week then ‘letting go’ at ‘problem’ – in a sense it is hidden weekends, in comparison to as an issue. traditional Mediterranean drink- The Institute of Social Marketing ing habits of a little wine each day at Stirling University carried out with meals. In the last 15 years some qualitative research which there has been normalisation of looked at drinking in both urban binge drinking – among young and rural settings and among the men and women – she said, and advantaged and disadvantaged also a normalisation of deter- populations. Researchers ques- mined drunkenness. She hopes tioned 172 people and found the tide is turning, however. high levels of consumption across Susan MacAskill, Institute for the board. Key findings were that Social Marketing, University of there is no single drinking Stirling and the Open Universi- behaviour; individuals can drink a ty lot without recognising a prob- Consumption Norms: Hidden lem, people have their own Problems, Complex Solutions ‘sensible’ drinking strategies and there is media and marketing It is acknowledged that alcohol awareness. People’s drinking consumption and alcohol-related habits change with age and with harm are increasing, but the life stages and motivations vary media, public and policy focus has too. For example, people can drink been on the young ‘binge’ to relax, to celebrate or even just drinker. Many people in Scotland to get drunk. are drinking too much, however, and that includes people from all She gave two examples: an age groups and social classes. affluent urban woman in the 40– 55 age group, who drinks every Marketing and media contribute day, adding up to 55.9 units per to the pervasiveness – and week. She did not realise she was normalisation – of drinking. The drinking so much. The other was a industry makes drinking easy and woman in the 18– 30 age group attractive and the media under- in a rural deprived household who lines its place in our lives – for can drink 40.75 units – in a single example by setting so much action night – but nothing the rest of the in soap operas around the pub. week.

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The research found high weekly level, including promoting consumption among affluent positive (sensible drinking) drinkers – many of whom drink options, addressing price and every day – and heavy episodic availability of alcohol and chal- drinking among poorer people. lenging current definitions of People mostly distanced them- problem drinking. Challenging selves from the totals recorded, cultural drinking norms and for example, saying it hadn’t been developing an environment a typical week and blaming supporting sensible drinking is ‘young people’ and ‘alcoholics’ for also important, she said. the ‘problem’. Self-perceived Panel Discussion ‘sensible’ drinking included being Questions covered issues includ- aware of personal limits and ing labelling, the possibility of ensuring plenty of time to recover ‘shock’ advertising and the risks to before going back to work. People an ageing population. While it were aware of the concept of was important to learn the lessons units, but they were felt to be from marketing, Ms MacAskill difficult and impractical to apply said there were no easy solutions. in a drinking session, and so were She was not particularly in favour easy to ignore. One quote from a of ‘shock’ pictures of diseased rural affluent man in the 31– 59 livers on wine bottles, but would age group was: “How many pints like to see more done to empha- is 20 units? Ten pints a week! I sise the positives of not drinking spill more than that!” too much – for example, weight She concluded that people may be control. Dr Measham said it was heavy drinkers but that they don’t easy to evade shock messages: for see themselves as such and think example, people sometimes use ‘others’ are the problem. There’s a stickers to cover warnings on need to reframe the problem so cigarette packets. Dr Measham that it connects with people and was questioned about her makes it harder for them to ‘optimism’ when the disease distance themselves. Multi-faceted burden in Scotland is far more approaches are needed as there is pessimistic, with alcohol-related no one Scottish drinking behav- death rates continuing to rise. She iour. She believes the lessons from said that while she is optimistic, marketing – including under- her feeling was based on work standing of target groups – need done in England and that in any to be learned. Action is needed at case drinking levels are still too an individual and population high.

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Summary Closing Talk with politicians in particular Professor Robin Room, Director, nervous of being accused of Centre for Alcohol Policy creating a nanny state. But there Research, Australian (this talk were dangers with targeted was supported by SHAAP) approaches too, including the ethical problems of how to select Choices for a Society in Reduc- and how to intervene. Govern- ing Drinking Problems ments need to pay attention to Professor Room described the evidence and then evaluate conference as a ‘rich day, with a policies so that others can learn rich tapestry of presentations and from them. discussions’. He offered a few Capturing people’s hearts and closing thoughts about the way getting them on board is also forward in Scotland and in the important – not giving the world generally. technocratic point of view only. Scotland, he said, had the poten- Community groups might help do tial to be bold with its proposed this, just as the actions of the new alcohol legislation, which temperance movement had far- would tackle pricing, marketing reaching effects which last to this and displays and the age at which day. people could buy alcohol. The rest This is a ‘fateful moment’ for of the world would be watching. Scotland, he said, and will be He said there were risks with watched in the rest of the UK and whole-population approaches, the broader world arena.

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The Gannochy Trust Innovation Award Prize Lecture Dr Colin Urquhart CEO, Dimensional Imaging Ltd 2 March 2009

Dr Colin Urquhart, winner of the type, is being used in diverse prestigious Gannochy Trust Award fields ranging from the medical for Innovation, which carries a and psychological to entertain- £50,000 prize, invited a captivated ment. RSE audience to don their 3D But it didn’t start out like that. In spectacles and view the revolu- an engaging lecture, Dr Urquhart tionary technology which is took the RSE audience through a making a big impact in facial whistle-stop tour of the history of surgery, orthodontics and even using stereo images to allow the entertainment industry. depth to be perceived, which was From the zombies in Hollywood first described by Charles Wheat- blockbuster 28 Weeks Later to stone in 1838. This work was then burns units, psychology labs and refined by Dr David Brewster in orthodontic practice, the technol- 1849, who invented the prism ogy of Dimensional Imaging Ltd is stereoscope and went on to making itself felt. The Scottish develop the technology further. company has sold its products to Dr Urquhart used this example to customers around the world and explain the difference between is continuing to develop new and invention and innovation. Innova- exciting technologies. tion is more about Chief Executive Officer, Dr Colin entrepreneurship, he believes, Urquhart, 2008 winner of the because it probably means Gannochy Trust Innovation Award introducing an invention to of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, market. While Wheatstone described how the company was invented the stereoscope, Brews- set up to exploit the technique of ter was the innovator. The passive stereo photogrammetry, Victorians realised they could take which is used to derive accurate, measurements from stereo high resolution, three-dimension- photographs – a process called al surface images from stereo photogrammetry. A century later, pairs of images captured by in the 1970s, neuroscientists standard digital cameras. The became interested in taking this company’s DI3D (TM) system, the further because they wanted to first commercial application of its understand how we perceive

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depth. They used tools such as Urquhart and his colleagues chose random dot stereograms, as to publish instead. developed by Dr Bela Julesz, which Further developments were made helped to show how depth is to the ASP technology, including perceived by the human brain. The the addition of colour, but advent of computers meant that attempts to commercialise it were theories could be tested more unsuccessful. Around this time, easily. however, at the turn of the But in 1989, when Dr Urquhart Millennium, digital camera was working for his Masters technology was moving on apace. degree, it still took days to Returning to Glasgow University, compute images and the technol- Dr Urquhart and his former ogy didn’t work with natural supervisor used two high- images, possibly because they specification Kodak cameras to didn’t have enough texture. Dr create 3D surface images which Urquhart and his supervisor, Dr J. were even higher resolution and Paul Siebert, developed active better quality than those previous- stereo photogrammetry (ASP), ly achieved with ASP. There was no which involved projecting random need to capture a second image patterns on to the same images, and colour was ‘built-in’. This was and was able to capture a three- to become passive stereo photo- dimensional model. Dr Urquhart grammetry, which definitely had described how he and his supervi- commercial possibilities. sor were very excited about this, Following Proof of Concept so published their findings. Had funding from Scottish Enterprise, they patented them, things may Dr Urquhart and colleagues have taken a different course, he developed a demonstration reel, said ruefully. Unlike traditional which showed how real people methods of creating 3D pictures, could be turned into virtual which use lasers and can take up characters. Their target was the to several seconds to scan an video games market, with the idea object, ASP was instantaneous; that life-like 3D images of anyone indeed, its applications are still in – be they celebrities or ordinary use today. punters – could be dropped into In 1995, Dr Urquhart worked with games. A company, then called facial surgeons at Canniesburn Virtual Clones, was formed in Hospital and helped to develop a January 2003. technique which involved combin- Dr Urquhart showed the compa- ing the ASP technology with x-ray, ny’s development from its very to give a picture of hard and soft early stages, with particular tissue. Again, this technology was reference to financial challenges. probably patentable; but again, Dr

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He believes it was the right resolution all the time, and approach that he and his co- Dimensional Imaging can use founder set up the company, these advances to provide ever- rather than the university. Entre- better products. preneurs should set up Other applications have since companies, he believes, because been developed. These include they will drive it forward. using the technology to treat The chosen market – entertain- facial burns – where previously the ment – was not to prove fruitful at patient would have to undergo an first, however. In August 2003, unpleasant plaster-casting of the they made their first sale, but it face, probably involving an was to the Glasgow Dental anaesthetic, the DI3D system Hospital and Southern General – allows a highly accurate ‘mask’ to users of the previous ASP technol- be made without even touching ogy. A change of focus followed, the patient. and the young company turned its The technology is also of interest attention more closely to the to psychologists, who use it to medical market. The move was morph the shape and appearance successful. Since then, the of a number of people into a technology has been used to single image – a technique very create ‘virtual patients’, on whom useful in the growing discipline of techniques can be tested and facial recognition, where applica- measured. It lets maxillofacial tions include witness surgeons observe precise images identification. of patients before and after And finally, as if to come full circle, surgery and measure outcomes the entertainment industry has objectively. ‘It allows them to see, been knocking at the company’s measure and assess what they are door. As well as being used to doing – they can capture the create some of the zombies in 28 patient at all stages of treatment,’ Weeks Later, Dimensional Imaging he said. systems have now been sold to In 2005, the company name was major UK and US video games changed to Dimensional Imaging, companies. ‘Our original business which better reflected the medical plan wasn’t wrong – just five years focus. At the same time, the ahead of its time,’ he smiled. company was able to exploit Last year the company made a advances in digital camera profit for the first time and Dr technology which, as Dr Urquhart Urquhart plans to invest the put it, meant you could get more £50,000 Gannochy Prize in pixels for your pound. Cameras Dimensional Imaging to help it to are getting cheaper and higher develop new technologies and to

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continue to innovate. He aims to he has learned. Innovation is use any future returns from the harder than invention, he believes. investment of the Prize to help It’s tough, but satisfying, to see support other young innovative products that embody technology Scottish companies. you have developed sold across Dr Urquhart finished with a brief the world. You can innovate with description of the company’s existing technologies – arguably latest innovation, which adds the his innovation is based on an fourth dimension – time – with invention from 160 years ago. the use of video cameras. This can Cash is king – and so is the capture three-dimensional customer: talking to and getting sequences of dynamically chang- feedback from those who use the ing surfaces, which allows even equipment is vital to develop- very subtle changes to be cap- ment. And you have to adapt to tured accurately. In facial surgery, survive. His company started with for example, the data can be used a focus on entertainment, moved to measure facial function, while to medical applications, and this in video games it creates more financial year so far, a third of the realistic facial animation. It’s a sales have come from entertain- novel technology on the world ment. He ended with an advert – scale and is revolutionising our anyone interested in the technolo- ability to track temporal changes. gy should contact him for a chat. In conclusion, Dr Urquhart http://www.di3d.com/ summed up some of the lessons

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Hugh Gill Director of Technology and Operations, Touch Bionics Philip Newman Director of Marketing, Touch Bionics The i-LIMB Hand - engineering innovation drives business success Joint Lecture with the Royal Academy of Engineering A National Science and Engineering Week (6–15 March 2009) Event 11 March 2009

They said it couldn’t be done. For individually -powered finger can years, the prosthetics industry be quickly removed by simply focused on delivering incremental removing one screw. This means improvements to a pincer-like that a prosthetist can easily swap hand design that was not a true out fingers that require servicing reflection of a human hand. The and patients can return to their concept of a hand with articulat- everyday lives after a short clinic ing fingers was considered too visit. Traditional devices would great an engineering challenge have to be returned to the for prosthetic device companies. manufacturer, often leaving the While the industry stood still, a patient without a hand for many small company from Scotland was weeks. tearing up the rule book and Controlling bionic devices forging ahead with the development of the i-LIMB Hand, the The i-LIMB Hand relies on some of world’s first bionic hand. That the most advanced control company was Touch Bionics and software yet seen in the prosthet- this is their story. ics industry. This software provides speed and grip-strength control Advanced design to the device, while patients Touch Bionics is the first company generate signals to control the to offer commercial availability of device in a way that does not a true bionic upper-limb product. differ from how traditional devices Both the i-LIMB Hand and operated in the past. Two small ProDigits have been fitted to many metal electrode plates, which different patients at a number of detect the minute electrical signals leading prosthetic and orthopedic generated by the remaining clinics both in the US, the UK and muscles in the limb stump, are in another 28 countries around placed against the skin to pick up the world. signals. Traditionally one electrode The modular construction of the i- is placed on the top of the LIMB Hand means that each forearm and the other on the bottom.

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Patients usually have a sensation true movement and life-like that their hand still exists despite accuracy of a human hand. The it being amputated, something challenge has been to find often referred to as ‘phantom’ materials that can move and flex feelings. When encouraged to in the same way that human skin generate a strong signal, the does. patient is often asked to move This has been addressed in two and flex their missing hand to ways, in order to support two generate a strong control signal. distinct patient preferences. Before too long, these reflexes Some patients, mainly military become intuitive. personnel, particularly love the Feedback from early patient robotic nature of the uncovered i- studies identified that software LIMB Hand and prefer not to wear adjustments can allow patients to it with a cosmesis glove. However, perform simple tasks and improve because of the need to provide a functionality. An example of this is grip surface and to protect the thumb parking, instructing the hand from dust and water, Touch thumb to close down against the Bionics has developed the i-LIMB side of the hand to allow a jacket Skin. This is a thin layer of semi- to be put on. Another is a com- transparent material that has been pletely new grip function for computer-modeled to accurately prosthetic hands, the index point, wrap to every contour of the whereby the hand grasps into a hand. fist whilst leaving the index finger Other patients wish their device to extended. Patients have found this blend anatomically with the rest very useful for operating compu- of their body, and have a life-like ter keyboards, telephone dial covering for the i-LIMB Hand and pads, ATM cash machines and a ProDigits. As these products are host of other everyday require- more anatomically correct than ments. any currently on the market, which Advances in cosmesis not only allows for increased Cosmesis is the flexible skin functionality but also a vastly covering that covers the i-LIMB improved cosmetic appearance, Hand and ProDigits. By applying the challenge has been to find a in-house expertise and partnering high-definition cosmesis of with companies that specialise in superior quality. Touch Bionics has cosmesis, Touch Bionics has launched with custom cosmesis achieved major breakthroughs in products from two of its cosmesis the aesthetic appearance of its partner companies. prosthetic products. The Touch Full report available: ISBN No 978 Bionics products are the first 0 902198 80 7 prosthetic hands to imitate the 133 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Dr Andrew McLellan Chief Inspector of Prisons Meet Danny Airborne Initiative Public Lecture – The insanity of prison 1 April 2009

“Prisons sometimes do good but 4. Most offenders are “daft lads they always do harm” was how Dr and lassies,” not villains. Andrew McLellan concluded his 5. Insanity is doing the same lecture on the problem of finding thing again and again and realistic alternatives to prison for expecting different results. young offenders. And to grasp 6. To halve the prison population, the opportunity for change, he everyone must “grasp the declared, we need to realise that opportunity for change.” these young offenders belong to us all… Einstein’s definition of insanity echoed McLellan’s description of Dr Andrew McLellan may talk the typical cycle experienced by himself out of a job as Her many young offenders, who Majesty’s Chief Inspector of commit crimes again and again Prisons, but nothing would give and are institutionalised again him more pleasure than to see our and again, then carry on doing overcrowded jails emptied of the same when they’re older. inmates, because rather than That’s why prisons are not the viewing our prisons as a cure for solution, he said. Housing, society’s ills, he believes they are education, better healthcare and one of the causes. employment, as well as drug and His started and ended his lecture alcohol treatment, are the keys to with six thought-provoking success, and what happens after quotations, from a wide range of release matters much more than people including Albert Einstein prison itself. and former First Minister, Henry The crime–prison cycle can McLeish: sometimes seem impossible to 1. We should do all we can to break, but taking inspiration from keep people out of jail. Barack Obama, McLellan thinks 2. We can’t reverse the damage that “yes we can” can transform done to children if there’s an Scotland’s all-too-common absence of nurture beyond attitude of “no we cannae.” He age two or three. also thinks that if we want to 3. Prisons can’t solve the prob- bring hope, not despair, “it’s now lems of Scotland. 134 Events 08/09

or never – the opportunity won’t housing offices, etc, to make sure come again in our generation.” offenders stay focused on trying McLellan then described a few to rebuild their lives, instead of examples of programmes which drifting back into their old ways. do make a difference, including What we need for young offend- the Venture Trust, Columba 1400, ers, said McLellan, is what social The Duke of Edinburgh Awards, workers call, “wraparound Includem and the Motorcycle support” including a new Project. Like the Airborne Initia- approach to probation, integrated tive, these projects challenge with health care, education and young people emotionally and help with employment and socially, and “powerful learning housing. All of this would cost a takes place,” said McLellan. lot of money, he admitted, but Young people get more confi- how much do we value our young dence through gaining a sense of people – and how much do we achievement and working as part spend on our prisons already? of a team, and drug abuse tends Why is it, he asked, that we to reduce at the same time as the question the value of punishment rate of offending behaviour. The in the community much more projects are also fun, said McLel- than we question the value of lan – a far cry from typical prison prisons? conditions. And the lesson which To put a human face on these McLellan draws from all of these ideas, McLellan then invited the projects is that if politicians want audience to “Meet Danny” – a to reduce crime, they should pay young man who has been in and more attention to youth groups, out of the Young Offenders and invest more in probation and Institution in Polmont three times community services, both of which already this year. Like 90 per cent are now “hopelessly under of the inmates, Danny is a repeat funded.” visitor, and he sometimes returns Some new programmes offer in a matter of days, a victim of his considerable hope for the future. own alcohol problem, which For example, in “Routes out of started when Danny was just eight prison” young offenders are years old. mentored immediately after Conditions in Polmont have release by a former offender who improved significantly in recent knows how they feel and can years, but there is no escape from speak the same language. The some things, such as the lack of mentor not only offers advice but privacy and overcrowding. There accompanies the person to are programmes to help with appointments at job centres and addiction and relationship

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problems, including a course to between them, or an average of help young offenders become seven per person, and the figures more aware of the consequences will only get worse unless we of their own actions. But despite change our attitudes to treating all the good work that Polmont young offenders. and other institutions may do, Finally, McLellan added, we need McLellan very strongly believes to change our attitudes to the that it cannot provide all the young people themselves, and answers. And the statistics realise that “prisoners are not confirm this – the 575 inmates them – they are us.” have committed 4,508 offences

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Drugs of the Future: Personalised Medicines for the Over 65s Joint event supported by The Edinburgh Drug Absorption Foundation and the Ewan & Christine Brown’s Charitable Trust 17 April 2009

Introduction and Summary As populations age, the need to find safe and effective treatments for diseases which primarily afflict older people becomes more acute. There are, however, challenges in making this happen, not least the current status of the pharmaceutical industry, where a massive investment into drug discovery has been accompanied by a dramatic fall in the number of new therapies introduced per annum. The conference heard about the current state of play in treatments of diseases affecting the elderly, as well as hopes for the future. The morning session focused on Alzheimer’s disease and dementia, while the afternoon looked at heart failure. In the evening, exciting potential treatments for age-related macular degeneration – the most common cause of sight-loss in the over-60s – were discussed, along with industry’s approach to drugs for dementia and the push towards personalised medicine, tailored to individuals.

Session One: Alzheimer’s Translational Medicine and the Chair: Professor Leslie Iversen, Crisis in Drug Development Department of Pharmacology, Professor Garret FitzGerald, University of Oxford Director, Institute for Transla- Alzheimer’s disease is the most tional Medicine and common form of dementia and Therapeutics, University of the number of people suffering Pennsylvania from it is predicted to increase Professor FitzGerald called for a dramatically as the population new model of drug development, ages. There is no cure, but a which he said would benefit number of potential therapies are patients as well as the pharmaceu- in the pipeline. There are chal- tical industry. This new model lenges, but personalisation may would include more partnerships help provide some answers. with academia and better investment in ‘human capital’ – the scientists and clinicians who can bring treatments from the bench to the bedside. He spoke of the

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crisis in pharma, with only 17 new losses), but Professor FitzGerald drugs approved by the FDA in suggested some other solutions. 2007 – the lowest number since Academia has talented physician 1983. Previously, high prices for scientists with access to patients, prescription drugs have insulated but traditionally these have been the pharmaceutical industry, but resource-starved. Often too, they now they recognise that they have are poorly educated in pharmacol- a broken business model. ogy, which may hinder the drug He spoke about the potential development process. There are benefits of personalised medicine, few incentives for ‘team science’ – bringing in the example of Vioxx which brings expertise together – (rofecobix), which was withdrawn and huge competition for grants, from the market when found to which is helping to keep younger increase the risks of cardiovascular applicants out. On average, disease. If companies knew which physician scientists are now in patients would react well or badly their 40s before getting the to a drug, that knowledge would funding which makes them increase safety and improve independent, making academia effectiveness. He said there is a unattractive as a career. need to combine quantitative Professor FitzGerald suggests measures of drug response with more collaboration between genetic information, and then academia and pharma, but also relate these to clinical outcome. advocates a changed approach to He described the current ‘broken’ trials. There is pressure to get into model as one where there is Phase 3 trials, at the expense of massive and quite effective selecting doses and understand- investment into drug discovery ing how a drug works, he said. but poor translation to new Currently, Phase 3 trials assume products. one dose works for everyone, There are also two ‘cliffs’ facing ignoring the potential benefits of pharma, relating to patents and personalisation. generic drugs. Some calculate a He suggests a new discipline decline in revenue stream of up to which develops quantitative 40 per cent, due to patents biomarkers which can be used to expiring. Increased use of generics measure response and use these – now 60 per cent of prescribed to come up with the optimal drugs in the US – is also hitting doses for people with different profits. Pharma is trying to cope phenotypic responses. He would with these challenges in various like academia, industry, funders ways, including mergers which and regulators to work together allow for efficiencies (i.e. job to develop a unitary nomenclature

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and agree core competencies. older people. Based on current He’d like funding to be revised trends, he said that Scotland’s and to be focused on longer term elderly are likely to live longer, and more heterogeneous portfoli- spend a longer time with disability os. He’d like more emphasis on (particularly women), and have Phase 2 trials, including on improving physical, but worsening personalised doses, and he would mental health. Life satisfaction is like more people with good unlikely to change. Based on a knowledge of pharmacology to be survey carried out in Scotland in at the centre of the process. 2000, a man aged 65 now can The Elderly in Scotland and expect to live another 17.2 years their Health and a woman 19.9 years. Both sexes could look forward to about Professor John Starr, Depart- 10 years of good health and a ment of Geriatric Medicine, further five years of modest ill University of Edinburgh health while the remainder of Professor Starr gave an overview between two and five years would of the current state of health of be spent with a considerable older people in Scotland and, incapacity. based on evidence, made some Demand for hospital admissions predictions about the future. Life and care at home and in care expectancy is going up and the homes increase when people number of over-65s is increasing. reach 65, although the number of By 2031 the 60–74 age-group will GP visits remains about the same. have increased by 40 per cent, Older people use more prescrip- while there will be 91 per cent tion drugs than younger age more people aged 75 and over. groups, but many are prescribed This is likely to have an impact on inappropriately. Adults over 60 health and social care. years have 3.6 times more pre- Professor Starr looked at what it scriptions than younger adults means to be healthy, including and up to 80 per cent of elderly how people feel about their own people receive inappropriate health and what society says treatment, he said, with some health means. He also described being hospitalised due to adverse some of the conditions suffered drug reactions. Importantly, some by Scotland’s elderly, including drugs which are commonly osteoporosis, dementia and prescribed will have an effect on depression. As the population cognitive abilities. ages, rates of these conditions are He concluded that there will be a likely to increase. substantial increase in numbers of Professor Starr looked at what’s older people, living with and being done now to look after

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without disability; that there will glutamatergic agent memantine. be changing patterns of disease, While the former can be pre- increasing numbers or prescrip- scribed on the NHS for ‘moderate’ tions and increasing risks of disease, the latter is only available adverse drug effects. The impact as part of a clinical trial. Other on health and social services is treatments including anti- difficult to measure. depressants, antipsychotics, and New Drugs for Cognitive novel interventions, including Decline aromatherapy, are also used in the management of dementia. The Professor Alistair Burns, School economic case is difficult to make of Medicine, University of for these drugs. Manchester A number of drugs are being Professor Burns looked at demen- developed with the aim of tia now and in the future. He slowing down the cognitive summarised current and potential decline in dementia. These include treatment strategies and also those which tackle the amyloid considered prospects for preven- plaques, which develop in a brain tion. with AD, and the tau protein, Dementia affects 700,000 people which is implicated in the neurofi- in the UK and this figure is brillary tangles characteristic in expected to rise as the population AD. There are a number of continues to age. Public aware- vaccines and other products in the ness has never been higher, partly pipeline, including the possibility due to a number of official studies of the use of a Rember, which and documents which have been appears to act on tau, although publicised and partly as it be- this work has yet to be published. comes a pressing political and Other possibilities include the use economical issue. According to a of a non-selective antihistamine King’s Fund report, for example, (Dimebon) and even a food incidence of Alzheimer’s disease supplement, Souvenaid. (AD) (the most common cause of dementia) will increase by 61 per Public interest in AD is high and cent between 2007 and 2026, every week, it seems, a new paper with costs projected to rise from is publicised, but nothing defini- £14.9 billion to £34.8 billion over tive has emerged as yet. There is the same period. also public interest in prevention of dementia, and there are known There are known treatments for risk factors. These include socio- AD. These include the cholineste- demographic factors, education rase inhibitors, (donepezil, level, habits, genetics and medical (Aricept), galantamine (Reminyl), history and treatments, in addi- rivastigmine (Exelon)) and the tion to age. Hypertension and 140 Events 08/09

high cholesterol levels are risk the management of heart failure. factors, so it is possible that This is part of a large body of reducing these might help prevent work, which included Scottish AD. Keeping the brain active and Intercolegiate Guidelines Network participating in social networks (SIGN) guidelines on chronic heart may also be protective. failure published in 2007, and Professor Burns concluded that draft standards on the prevention public interest in dementia has and treatment of coronary heart never been higher, that current disease more widely, which were treatments are safe and effective published in February of this year. and that there are real and Dr Denvir described some of the realisable prospects for preven- process in drawing up standards tion. and guidelines, and also said that implementation of the SIGN Session Two: Management of guidelines had been variable. Heart Failure Cardiologists were more familiar Chair: Professor Henry Dargie, with the guidelines than GPs, Department of Cardiology, although the majority of heart Golden Jubilee Hospital failure is treated in primary care. Heart failure is a serious condition The clinical standards may be a which affects young and old but is way of ensuring more consistent more common in the over-75s. implementation of guidelines, There is a vast array of drugs which include recommendations available, but recent advances on diagnosis, pharmacological have included device therapies, treatment, a multi-disciplinary such as implantable defibrillators. approach to care, the use of It’s a common, complex and lethal device therapies, and supportive condition, said Professor Dargie. and palliative care at end of life. Essential Clinical Standards for Standards should be clear, the Diagnosis, Treatment and measurable and evidence-based, Long-Term Management of he said. They should be small in Chronic Health Failure number and achievable, but Dr Martin Denvir, Consultant stretching. Dr Denvir accepted, Cardiologist, Royal Infirmary of however, that there were many Edinburgh demands on doctors and health boards, so the aim is to make As well as being a consultant complying with the guidelines, cardiologist working with pa- and with audit and monitoring, as tients, Dr Denvir is clinical advisor streamlined and painless as to NHS Quality Improvements possible. Scotland (QIS) and is involved in drawing up clinical standards for Management of heart failure will be continually assessed, however,

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under the Scottish Patient Safety recent developments have Programme. The national heart included resynchronisation failure audit will include six to ten devices and internal defibrillators. measures or indicators to show Much of the progress in intracar- how well patients are being diac devices has been driven by managed. technical advances outside He concluded by saying that the medicine, as batteries and evidence was out there and the processers have improved dramat- guidance written; the standards of ically. care are agreed and implementa- The UK lags behind much of the tion and measurement of the rest of the developed world in its quality of care must be linked in a rate of implantation. There could clear process that everyone be a number of reasons for this, understands. They should pro- including affordability – more mote care which is effective, safe, devices are implanted in health- timely, efficient and patient- care systems which rely on the centred. number of procedures for pay- The Efficacy of Intracardiac ments – and lack of awareness of Devices in the Management of the benefits among health Sudden Cardiac Death and professionals. Ventricular Dysfunction There is also the question of Dr Neil Davidson, North West acceptability to patients: some do Regional Cardiac Centre, not like the implantable cardiac Wythenshawe Hospital, Man- defibrillator (ICD), for example, chester because it works by delivering a ‘shock’ when it senses cardiac As well as drug therapies for heart arrhythmia in patients at risk of failure, the meeting heard that sudden cardiac death due to other interventions, including ventricular fibrillation. Sometimes specialist nurses and electrical it is activated in error and there devices such as pacemakers, had can be psychological side-effects made a big difference to treat- for patients. ment, quality of life and survival. While electrical devices show Dr Davidson described the history good results, resynchronisation of implantable devices, talked devices, for example, help improve about their benefits and disadvan- heart function and lead to better tages and discussed emerging quality of life – but they are and possible future technologies. expensive and aren’t getting Intracardiac devices have been in cheaper. Resynchronisation use for some 50 years, beginning devices cost around £6,000; when with the simple pacemaker. More combined with a implantable

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cardiac defibrillator, the cost goes treatment have been the use of up to £15,000. Dr Davidson said specialist nurses and of intracardi- that the manufacturers did not ac devices, such as CRTs and ICDs. focus on producing cheaper Professor Struthers outlined the models, but instead kept prices current strategies for finding new constantly high by adding ‘bells drugs. These include looking for and whistles’. He drew attention other neurohormones to target, to the way mobile phones have following the success of ACE become ever more complicated inhibitors, and there have been but no cheaper. trials of a number of possibilities, In the future, he believes there will including testosterone. Another be further useful refinements. For strategy has been to re-examine example, information from the inotropic drugs, which was where blood flow in the patient’s the so-called ‘smart money’ was individual cardiac chambers and before ACE inhibitors proved major blood vessels (haemody- more effective. He described two namic monitoring) using ‘wireless’ inotropic drugs which might be devices with no leads might be promising. Other potential used to adjust medication. therapies could involve those acting on the cardiac metabolism, He concluded by saying that or antiarrhythmic drugs, such as electrical devices had improved fish oils. quality of life and that they should be used more. In his view, techno- There is also a suggestion that logical advances should be drugs in use for other conditions, focused on cost-effectiveness. for example Viagra, might have an application in heart failure. The Which New Medicines Produce twist, however, is that some drugs, Heart Failure and Which which have been introduced for Alleviate It? other diseases, seem to cause Professor Allan Struthers, heart failure. These include some Department of Clinical Pharma- anti-diabetic drugs and the cancer cology and Therapeutics, drugs doxorubicin and herceptin. Ninewells Hospital and Medical In the case of herceptin, the heart School, Dundee failure seems to be reversible There have been a number of when the drug is stopped. successful drugs for heart failure However, an understanding of the introduced since the 1980s and detrimental action of these drugs ‘90s, including the neurohormo- on the heart muscle might provide nal therapies of ACE inhibitors clues to potential therapy targets. and beta-blockers. Since then, Professor Struthers said that there however, the major advances in are hopeful new drugs around,

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but that more research is needed macula become damaged. The to see if they provided clinical macula is in three layers: the benefit. retina, the choroid, and, in the Session Three: The Future of middle, the RPE layer (retinal Personalised Medicine pigment epithelium). It is the RPE cells which seem to age and die Chairman: Professor David first, affecting the retina’s ability Lawson, Honorary Professor of to ‘see’. Professor Coffey is Medicine and Therapeutics, director of the London Project, led University of Glasgow by UCL, which aims to find a cure The evening session of the for AMD. This involves using stem meeting looked at potential cells to halt and reverse loss of therapies for the disease often sight. known as ‘Alzheimer’s of the eye’ So far stem cells have been used because it is so common in older to create healthy RPE cells which people. It also heard about have been used to replace those industry’s approach to treatments in animal models, most recently in for dementia, and learned how, in a pig. The possibility of ‘personal- the genomic age, personalised ised’ treatment exists because a medicine could be coming into its person’s skin could be used to own. obtain stem cells which could Future of Therapies for Macular then be used to create RPE cells Degeneration which could be used in the Professor Peter Coffey, Ocular treatment. This is likely to be an Biology and Therapeutics, expensive option, however, Institute of Ophthalmology, although the technology might University College London help find new targets for drug Professor Coffey described new treatments. and emerging techniques for Stem cell technology is likely to treating one of the most common have major advantages over and distressing conditions existing treatments. At the relating to getting older. moment, the biological drug Age-related macular degeneration Lucentis is the main (and contro- (AMD) is often called ‘Alzheimer’s versially expensive) treatment for of the eye’ – not because it has ‘wet’ AMD, which accounts for anything to do with the disease, around 10 per cent of cases of but because of the vast numbers AMD (with ‘dry’ AMD accounting of older people it affects. AMD is for the other 90 per cent). Treat- the most common cause of sight ment with Lucentis involves loss in people aged over 60 and injecting the patient in the back of occurs when the cells of the the eye every few weeks at a cost

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of between £1,000 and £1,500 He described the beta-amyloid per injection. hypothesis – essentially that too There are other possible treat- much of this protein in the brain ments. Professor Coffey showed causes ‘plaques’ present in the videos of patients, one whose brains of people with dementia – central vision had been improved which has dominated scientific by a surgical technique moving thinking about Alzheimer’s RPE cells from the periphery of the disease in the last 30 years. It is retina to the centre. In another, a only now that drugs based on this retinal flap of healthy cells was theory are emerging, and so far, rotated to replace the diseased they have not been very success- tissue. These techniques take up ful. There are also, however, to three hours, however, so would known genetic factors which not be suitable for an outpatient increase the risk of AD. For or day-case procedure, compared example, there are mutations to 40 minutes for the stem cell which promote formation of beta- operation carried out on the pig. amyloid and others such as the Professor Coffey hopes that nature of Apo-enzyme E alleles 1 techniques using stem cells will be to 4 which effect the age of onset in clinical trials shortly. and the overall severity of the disease. Industry’s Approach Currently cholinesterase inhibitors Professor Leslie Iversen, De- (such as Aricept) are the only partment of Pharmacology, approved medicines. Other University of Oxford approaches in the pipeline include Professor Iversen, who for many inhibitors of beta-amyloid years held a senior role with the synthesis, drugs that may prevent pharmaceutical giant Merck, or reverse formation of plaques or described industry’s approach to vaccine or antibody treatments. Alzheimer’s disease therapy. There has also been a suggestion Every pharma company is involved that inhibiting aggregation of the in research and development in tau protein (which leads to the area of dementia, which is tangles in the brain associated seen as a huge marketing oppor- with AD) might provide an answer. tunity by industry, he said. There is Cholinergic treatments such as a large amount of unmet need, Aricept are only moderately which will grow as the population effective and many people do not continues to age, and current respond. It could be that genetic therapies are seen by industry to factors determine who will be making large amounts of respond. Beta-amyloid synthesis money. Global sales of Aricept inhibitors have not proved were $2 billion in 2008. successful in trials so far, but at

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least six other drugs are in strategies to be successful in development. those without the E4 allele. Vaccines have looked promising He suggested new approaches to but one trial was halted because clinical trials, including identifying the drug caused inflammation in and including patients at an early the brains of some patients. There state of disease and making better are several other vaccines in use of neuro-imaging and development. Another novel improved tests for cognitive approach involves using mono- function. clonal antibodies to clear the The goal, he concluded, is to disease from the brain. Although improve quality of life for the successful in animal trials, a Phase future. His hopes for the future 2 clinical trial of one antibody include seeing the first effective (bapineuzimab) showed positive treatment for AD within ten years, clinical benefit only in a subset of and also the use of stem cell patients (without the Apo-enzyme therapy to replace damaged or E4 allele.) missing nerve cells in the same Professor Iversen said it was too timescale. He would also like to early to write off the beta-amyloid see ways of identifying suitable hypothesis, although trial results people to treat with preventative had been disappointing so far. medicines. Most of the trials to date have Personalised Medicines: Coming involved moderate to severe AD of Clinical Age patients, where it might be more Dr Geoffrey Ginsburg, Director, difficult to see a benefit. Personal- Centre for Genomic Medicine, ised medicine may be a way Institute for Genome Sciences & forward, although industry is Policy, Duke University naturally concerned about the commercial effects of the stratifi- Dr Ginsburg began by outlining cation of disease, each with a some of the reasons why we need different treatment splitting the a different sort of medicine. There market for the invidual products. are safety issues, with some 6.7 Phase 3 trials of bapineuzimab per cent of patients suffering will include patients with and adverse drug reactions in hospi- without the Apo-enzyme E4 allele tals alone. Serious reactions in – a form of personalised medicine. small groups of patients have led Post-hoc analysis of earlier trials to drugs being withdrawn, for which is not accepted as evidence example Vioxx. And there are by the regulatory bodies, suggests efficacy factors: even commonly that this division will show some prescribed drugs are ineffective in of the new amyloid attenuating a substantial numbers of patients.

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There are many reasons for a push tailored treatments for diseases towards personalised medicine. which have many forms, for These include advances in tech- example, breast cancer. Genomics nology and disease can help us refine prognosis, understanding on the one hand – make better use of available drugs including the mapping on the and develop personalised thera- human genome – but on the pies. other hand also including pres- Cancer drugs tend to be designed sure from consumer demand, for groups, not individuals, he demographics, health policy said, but different people will makers and industry. Personalised react differently. For example, medicine means getting better at although most people who have knowing who, how and when to surgical resection of early stage 1 treat, and there are a number of non-small cell lung cancer will be ways of doing this. fine, around 30 per cent will have You can look at risk factors for a recurrence and die. If it was disease, said Dr Ginsburg, and possible to identify that 30 per make predictions. It’s known that cent, they might benefit from risk factors for developing heart adjuvant chemotherapy. disease include smoking, in- A study is being carried out which creased cholesterol and high seeks to use gene expression blood pressure, so people with analysis to predict high risk, with these conditions might be these patients being randomised considered for preventative to chemotherapy or observation treatment. He cited a paper from (which is the current standard 1961, showing that these ideas treatment). Gene expression data had been around for some time. from tumour samples may also be Medicine and biology have moved used to identify which patients forward in the last half century will respond to different drugs. from observational to molecular Designing clinical trials to do this science and, now, to genomic or – so-called trial enrichment – digital science. The sequencing of could lead to savings in clinical the human genome and other trials and better identification of advances, such as gene expression the patients who would benefit. profiles, are revolutionising drug The personalised approach to discovery and the way we define cancer care would therefore disease. involve using genomics to predict Genomics can be used to predict recurrence, which would identify risk and also response to treat- whom to treat, and then predict ment. This is hugely important chemotherapy response, showing because it can help develop how to treat.

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There is a strong public policy cerns about ethics, and the fear of move towards personalised discrimination by insurance medicine. The Food and Drug companies and others. Administration (FDA) is behind it, Much needs to happen to make and President Obama, when a personalised medicine a reality, senator, introduced a medicine act including building better infra- to ‘secure the promise of person- structure, improving alised medicine to all Americans’. information-sharing and getting To illustrate how genomics is the right workforce in place. moving on, Dr Ginsburg shared Medicine which is science-based is his own profile, obtained from patient-centred, he said, but one of the many companies which pharma cannot achieve this in will now provide a read-out for a isolation. Academia, health care price. There are concerns about systems, federal agencies and the reliability of such information, others will have to contribute and however, as well as public con- work together.

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The Higgs boson: what, why, how? A panel discussion organised jointly by the RSE and the International Centre for Mathematical Sciences (ICMS) 21 April 2009

Questions, questions, ques- (University of Glasgow) outlined tions… the experimental challenges. In 1964, Peter Higgs came up with The focus of the panel discussion an idea which turned the world of was “what, why and how?” But physics upside down – a theory as the evening developed, it which helped to explain how the seemed more a question of universe came into being and why “when?” it does not fall apart. The critical Introduction component of Higgs’ revolution- RSE President, Lord Wilson of ary theory was a mysterious Tillyorn, introduced the discussion sub-atomic particle called the by saying it was part of a series of “Higgs boson,” but 45 years later, special events, jointly organised by no-one has been able to prove it the RSE and the International exists. Centre for Mathematical Studies, At the RSE in April 2009, Profes- to celebrate the 80th birthday of sor Higgs was joined by Professor his predecessor as RSE president, Edward Witten and Professor Sir Michael Atiyah. Describing David Saxon to discuss the himself as a mathematician who missing piece in physics’ jigsaw – had become “a pseudo physicist” and the Large Hadron Collider later in life, Sir Michael then (LHC) at CERN which is seeking to explained that the focus of the find it. The panel discussion which evening was to ask “what’s going ensued was chaired by Sir Michael on” with the Higgs boson, posing Atiyah, OM, FRS, Past President of the question to a panel who, the RSE. between them, covered the whole Professor Higgs described how spectrum of physics. He said that the concept was born, Professor he also looked forward to hearing Witten (Institute for Advanced what is happening at CERN – or Study and European Organisation what isn’t happening at CERN – as for Nuclear Research) discussed scientists investigate one of the the modern theory of the boson great ‘mysteries’ of fundamental and what’s being tested at CERN, physics… and Professor David Saxon

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Professor Peter Higgs – The of crystal lattice in which matter historical background (what?) condenses in various ways, Invited by Sir Michael to talk “breaking the continuous about ‘where it all started,’ translational symmetry that’s in Professor Higgs modestly suggest- the underlying dynamics.” ed that he had only been invited No-one took these theories very because his work “has interesting seriously, Higgs said, until the mathematical connections” with theory of superconductivity was the topic. He then said the idea of developed by Bardeen, Cooper the Higgs boson arose from and Schrieffer in 1957, describing thinking about “spontaneous how the charged particles in a breaking of a symmetry” – which superconductor move about like a he said was about “the conse- superfluid, without friction. In quences of having a ground state 1960, Yoichiro Nambu expressed of a quantum system where the this in the language of quantum underlying dynamics respect some field theory, and Higgs explained symmetry under a group of that his role was to “fill in a gap” transformations.” in the theory. “If the ground state of the Another key figure was Jeffrey quantum system is asymmetric, Goldstone, who expressed the then that has an interesting theory of symmetry breaking in impact on the behaviour of the more “easy-to-understand” states of the system,” said Higgs. terms, including a model often According to quantum theory, he referred to as the “wine bottle” continued, electromagnetic and potential which helps to visualise other fields “come in lumps” or the various phenomena. “What packets of energy which behave happens is that the ground state like particles – or photons. “Such of the system, which classically is systems can have an asymmetric just the state of lowest possible ground state or a vacuum,” he energy, is where the value of the continued, “and when the field sits – somewhere in the ground state is asymmetric, then bottom of the wine bottle, instead the asymmetry spreads into the of on the axis which would be the excitations which are the particle symmetry point,” Higgs explained. states and you have a broken The trouble, said Higgs, was that symmetry.” in Goldstone’s and Nambu’s Before 1960, the concept of models, there were particle spontaneous symmetry breaking excitations which had a mass of was originally developed in zero. These were easy to under- condensed matter physics – e.g., stand in Goldstone’s language ferromagnets and different kinds because they corresponded to

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excitations of the field around the symmetry breaking, and all bottom of the trough where you independently showed that you don’t need to put in any energy to give mass to the quanta of the get it to go in another direction in Maxwell type of field as a result of that two-dimensional space, and spontaneous symmetry breaking. the Goldstone Theorem was “So finally, where’s the Higgs formulated “as a necessary boson?” asked Higgs. “There is consequence of trying to combine at least one system in which the a relativistically invariant quantum Higgs type of excitation has field theory with spontaneous already been detected, and that’s symmetry breaking.” in a superconductor.” Higgs then explained that the flaw And that is why there’s something in Goldstone’s axioms was the for the LHC to look for… insistence on manifest Lorentz Edward Witten – The theory invariance, and that there was an (why?) exception well known to that rule of transformations – the class of Edward Witten put things in gauge theories. “The potentials context by saying that particle in the Maxwell theory are ill- physics is a modern name for defined up to what is called the something much older – the quest gauge transformation,” he to understand the laws of nature. continued, “and that is the In the 20th Century, Witten feature which drives a hole continued, physicists discovered through the axioms in the that subatomic particles play a key Goldstone Theorem.” role in this quest, and there are “crucial parts of the puzzle” that According to Higgs, Philip we can only learn by using an Anderson said that if you put accelerator such as the Large together the so called Yang–Mills Hadron Collider. theory (a generalisation of Maxwell’s theory) and a system Witten then described how with spontaneous symmetry particles are accelerated and how breaking, their apparent difficul- their orbits are bent into circles by ties would cancel one another powerful magnets. Then, as they out. “But he failed to say why go round the ring – two miles there was anything wrong with across – they collide. The accelera- that theorem,” Higgs then tor has to be large, he explained, explained. and use very powerful magnets, to ensure that the particles reach very Higgs and other physicists then high speeds so that when they studied what actually happens collide, they produce a lot of when you combine a Maxwell type energy. When Witten was a of theory with spontaneous

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graduate student, the highest in energy.” One question Witten energy for two colliding protons believes we can reasonably hope was about 30 times mc2, but today to answer is why electromagnet- the LHC studies protons at 2,000 ism is “so different from the weak times mc2. When you go to higher interactions.” We can detect energies, collisions are rarer, said electromagnetic effects (i.e. light Witten, so the beams have to be waves) with our eyes, he ex- more intense. The events also plained, and modern technology become more complicated, so you is based on electromagnetism. need much better particle detec- But the weak interactions are tors, which produce vast amounts much less familiar, he said, and we of data. need special equipment to see Many fundamental questions them and even to know they exist. have already been answered, said Witten then said it was “funny” Witten, including what holds the that we use the same type of nucleus together, but equally big equations to describe electromag- questions still “tantalise” physi- netism and the weak interactions, cists. “Some of these are old even though they’re very different riddles,” he continued. For forces. And this raises an obvious example, why does nature have so question, he said. If electromag- many different “flavours” of netism and the weak interactions similar particles, including muons are fundamentally the same, why and tau particles? There are also do they look so different? riddles like dark matter, he said, It is all to do with symmetry and “particle physics is now on breaking, said Witten, and there the brink of a very big jump into are solid reasons to believe that the unknown,” because of the the answer can be found at the LHC. terascale – at the energy range of The LHC will boost the energy the LHC. The simplest explana- from 2,000 times mc2 to about tion, he continued, involves the 14,000 times mc2, taking it into existence of a new particle like the the terascale range – the equiva- Higgs boson, but it hasn’t been lent of 14 trillion ordinary found yet so the theory has not electrons with the same power as yet been proved. “It’s a question a flashlight battery. that’s been with us since I was a student,” said Witten, “so we’ve Witten then described what had the chance to dream up a lot scientists hope to learn from the of variants and competing LHC, saying that part of the theories.” answer is: “We don’t know everything that’s going to happen, Finally, said Witten, the LHC will because there is such a big jump give physicists the chance to look

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at the terascale and find out exotic than muons. To really what’s going on there – whether understand dark matter, an even there’s a Higgs particle, whether more speculative project, said there’s a more complicated theory, Witten, is to probe the unity of or whether there’s the Higgs the laws of nature at a much particle plus other things. “But deeper level than ever before. whatever is the nature of the “The three main forces in particle electro-weak symmetry breaking,” physics are the electromagnetic said Witten, “we ought to find and weak force, the symmetry out once the LHC is operating.” breaking and something else The search for the nature of called the strong force,” he said, symmetry breaking is also linked and the LHC may help to prove to many other questions, said the unity of all elementary particle Witten. “For example,” he forces, using supersymmetry. continued, “it’s believed that the Ultimately, this would update symmetry breaking process is the Einstein’s theory in the light of origin of the masses of familiar quantum theory, stating that as particles such as the electron. It’s well as space and time, there is an also the origin of a crucial part of additional quantum dimension in the masses of the protons and which an ordinary particle could neutrons.” vibrate – leading to the existence of new particles which could be The symmetry between the weak produced and detected at the LHC interactions and electromagnet- or other accelerators now being ism is what interests Witten the planned, including the Interna- most, “because the origin of tional Linear Collider... masses is what is perhaps most often explained, and because the David Saxon – The experiment symmetry breaking is very impor- (how?) tant.” Saxon talked about how to detect Witten then described the other the Higgs boson, starting off with big questions that the LHC might protons – the nuclei of hydrogen answer, including dark matter – atoms – then accelerating them to the invisible stuff which has a gain kinetic energy. There are two major effect on the orbits of ways to accelerate the protons, he planets and stars. “We don’t explained – in a straight line know what the dark matter is (rather difficult and costly) or by made of, but there is a very using a ring so the particles go interesting theory that it consists round and round and return of exotic elementary particles that through the same accelerating are part of the cosmic rays,” said element again and again, eventu- Witten – particles even more ally leading to head-on collisions,

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with 7TeV (seven trillion electron innovative concepts in technology. volts) hitting 7TeV coming in the The key to the project is the CERN opposite direction. “The colliding laboratory in Geneva, set up in beam is the efficient way to 1954. Today, it has 20 member destroy energy to create mass,” states and eight observers, plus a said Saxon – this technique was budget of about £600 million invented by Bruno Touschek, who pounds per annum – roughly the did his PhD in Glasgow. cost of one cup of coffee per A head-on collision is called an person, per year. event, and detecting events will The CERN collider is 100 metres help to capture the characteristic below the ground and 27km in Higgs signatures, Saxon ex- circumference, traversing the plained. Theories today are like Franco– Swiss border. One bunch jigsaw puzzles that we’ve almost of the protons goes clockwise completed, and the Higgs boson around the ring, while another is the last piece. We already know bunch runs anti-clockwise, and a lot about its properties, but there are collisions at four points there’s one thing we don’t know – around the ring. “There’s a huge how massive it is – and that is amount of energy,” said Saxon – critical because as the mass of the equivalent to 20 one-volt batteries Higgs boson candidate alters, its for every star in our galaxy or 1014 properties vary, so to cover the times room temperature. These range of possible masses, the staggering statistics have made detectors must be sensitive to people worry that the LHC would many different processes. Produc- create black holes, but Saxon tion of the Higgs boson is rare – explained that although a black one event in 1011 – and this hole may be created by one means different experiments (such proton colliding with another, as hunting for muons) have to run fortunately these black holes simultaneously. “You have to be don’t breed – because of Hawking alert to all possibilities all the radiation, they die very quickly, time,” Saxon explained, with and only produce enough energy events arriving at a rate of 40 (about one micro-joule) to swat a million a second. mosquito. The Large Hadron Collider is the The most challenging compo- world’s most powerful accelerator, nents in the LHC are the with the most powerful detectors superconducting magnets, said and the most powerful computing Saxon, and that is what broke in infrastructure, said Saxon. It also the 2008 start-up. The accelerator involves the widest international is also one of the coldest places in collaboration and uses the most the universe, cooled to 1.9 Kelvin.

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Saxon then described the detec- good idea what a Higgs event tors, explaining that thwe proton might look like, but so far we only beams collide with each other have an artist’s impressions. every 25 nanoseconds, producing Saxon then described the comput- an average of about 10 interac- ing resources required to analyse tions, out of which come particles. the data produced by the accelera- The detector first determines if it tor. Each LHC experiment was a very short-lived particle, produces 10 petabytes (a million then the momentum and the gigabytes) and this requires the energy, and finally it measures the processing power of about outgoing muons. It’s constructed 100,000 computers, and a in a multi-layered way so that network of computer centres – different studies can co-habit, but what’s called “The Grid.” The this means it is very complicated world wide web was invented at and as big as a cathedral – 45 CERN, but Saxon said The Grid is metres long and 25 metres in much more organised than that, diameter. because the data in themselves The detectors produce data 40 are valueless. “What is valuable,” million times a second, but all this Saxon explained, “is what we call is useless without collaboration, the metadata – which tells you said Saxon. The final version of how it was measured and speci- the data is published only after fies all the conditions that it was independent analysis and there done under, and which version of are powerful safeguards. Mis- the program it was processed takes and disagreements are under.” We can’t afford to repeat inevitable, but everyone must feel calculations that have already a sense of ownership over the been done in America, Saxon data and overcome internal continued. We need all the rivalries. It wouldn’t do, for computing resources to hand. example, if a Scottish group The Grid provides seamless access claimed to discover the Higgs to computing power and data boson and another group looked storage distributed all round the at the same data and said: “No world. “Once the LHC starts you haven’t!” Saxon suggested producing for real it will be like a that what holds them together is bicycle race,” said Saxon. “At the hope. moment it’s like learning to ride a The readout system has 100 bicycle.” In the UK, he explained, million electronic channels and the effort is led from Glasgow by 300km of cable, and involves Tony Doyle and Dave Britton – a some “tricky” engineering, said £60 million project over 11 years, Saxon, adding that we have a funded in part by the Scottish

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Funding Council. The idea of The cancer therapy and “Seeking Grid started in particle physics but answers to fundamental ques- other disciplines are now showing tions about elementary particle interest, he said – e.g. for research physics in the universe – that’s into DNA coding. why we do it,” said Saxon. There’s “Present data tell us that the going to be a new era of discover- Higgs mass should be between ies, starting at the LHC. We’re 114 and 200 GeV, based on the advancing the frontiers of tech- minimal theory,” said Saxon. But nology, training young people even if there’s only one piece left and bringing nations together in the jigsaw, there could be through science.” another page missing. The Q&A standard model without the Higgs How do you select which events to violates unitarity – e.g. the theory analyse? that if you fire 10 arrows at a “In the trade, that’s called trigger- target, the number that hit won’t ing,” said Saxon. You capture the be greater than 10 – but the data and store an event for a difference between the theory and fraction of a second, and in that the model is that if you take a time you have to do enough model up to high energy, it always computation to identify two violates unitarity, while if you take candidate electrons – with 20 to a theory up to high energy, it 50 triggers at any one time. “The works beautifully. “We need crucial step in the game is know- people like Witten and Higgs to ing what to preserve for future explain why that works,” he study,” he said. continued, “but the theory without the Higgs is incomplete – What about superstring theory? it must lead to a contradiction and Witten said that supersymmetry to a disagreement with data. and string theory “grew up Something Higgs or Higgs-like together,” and hopes the LHC will must occur.” confirm supersymmetry. Saxon Superconducting magnets were explained that in the standard pioneered for particle physics, said model, there is the minimum Saxon, and now these are routine- Higgs, then the Minimal Super- ly used in MRI scans, with the symmetric Model, and so on. In “nuclear” component which the simplest supersymmetric makes it safe. “Real life is much model, he continued, there is not more complicated than headline one Higgs boson but four Higgs writing,” said Saxon, citing other bosons of different masses, with “side-benefits” of nuclear the same decay possibilities but research such as medical imaging, different ratios. So, when you see

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something that looks like a Higgs, with the Higgs particle that you have to check if it’s obeying all weighs not more than a few the standard model predictions. tenths of a TeV – and it doesn’t How long will it take to hand on work otherwise.” some of this exciting physics to Does CERN also hope to reveal the young generation – given that some insight into gravity? the experiments take many years Witten said the LHC could and involve so many people? “possibly shed light on quantum Saxon said he was amazed the gravity,” but thought it less likely project had survived since 1990, than the study of “symmetry and said that “hope” had kept it breaking” and perhaps the going through the years. Witten discovery of supersymmetry – said young people are excited “which would combine Einstein’s about large projects like the LHC special relativity with quantum because they have so many crucial You’re firing protons at protons. sub-components which are Whatever happened to the challenging projects in their own promise of controlled nuclear right. fusion? What leads us to believe the 14 Firing protons at protons is one tera-electron volt scale is the right way to do nuclear fusion, said scale to look at? Saxon. There are large machines Witten re-worded the question as: which get “close to ignition” – i.e. “What gives us confidence that get more energy out than put in – the energy of the LHC is sufficient but it is not yet “remotely eco- to explain symmetry breaking nomic,” he added. Witten between the weak interactions explained that accelerators like and electromagnetism?” He then CERN involve a lot of particles and said that an earlier collider at energy, but for fusion, you need CERN had discovered the heavy more of both – and not enough particles responsible for weak collisions for a fusion machine, interactions in the 1980s – the W even though the energy in each and Z particles. “We know their collision is “vastly bigger than it masses already, and we know that would be to do fusion.” the mechanism that breaks the What if you find nothing? Have symmetry can’t involve energies you got a Plan B or will you just that are too much higher than go on? that, or the model stops making Saxon said that the theory without sense,” he continued. “The data the Higgs is known to give tells us that the standard model impossible answers, so whatever works if you try to complete it is found will be different. He also

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said he wasn’t worried because Saxon said you need a lot of half of the large accelerators built vocabulary to teach undergradu- around the world were built for ates, so it’s hard to do a master reasons which became out of class in particle physics. He date, and instead did something recommended “hands-on “unexpected and different.” practical experiments.” Witten said the standard model Finally, Alan Walker then drew without the Higgs particle doesn’t attention to the exhibition make sense mathematically at LHC upstairs, Particle Physics for energies, “so we’d have a kind of Scottish Schools, and said that a contradiction.” primary school in Musselburgh How do you see this filtering had invited him to take the down through the education exhibition to its school fair – a system? breakthrough which Sir Michael described as a good note on which to end the discussion.

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Scottish Aquaculture - A sustainable future A joint International Symposium organised with the Scottish Aquaculture Research Forum 21-22 April 2009

Scotland is a leader in seeking to use science based policy, regulation and voluntary industry codes to increase the sustainability of the aquaculture sector within the context of increasingly focused regulation and global environmental and economic forces. The symposium explored sustainability under four broad themes of the environment, fish health and welfare, the role of science within regulation and policy, together with the socio-economic impact of aquaculture. The symposium was organised by the Scottish Aquaculture Research Forum (SARF) in conjunction with The Royal Society of Edinburgh and The Norwe- gian Academy of Science and Letters, and aimed to engage delegates from a wide range of backgrounds with an interest in aquaculture, bring together the extensive portfolio of SARF– sponsored research, complemented by internationally recognised keynote speakers.

Speaker Abstracts of aquaculture, promoting its DAY ONE. PLENARY SESSION competitiveness and improving Aquaculture – an EU perspec- governance. tive. Jean Weissenberger, DG - Sustainable development is about MARE A2 (CFP & Aquaculture) ensuring compatibility between In spring 2009, the European aquaculture and the high Europe- Commission will adopt a Strategy an standards for environmental for the sustainable development protection. It is also about of European aquaculture. While it shaping a performing aquatic is not possible to prejudge the animal farming industry, able to final outcome of this initiative at provide safe and healthy food to this time in this abstract, this the consumers. Promoting Strategy should aim at providing competitiveness implies, among political impetus and addressing a others, giving the highest priority number of challenges faced by the to research, innovation and aquaculture sector. It would focus technological development. on the role of public authorities, Addressing the high competition at EU and national level, in for access to water and space, or considering some major objectives enabling the aquaculture business such as establishing conditions to cope with market demands are for the sustainable development necessary if aquaculture is to develop. Finally, aquaculture

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would benefit from improved other institutions. SEPA will work governance and a better level with Marine Scotland and other playing field when decisions are partners in seeking to continue to taken by public authorities. This use research findings as a route to should be based on a proper policy change wherever practical stakeholder participation in the and possible. process, on a factual information Identification of risk factors in base and should be accompanied shellfish harvesting areas: by a reduction in the administra- regulatory and policy implica- tive burden. tions. David Kay, Centre for DAY ONE. PARALLEL SESSION Research into Environment and 1: POLICY AND REGULATION Health, University of Wales Scottish Aquaculture Research Bacterial fluxes from the land Forum (SARF) outputs aid surface and sewerage system can Scottish Environmental Protec- impact on both shellfish harvest- tion Agency (SEPA) policy and ing waters and bathing waters. In regulation. Campbell Gemmell, the USA and the EU, new ap- Scottish Environment Protec- proaches to protection of such tion Agency waters are outlined in the Clean Robust research outputs are an Water Act (USA) and Water essential tool in the development Framework Directive (EU). Both of policy in connection with require by law a catchment environmental regulation and perspective involving quantifica- have been used by SEPA to effect tion and integrated policy to significant changes in aquaculture achieve attenuation of microbial policy in recent years. fluxes. However, this regulatory environment assumes: (i) that we Expectations of changes to the know where the pollutant are regulatory framework arising from coming from; (ii) their fate and the outcome of research are high transport in the catchment and but the steps required to turn near-shore marine systems; and research findings into policy (iii) the uptake of faecal indicators change are often significant and in target species. In fact, there are not always obvious at the start of many information gaps in present any project. This can lead to regulation of microbial pollution, delays in the evolution of policy or because this area is very new and a requirement for significant lags behind efforts designed to additional work. control nutrients, sediments and Nonetheless, SEPA is a committed oxygen demand. partner within SARF and a strong A great deal of the early UK supporter of the research projects research effort in this area was commissioned by both SARF and

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initiated in Scotland and directed The recovery of the seabed at protection of both bathing and after fish farming. Kenny Black, shellfish harvesting waters. This Scottish Association for Marine growing empirical evidence base Science (SAMS) can inform many of the required Marine fish farms can cause judgement on: (a) the balance profound changes to natural between ‘point’ and ‘diffuse’ biogeochemical processes and to pollution inputs; (b) the regulatory the benthic community. The scale impacts of both baseline pollution of change depends on farm size, inputs and short–term rainfall- feeding efficiency, site bathymetry, driven events of peak bacterial ambient currents and sediment flux; (c) appropriate targeting of grain size. Organic matter (OM) sustainable land use and associat- from fish faeces and uneaten feed ed Best Management Practices cause local oxygen demand as (BMPs) within the farming they are bacterially degraded on community designed to reduce the seabed. This causes a change the ‘diffuse’ pollutant flux from in the reduction-oxidation livestock farming areas; (d) potential of the sediments and a appropriate remediation of shift toward domination by pollutant flux from sewerage anaerobic processes, especially to systems and industrial point OM degradation by sulphate- discharges, specifically addressing reducing bacteria. Hypoxic and the complex temporal and spatial sulphidic sediments are inimical to patterns of microbial flux from many groups of benthic inverte- treated effluents and intermittent brates and, as sediments become discharges via storm overflows increasingly anoxic, the benthic discharged from combined community becomes dominated sewage systems; and, finally by large numbers of small, diffuse pollution flux from urban opportunist worms, mostly near and industrial areas which is the sediment surface. The speed proving to be an emerging of this process depends on the problem world-wide. degree of imbalance between the This presentation provided an enhanced oxygen demand caused overview of developments in by the farm wastes and the supply regulation of catchment microbial of oxygen to the sediments by the pollution world-wide through overlying water, but sediments can review of the science information become highly degraded very base, new challenges and infor- quickly (~weeks). The process of mation gaps which require recovery once fish farming has attention by the research commu- ceased is the topic of the present nity. talk. This process has strongly

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coupled biochemical and biologi- strategies through regular and cal components that determine effective interaction with stake- the trajectory of the sediment holders; disseminating findings back to biogeochemical and once a project is complete is not ecological “normality”. enough. We are now using Applied epidemiology as it existing data more effectively than relates to aquatic animal health ever, but it is essential that we policy and regulation. Jimmy have UK-wide databases and UK- Turnbull, University of Stirling wide strategies for aquatic resources. Epidemiology is the study of diseases, health and welfare in What has been done to mini- populations, not in individual mise uses of medicines and animals. It is based on simple anti-parasitic drugs in Norwe- ideas, such as comparing affected gian aquaculture? Paul with unaffected farms to identify Midtlyng, Norwegian School of differences between them, but it Veterinary Science (VETH) is supported by sophisticated For nearly 15 years, the use of maths. Epidemiology can identify antibacterial treatments in causes or risks (e.g. smoking and Norwegian fish farming has been cardiovascular disease). However, dramatically reduced to a total of it can also improve monitoring to between 650 and 1500 kg active detect problems earlier and more substance, slightly varying from cost effectively. Epidemiology can year to year. The amount of 649 estimate the impact or cost of kg prescribed in 2007 corre- diseases and model their spread, sponds to less than 0.8 gram per allowing control strategies to be ton of salmonid biomass, which is evaluated. Since the mid 1990s, an unprecedented figure com- epidemiology has been used pared to any other segment of successfully in aquaculture and animal production, or to antibiotic wild fisheries. During that time use in humans. Among the factors several important lessons have contributing to this favourable been learned. situation are proposed: (a) the Epidemiology is only one of the unique government – industry available research tools. Most initiative to facilitate vaccination aquatic diseases are too complex against classical furunculosis in for a single discipline and it is the early 1990s; (b) the continuing important to choose the correct predominance of vaccine develop- tools for the job. Applied re- ment within the business search produces understanding, strategies of fish vaccine compa- but this can only be converted nies; (c) zoning and the spatial into practical or regulatory re-arrangement of marine produc-

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tion sites to minimise horizontal problem, and describe dhusband- spread of infections; and (d) ry techniques that include the use adoption of an “all-in-all-out” of acoustic deterrent devices production system with mandato- (ADDs). ADDs have been criticised ry fallowing periods between because of their potential effect of yearclasses. Adequate legal and habitat exclusion on dolphins and regulatory instruments for the porpoises which are more sensi- continuing success of disease tive to such acoustic signals than control in aquaculture will be seals. The evidence for such discussed using examples from concerns was discusssed and their several salmonid farming coun- importance was discussed in the tries. The limited use of medicinal context of European legislation. therapeutics in industrialised Some preliminary evidence was aquaculture has, however, some also presented that the reactions negative aspects. One of the of cetaceans to ADDs are more dilemmas is the availability of complex than previous experi- veterinary medicines that are ments have suggested. There are needed to provide adequate also some fundamental uncertain- treatment of our cultured stocks, ties about seal depredation at which is important to animal salmon farms that limit our ability welfare. The emergence of to evaluate or develop predator resistance to therapy is also control measures. Despite a stimulated by lack of diversity in wealth of knowledge within the medicinal products. industry, little structured research Appropriate and Sustainable has yet been conducted to Predator Control: the use of understand seal predation. The ADDs and other measures to speaker concluded by suggesting control seal predation at some areas that need to be Scottish salmon farm sites. examined in more detail if we are Simon Northridge, SMRU, to develop more effective, appro- University of St Andrews priate and sustainable means of managing seal predation at The main predatory problems aquaculture sites. faced by Scottish marine fish farms involve net damage, fish The relationship between kills, fish escapes and slowed aquaculture and biodiversity. growth due to stress. Most such Dr Tom Wilding, Scottish problems are attributable to seals. Association for Marine Science Interviews and official statistics Most Scottish aquaculture demonstrate the likely scale of this operations occur in sheltered sea- problem in Scotland. The paper lochs in relatively deep (>20 m) discussed methods to control the water underlain by shelly muds/

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fine sands and frequently in understood so that any conse- relatively close proximity to rocky quences to native biodiversity can substrata. The effect of aquacul- be established. ture on megafauna is, compared Incident prevention in the to macrofaunal, poorly under- Scottish shellfish sector. Lorna stood and is the focus of this Murray, Food Standards Agency paper. The UK is a signatory to Scotland the Convention on Biological On 1 January 2005, European Diversity and, consequently, has Commission Regulation 178/ assigned ‘Biodiversity Action Plan’ 2002 came into force, laying (BAP) status to habitats and down the general principles and species considered particularly requirements of food law and important. Many Scottish aquac- establishing procedures in matters ulture operations currently overlap of food safety. The regulation is the ‘Mud in Deep Water’ BAP and enforced in the UK via The evidence suggests resident General Food Law Regulations megafauna should be relatively 2004 (as amended). The regula- resilient to aquaculture-related tion contains provisions for sedimentation and organic determining the safety of food or enrichment. However, such feed on the market and outlines assemblages will not tolerate the responsibilities for food and changes above a currently un- feed business operators. The known threshold level. Regulation requires food business Preliminary observations indicate operators to withdraw food which the presence of megafaunal such is not in compliance with food as the seapen Pennatula phos- safety requirements, if it has left phorea (L.), in close proximity to their control, and to recall if it has fish cages. The impact of other reached the consumer. The salmon farming activities on the Agency’s incident response megabenthos, such as discharged capability is governed by the chemotheraputants, are largely Incident Response Protocol. This unknown. Higher energy sites protocol defines the Agency’s view host biotopes that are likely to be of an incident and details the more sensitive to fish-farming and action to be taken thereafter. Every an expansion of the aquaculture year the Agency has noted a industry into these habitats considerable increase in incidents. should only proceed where For example, in 2006 the Agency appropriate impact threshold investigated 1342 incidents in the levels have been determined. The UK. This is an increase of 388 link between aquaculture and incidents from 2005, when 954 invasive species needs to be better incidents were dealt with.

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The Food Standards Agency in identify the beliefs and under- Scotland (FSAS), as a competent standing of the shellfish authority, deals with many community in Scotland, both incidents and outbreaks of food – harvesters and enforcers, and borne disease associated with the benefit from an understanding of consumption of contaminated the awareness, knowledge, shellfish originating from Scot- attitudes and practices in place. In land. These are due both to so doing, the Agency will be able naturally occurring biotoxins to design an approach to assist accumulated in the flesh of live reduction in shellfish-related bivalve molluscs and Norovirus incidents. accumulated by the molluscs DAY ONE. PARALLEL SESSION growing in sewage contaminated 2: UNDERSTANDING OUR waters. With an average of 60 ENVIRONMENT classified shellfish production area Carrying capacity. Anders closures per year due to toxic Stigebrandt, University of events alone, we have the poten- Goteburg tial for this many incidents. In reality there are eight to ten Carrying capacity is the biomass of incidents each year in Scotland, a certain species an environment where there is evidence that can support without causing shellfish not meeting food safety significant negative impacts to the requirements have reached the given species and its environment. market place. These require In practice, carrying capacity tracing, withdrawal, seizure, depends on the degree of detention and destruction. environmental impact that can be accepted, which is expressed by Incidents themselves are not environmental quality standards. simple procedures; the investiga- The latter are established in a tion is multifaceted and complex, political process where environ- requiring many hours of investiga- mental impact may be traded for tion by Agency staff, local economical and social benefits. enforcement officers and food Obviously, the scientific part of the business operators. The costs problem, which is the topic of this associated with incidents are large paper, is to develop a toolbox with and many tonnes of shellfish are reliable, objective methods or destroyed as a result. The Agency models to estimate the environ- has therefore begun a strategy mental response to specified aimed at incident prevention; as loads and sinks from aquaculture. part of this, Scotland is working The models may differ between with the Scottish shellfish sector. countries because of differences The main project strand intends to in environmental quality stand-

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ards. Models must properly deal generated by aquaculture, the with hydrodynamic and biogeo- effects of these pressures on the chemical and ecological processes, ‘state’ of ecosystems, and the as well as with sources and sinks ‘impact’ of state changes on the of organic matter, nutrients, etc., ‘goods and services’ provided to due to farm activity. Uncertainty in humans by the ecosystem. estimates of environmental impact Mathematical models offer one is discussed. Current speed data way to generate such relation- and farm activity data are identi- ships and can thus enable the fied as two generally large sources estimation of assimilative and of uncertainty. carrying capacities for particular Carrying capacity: fit for water-bodies and types of farm- purpose models. Paul Tett, ing. This was illustrated using the Napier University ACExR-LESV model developed in the SARF012 project to estimate ‘Carrying capacity’ is the ability of the capacity of Scottish sea-lochs that water body to support a stock and voes to assimilate farm or harvest of farmed animals (or waste. Reference was also be plants) without long-term harm made to work completed in the to the health of the aquatic EC ECASA project, and being ecosystem concerned, and in an done in the SARF012b and EC economically as well as an SPICOSA projects, aimed at ecologically sustainable manner. estimating carrying capacity for Carrying capacity is linked to the shellfish. ‘assimilative capacity’ of the water body for the waste products of Environmental Standards for farming, as well as to the supply Aquaculture Medicines. Mark of needs such as food (for filter- Crane, Crane Consultants feeding shellfish) or oxygen. It Environmental Quality Standards involves considerations of the (EQS) based on Predicted No Effect scale of farming, the size of the Concentrations (PNECs) for non- water body, and the extent to target aquatic organisms are which it exchanges with surround- required for a wide variety of ing waters. substances released to water, It is suggested that these capaci- including sea louse treatments ties are best understood in a and other aquaculture medicines. Driver-Pressure-State-Impact- Companies producing medicines, Response (DPSIR) approach to the farmers who use these aquatic ecosystem management. medicines, and the regulatory This approach posits knowledge agencies charged with protecting of relationships between ‘pres- the environment from any adverse sures’ on the environment effects cause by chemical use must

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comply with a range of different area distributed amongst several European regulations which smaller farm units. The findings of require consideration of PNECs, a field survey which aimed to but which are not always consist- determine the relationship ent in the way that they apply between farm size and zone of them. These include regulations impact across a range of farms on the marketing authorisation of were presented together with veterinary medicines, the Water findings based on a national Framework Directive, and the analysis using SEPA’s archive, Habitats Directive, plus national where the size of a fish farm and regulations on discharge con- its environmental impact was sents. This presentation we examined. Using linear mixed- provided a critical overview of effects models, it was shown that these regulations and present a the discernable effects of the case study for deltamethrin, the farms investigated (n = 50) are active substance in a synthetic greatest at the cage edge, declin- pyrethroid sea louse treatment, to ing with increasing distance from show how a tiered risk assessment the farm. The abundance of approach can be used to balance benthic macrofauna and sediment the needs of all stakeholders, concentrations of organic carbon comply with necessary regula- are both influenced by an, albeit tions, and safeguard the weak, interaction between farm environment. size and current speed, such that Coastal assimilative capacity: the magnitude of effects at farms fish farm amalgamation, size located in areas of elevated matters? Martin Solan, Univer- current speeds are greater than sity of Aberdeen those of similar sized farms located in more quiescent waters. Intensification of fish farming Collectively, results suggest that activity and the amalgamation of there is a non-linear relationship farm units has the potential to between farm size and organic cause an increased risk of organic waste production and that such contaminant pollution. Although relationships depend on complex the amalgamation of fish farm interactions that are site-specific. units into a fewer number of In order to constructively inform larger operations offers greater policymakers on the placement financial efficiency, concern exists and design of amalgamated fish over whether the discharge of farm units, it is clear that more nutrients and organic compounds detailed information on farming from large scale operations may practices and influential variables have a greater environmental is needed. impact than an equivalent spatial

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Dispersion modelling of fish Containment and genetic farm particulate wastes. impact of fish farming on wild Andrew Symonds, ABPmer populations. Terje Svåsand, IMR Consultancy Norway An important consideration in the The continuing global decline of design of fish farms is the fate of wild fish stocks has been accom- the particulate wastes arising from panied by a parallel increase in the farm. Therefore this study was aquaculture. In the course of the aimed at investigating the fate of past ten years, worldwide produc- chemical/faecal particulate wastes tion of farmed fish has more than that arise from activities associat- doubled, with farming activities ed with fish farms and gaining a now producing half of the fish better understanding of their directly consumed by humans. For dispersive mechanisms and a species as Atlantic salmon, resultant environmental concen- capture of wild fish in Europe was trations. A numerical model only 0,3% of the aquaculture encompassing Loch Shuna and production. Loch Melfort was configured, The potential for genetic effects of calibrated and validated to aquaculture on natural fish provide a means of assessing the populations is arousing a great local hydrodynamic and sediment deal of concern among scientists, regime as well as any issues as well as the general public. The related to fish farm activities perceived risks are often associat- within its area. The dispersion ed with cultured and native fish, modelling was undertaken using and the adverse effects of the a layered three-dimensional tidal interactions of escaped fish with model with coupled sediment the ecosystem. Atlantic cod reach transport and dispersion modules. sexual maturity in their net pens, The results indicate that much of and genetic material can even the wastes remain in suspension, “escape” through the release of with only minimal rates of eggs by fish that spawn in the deposition. The findings from the pens. study have helped to advance the Application of novel ecotoxicity technical understanding of far- assays in aquaculture. field dispersion processes of Graeme Paton, University of waste from fish farms and provide Aberdeen a means of validating existing regulatory management devel- Ecotoxicology has evolved greatly oped to investigate processes in from the systematic testing of the near-field/mid-field region. freshwater species to a given dose of a relevant compound. Today, ecotoxicology includes marine,

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intertidal, infaunal, deep sediment The Scottish Marine Bill: sus- and soil environments in its tainable and strategic applications and has been management extended to include trace ele- David Palmer, Scottish Govern- ments and to be linked to ment environmental fate models. As The Scottish Marine Bill will form the discipline has evolved, the the basis of an improved and interpretation of mechanistic more sustainable management of responses has become more akin human activities within the marine to the mature models that environment and increased underpin pharmacological assays. protection of Scotland’s marine These resultant quantitative natural heritage. The proposed structural activity relationships legislation aims to provide (QSAR) can be used to assess both coherent integrated framework the performance of given recep- for marine planning, licensing and tors and the suitability of the conservation. This will enhance optimised assay. Furthermore they Scotland’s stewardship of the can also be used (with a degree of seas, support sustainable develop- certainty) to understand the ment and provide protection for potential impact of as-yet- the marine environment, so untested compounds. In this ensuring that future generations presentation we consider the of Scots will be able to enjoy the evolution of QSAR for a range of many social, cultural and econom- trophic levels and then couple the ic benefits that the seas deliver. response to a measure of the Scottish Ministers are working bioaccessible and bioavailable constructively with the UK Govern- fraction of the target analyte. ment and other administrations to Coupling receptor responses to ensure that an integrated and physicochemical parameters is joined-up approach to this new essential if we are to be confident legislation and its implementation that adopted assays are adequate- is achieved. ly protective. A predictive capacity in this context is key, not just for The development of The Marine dealing with the many metabo- Bill has been informed by the lites associated with aquaculture recently-completed consultation but also for the potential of new reports Sustainable Seas for All – generation compounds that may Environmental Report (SEA-ER be released into the environment. December 2008), and Regulatory Impact Assessment (RIA December 2008) that outline the five key policy areas which underpin the Scottish Marine Bill:

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· Creating Stability: Marine learning what, and to what extent Planning and Integrated Coastal can these lessons be implemented Zone Management in new policies? These issues were · Reducing the Burden: Licensing discussed within a framework and Enforcement where aquaculture is only one of many factors presently affecting · Securing the Future: Nature the coastal communities. Conservation DAY TWO. PARALLEL SESSION · Understanding our Seas: 1: FISH HEALTH AND WELFARE Science and Data Emerging virus disease prob- · Managing our Seas: Marine lems in aquaculture. Epsen Scotland Rimstad, Norwegian School of DAY TWO. PLENARY SESSION Veterinary Science Aquaculture as a new-comer in Viruses may be on the bright side the economic and social life of of life in modern marine aquacul- coastal communities. Do we ture, due to high densisty learn from experience? Bjorn monoculture of hosts, numerous Hersøug, University of Tromso possible routes of transmission, This presentation dealt with the and lack of effective vaccines for aquaculture experience in three most viral diseases in fish. Aquac- selected countries: Norway, Chile ulture can thus offer close-to-ideal and Vietnam, demonstrating that environments for the spread of industrial, marine aquaculture viral diseases. Furthermore, poses specific challenges regard- infectious diseases do not respect ing its accommodation to the national boundaries and they can economic and social life of coastal have detrimental effects on both communities. The three countries production and export of aquacul- have chosen different models for ture products. Effective vaccines their aquaculture industries, and are available for only some of the although all three have experi- serious fish viral diseases, leaving enced considerable success, there avoidance, or expensive compul- are several challenges ahead, not sory “stamp-out” eradication, as least regarding industry structure the official national approaches. and government regulations. The What can the aquaculture com- article discussed to what extent munity do to prevent and control the aquaculture industry can be future epidemics? How far will the managed by planning and which infection spread and how rapidly? aspects should be left to the When fish health officials don’t market. Finally, the article dealt act quickly enough, outbreaks with the difficult aspects of may become epidemics. The key to institutional learning. Who are controlling viral epidemics is to

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block the transmission of infec- lighted in this talk. The potential tion. This requires that knowledge to boost vaccine performance, to about reservoirs, susceptible fish manipulate the immune system in species, shedding of virus and a more controlled fashion and to survival of viral infectivity outside measure more precisely the type host for each viraus species ought of response being elicited, are to have a sound scientific basis. examples of ways in which these Development of highly effective molecules can now be used to the vaccines offers another way of benefit of fish health. preventing and controlling future Development of diagnostics: risks. challenges and opportunities. Fish immunity: vaccine develop- Sandra Adams, University of ment and performance. Chris Stirling Secombes, University of The application of biotechnology Aberdeen in aquaculture has enabled the Control of disease to maintain development and improvement of fish health is important for the a wide range of immunodiagnos- continuing success of the Scottish tic and molecular technologies, aquaculture industry. Of the and reagents and commercial kits different approaches that can be have become more generally adopted, it is clear that vaccina- available. Recently method tion offers a prophylactic development has increased treatment with limited environ- exponentially as techniques mental issues, and is thus a developed for clinical and veteri- method of choice against ubiqui- nary medicine are adapted and tous diseases accessible to the optimised for use in aquaculture. immune system. Whilst some Careful consideration needs to be vaccines have been proven to be given to selecting which rapid tremendously successful, others diagnostic methods to take have not, and ways to improve forward and apply in aquaculture vaccine performance and to pathogen detection methods accelerate their development are need to be robust yet sensitive. needed. Over the last few years, There are many innovative knowledge gained abut the techniques that may fulfil these complexity of the fish immune criteria and provide valuable system has increased enormously, diagnostic tools. It is also impor- in large part due to the availability tant, however, that useful of sequenced fish genomes. The diagnostic methods already many immune genes discovered developed are standardised and will allow new approaches in fish fully validated, and that new vaccine development, as high- technologies do not supersede

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these just because they are novel using histopathology, electron methods. The cost, speed, microscopy and blood biochemis- specificity and sensitivity of assays try. Finally, molecular tools were are all extremely important to end- used to examine the association users. This paper looked at some of Candidatus arthromitus with of the opportunities and challeng- RTGE-affected fish. The findings es for the development of rapid of this project were used to diagnostics for aquaculture. develop management strategies Investigation and control of for RTGE, based on feeding and rainbow trout gastroenteritis. movement controls, these have Jorge del Pozo, University of been circulated to rainbow trout Stirling farmers in the UK. Disease has a significant economic Biosecurity in aquaculture: a UK impact on the UK rainbow trout perspective. Andy Shinn, industry and during the last University of Stirling decade several new important Biosecurity presents continuing diseases have emerged, including challenges for the aquaculture rainbow trout gastroenteritis industry and its stakeholders. (RTGE) and red mark syndrome. Disease introductions are a threat Scientific research produces through both intentional and understanding that can be turned accidental movement of aquatic into effective management species and products. This strategies through dialogue with presentation provided an overview end users. This talk presented of UK biosecurity considerations, RTGE as an example of how from a local scale, e.g. disease multidisciplinary approaches may transfer within a single farm, to lead to the development of the global, e.g. risks associated management strategies. Epidemi- with common water sources and ology, histopathology and national trading networks. These microbiological molecular tools considerations were illustrated were used to study RTGE. Two within the context of three types of epidemiology study were aquaculture environments: a employed a cross-sectional survey marine fin-fish cage facility – a examined the prevalence of RTGE shellfish site and a freshwater in the UK and the risk factors trout farm using examples of associated with affected farms anthropogenic and ecological and a longitudinal prospective threats to biosecurity. design was used to describe the Key on-site biosecurity considera- impact, pattern of spread and risk tions include diagnostic capability, factors for RTGE within affected stage of the production cycle, and sites. The pathogenesis of RTGE the robustness of routine health in affected fish was investigated

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management, surveillance and imposing restrictions on accuracy communication procedures. of selection as well as selection Livestock movements and harvest intensity. Thus, methods allowing practices must be designed to individual selection among include health-screening and untested individuals would be disinfection procedures to avoid especially advantageous in the transfer of pathogens through selection for improved disease water. Larger-scale considerations resistance (i.e. selection for include the use of risk assessment identified QTL, genomic selection, (e.g. network analysis, Import Risk or indirect selection based on Analysis) and risk traits correlated to resistance). For management (e.g. HACCP). diseases characterized by chronic Improved biosecurity also de- infections, survival may be a poor pends upon the development of indicator of resistance, making good communication and other supplementing indicators information management systems necessary. Furthermore, a popula- including cross-border co- tion may contain a fraction of operation, complemented by individuals being non-susceptible well-parameterised epidemiologi- to specific diseases. If so, forced cal and other models, which termination of the challenge test together assist the assessment of (e.g. at 50% overall mortality) or risks and the implementation of genetic evaluation based on time improved risk-reduction strate- until death will be suboptimal. gies. Vaccination programs may also Genetic evaluation of disease complicate selection for improved resistance in farmed fish – resistance, as indicated by an challenges and future pros- estimated low genetic correlation pects. Jørgen Ødegård, NNIFES (0.3) between resistance to furunculosis in vaccinated and Genetic evaluation of disease unvaccinated salmon. Current resistance in farmed fish is research projects are now address- commonly based on challenge ing these challenges. testing, for which medium to high heritabilities are often estimated. Optimisation of on-growing of Analysis of such data is often marine finfish – a welfare based on survival (often at 50% perspective. Herve Migaud, overall mortality). However, University of Stirling accounting for time to death may Management strategies devel- improve accuracy of selection. Due oped to combat the problem of to disease prevention reasons, early maturation in marine tested individuals are normally aquaculture are species-specific. culled after testing, and selection Regarding Atlantic cod, photope- is thus limited to between-family, riod manipulation is the preferred

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management approach; however, Can we get the upper hand on there are welfare concerns as to its virus diseases in aquatic organ- application in commercial condi- isms? Borre Robertsen, NFH, tions. In this project, work has University of Tromso investigated the impact of The current disease situation in traditional (metal halide) and Atlantic salmon aquaculture novel (green cathode) lighting suggests that large gains in the systems on welfare and light control of virus diseases can still sensitivity in the species. Results be made through classical combat have revealed that the application principles. Improved and enforced of such lighting does not induce a strategies for avoidance of viral significant chronic stress response pathogens by breaking horizontal (plasma cortisol and glucose transmission have given encour- analysis) or non-specific immune aging results both for ISA-virus response (lyzozyme activity), and PD-virus. More emphasis suppress feeding behaviour or should, however, be put on severely damage the retina. possible vertical transmission of Melatonin analysis did, however, viral pathogens. Atlantic salmon indicate that even under constant possesses a very well developed lighting (LL), cod perceived the interferon system, which is a main overlying ambient photoperiod. component in the first line of Consequently, a longer term defence against viruses. Salmon outdoor study is currently being have high resistance against IPN conducted to investigate the and PD virus in laboratory experi- perception of day/night light ments and interferons protect intensity ratio in cod under LL in host cells against infection of combination with shade netting these viruses. In contrast, these to suppress the intensity of viruses cause high mortality in ambient illumination. salmon farming. Accordingly, Overall this project is intended to avoidance of production condi- improve the competitiveness and tions that result in suppression of sustainability of the marine the immune system should be aquaculture industry within the another primary effort in aquacul- UK by refining photoperiod ture. Interferon does not protect manipulation in Atlantic cod cells against ISA virus, however, farming and enhancing their which confirms that ISA must be growth potential. This work is combated by avoidance and supported by SARF, the British vaccination. Breeding of virus Marine Finfish Association and resistant fish also shows promis- Intravision Aqua AS. ing results. Finally, development of more effective viral vaccines will be

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crucial for a sustained control of Streamlining the environmen- virus diseases. To effectuate the tal impact assessment above combat principles, it is procedure for aquaculture. important to educate highly Richard Slaski, Federation of competent health personnel to Scottish Aquaculture Producers the aquaculture industry. In The Environmental Impact Norway, this is accomplished Assessment Directive was pub- through a five-year integrated lished in 1997, and for the marine MSc program in Aquamedicine. fish farming industry this was DAY TWO. PARALLEL SESSION transposed to Scottish legislation 2: SUSTAINABILITY as the Environmental Impact Aquaculture management in Assessment (Fish Farming in Norway. Magnor Neirheim, Marine Waters) Regulations 1999. Ministry for Fisheries and From that point, there was a Coastal Affairs, Norway perception by the industry that it was being required to produce The presentation was on how the full Environmental Statements, at Norwegian government is regulat- significant cost, for a very large ing aquaculture and how it is percentage of the applications it working to achieve sustainable made for development consent. growth in aquaculture. The This perception was backed up by development and growth of evidence provided by the then Norwegian farmed Salmon has Office of the Deputy Prime been a success story over the last Minister. Recognising the burden 30 years. This is partly due to of the EIA process for the industry, favourable natural conditions, but in 2007 the Scottish Aquaculture also to strict regulations. Research Forum commissioned a In the current work to define more study into the subject, with a view precisely the requirements for to producing a Guide to good sustainable growth in aquaculture practice in the use of the EIA production five areas have been regulations. This was completed, identified which must be given but a steering group of public attention: bodies and industry recognized · Genetic interaction that a further step was required: · Effects on water quality the preparation of easy-to-use templates for all three stages of · Diseases the EIA process, based upon the · Access to coastal waters, and best practice Guide. This was seen · Fish feed as being in keeping with the Guidance and templates being used for Strategic Environmental

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Assessment in Scotland. This Feed sustainability: current presentation and paper described status, future prospects and the process of, and objectives for, consumer attitudes. Paul creating EIA templates. Morris, Skretting Review of marine fish farm The sustainability of fish feed is environmental impact assess- being addressed from multiple ment (EIA) thresholds- scope perspectives. Firstly, in the light of for change and application of limited annual availability of permitted development rights fishmeal and oil, fish feed com- Suzan Bennett, Xodus Group pounders have directed enormous The need to examine the possibili- effort towards finding alternatives ty for a change in environmental to these two commodities. impact assessment (EIA) screening Secondly, given that fishmeal and thresholds and the application of oil will remain highly desirable permitted development rights to feed materials (primarily as marine fish farming, was identi- sources of long-chain omega-3, fied during a consultation exercise polyunsaturated fatty acids on Extending planning controls to (PUFAS), the industry is engaging marine fish farming, carried out by with stakeholders in the fishery the Scottish Government in 2004. and reduction sectors to secure Following this, research was sustainably fished and processed commissioned by the Scottish marine feed materials. This has led Aquaculture Research Forum to to the adoption of numerous examine current screening codes of practice and rigorous thresholds within the Environ- selection criteria throughout the mental Impact Assessment fishing, farming and retail chain. (Scotland) Regulations 1999, with Thirdly, feed compounders are respect to fish farming. The results engaging with the suppliers of of the review of current thresh- agricultural commodities to assure olds, including similar thresholds that they too are responsibly applied to marine fish farming sourced. Over-arching these elsewhere were presented. Some activities is the principle that fish potential approaches to establish- farming is fundamentally ing thresholds were explored, resource-efficient, due to the low together with the concept of feed conversion ratios (FCRs) Permitted Development Rights. achievable by fish. However, there is scope for further improvement, and feed producers and farming companies devote considerable attention to maximising returns per unit of feed fed. The UK and

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Norway are very actively pursuing In the sample number of 120 improvements in the fundamen- detailed ‘face-to-face’ interviews a tals of formulation and feeding to large percentage of respondents optimise FCR and in the sourcing (87%) had seen fish farming of sustainable feed materials. But before, although half of these had the legacy of food and feed scares not seen fish farming at the case has led to conservatism in Europe study location. When asked to and particularly, the UK, with focus on the effect of specific regards what constitutes a natural aspects of fish farming, including feed ingredient for fish. As a perception of the area, impact on result, having rejected many of the scenery, natural environment, feed materials used widely in the recreational activities and willing- global agriculture industry, there ness to re-visit, the majority of have been missed opportunities respondents remained neutral. with regards partial replacement The overwhelming majority of of fishmeal and oil in salmon and respondents believed that: trout feeds. This conservatism is · Fish farms contribute to the expressed largely through retailer livelihoods in coastal communi- specifications and independent ties; quality schemes on behalf of the consumer from whom, we the · Fish farms do not spoil the feed manufacturers hear very little appearance of the coast; and directly. · Tourists would not be less likely Tourism and aquaculture. Fiona to visit those places in Scotland Nimmo, Royal Haskoning where fish farms are sited. Aquaculture is an important The research conducted that, at industry for rural Scotland, in current levels, the presence of particular for the west coast and aquaculture operations would not the islands. Tourism is also affect visitors’ willingness to re- important to Scotland’s economy visit or affect their key recreational and depends heavily on the activities. country’s landscape. Environmental values and Targeted research was undertaken consumer behaviour: a case to assess whether fish or shellfish study of Scottish salmon farming impacts tourism in coastal aquaculture. David Whitmarsh, areas of Scotland. This was University of Portsmouth accomplished through interviews Aquaculture has contributed with tourists, tourism related substantially to world fish sup- businesses and aquaculture plies, but alongside this there has businesses at three case study been growing concern about the locations: the Western Isles, sustainability of many of the Shetland and Oban and Mull. 177 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

practices employed in fish farm- approach to economic and ing. This concern affects public environmental developments. But attitudes towards aquaculture, calls for rationality are usually and there seems little doubt that made when the speaker (or the social acceptability of the author) is aiming to imply that industry is shaped by what people other people are being irrational. perceive to be its environmental The famed German sociologist performance. What is less clear, Max Weber helpfully distin- however, is how far such attitudes guished between different kinds influence consumer behaviour. of rationality in modern societies, This paper reported on a survey of including instrumental rationality public attitudes towards salmon (choosing the best means for a farming in Scotland, which inter given end) and value rationality alia collected data on the frequen- (our reasons for selecting ultimate cy of salmon purchases. The values or goals). This presentation results showed that purchasing is analyses the broad social impacts influenced by both context and of aquaculture in relation to attribute variables, including Weber’s work on types of rational- environmental preferences. The ity. Dominant approaches to research also has implications for assessing the impact of aquacul- the method by which preferences ture characteristically operate with and values are appropriately a limited conception of what is measured. rational; they are usually instru- Social impacts of aquaculture. mentally rational. I shall examined Steve Yearley, University of ways of extending the kinds of Edinburgh social values and goals that may This meeting was originally to be be taken into account and entitled “Sustainable Aquaculture indicated how this may lead to – A Rational Approach” and that differing ideas of what aquacul- original emphasis on rational ture’s impacts are and a different assessments was telling. Of assessment of those impacts. course, no one wants an irrational

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Science, Politics and Drama in collaboration with The Royal Lyceum Theatre Edinburgh 23–24 April 2009

In April 2009, the RSE presented a series of events to run concurrently with the staging, at the Lyceum Theatre in Edinburgh, of Michael Frayn’s intense, absorbing and powerful piece of theatre, Copenhagen. The events followed on from the 80th birthday conference for Sir Michael Atiyah OM, PPRSE at the University of Edinburgh, which included the Higgs boson discussion held at the RSE on Tuesday, 21 April. On Thursday 23 April, the RSE presented the film The Strangest Dream, which tells the story of Joseph Rotblat, the history of nuclear weapons and the efforts of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs – an international movement Rotblat co-founded – to halt nuclear proliferation. The story takes the audience from the site of the first nuclear test, in New Mexico, to Cairo, where contemporary Pugwash scientists meet under the cloud of nuclear proliferation, and to Hiroshima, where survivors of the first atomic attack are seen. Featuring interviews with contemporaries of Rotblat, members of the Pugwash movement and passionate public figures, The Strangest Dream demonstrates the renewed threat. The author of Copenhagen, Michael Frayn, was invited to present a talk at the RSE on Friday 24 April on The After-effects of Copenhagen. Following Frayn’s talk, Muriel Romanes (Artistic Director, Stellar Quines) directed guests of the RSE as they read from the papers that inspired the play Operation Epsilon – readings from The Farm Hall Transcripts. Michael Frayn After effects of Copenhagen - Fiction or faction? 23 April 2009

Frayn began by saying that one of added, and a lot of what was the difficulties of writing plays or solidly established is now being novels based on the historical called into question. If he wrote record is that the record keeps the play again today, it would changing. For example, now that need to be altered in light of what the archives of the former Soviet we know now. Union are open to view, “people Moving on to the Farm Hall are discovering things about the Transcripts, which recorded the past that they hadn’t known.” secret conversations of the The ground has already shifted captured German nuclear physi- under his play Copenhagen, he

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cists who had worked on the focused on research into fusion – development of nuclear weapons to develop a hydrogen bomb. for the Nazis during the Second This was an “extraordinary piece World War, Frayn said that when of information,” said Frayn, which the transcripts were made availa- no-one had known about before. ble to the public in 1992, no-one There was also a “fundamental had challenged their accuracy, but difficulty” in believing that the they had certainly altered the Germans at that time had been so historical record. advanced, because to produce Frayn then described how he was fusion you need conditions of bombarded with books after he extreme heat and pressure, and wrote Copenhagen – more than must first explode an atom bomb he could ever conceivably read. in order to do this. Yet, the two And two years ago, he received a teams led by Heisenberg and copy of a book called Hitler’s Diebner had not come “within a Bomb by Rainer Karlsch, which thousand miles” of developing brought many things into ques- fission weapons, said Frayn, so tion, including the Farm Hall there was little chance of making Transcripts. a hydrogen bomb. Karlsch’s theory was that the third team working Before Karlsch’s book, the devel- on the hydrogen bomb (involving opment of ‘Hitler’s bomb’ had many different institutes across been very thoroughly covered by Germany) believed they could historians, said Frayn. We knew create enough heat and pressure there were two programmes, one with conventional weapons. Even under Werner Heisenberg and the though he may not be a scientist, other under Kurt Diebner. Even Frayn believes this programme though Nazi Germany was highly had really existed, based on the centralised, the two teams were available evidence. The Nazis had like “feudal baronies,” said Frayn, clearly taken the project very competing for resources, power seriously because towards the end and influence. When Heisenberg of the War, the SS had taken it was moving his reactor away from under its wing. Kurt Diebner was the fighting, Diebner even tried to also in charge of the programme, hijack it. said Frayn, along with Walther But Hitler’s Bomb revealed there Gerlach, who also co-ordinated had been a third programme the two other programmes. trying to develop a nuclear bomb It is interesting to note, said Frayn, – a fact which had been hidden that neither Gerlach or Diebner since the War. And the most referred to the fusion programme surprising thing, said Frayn, was during their stay at Farm Hall, and that the third programme had even though it was widely

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believed at the time that the Transcripts and put a different German physicists were unaware “gloss” on what had happened, that their conversations were said Frayn. According to Bernstein, being recorded, they may have the transcripts are full of allusions suspected that this was the case, and “shorthand” which make it and “retired to the rose garden” difficult to reconstruct the actual outside the house when they conversations, and when Frayn wanted to talk to each other in later introduced Bernstein and private. When the bomb was others to Karlsch’s revelations, dropped on Hiroshima, Frayn they “dismissed the possibility” of continued, the physicists seemed a fusion programme during the genuinely stunned and had no War, and said there was “no way time to work out a “security that any configuration of conven- response.” Yet even though we tional explosives can begin to learn about the details of the produce the conditions you need” fission programme, nothing is for a hydrogen bomb. The tests, said about the fusion programme. they said, had not been fusion but So, were the Germans being frank the first “dirty bombs,” using and open with each other? Frayn conventional weapons to scatter suggested that Diebner and radioactive material over the site. Gerlach may have been more So what did the fusion pro- “devious” than previously gramme really achieve? Frayn said thought… that even if they did not build a “But is Karlsch right?” asked workable weapon, the test would Frayn, despite his claims of still have been very impressive, concrete evidence and the and this may explain the Nazi suggestion that the Germans had government’s strategy in the final even tested prototype weapons, days of the War. Instead of their including an explosion in the refusal to surrender, being Baltic for which there is “reasona- “crazy,” the high command may ble evidence,” and another test at have believed they were about to Ohrdruf which is supported by get a “wonder weapon” to halt “impressive” eye-witness testimo- the Soviet advance. This may not ny – plus corpses with evidence of seem practical, but to “desperate radioactive damage and survivors people” this may have appeared a suffering from radiation sickness possibility, said Frayn. This may (including inmates from a nearby also explain why the SS moved concentration camp). resources to the test site at After writing Copenhagen, Frayn Ohrdruf, perhaps for a desperate met the American physicist Jeremy last stand. Bernstein, who edited the Ameri- A lot of information landed on can version of the Farm Hall Frayn’s desk after writing Copen-

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hagen (which described the escape from Nazi Germany, so one uncertainties surrounding the implication is that Heisenberg may meeting in the Danish capital have been trying to alert the Allies between Niels Bohr and Werner to the Nazi’s nuclear programme. Heisenberg in 1941), but he also Following a performance of suggested that the play itself has Copenhagen to celebrate Heisen- also had an impact on the berg’s centenary, the German historical record, because the physicist Hans-Peter Dürr, who controversy after its initial per- worked with Heisenberg after the formance led to the release of War, revealed that Heisenberg had new material, including the so- been “obsessed” with the called ‘Bohr letter’ – originally meeting – and why Bohr had intended to be kept under wraps seemed so angry and ended their until 50 years after Bohr’s death. talks. The suggestion was that Frayn’s knowledge of the meeting Heisenberg was naïve to think the between Heisenberg and Bohr two men (no matter how close had, until then, been based on they had been in the past) could what Heisenberg said, with Bohr’s simply sit down for a chat, views only known via indirect ignoring the historical circum- sources. The letter, said Frayn, had stances and the fact that his visit been addressed to Heisenberg but to occupied Denmark would be had never been sent, and Bohr viewed as unwelcome and even had written several drafts over the “embarrassing.” years, describing his account of So what did Heisenberg hope to the fateful meeting in Copenha- achieve? Was he seeking technical gen. Even though Bohr’s account or moral advice? Or did he simply “dissents” from Heisenberg’s in want to talk things over and some respects, said Frayn, what rehearse his arguments? they agree on is more interesting, establishing the fact that Heisen- What is fact and what is fiction? berg did talk about developing Frayn left these questions unan- nuclear weapons. This was swered when he said that putting amazing, said Frayn, because Bohr events into narrative form “chang- was half-Jewish and “notoriously es our attitude to the events,” and anti-Nazi” and would have been concluded by paraphrasing considered as an “enemy alien.” Einstein’s idea that just as theories Bohr was also in touch with may determine observations, people in the US and Britain, and “often the narrative determines had helped several physicists events.”

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Panel discussion The Drama of Nuclear Weapons in collaboration with The Royal Lyceum Theatre Edinburgh 24 April 2009

Chair Sir Michael Atiyah OM PFRS Hon FRSE – Mathematician & Past President of the RSE. Panel Professor John Finney – Professor Emeritus of Physics (University College London), Chairman, British Pugwash Group Revd Dr John Polkinghorne KBE FRS – Theoretical Physicist and Theologian Michael Frayn – Author of Copenhagen Right Revd Richard Holloway FRSE– Chairman of the Scottish Arts Council War of the Words first Pugwash movement, in a bid Nuclear weapons are an ethical to control and eventually elimi- dilemma for all thinking people – nate nuclear weapons. particularly the scientists who John Polkinghorne said that Los build them. Should nuclear Alamos saw the greatest concen- physicists have worked for the tration of high scientific talent Nazis, refused to follow orders or ever assembled for a single even sabotaged the project? common purpose, adding: “With Should the bomb have been the honourable exception of Jo dropped on Japan – and should Rotblat, nobody really asked civilians have been targeted? themselves what they were up to, What about the arms race now – until they actually saw the test and in the future? explosion in the New Mexico Sir Michael Atiyah kicked off the desert.” And according to discussion by saying that many of Polkinghorne, “that was too the scientists constructing the late.” atomic bomb in Los Alamos may Scientists involved in this kind of have had qualms about what they research have two roles, said were doing, but only one of them Polkinghorne: they are indispen- resigned on moral grounds. sable experts and morally Robert Oppenheimer (‘the father responsible citizens. Pure science of the bomb’) did express misgiv- gives us knowledge, and that is a ings later on, but the only scientist good thing, but the “lusty who actually resigned was Jo offspring” is technology, which Rotblat, who went on to form the turns that knowledge into power,

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“and that is a much more ambig- ly ‘good’ for power production. uous gift,” he continued, because That’s why we need public forums not everything that can be done in which scientists participate but should be done. do not monopolise, not seeking We therefore need another gift, what the media love (the conflicts said Polkinghorne – the wisdom which make “really good televi- to choose good over bad. Scien- sion”) but a “measured, tists also have to make such truth-seeking, wisdom-seeking decisions, but they have no debate.” Scientists have to unique expertise in that respect. contribute, he said, but they have The hymn says “every calling has no unique role to play. its snare,” he continued, and the The “slightly pessimistic” Michael snare of the scientific calling is the Frayn said that the control of “technological imperative,” the nuclear weapons is like “the excitement of discovery and doing balloon problem” described in Ian new things, even though the next McEwan’s novel Enduring Love, thing may be something that we when a balloon breaks loose and shouldn’t do. several people grab the ropes to That is why there has to be a hold it down, but then someone dialogue between scientists and drops one of the ropes and it the general public, when society becomes in the interest of tells scientists to think about what everyone else to drop the ropes they are doing and the conse- before they fly away with the quences of their actions. Scientists balloon. Unfortunately, however, can’t always be their own judges, one of them is carried off and falls he added. They should never to his death. And for Frayn this forget that they also have a symbolises the idea that renuncia- community role. tion of nuclear weapons only works if it is universal. It’s always hard to reach the right decision, said Polkinghorne, “It seems extremely unlikely that especially when ethical discourse it’s going to be universal,” he is so often about “the clash of said, “because there is always a single-issue pressure groups.” living to be made by some group While one group howls “X is as a predator.” The only way to terrible,” another group is saying control nuclear weapons, he “X is wonderful!” And it’s very added, “is by extremely elaborate, unlikely that either is right, he tiresome and complicated agree- continued, because “X” will be ments between great powers to good for some things and bad for join together to resist any minor others, just as nuclear reactions power or private interest who tries are ‘bad’ for bombs and potential- to seize the advantage by becoming a predator.”

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Frayn also thought it was unlikely of an “apocalyptic financial that renunciation of nuclear crisis.” Maybe the RSE should weapons could ever be completely look at the morality and econom- successful, but hoped it would be ics of the renewal of Trident, he “largely successful.” Sir Michael said, as its “next piece of drama.” agreed there is some room for John Finney mused on the hope, but also conceded “it’s suggestion that was raised that tough.” Heisenberg might have been Richard Holloway described the “something of a German Rot- two days of drama as “a kind of blat,” and said that Rotblat’s narrative of the fall of science,” short-term goal was the abolition with the invention of the bomb as of nuclear weapons – and his “science’s original sin.” We long-term ambition the abolition gained “astonishing but danger- of war. And “there is certainly no ous knowledge” by inventing the Heisenberg uncertainty” in that, bomb, he explained, and lost our he declared. innocence as a result. Rotblat did some very fundamen- These terrible weapons may have tal work on nuclear fission, said prevented war between “ad- Finney. He was one of the first vanced” nations, said Holloway, people to calculate how many so there is “a weird kind of evil additional neutrons are produced grace in the invention.” The by uranium fission, and saw as a danger is that the bomb will fall result of that the possibility of a into the hands of people who do nuclear bomb. “He joined the not have the same restraint. Manhattan Project because of the Describing the “ambiguity of possibility that Germany would science,” Holloway said we may develop a nuclear weapon,” said be very clever, but scientific Finney, “but he left it when it was knowledge often outstrips ethical clear Germany was not developing considerations and there’s a lag the atomic bomb.” He went into between what we can do and the Manhattan Project believing in what we ought to do, which the deterrence as a theory, but at the bomb demonstrates. He also said end of his life, he no longer we have a “duty” to deal with this believed this, said Finney. dangerous knowledge. After quitting the Manhattan Fifty miles away, Holloway added, project, Rotblat spent most of the there are submarines in Holy Loch rest of his professional scientific with “enormous predatory career looking into the medical nuclear weapons” that the uses of nuclear physics, and government is about to renew, at indeed built what appears to have a cost of £20 billion, in the midst been the first X-ray scanner. He

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also signed the Russell–Einstein moved into the political main- Manifesto, calling for the aboli- stream, with ‘getting to zero’ seen tion of nuclear weapons, and as a viable aim by many politi- co-founded Pugwash in 1957. cians, including President Obama. And while Rotblat was the The Americans and Russians could President of Pugwash, the get down to 500 weapons, said organisation and Rotblat himself Finney, “without any problem,” were awarded the Nobel Peace but getting down to zero would Prize. be harder, and we’d need complex Finney then described Pugwash agreements to do so. (named after the small town in Finney also emphasised that the Nova Scotia where the first Pugwash movement is also conference was held) as an concerned with other issues international network of scientists where scientists can play a positive who are concerned about the role, including problems of social impact of science – and climate change and the ethics of want to do something about it, science, where the idea of a including preventing the “mis- Hippocratic Oath for scientists has use” of science. Initially, the focus been developed by the Student/ was nuclear weapons, but that Young Pugwash organisation. brief has since expanded. Because Q&A it works behind the scenes, a lot How do we ensure that this of its achievements are not public knowledge (about nuclear knowledge, but after the Cold weapons) will always reach people War, Gorbachev confirmed it had in an unbiased way? Via drama? had a major effect through Or more education? keeping communication channels open during the Cold War. It had Polkinghorne was concerned that a critical influence on many arms the general public do not have a control agreements, but Finney good understanding of science, wondered why we have outlawed while Finney said that the decision biological and chemical weapons to renew Trident has both political but not nuclear weapons. and technical aspects. The design lifetime of the submarines is 25 Pugwash today remains focused years, he explained, but experts in on nuclear weapons, trying to the US argue that this lifetime help resolve conflict through could be extended by ten or more dialogue – e.g. “very interesting years, which would allow a discussions with senior Iranians in decision on replacement to be the last 12 months.” The Pug- postponed while international wash nuclear disarmament efforts towards nuclear disarma- agenda has in the last two years ment continue. “But there’s a

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disconnect in being able to get have a group of experts giving that information into the policy politicians advice, it doesn’t follow process,” said Finney. “There are that they will accept it,” for no easy mechanisms in the UK for political reasons and to keep the feeding independent scientific media happy. In Scotland, he said, advice into government,” partly a majority oppose renewing because we don’t have many Trident, and it should be possible independent scientists who to start a good debate, especially haven’t signed the Official Secrets given the fact that we could save Act, unlike in the US where £20 billion by not renewing scientists who have been previ- Trident. ously active within government We have had over 60 years of can raise technical issues from the peace in Europe as a result of outside. deterrence, whereas in other Today’s Guardian said it’s likely to countries, “monstrous acts cost £80 billion to renew Trident. continue.” So, does deterrence Is it possible to “dis-invent” work? nuclear weapons – like South Atiyah pointed out that even Africa? And what’s the French though we have had peace, the position on disarmament? causes are much more complicat- Finney replied that France has said ed: “The idea that deterrence it is prepared to join in negotia- solved all our problems in the past tions when weapons reductions and we should have more of it – have reached a certain (unspeci- that doesn’t work, I’m afraid.” fied) level, and that it is reducing Is there any “narrative” that will its number of weapons to about link things like climate change, 350, although it’s still building nuclear disarmament and the improved warheads. “They’ve also financial crisis? opened up some of their military Frayn replied that we can’t assume fissile material production that all human beings have the facilities for inspection,” he said, same aim or could have the same “but there is no pressure within aim. “It’s always in the interest of the French population for nuclear someone to break ranks,” he said. disarmament.” There’s a discon- Polkinghorne believed prolifera- nect, he added. People in France tion would continue and that one appear to accept that nuclear of the drivers is the fact that the weapons are important and will powerful nuclear states have the even protect them from terrorists, most powerful weapons, which but there hasn’t been much of a encourages more states to acquire public debate on the issue. their own weapons, “almost in Holloway said: “Just because you self-defence.” We need to look at

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these issues in a different way, he views. “We’ve got to get rid of added, “but how do we make it that simplified view of the world,” possible for politicians to shift he added. their positions?” One of the Some of us do not share your answers could be attempting to views on nuclear weapons. I mobilise “international civic believe they’ve been an unfortu- society,” Polkinghorne continued, nate blessing. I wish that they even if this may be “pie in the would go away but you can’t sky.” reinvent them. And how do we What about Pakistan, with the address the problem of prolifera- Taliban 60 miles from Islamabad? tion in less “sophisticated” Finney said the situation in countries? Pakistan is “very worrying and I was shocked by the suggestion grave,” and expressed his concern that the balance of nuclear about other areas of the world powers prevented the Third World where if something went wrong, War. Do you think this changed it could go very, very wrong, after the Cold War ended? because of the presence of Polkinghorne said the situation nuclear weapons – e.g. the Middle has changed for the worst, East and North Korea. “I have no because of proliferation. Not only easy answers,” he said. The are more states acquiring nuclear people there have to solve their weapons, but there is also a large own problems, he added, with black market for terrorists. “It whatever assistance they can get seems like we’re in a more from outside. Because a conflict dangerous place now than we might escalate into the use of were 30 years ago,” he added. nuclear weapons, these are areas Holloway “kind of agreed” that where Pugwash is making deterrence had worked, but said particular efforts to try to help that some things only work until find ways forward. they stop working, “so there’s Should we have a Muslim forum never any actual proof that they for scientists? And communica- are working.” Some states are tion between scientists with probably not interested in different ideological back- deterrence because they’re not grounds? bothered about mutually assured Atiyah pointed out that many destruction. “I think that’s the scientists from Muslim areas, new world enemy,” he added. including Pakistan, are involved in Atiyah then described how, at the Pugwash, and said it is a serious end of the Cold War, the Russians mistake to believe that the Muslim and Americans who had been world is a hotbed of extremist involved in the Cuban Missile

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Crisis exchanged information that theory to a world in which about “what they knew and what there are 100 states with nuclear they didn’t know,” about each weapons? other at the time. “The outcome According to Finney, the Nuclear was extremely chilling,” said Non-Proliferation Treaty was a Atiyah, because they found out bargain between the recognised how much they had been misin- nuclear weapons states – France, formed by their own the UK, US, USSR and China – and governments, and how poor the the other signatories that recog- intelligence was. “They very nearly nised the right of all countries to stumbled into a thermo-nuclear access nuclear technology for war,” he continued, “without peaceful purposes if they agree even knowing it.” Robert McNa- not to develop nuclear weapons. mara, who became very active in And as part of that grand bargain, Pugwash, said that the longer we the five nuclear weapons states have nuclear weapons, the more agreed to work towards the likely it is we will make a mistake, elimination of nuclear weapons. because “the fallibility of human Unfortunately, said Finney, the beings will guarantee an acci- nuclear weapons states haven’t dent.” So if anyone still believes fulfilled their part of the bargain, that nuclear weapons can ever be and the danger of nuclear a permanent source of stability, weapon proliferation has in- Atiyah continued, they should creased. India and Pakistan study those events. haven’t signed the NPT, Israel Finney said that nuclear weapons doesn’t officially acknowledge it were initially developed to deter a has nuclear weapons (even possible German attack. After- though everyone knows that it wards, nuclear weapons were does), and North Korea applies justified on the grounds that they the same argument in favour of would prevent a conventional developing a nuclear weapon attack by the Russians, who were capability as we do for retaining thought to have superior conven- ours, saying its weapons will deter tional forces. When the Cold War other states from attacking it – an ended, “we moved from a bi- argument that every other state polar world to a multi-polar could also use to justify posses- world,” said Finney, and we had sion of nuclear weapons. And that to rethink how to keep the peace. is why “there’s no way forward Even if you believe that nuclear but to get rid of the damn weapons actually worked in a things,” said Finney. “bi-polar world,” can you extend

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To stop proliferation, stop testing be solved in relation to inspec- and get everyone to sign a tions by the International Atomic comprehensive nuclear test ban Energy Agency to be able to treaty, including the US. What ensure that nuclear technology is does the panel think about that? only being used for peaceful Finney explained that the US has purposes. The problem, he signed the Comprehensive continued, is that it is relatively Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) but straightforward for a country with it hasn’t been ratified yet by the a nuclear power infrastructure to Senate – and this requires a two- make a further step and develop a thirds majority. The treaty is high nuclear weapon. So we need on the new administration’s “some sort of trip wire” to alert priority list but there is still a lot of us to when the line between work to do, he added. having nuclear power and developing a nuclear weapon There’s been a lot of talk about capability has been crossed. But the ‘advanced’ and ‘sophisticated’ the problem is not “insoluble,” nations with nuclear weapons, Finney said, but agreeing that if but if I lived in a country which there were no nuclear power, it has been on the receiving end of would be easier to prevent the behaviour of these ‘morally weapons development. superior’ nations, I might find it harder to get so worked up about CLOSING REMARKS the prospect of terrorists gaining Frayn: “It’s not a question of the same kind of power. morals or sophistication – it’s Holloway explained that he had always going to be in the interests used the word ‘advanced’ not in of smaller powers to retain a any moral sense but in the sense trump against the massive of developed technology, and powers.” agreed we are not morally Holloway: To build ‘a narrative of superior. “I think we are all pretty hope,’ Britain could re-think the mixed,” he said. renewal of Trident. “I don’t know Most of the panel appear to agree if that would render us any less about nuclear weapons and are safe,” he said, “but it would be also happy about nuclear power. an enormous spiritual and moral But as long as there’s nuclear gesture and save us a hell of a lot power, there’s always the potential of money.” to make nuclear weapons. Do you Polkinghorne: “If we gave up our see any optimistic way forward? nuclear deterrent tomorrow, what Finney said there are serious effect would that have on North technical issues that still need to Korea? Not very much, I think.”

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Finney: “We certainly can’t dis- produces problems, knowledge is invent nuclear weapons, but that important.” And part of the is not to say we can’t abolish trouble, he said, is that politicians them. We need to mobilise and the general public are not international civic society.” Rotblat well informed. “On a more believed that in addition to its hopeful note,” Atiyah pointed out traditional “behind the scenes” that the former Chairman of work, Pugwash had to convince Pugwash, John Holdren, has been people nuclear weapons are not appointed scientific adviser to the way forward. “It’s no good President Obama. Obama wanting to get rid of “We didn’t solve the problems of nuclear weapons, if he can’t take the world,” Atiyah concluded at his population with him,” Finney the end of the evening, but added. perhaps the renewal of Trident Atiyah: “Most of our scientists would be a good topic for next agree that although our science time…

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Robert Cormack Bequest Meeting 27 April 2009

The Robert Cormack Bequest world’s most successful survey of Meeting, supported by the bright transitting planets. Cormack Bequest Fund and the The welcome and opening lecture Scottish Universities Physics were followed by a series of Alliance (SUPA), was held on contributed talks, by PhD Students Monday 27 April, hosted for the and Researchers from across first time by the University of Scotland: Dundee. The physical and chemical envi- The aim of this annual meeting is ronment of a star-forming to bring together astronomers, bright-rimmed cloud - Alison space scientists and those inter- Craigon (University of Strathclyde) ested in astronomy, mainly Stellar Encounters: A Stimulus for post-graduate level students and Disc Fragmentation? - Duncan post-doc researchers, to share Forgan (Institute for Astronomy, their work and discuss the latest University of Edinburgh) happenings in Scottish astronomy. Silicate, ruby and opal in the This year’s meeting opened with a atmospheres of Brown Dwarfs welcome from co-host Dr Steve and planets - Christiane Helling Parkes, of the University of (University of St. Andrews) Dundee’s Space Technology NIR and optical luminosity Centre. He also gave the audience distributions and functions in an insight into the dynamic MGC/GAMA - David Hill (Universi- research being carried out in the ty of St. Andrews) Space Technology Centre. Cosmological Perturbations and The opening lecture, entitled Instabilities in Coupled Dark Sizing-up extra solar planets, was Energy and Dark Matter Models - given by Professor Andrew Collier- Brendan Jackson (Institute for Cameron from the University of St. Astronomy, University of Edin- Andrews. His fascinating presen- burgh) tation provided an overview of the Extrapolating Coronal Stellar latest research in the area of Magnetic Fields - Colin Johnstone exoplanetary science, including (University of St. Andrews) some of the more unusual planet University of Dundee involvement discoveries. Professor Cameron with the ExoMars mission - Mark also presented the history of the McCrum (University of Dundee) UK Wide-Angle Search for Planets (WASP) which has become the

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Fragmentation in Molecular Jennifer Noble (University of Clouds and its Connection to the Strathclyde) IMF - Rown J. Smith (University of Hamish Reid (University of St. Andrews) Glasgow) The Nature and Clustering of Star- David Sobral (University of St forming Galaxies at z=0.84 - David Andrews) Sobral (University of Edinburgh) The meeting closed with the The temperature structure around presentation of the following Quasars during Reionisation - Eric prizes: Tittley (Institute for Astronomy, Cormack Undergraduate Prize – University of Edinburgh) Mr William Simpson (University of A new SMBH Mass Function for St Andrews). Coronal Null points the Local Universe - Marina Vika and Solar Flares: a study of the (University of St. Andrews) topology of Active Regios AR0486 Testing the stability of dwarf during the time of the X17.2 Flare. ellipticals in MOND - Xufen Wu Cormack Postgraduate Prize – (University of St. Andrews) Ms Jenny Richardson (Royal Posters on a variety of topics, Observatory, University of including the first non-linear Edinburgh). An HCT/ACS view of force-free Vlasov-Maxwell equilib- the inhomogeneous outer halo of rium and the development of M31 comprehensive Lunar South Pole maps using a planetary surface Prize for Best Poster – Ms simulation tool, were presented in Jennifer Noble (University of a poster display: Strathclyde). Probing the chemistry of molecular cores: 2.5 - 5 micro Gráinne Costigan (University of Prism spectroscopy of B35A Dundee) Martin Feix (University of St The meeting was followed by a Andrews) tour and drinks reception at the Mills Observatory, Dundee, the Scott Gregory (University of St. only UK Observatory to have been Andrews) built with the sole aim of encour- Emma Grocutt (Institute for aging public understanding of Astronomy, University of Edin- science. burgh) This year’s meeting attracted a Julia Kennedy (Institute for total of 65 participants, from five Astronomy, University of Edin- Scottish Universities, as well as burgh) members of the Dundee Astro- Procheta Mallik (University of nomical Society and the Mills Glasgow) Observatory Advisory Group. Dr. Thomas Neukirch (University of St Andrews)

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Stem Cells as Therapy. Where have we been; Where are we now and where are we going (and how fast?) Caledonian Research Foundation Conference 30 April 2009

Stem cells may well hold the key to finding treatments for previously incurable conditions. But they tend to divide populations. While many are excited about their possible therapeutic applications, others see them as an ethical affront and are uneasy about their use. Stem cell research has, however, been one of the fastest growing areas of biomedical science in the last decade. The recent election of US President Barack Obama – who is in favour of stem cell research – is likely to accelerate that further. Leaving aside the ethical debate, just how close are we to turning dreams of a range of stem cell therapies into clinical reality? This conference, organised by the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the Caledonian Research Foundation, brought together some of the world’s leading figures in stem cell research to discuss the scientific barriers which must be overcome. Taken in three sections, the conference heard about achievements to date, reviewed the current state of research and took a look into the future – including developments in the regulatory framework which governs the field. Significant questions and hurdles remain, but there was a sense of optimism that, given the right policy and research environment and backing, stem cells may one day become routine therapy.

Session One – Where have we change from one pathway to been? another – once they have started Sir John Gurdon FRS. Wellcome developing, they will continue to Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon become the specific adult cells Institute, University of Cambridge. they started out to be. But experimental nuclear reprogram- Nuclear reprogramming in eggs ming can be used to encourage and oocytes other, unrelated, cells to grow. Described as a ‘father figure’ in This works most efficiently where the field of stem cells because of the nucleus of a somatic cell is his pioneering work with frog transplanted to an egg which has cloning in the 1960s, Sir John had its own nucleus removed. introduced the day with an The advantage of this process is overview of nuclear reprogram- that it is natural and highly ming. In nature, cells do not efficient and does not require new

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genes. The disadvantages are that the first crucial step. The DNA has human eggs are hard to obtain, to be demethylated (which so, realistically, it would not be essentially means having its possible to obtain enough. memory taken away) for epigenet- The long-term aim is therefore to ic reprogramming. Sir John said identify the mechanisms and that although you might think substances with reprogramming that transcription factors would ability, then use them to improve be required, they are not. Also, it the success rates of creating is important to switch processes replacement cells from easily ‘on’, but not ‘off’. obtainable tissues such as skin or The egg is a remarkable thing and blood. a better understanding of how it He asked three questions: how works will help us make more efficient is reprogramming by efficient the switches for repro- eggs and oocytes? What causes gramming and cell replacement. the failures of nuclear transfer? Professor Roger Pedersen MRC And what mechanisms are used Cambridge Centre for Stem Cell by eggs and oocytes for repro- Biology & Medicine, Cambridge. gramming? Mechanisms of pluripotency Using nuclear transfer to eggs to and differentiationin human switch between cell types is pluripotent stem cells around 30 per cent efficient. Pluripotent stem cells are capable Unsuccessful reprogramming may of generating all body tissue and be due to epigenetic memory, are potentially a source of impor- whereby the cell ‘remembers’ tant new therapies. what it was supposed to be in the Understanding how human first place. embryonic stem cells (hESC) This may be explained by the maintain their pluripotent state presence of histone H3.3, which may be the key to translating stem appears to be required for cell research to therapeutic epigenetic memory. If this is applications. removed, it is possible to make Comparisons between mouse and the cells ‘forget’ what was once human stem cells are helping us their destiny and happily become to understand more about how different types of cells. they work. There are significant Sir John then discussed some of differences between mouse ESCs the specific mechanisms which and hESCs. Unlike in mice, may lead to efficient transfer. pluripotency in hESCs is main- Chromatin decondensation seems tained by the growth factors to be necessary to ‘switch on’ Activin and Nodal. Differences pluripotency in cells, so could be between the mouse and human

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cells have a developmental, rather ling represses SIP1 expression than a species, origin, and human through Nanog and OCT4 and stem cells (including induced also directly by Smad2 and 3, pluripotent stem cells) represent while SIP1 is activated by SOX2. the state of pluripotency in the All these factors affect cell fate pre-gastrula stages of mammalian decisions and help determine embryos. Activin/Nodal inhibition pluripotency, and improving our in hESCs induces neuroectoderm understanding of them in the lab differentiation. The question is will accelerate the development of how does Activin/Nodal signalling new stem cell therapies. regulate the cell fate decision Professor Robin Lovell-Badge between pluripotency and FRS. Head of Division, Division of neuroectoderm differentiation? Stem Cell Biology and Develop- Professor Pedersen discussed mental Genetics, MRC National research which is taking forward Institute for Medical Research our understanding of the biologi- Many ways to pluripotency – cal mechanisms of stem cells. This embryonic, adult and inducible has included analysis of the roles pluripotent stem cells of the Smad proteins and their binding partners, as well as Embryonic stem cells are pluripo- isolating and studying relevant tent, that is, they have the ability growth factors. to become any of the differentiated cell types in the adult body. But Other research has looked at the there are ways of obtaining role of Activin/Nodal in Nanog relatively stable stem cell lines expression (a critical factor in cell from a number of sources, pluripotency) and has found that including blastocysts, teratocarci- it depends on the growth factors, noma tumours and early while Nanog transcription is (post-implantation) embryonic or regulated by Smad2 and Smad3 foetal tissue. Adult stem cells have binding sites. This is important been used for therapy for many because Nanog over-expression years – for example in bone maintains pluripotency in hESCs. marrow transplants and skin Therefore, Activin/Nodal signalling grafts – but they tend only to give maintains pluripotency through rise to the same cell type. its regulation of Nanog expression Adult and embryonic stem cells and Nanog activity will inhibit can also be encouraged to neuroectoderm differentiation. pluripotency by using genes such He also discussed the role of SIP1, as SOX2, so that they become which promotes and accelerates induced pluripotent stem cells. neuroectoderm differentiation in These stem cell genes are required hESCs. But Activin/Nodal signal- for the establishment and mainte-

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nance of tissues, to permit or gene network and chromatin encourage self-renewal and status. confer the ability to differentiate Session Two – Where are we into one or more cell types. now? Looking for these genes and Professor Ian Duncan CorrFRSE seeing how they act in different rofessor of Neurology, University types of stem cell is providing of Wisconsin, USA valuable information about how cells work. For example, SOX2, Repair of myelin disorders using OCT4 and Nanog are thought to stem cells; exogenous vs regulate many genes that define endogenous strategies the embryonic stem cell state, and Myelin, the protective layer which SOX2, OCT4, KLF4 and cMYC can surrounds nerve cells, is an reprogramme fibroblasts to ES- important target for treating like iPS cells. neurological disorders. Of these, Professor Lovell-Badge talked the most common disease is about the role of SOX9 in the multiple sclerosis (MS), where the generation of neural stem cells – myelin degenerates (demyelina- the number of neurones and tion). There are also a number of oligodendrocytes, for example, is serious inherited disorders where reduced if SOX9 is removed. myelin does not form. There are no current treatments which SOX2 marks several stem cell types promote the repair or formation in adults and is also expressed in of myelin, but Professor Duncan several differentiated cell types, described various strategies by but its regulatory region is very which stem cells might be used to complex. build or replace this insulating or There are a number of ways to protective sheath, providing induce or improve pluripotency, potential cures. but questions remain, not least In his talk, Professor Duncan around safety. Professor Lovell- concentrated on MS, a chronic, Badge concluded by saying that demyelinating condition, which is robust assays for pluripotency, or particularly common in Scotland, proxies for this, are needed, is pathologically complex and for especially for human ES and iPS which there are treatments but no cells. cure. These should include organised One of the hallmarks of the and consistent in-vitro differentia- disease is demyelination of the tion assays; teratoma assays; brain and spinal cord (CNS), to chimera studies (except in hu- which, in the early stages of the mans); and profiling to look for disease, the CNS appears to activity of both the pluripotency respond with a partial remyelina-

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tion. As the disease progresses, Professor Paul Sharpe. Depart- however, the CNS seems to lose its ment of Craniofacial ability to respond. Development, Dental Institute, Myelin arises from a well-studied King’s College, London cell, the oligodendrocyte. Under- Tooth morphogenesis: from standing the lineage of these embryonic development to cells, from the earliest stages of postnatal tooth regeneration embryonic differentiation to the For thousands of years, man has production of oligodendrocyte replaced lost teeth. Today we tend progenitors, may provide clues to use dental implants, involving a about the best way to provide metal substitute for the root – not therapies. so very different from an iron peg Professor Duncan described two found in the mouth of a Roman approaches: exogenous treat- from 2,000 years ago. It’s all been ment, where cells are effectively about inert substances, not transplanted to replace myelin; or biology, said Professor Sharpe. endogenous, where existing cells All this could be about to change. are ‘recruited’ and persuaded to He described the development of repair the myelin loss. The latter a biological process to use stem method may well avoid the risks cells to create replacement teeth. of immune reactions, but may This could have huge quality-of- have other risks, and, in any case, life benefits; could revolutionise the recruitment process is not treatments for people with sufficiently understood as yet. The diseases such as osteoporosis former has shown more promis- (who may lose teeth and the bone ing results so far in animal in the jaw) and could also provide models. Research to date may not important clues for how best to have been conclusive, but has use stem cells to replace other suggested that both methods are organs. promising. It might be, said Professor Sharpe said it was Professor Duncan, that the two important to understand the techniques could be used togeth- development of the tooth. He er to provide a better outcome. took it right back to the epitheli- There will be challenges, however, um and mesenchymal cells which in translating the animal model form an embryonic tooth primor- findings into humans, not least dium. The idea was to identify the because the human brain is much cells, start the process, and then larger. you should get a tooth, he said, adding that while the idea is simple, doing it is more difficult.

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Using mouse models, they have take time to develop ‘roadmaps’ found cells (both embryonic and to the clinic. In particular, he adult) which will form tooth warned against ‘scientifically ill- primordia and then develop into founded’ trials in patients and complete teeth when transplanted said more research was needed to into the mouth. get a better understanding both There is a need, however, to of the diseases themselves and identify human cells – and also how potential treatments worked. find a source of these. Professor Professor Lindvall made special Sharpe described how dental stem reference to Parkinson’s disease cells are a ‘fantastic’ mesenchymal (PD), where there is proof-of- cell source – one of the reasons principle that neuronal why commercial companies are replacement can work. But he said now ‘banking’ ‘baby’ teeth which there were many issues to be children lose naturally. But there considered. Any stem cell therapy remain challenges, including a would have to be clinically relative lack of knowledge about competitive, in that it would have these cells, where they are found to be better than existing treat- and how they function. In order to ments for PD. Specific cell types, improve this understanding, for example, dopamine neurones, Professor Sharpe is using mouse would have to be generated; models to determine the genetic good animal models would be processes involved in the repair of needed and the biological damaged teeth – the idea being mechanisms underlying the to learn more about the mesen- observed functional effects would chymal cells believed to be in have to be understood. adult molars. Trials using human foetal Professor Olle Lindvall. Section dopamine neurones are promis- of Restorative Neurology, Wallen- ing, but have limitations, he said. berg Neuroscience Centre, Lund For example, there is a limited University Hospital, Sweden availability of human foetal tissue. There is also the question of Stem cell therapy for neurolog- whether the grafted tissue is likely ical disorders to become affected by the disease. While there is some evidence that Research so far suggests that stem cell therapies for some patients will be fine ten years after disorders of the brain would work treatment, but that disease will in principle, Professor Lindvall progress in some in 16 years. urged a cautious approach, To make a successful treatment, a pointing out that there was still a good supply of standardised lot to learn. Stem cells have dopamine neurones would be possibilities, he said, but it would

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needed. There have been recent clinician, stem cell treatments had interesting developments in seemed a ‘distant possibility’. Now animal models, but there are risks. they are closer to hand, but hold a For example, stem cell therapies number of challenges, not all of (as tried on rats) could be tumour- them clinical. Stroke is a good forming. There is also a question starting point, he said, because it about what type of stem cell is a single, focal brain injury, is would be best and research common and causes disability should be carried out on each in with limited recovery – there is a parallel. There is also the possibili- huge clinical need for effective ty that the brain could be treatments. stimulated to produce new, The trial will involve injecting healthy cells of its own. foetal-derived neural cells directly Challenges include making into the brains of stroke patients, treatments more effective – in the hope that they will differen- improving survival of neurones is tiate into brain tissue, neurones a major goal, he said. Minimising and other tissue and lead to unwanted side-effects is also vital. repair, either directly or by stimu- In summary, Professor Lindvall said lating the existing cells and that stem cell therapies for connections to repair themselves. neurological disorders were There have been enormous possible, but were a long-term challenges in designing the trial, prospect. More information is which received approval from the needed on the mechanisms of the Medicines and Healthcare Prod- disease and on the biology ucts Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in underlying the functional effects. January 2009. These include Research on exogenous and choosing patients – and there is a endogenous stem cells should big variety in stroke patients and continue to work in parallel, and most are older people with other potential problems should not be diseases. There are also problems underestimated. with recruitment of patients, as Professor Keith Muir. Division of many are automatically excluded, Clinical Neuroscience, University for reasons ranging from a lack of of Glasgow ability to consent, to clinical suitability. There are also challeng- Taking stem cells into clinical es around finding methods of trials showing if the treatment is Professor Muir described the working – it is not possible to development of what will be the ‘mark’ the cells to see what they first clinical trial on stroke patients are doing – and in ensuring safety. using foetal-derived stem cells. He There are questions around started by saying that, as a control groups, whether patients

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should be immunosuppressed Proposed uses for hESC include and about length and type of drug screening and allogenic cell follow-up. The proposed solu- therapy and also, possibly, for tions for the first trial would autologous cell therapies. He probably change in future trials, described some current research, he said. including the work of Coffey and Professor Muir also described others in London to ‘cure’ age- regulatory hurdles, with two related macular degeneration distinct bodies overseeing (AMD) – a common cause of sight- scientific review at present (MHRA loss – by using stem cells to make and also the Gene Therapy replacement macular cells. Advisory Committee). Another Cells could also be made and pressure is media interest – and used in drug screening, which dealing with public expectation. should improve safety and avoid Desperate patients and their situations where drugs have to be families have contacted him withdrawn because they are saying they would sell everything causing harm in some patients. and move to Glasgow just to be Prospects are less good for part of the trial. autologous therapies, however, Professor Alan Colman Singa- partly because it is difficult to pore Stem Cell Consortium, make the right cell type in suffi- (A*STAR), Institute of Medical cient numbers. Biology, Singapore Adult stem cells or iPSC have the Translational applications of potential to be created in far pluripotent stem cells – hESC greater numbers – which might and iPSC make them more suitable for Cell therapy has reached some autologous treatments. Here the interesting milestones and there limitations include finding ways of are promising therapies in getting the cells to the affected development, but there is still site without causing problems. some way to go and the challeng- These cells make it possible to es should not be underestimated. create an almost unlimited amount of material for drug Professor Colman outlined the screening and for research to potential uses and pros and cons study the biology of diseases. But – as we know them so far – of a major challenge will be growing human embryonic stem cells and ageing them quickly enough (hESC) and induced pluripotent so that they are of use in examin- stem cells (iPSC). He also gave ing late-onset diseases, such as some examples of how they are motor neurone disease. being used in research.

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Panel Discussion willing to take part in trials, Asked if the mechanisms in nobody wants the placebo – Europe for getting new therapies patients are willing to take risks. to the market are counter- Session Three – Where are we productive, and if it could be done going? (and how fast?) more quickly and safely, Professor Sian Harding. Profes- Professor Muir said he felt that sor of Cardiac Pharmacology and regulatory processes are still member of the Nuffield Council developing and need a rigorous on Bioethics, National Heart & review. Rigorous regulation is Lung Institute, Imperial College, important, but the current process London could be improved. Translating research into reality Professor Lindvall said he felt that Reality, said Professor Harding, stem cell therapies are moving too has been ‘messier than planned’, quickly into the clinic and that when it comes to translating stem they should be developed in a cell research into clinical treat- responsible way. ments. Although clinical trials From the floor, Professor David using cells derived from autolo- Baird said that moving forward in gous bone marrow and skeletal a rational way has the potential to muscle cells have been taking stifle innovation. IVF has been place for over ten years, and some developed in a ‘chaotic’ fashion, results have been promising, there he said, and the more it has are still a number of challenges to become regulated, the more overcome before the treatments innovation has decreased. He said become a clinical reality. more account should be taken of The heart can be subject to many consumer groups and of patients different kinds of damage, and willing to take risks. Professor the high incidence of heart Lindvall said he had been a disease makes it an important clinician for 30 years and his first therapeutic target. Damage can be ambition was to do something caused by a single event, such as a good for his patients. But he heart attack, or by a reaction to warned against rushing into prolonged toxic stimulus, and a treatments, for example, for process leading to heart failure is Parkinson’s disease, for which likely to set in. Heart failure has a there are existing therapies. If a poor prognosis and sufferers have stem cell treatment causes a a reduced quality of life, and tumour, for example, it could kill transplant is still the only option stem cell research for 25 years. for a cure. Professor Muir added that one What we are looking for is repair problem is that while patients are of the contracting muscle of the

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heart, and stem cell technology is other areas might be an answer to a possible way forward. But what some of these problems. Alterna- kind of stem cells? tively, using or stimulating the There have been trials using intrinsic cardiac progenitor cells skeletal myoblasts, which showed might produce a greater benefit. some early benefit, but also For the cardiac area, we are at a suggested that there was a risk of stage where the first reliable the unwanted side-effect of clinical trials are informing and arrhythmia. One trial, the Myob- directing progress, but a consen- last Autologous Grafting in sus has not yet been reached on Ischaemic Cardiomyopathy cell type, or even whether extrinsic (MAGIC), was stopped early application of stem cells can be because there was no evidence of replaced by stimulation of the benefit, although the treatment natural repair process of the appeared safe and may have had patient. positive secondary effects. Dr John Connolly. Health of Cell Bone-marrow derived cells have & Gene Therapies, Department of produced modest improvement Health, London with no safety issues, but act Regulation of stem cell thera- indirectly rather than by creating pies in the UK new muscle. Dr Connolly outlined the current Many questions remain around regulatory and legislative frame- the efficacy of bone marrow stem work which governs stem cell and cell treatment for heart disease. gene therapy research in the UK. For example, are the trials using He described recent developments enough cells? Could paracrine – such as publication of a UK factors do the same? Are the cells regulatory route-map, which from patients impaired, and is this provides a one-page picture of the impairment actually a factor in the regulatory process – and he progression of the disease? stressed that regulators are willing Embryonic stem cells have been to listen and trying to learn. shown in the lab to produce The current system is complex – as contracting myocardial muscle evidenced by the route-map – but cells, but are more difficult to so is the science. The different translate to clinical situations. regulatory bodies, including the There are hurdles to overcome in Human Fertilisation and Embryo terms of immune reaction, tumour Authority (HFEA), the Gene formation and potential arrhyth- Therapy Advisory Committee mias, as well as ethical issues. It (GTAC) and the Medicines and may be that patient-specific Healthcare products Authority embryonic-like cells from skin or (MHRA), have shown a willingness

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to work together in order to needs one apparent success to improve the overall regulatory make a media story, he said, and environment in the UK. vulnerable patient groups are Regulation can be a good thing, being targeted. said Dr Connolly, as it can improve Sir Ian Wilmut OBE FRS FRSE. the quality of research. There is a Scottish Centre for Regenerative general acceptance that the Medicine, University of Edinburgh process is evolving and can be A surfeit of opportunities: improved but there are barriers to which cell is best? making that happen quickly – not Stem cells provide new opportuni- least that there is still considerable ties but it’s a distraction to ask scientific uncertainty surrounding which cell is best; we need them the clinical application of stem all, Sir Ian suggested. As well as cells and that most policies opportunities for new therapies, require Pan-European agreement stem cells have the potential to before they can be taken forward. give us a better understanding of He said that regulators are not risk disease and may accelerate drug averse and are willing to discuss discovery. research proposals to help find Many inherited diseases have no the best way forward. There are treatment. Stem cells may offer an other helpful documents, includ- answer, not only in leading to ing a handbook published potential therapies but in helping recently by the International us to study the cause of the Society for Stem Cell Research. disease and to find new drugs. This publication is also helpful in For example, family history is combating ‘stem cell tourism’ – known to be a factor in ten per where patients are enticed into cent of cases of motor neurone taking part in ‘trials’ which are disease. Mutations in the SOD1 ethically dubious, not based on gene cause 20 per cent of the evidence, and usually cost the cases of inherited MND, but it may participants a great deal of money. be that deposits of an abnormal In some cases, even if the ‘trials’ protein, TDP43 actually cause are advertised as ‘free’, they can many cases of the disease. Drug involve the individual paying vast development is lengthy and amounts for travel and accommo- expensive, but it could be possible dation costs. Although regulators to accelerate discovery using stem and others are working to tackle cells from human patients with the purveyors of such treatment, the disease in appropriate mouse patients can be desperate and models. This could be optimistic, may accept some extreme risks, however, as symptoms typically financial and otherwise. It only

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show at the age of 50 – so it Panel Discussion and Close would take a long time to see the Dr Connolly was asked how the effects. complex regulation road map Use of stem cells in drug testing compared with that of other may also help prevent develop- countries. He responded that the ment of dangerous drugs with UK was the only country which unexpected side-effects. Late had mapped it out. He acknowl- withdrawal of a product is very edged that it is complex, but said expensive – it is estimated to cost that he is open to suggestions the pharmaceutical industry $8 about how it could be improved – billion a year. If this could be and stressed that regulators are reduced by creating high through- approaching the issue with a put screening using induced degree of humility. pluripotent stem cells, then it Asked if the wealth of regulation could produce safer drugs, more put people off researching in the quickly and more economically. He UK, in favour of going somewhere also spoke about the possible use less regulated, Dr Connolly said it of stem cells to help the liver to is a mixed picture. While some repair itself, leading to the may be put off, others find that aspiration of a stem cell therapy the quality of regulation in the UK for cirrhosis. is helpful, because, for example, Looking to the future, stem cell investors see regulatory approval technology provides real opportu- as a positive thing. nities, but there are still many Asked whether there should be unanswered questions and points more focus on potency and purity for debate. A way forward would of stem cells, Professor Harding be to bring together all those who said that in cardiac terms, purity is are involved in stem cell research not possible, because a number of to create collaborations which different cells would be needed. pool expertise and lead to the Professor Haites wound up the best chance of advances in the event by thanking the organisers understanding of and treatment and the speakers and all those for disease. who had contributed.

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Lord John Kerr of Kinlochard GCMG HonFRSE Today's EU : all passion spent MacCormick European Lecture 26 May 2009

As Secretary-General of the when most people in Scotland are European Convention, Lord Kerr showing little if any passion about helped to draft the EU Constitu- the European elections,” Russell tion from 2002 to 2003, and in concluded, “it is the passion he this year’s inaugural MacCormick had for the things he believed in European Lecture, renamed to that will distinguish this lecture commemorate the former MEP Sir and future lectures.” Neil MacCormick, the ex-diplomat In his opening remarks, Lord Kerr said what is needed in Europe is echoed these sentiments, describ- not just more debate but more ing Sir Neil’s endless Neil MacCormicks… encouragement, optimism, Introduction enthusiasm and passion, adding To commemorate the late Sir Neil that what we need in the debate MacCormick, Michael Russell, about Europe is “a lot more Minister for Culture, External MacCormicks.” Affairs and the Constitution in the Europe matters Scottish Parliament, introduced Even though the title of his lecture the lecture now named in his implies that the EU has run out of former mentor’s honour with steam, Lord Kerr made a passion- some warm words of praise for his ate call for debate about Europe – “learning, experience, kindness not just more logical and better and knowledge,” highlighting Sir informed but also recognising Neil’s contribution to the RSE and how much it matters to the UK Scotland and also his passion for and Scotland as well as to coun- Europe. Russell began by quoting tries beyond. the English writer John Aubrey, Lord Kerr wore his passion on his who wrote in Brief Lives: “When a sleeve from the start, saying that learned man dies, there dies a we only need to look at our war great deal of learning with him.” graves to see that the EU makes But in Russell’s view, this is not the sense: any political construct that case with Sir Neil, since in dying prevents such slaughter happen- he left his learning and his ing again must be good. Having passions with us, including his served in the UK Embassy in passion for Europe. “At a time

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Moscow in 1968, he described The EU Constitution, which Lord being moved when the Czechs, Kerr helped to draft and insists is and other East European and not a constitution but a treaty, is a Baltic states, showed how keen “tombstone” of the old ways of they were to be members, after thinking, he said. It confirms that the break-up of the Soviet Union, the EU may not raise taxes or and said that it is “worth getting borrow money, make peace or passionate” about an entity which war, or even decide who its reinforces freedom and makes citizens are. “All that is left dictatorship impossible in mem- entirely to the nation-states,” he ber countries. said. The Lisbon Treaty is a bargain “There is passion,” he said, “but between states, with no ‘constitu- we are not good at expressing it.” tional’ claim to a legitimacy arising directly from the people. Lord Kerr He then described the findings of also believes that the EU would, if a survey which suggested that the Lisbon Treaty were ratified, most British people think that the become more democratic, clearly EU is “bad for jobs” and a “raw recognising the sovereign role of deal” for the country, and said national parliaments, as well as this is “demonstrably absurd”. taking due account of population The creation of the single Europe- in its own voting procedures. UK an market and the correction of voting weight would increase by original budget imbalances, both almost 50 per cent, he said. successes won by Mrs Thatcher, mean that the UK now gains a lot Lord Kerr then quoted William in terms of employment and Hague, saying that the Treaty of makes a fair contribution to the Lisbon is “all about institutional budget. aggrandisement.” Not only is this not true, he said, it is the reverse “Why leave a club when we are of the truth. He also stressed that winning?” he asked, noting that it is more important than ever to English is now the main language uphold the principles of the single of the EU institutions. “Why leave market, at a time when economic when the tide has turned?” he pressures lead some politicians to added, noting that the old idea of argue for national protectionism – power steadily accruing to the e.g. for the car industry. “Protec- centre is out of fashion, along tionism protects only decline,” he with dreams of a big EU budget said. and laws which fail to take account of national interests. When it comes to immigration, he “The tide turned in the 90s,” he added, we should also be more said. aware of the facts, recognising that northwest Europe has an

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ageing and stagnating population he asked. Not to be part of any of which will have to be renewed by the big Strasbourg groupings, immigration from the faster- Lord Kerr suggested, means being growing south and east. “Our committed to “impotence,” since choice,” he said, “is whether to the work of the Parliament is done import workers or outsource in committees and power in work.” committee lies with the Centre- EU elections, Scottish independ- Right, Centre-Left and Liberals, ence and the Euro who make up nearly 80 per cent of the Parliament. “The Conserva- In the second half of his lecture, tives have had real influence via Lord Kerr (in his own words) the EPP (European People’s “insulted” one by one the Party),” he said, “but now seem to Conservative Party, the Scottish be giving this up. It makes no National Party and the Labour sense to decide to have no Party, starting with the Conserva- influence. If you don’t want to get tives and their negative approach things done in Strasbourg, why to the forthcoming EU elections stand for election?” (June 4). As for Tory talk of forming a new Noting that turnout is likely to be Euro-sceptic grouping, Lord Kerr less than 33 per cent of the thought they might well succeed, electorate and that the election is but only by embracing “some “a mid-term referendum on an rather odd bed-fellows,” largely unpopular government” in the UK from Eastern Europe, very socially and some other countries, he conservative and very opposed to expressed concern that the agricultural reform. “Was Mr Conservatives appear to be more Klaus from Prague or Mr Gorski “anti-Europe” or “Euro-sceptic” from Warsaw a natural ally for the than ever and plan to form a new party of Sir Alec or Lady Thatch- alliance with parties who oppose er?” he asked. And did it make the very idea of the EU, even sense to reject alliances with potentially finding themselves in Chancellor Merkel and President the same camp as the BNP and Sarkozy, in favour of such “fringe UKIP. figures of the far Right”? “How can you stand for election Turning his attention to Scotland, to an assembly of which you don’t Lord Kerr had a warning for the want to be part, to pass Europe- SNP. “Unlike many in England, we wide laws of which you Scots know it’s not a zero-sum disapprove, and – as a first task – game; you can be both a good approve a new European Commis- Scot and a good European,” he sion whose powers you reject?” said. But this should not blind us

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to the fact that “selling our by 30 per cent, he explained, but independence in Europe would Mr Brown did not argue 11 years not be easy.” Spain has the ago that we must reject the Euro Basques and Catalans to think in order to retain the right to about, he explained, and along devalue; rather, he told us that the with four other EU member states days of “boom and bust” were also facing minority separatist over. movements, has refused to The UK’s credit rating is now recognise breakaway Kosovo. threatened with down-grading by Lord Kerr also wondered what Standard & Poor’s, said Lord Kerr, would happen to the Treaty of even though our government Accession if Scotland became borrowing is less, for example, independent, and how easy it than France, Germany or the would be to renegotiate the United States, who are not yet budget rebate won by Mrs threatened. “Why the differ- Thatcher. An independent ence?” he asked. They have the Scotland would not face insur- benefit of having reserve curren- mountable EU obstacles he cies: 27 per cent of international added, but “part of the debate reserves are now held in Euros, about Scottish independence with only about four per cent in should be about Europe, and how Sterling. “Alas, neither Tories nor to overcome them,” he conclud- Labour seem willing to revisit the ed. debate,” said Lord Kerr. “The Lord Kerr then pointed out that silence is deafening.” the Euro, now 11 years old, is “The EU is a good idea which used by 15 countries, the world’s works,” Lord Kerr concluded, but most widely used transactions we still need to have a debate, currency, and the world’s second particularly if we are to have an reserve currency. The economic independence referendum in effects of adopting the Euro are Scotland. It isn’t right to let complex, he said, “but it has Europe’s critics get away with probably increased trade flows.” slogans and prejudice. “We need Perhaps it is time to debate again more debate, logic and passion, “whether our isolation is really so and less fear, ignorance and splendid”? The UK has effectively cynicism. We need more articulate been able to devalue the pound advocates. Neil MacCormick is greatly missed.”

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Professor James Hough FRS FRSE Ripples from the Dark side of the Universe the Search for Gravitational Waves Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize Lecture 15 June 2009

The evolving field of Gravita- in space-time which move out- tional Wave Astronomy wards like ripples across a pond. Gravitational waves are ‘ripples in However, these strains, as they are space-time’ caused by the acceler- known, are at extremely low levels ation of large masses in the of the order of one part in a universe. They carry information thousand billion billion. That is about what is happening deep in equivalent to a change in the the heart of some of the most separation of the Earth and the violent events in Space. It was Sun by less than the diameter of Einstein who first postulated that an atom. Detecting them has they exist in his General Theory of proved to be one of the most Relativity in the early part of the challenging problems in experi- last century. Almost 100 years on, mental astrophysics. they have never been directly Little interest was shown in detected by scientists, although carrying out experiments in this there is indirect evidence of their field until the work of Joseph existence. Professor Hough Weber in the 1960s. That encour- explained the nature of gravita- aged other research teams to tional waves and the research become involved, leading on to being carried out around the the developments of recent years. world to detect these elusive Professor Hough said this work signals. He said that establishing was designed to answer some proof of their existence would important scientific questions confirm Einstein’s theory and, including: more importantly, would open up - What are the properties of a new kind of astronomy that gravitational waves? would add to our understanding - Is Einstein’s theory of general of the universe. relativity the correct theory of According to the theory of gravity? relativity, gravity is the result of the - How does matter behave under curvature of space-time. As two extremes of density and objects orbit each other, their pressure? acceleration causes disturbances

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- What is the history of the black hole formation; neutron accelerating expansion in the stars coalescing; rotating neutron Universe? stars such as pulsars; and from - Where and when do massive general noise background from black holes form and how are sources such as cosmic strings they connected to the formation which are thought to be like of galaxies? elongated black holes. To a non- - What happens when a massive specialist, the challenge seemed star collapses? not dissimilar to designing and - What is the history of star deploying equipment in Edin- formation in the Universe? burgh that could detect a leaf dropping from a tree in Ecuador. Professor Hough said that up to about ten years ago scientists The technology being used to thought they were close to detect gravitational waves is the understanding everything about laser interferometer. The interfer- the Universe. However, it was then ometers used for this work have discovered that the Universe is two arms down which the laser expanding, with its outer part light is fired, with reflecting accelerating away as if gravity was mirrors at the ends of the arms. acting as a repulsive force. No one The light travels inside stainless could understand what was steel tubes which are kept causing this to happen. It is evacuated. The arms need to be believed to be due to something up to four kilometres long and called dark energy, but that is built on the surface of the earth another phenomenon that is not (with the mirrors isolated from understood. Professor Hough said seismic disturbances by being that detecting gravitational waves hung as pendulums), to make will help scientists measure what them sensitive enough to pick up the Universe is doing in a totally the wave signals. The laser light different way and begin to get an inside the tubes is the measuring understanding about what is tool. The laser light is first split causing this acceleration. into two beams by a beam-splitter, and after travelling to the ends of A large part of Professor Hough’s the arms and being reflected back, lecture was devoted to the the two beams then combined to technical challenge of detecting interfere with each other. This these minute signals from faraway creates a form of ‘telescope’ that in space. It will need huge masses can ‘see’ these signals from space. accelerating very strongly to produce waves that are capable of This system is incredibly sensitive being detected from Earth. This and can be affected by the will come from events such as smallest vibration, sound or Brownian Fluctuations of its

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mirrors. Professor Hough said a from 55 institutions. Five science great deal of experimental care is runs have now been completed needed to isolate the equipment with the detectors in this collabo- from all these influences to ensure ration but, so far, nothing has that pure measurements are been found. Professor Hough said obtained. Animals living in the this is not surprising given the surrounding area can exert a current limitations of the existing gravitational pull that can affect instrumentation, which cannot equipment and even passing reach far enough out into the clouds have a gravitational universe to pick up potential influence. All this has to be taken measurable events. The LIGO into account in designing and system is currently being en- operating the interferometers. hanced by a factor of two and A network of interferometers is there are plans to run the systems currently in operation around the again this summer. At this world. Professor Hough’s team is improved level, LIGO might be involved with colleagues in able to detect two events a year. Germany on GEO 600. This uses a The real promise for the future lies novel technology known as Signal in developing advanced detectors Recycling, which feeds the signals that will have 10–15 times the that try to come out of the sensitivity or range of current interferometer back into the interferometers. This will allow system to make them bigger and scientists to reach further out into more measureable. It also sus- space and increase the number of pends mirrors with pure glass large-scale events that potentially fibre to reduce fluctuations in can be detected to 500 a year. An movement (Brownian Fluctua- advanced version of the LIGO tions) caused by the system being detector, based on the British and at room temperature. Other German technology, is expected to detectors exist in the United States be fully installed and operating by (the LIGO experiment), Italy (the 2014. The Italian-based detector Virgo experiment) and Japan (the is to have a similar upgrade. In TAMA experiment) and there are Japan, an interferometer – called plans for an additional interfer- the Large Cryogenic Gravitational ometer in Australia. The Scottish Telescope – is planned to be built and German research teams have underground in a disused mine to joined together with their US reduce seismic and gravitational colleagues in the LIGO scientific fluctuations. It will also be cooled collaboration to pool their to cryogenic temperatures to knowledge and work together. reduce Brownian Fluctuations. This involves some 500 scientists Professor Hough described this as

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quite an undertaking, but predict- connected in a triangle by laser ed this would be the first phase of light. A demonstrator mission the next generation of experi- LISA Pathfinder is being prepared ments where cold systems are for launch in late 2011 to test the built underground. potential of this proposal. Scientists are also looking beyond Professor Hough said there is a advanced detectors to build the whole network underway which third generation of instrumenta- he is confident will be able to tion. This would have ten times guarantee detection of gravita- the sensitivity of the advanced tional waves sometime after 2014, detectors and a design study, although it is possible that funded by the EC, has already something will be seen before begun to assess the building of then. It offers nothing less than such a detector, which has been the prospect of a whole new given the name of the Einstein astronomy, leading to a host of Telescope. Professor Hough said new and totally unexpected events the technological challenges and phenomena to be observed in involved will be significant, but the future. Astronomy, he said, the spin-offs from this work will has been exciting since man first have benefits for industry around looked up at the stars. More the world. The timescale for recently, Infra-red and gamma-ray starting building is around 2020. astronomy, together with cosmic There are also proposals from an microwave background scanning, American and European team to have increased our understanding take experiments into space. This of the universe. He is confident is known as LISA and would that with the detection of gravita- involve creating a space-based tional waves, another new chapter laser interferometer, consisting of is about to begin. three spacecraft orbiting the earth

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Professor Charles Godfray FRS Department of Zoology, University of Oxford Malaria, Mosquitoes and Models Joint Lecture with the International Centre for Mathematical Sciences 17 June 2009

Although there are excellent ways Professor Godfray began by of controlling malaria now, there describing the life cycle of malaria is a real risk that these will break and of the mosquito, a vector down. We therefore need new which transmits the disease. He strategies to save lives in the outlined the scale of the problem future. Professor Godfray de- and current control methods, scribed some of the exciting before going on to look at novel possibilities currently being control measures. These include researched – and alluded to the ways of stopping mosquitoes important role being played by transmitting malaria and causing mathematical modelling in trying early death in the mosquito itself, to combat this deadly disease. thus reducing the opportunities Malaria is a major problem, for transmission. causing at least a million deaths He also spoke about the impor- and up to 500 million clinical tance of an inter-disciplinary episodes a year. About 60 per cent approach to the problem, making of cases and 80 per cent of deaths particular reference to the role of occur in sub-Saharan Africa. There mathematical modelling. Malaria are good and effective ways of is caused by a single-celled micro- combating malaria – although organism called Plasmodium, and poor health infrastructure in is transmitted only by female developing countries challenges mosquitoes of the Anopheles their implementation – but there genus. The mosquito injects will always be a need for new malaria sporozoites into the strategies. Professor Godfray’s human when taking the blood lecture was, as he said, not so meal essential for successful much about saving the lives of reproduction. This then reproduc- children in Africa now, but about es in the (human) body, causing providing possible means of illness and possible death – and doing so in the future. There is a passing the disease on when the need to have ‘things on the shelf’ mosquito bites again. for the day when current methods Current strategies include insecti- fail. cide-treated bed nets and indoor residual spraying – where the

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walls of huts are sprayed with a possible vaccines, but also novel long-lasting insecticide which kills ways of tackling the vector – the off the mosquito, a creature which mosquito itself. Professor will often ‘rest’ on the wall while Godfray outlined some novel anti- maturing her eggs prior to laying mosquito tactics. These include them in suitable water bodies. driving genes through the There are also effective drug mosquito populations which treatments which act against the make them unable or less able to pathogen, particular the recently- transmit disease, and causing the introduced drug artemisinin and mosquito to die before it can its derivatives. There are several transmit malaria. problems with both strategies, Researchers have created a however, in that health infrastruc- refractory mosquito – one which ture of countries afflicted by cannot pass on malaria – but how malaria is variable and often poor, do you “drive” this gene through so getting control methods out to a wild insect population? As was populations is a challenge. In first realised by Austin Burt at addition, mosquitoes and malaria Imperial College, homing endocu- itself are good at becoming clease genes (HEGs) are a resistant to insecticides and drug promising avenue of research. treatments respectively, making it These are selfish genes, found a constant struggle to keep naturally in single-celled micro- ahead. organisms, that are able to spread As well as making current strate- rapidly through a population by gies work better – particularly by cheating Mendel’s laws – ensuring improving health infrastructure – they are over-represented in the we have to look to the future, said next generation. A useful gene, Professor Godfray. “There are such as one that interrupts good current strategies and we mosquito transmission, can be can save children today, but we attached to the HEG and hence have to prepare for these strate- driven through the population. gies failing,” he said. “We need Alternatively, the HEG can be to have other things on the engineered to spread in a manner shelf.” Researching new methods that knocks out a gene in the requires significant investment in mosquito essential to the malaria molecular biology and biochemis- pathogen, or for the mosquito try, and mathematical modelling itself. In the last case the aim is to plays an important role in decid- drive down mosquito population ing what are the most promising numbers. Mathematical modelling strategies. has been and is an important tool Strategies on which people are in predicting how these different working include new drugs and strategies would work and in

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finding the best ways of making it reduces transmission. This has possible. been confirmed by mathematical HEGs can also be used to cut or modelling. ‘shred’ the X chromosome, which Work on the fruit fly has shown means there would be significant- that some Wolbachia can cause ly more males (XY) than females what is colloquially known as (XX). Mathematical models show ‘popcorn’ in the brain – essentially this can significantly reduce damaging it and causing early population densities and hence death. Getting ‘popcorn’ into the disease spread. Although it has brains of malarial mosquitoes been demonstrated in the lab that could shorten their lives, but we’re this technique works in mosqui- not there yet, he said. This would toes, one problem is that currently have the advantage, however, of it works too well (X chromosomes not involving genetic modifica- in offspring are also shredded), so tion, which opens up ethical and means of modifying X shredding regulatory dilemmas. activity are being explored. Another approach would be using Parasitic bacteria use is another fungi as an insecticide. Again, promising approach. Professor mathematical modelling provides Godfray described research into answers on the optimum way to Wolbachia pipiens, abundant do this, including getting the intra-cellular bacteria, found in balance between efficacy and around 20 per cent of all insect avoiding the development of species, including some mosqui- resistance. The disadvantage is toes. Females who are uninfected that it doesn’t kill immediately, with Wolbachia cannot use sperm but does accelerate senescence. from infected males, again cutting Professor Godfray concluded by down on reproductive chances. stressing that there are excellent There has also been research into, ways of saving lives and control- for example, using the bacteria to ling malaria now, although carry a useful gene and spread it getting the health infrastructure through the mosquito popula- working remains a major chal- tion. This is possible in principle, lenge. There is, however, a real risk but we can’t yet get genes into of current control measures Wolbachia. breaking down, so novel methods Another strategy is trying to are needed. Many exciting ideas reduce the lifespan of the mosqui- are being explored – both GM to. Only a small fraction of the and non-GM – and mathematical insects live as long as ten days – modelling is essential to these the life cycle of malaria infection – research programmes. so anything that can speed death

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Sir John Gieve Former Deputy Governor of the Bank of England The Financial Sector after the Credit Crunch in partnership with The David Hume Institute 18 June 2009

As Deputy Governor of the Bank the current build-up of public of England from 2006 until debt as one of the major results of February this year, Sir John was the credit crunch. Whilst hoping responsible for financial stability that the last quarter of 2008 and and was a member of the FSA the first of 2009 will prove to be board. He was welcomed to the the low point, he added that RSE by Jeremy Peat, Director of the much remains to be done to pull David Hume Institute, and Gavin the economy out of its tail-spin. McCrone FRSE, who chaired the Pointing to similarities between event. Both said the lecture was the path of the current crisis and taking place at an extraordinary the Great Depression, he is moment. The Chancellor of the hopeful that recovery is on the Exchequer had just made a way. This is likely to be a slow keynote Mansion House speech process, as Western governments about the financial crisis, the and consumers need to build up Governor of the Bank of England savings, whilst many other had declared that sermons are not economies are export driven and enough, and President Obama will have continued difficulty had announced far-reaching finding markets. measures in the United States. Sir Even though we are still in the John emphasised that world-wide midst of the crisis, Sir John argued action is needed to restore the that we already know enough to financial sector and ensure that start drawing conclusions – and similar problems cannot happen that these are far-reaching. He again. He also argued for a said: “This crisis calls not just for rethink of macro-economic emergency measures, but for strategies and argued that the major changes in our longer-term greatest threat to sustainable approach to policy. And this isn’t recovery is not over-reaction but just about banking and regula- inertia. tion, because the financial crisis Quoting Hume’s claim that “either also brought the worst world the nation must destroy public recession for 80 years. This has credit or public credit will destroy also been a failure of macro- the nation”, Sir John pointed to economic management. So we

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need to go back to the drawing global reach, and the speed at board, not just on financial which it took hold after its regulation, but on macro-eco- emergence in the USA – a result of nomic policy, and, in my view, on the integrated nature of the macro economics itself.” financial system. Checks and Sir John pointed to features of the balances were in place that could crisis which were similar to cope with a certain level of previous booms and bust. The instability but, like other complex property price boom of recent networks, it had a tipping point years, the ensuing rise in interest after which it plunged into rates, the credit squeeze, and the catastrophe. In this case after ‘the eventual bursting of the bubble point of no return’ institutions were all familiar from the 1970s needed government support to and 1990s. Yet the scale was of a raise large amounts of capital very new order, resulting in the worst fast, and help in funding when collapse of financial confidence no-one was prepared to lend. since 1914 and the first drop in The first lesson Sir John drew was global output since World War II. that much greater weight must be Nonetheless, he said, “I still think given to the systemic links it’s a bit of a puzzle why an old- throughout the network, rather fashioned property boom and than just watching the outliers. At bust should lead to a global the same time, there is a need to meltdown in financial markets.” recognise that there are some There was also the issue of why actions which are rational and no-one saw it coming. Much of sustainable for an individual, but the problem lay in financial not for a whole system. Sir John innovations, with the growth of listed a number of necessary derivatives obscuring real risk reforms – from ensuring the levels. “I think banks and their quality of capital, to tackling regulators thought that a lot of it bonuses, and moving more was sustainable and that the trading onto exchanges – for hedging of their balance sheets which there is already a consen- through the use of derivatives was sus. Yet he argued that it would reducing their vulnerability to a be a serious mistake to implement downturn. That was a critical and these and return to business as shared misjudgement.” The usual. Instead he identified four ultimate outcome was that when areas for fundamental change. a downswing came, no-one could These were under the headings be sure of the extent of losses or of: where they lay. The third special - Market mood swings feature of the crisis has been its - Moral hazard

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- Regulatory capture and group- banks … to collect the best staff think with offers that include guaran- - International inertia. teed bonuses for several years – displaying what we thought were As the banking system is central features of a boom.” This is to the world economy, Sir John happening at a time when we believes it must be cushioned have just seen the failure of self- against market swings; something regulation by banks. There is, that can be achieved by insisting therefore, a need for firm public that banks hold greater insurance. regulation and to rebuild market His recipe for stability included discipline. Sir John recommended more capital, greater liquidity and the development of special smaller balance sheets. At the insolvency regimes for larger and same time the economy needs more complex banks, and higher protection from the banks, which capital and liquidity requirements can be achieved by direct meas- for the biggest firms. If these are ures to dampen the effects of the not enough, it may be necessary cycle in the financial sector. “The to limit the size of banks and the way I believe we can most easily business they can do – though do that is to adjust capital and this was not his favoured option. liquidity requirements as a proportion of assets in good Sir John considered the approach- times and reduce them in bad. es taken to regulation by a variety That would create bigger buffers of countries, saying no one to absorb losses.” It would also approach was clearly better than dampen the pace of expansion the rest. Nonetheless, the financial and contraction in the banking crisis has demonstrated the need market. to be alert to the dangers of regulatory capture and “group- With regard to moral hazard, Sir think”. The problem is not that John said the government has banks pull the wool over the eyes dispelled any creative ambiguity of regulators, but that they share about how far it is willing to allow common misjudgements. While financial institutions to suffer by supervisors can identify abnormal introducing a safety net for banks. or unusual behaviour, it is difficult This brings short-term gain by to question common behaviour encouraging inter-bank lending, which has built up over the years but it can store up problems for and has previously been seen as the next upswing by spurring acceptable. One option is to rely rapid expansion and risk taking. less on discretion and more on Signs of problems are already rules. There is also a powerful emerging “with fierce competi- argument for the system to be tion between the investment

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scrutinised by “a second pair of consensus between practitioners eyes” from outside the day-to-day and academics that so long as a running of the banking system. low-inflation regime was main- On inertia, Sir John said: “As tained, then market forces were people feel there are green powerful enough to haul cyclical shoots, we are beginning to hear variations back into equilibrium. and see some reduction in the Macro economics became reduced pressure for reform; there are calls to monetary policy, and monetary for caution.” While acknowledg- policy was just interest rates. Fiscal ing that a bad situation can be policy and regulation were seen as made worse, he added that the a micro-economic function. risks from over-reaction are Interest rates were set according outweighed by those of inertia. to whether inflation was above or He cited examples of reform below a target and whether proposals that had become economic activity was above or bogged down for decades, below sustainable levels. The meaning that avoidable problems “Greenspan doctrine” – from had been allowed to occur. Sir former Chairman of the US John praised the EU’s calls for Federal Reserve, Alan Greenspan – tighter rules, a strong body to also held sway. This stated that it oversee systemic risk (which is was “better to mop up after asset separate from the regulator) and price bubbles than to prick them effective control of implementa- in advance,” because the authori- tion by nation states (so countries ties were ill-suited to identify don’t fear they will lose a competi- bubbles and pre-emptive action tive edge because others fail to risked distorting a state’s entire follow the rules). However, he economic policy. “The last few added that reforms at national or years have proved the limitations EU level are not enough, they of that approach.” Limitations in must be implemented by the G20, policy were compounded by the or globally, to prevent financial fact that conventional indicators institutions from undermining failed to show that trouble was on them by shifting operations to the the way: accelerating inflation or least regulated areas. the growth in the output gap gave little sign that we were Turning to economic policy, Sir heading for a precipice. John said in the dozen years up to 2006 we had achieved stability, Sir John drew four conclusions for growth, low inflation, low interest economic policy: rates and falling unemployment; - New Keynesian models failed to “it seemed like we had reached forecast the problems. the Promised Land”. There was - They also failed to cope with the

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challenges thrown up by the though Sir John warned against credit crunch, such as self- the concentration of functions in sustaining departures from one pair of hands as a retrograde theequilibrium. step. He called on university - Inflation levels and output gaps, economists to help in the process and mopping up when bubbles of rebuilding by rethinking their burst, do not represent an most fundamental assumptions in effective macro-economic policy. the light of recent events, and help in the process of charting the - Interest rates alone cannot way forward. guarantee stability, and more than one policy instrument is In summing up, Sir John re- needed. Liquidity provision, emphasised that radical measures quantitative/credit easing, are necessary if similar, or worse, capital requirements and fiscal economic crises are to be avoided. policy are essential factors. “The experience of the last few years has important lessons for On top of this, he suggested that regulation and the way we do a complete separation of roles in economic policy and for econom- which central banks care for ics itself. We must not allow the stability, finance ministries for emphasis on reform to weaken equity and efficiency, and regula- and I conclude with the thought tors supervise, is obsolete. Overlap that inertia, particularly interna- and interdependence have already tional inertia is a far greater risk emerged and will continue, than over-reaction.”

221 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Professor Tom Devine The Enlightenment – the international influence and impact of Scotland and the Scots Edinburgh Book Festival 17 August 2009

Was the Scottish Enlightenment so many years, he later suggested, Scottish? was that Scottish historians were Professor Tom Devine believes the living in “a glen of tears,” flowering of genius in 18th- appalled by the horrors of century Scotland was influenced industrialisation which seemed to by several key events and ideas, flow directly from the economic including Calvinism and capital- theories and inventions of the ism, centuries of “intellectual period, and obsessed with the networking” all around Europe – dark side of Scotland. and “the death of politics” after The puzzle, he said, is why the political union with England. But Enlightenment happened at all. why are we the only nation in the At the end of the 17th century, world to turn a universal event Scotland was still persecuting into an object of national pride? witches and hanging blasphemers The Scottish Enlightenment, (including Thomas Aitkenhead in Professor Devine declared at the 1697 for comparing the Bible start of his lecture, was “invent- with Aesop’s Fables). There was ed” by the philosopher WR Scott widespread poverty, and trade was more than 100 years later in being strangled by protectionist 1909. Today it’s a “totemic and tariffs and war. The “vengeful iconic” badge of honour, but it’s Presbyterians” despised any form only been during the last 30 years of deviance. We were a small that the Scots have moved away nation, living next door to a giant, from a “victim” perspective prone to parochialism and (dwelling on disasters such as the introspection. Darien Scheme, the Clearances Yet within 50 years, the Scottish and the Glencoe massacre) to Enlightenment was already trumpet the achievements of our emerging into the light from the great 18th-Century thinkers – darkness of “fanaticism, prejudice sometimes even daring to claim and the tyrannical influence of that Scotland invented the whole tradition,” promoting tolerance modern world. and “violent disagreement that One reason why the Scottish did not end in violence.” Scot- Enlightenment was neglected for land was one of the “hot spots”

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of Enlightenment in Europe. 18th Century. There was a commitment to Even though the country was learning and the world of the poor, Scotland was not an mind, with a strong interest in the intellectual desert, said Devine. use of reason to explain human Scottish academics “served their behaviour and a belief that time in Europe” from the 13th improvement was possible Century onwards and were the through rational intervention. first to teach Newtonian science. The Enlightenment was not The great “virtuosi” were also unique to Scotland, said Devine, leaders when it came to law, but the Scottish Enlightenment biology and medical science. was distinctively Scottish, “looked Scotland also took a systematic at through a Scottish lens,” and – appoach to the funding of unlike other countries – based in schools, including special taxes universities (Edinburgh, Aberdeen and, after the Reformation, and Glasgow). everyone was encouraged to read It also had extraordinary cohesion, so they could read the Bible for said Devine, and encompassed themselves. Devine then described every discipline – like the Royal how Adam Smith’s Wealth of Society of Edinburgh, a child of Nations was first read by 14-year- the Scottish Enlightenment. But olds, already fluent in Latin and above all, he added, it was a attending school 12 hours a day, “Christian Enlightenment,” five and a half days a week. “No deeply influenced by Calvinism, other ethnic group in the British and most of its pivotal figures Isles could compete,” said Devine, were content to embrace Christian giving rise to the notion of “Scots values (at least, in public) and on the make.” believed in a propertied, enlight- The Scottish identity is inextricably ened oligarchy, “going with the linked with Calvanism, according flow” rather than promoting to Devine, and the Calvinist aetheism and democracy. They obsession with morality was one were also Anglophiles – not of the precursors of the new social Scottish patriots but citizens of sciences, while the urge to the world. “understand God’s design” was The big issue, Devine said, was also a driver of science. “People how this great phenomenon had could reflect and think for flowered so quickly in such themselves,” said Devine, and “barren soil,” and his argument even though some people feared was that the roots of the Enlight- that this would lead to anarchy, it enment were incubating long also led to breakthroughs in before 1700 – fertilised by several philosophy, science and the arts. key events in the first half of the 223 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Religion was also less orthodox But history does not move in after the Union of the Parliaments straight lines. Professor Devine in 1707, while the Patronage Act later suggested that the Scottish also boosted secular influence. Enlightenment had not complete- The Church of Scotland was also ly triumphed in the end over its becoming more liberal, and the Jabobite rival, since the “great Secession reduced fundamentalist tartan monster” seems to have power. hijacked the national character, Devine also suggesed that after even though most people in the Union, “politics did not exist in lowlands treat “Highlandism” Scotland.” There were no with contempt. ideological divides, so intellectuals But above all, Devine said, there is did not need to take sides and no escape from the fact that could debate issues free of Calvinism changed the “shape, constraint. The crushing of the nature and stamp” of the Scottish Jacobite rebellion was also Enlightenment more than any welcomed by most intellectuals in other internal or external factor. Scotland, as urbanisation began Was the Scottish Enlightenment to accelerate, fuelled by the linen Scottish? “Wha’s like us?” may be and tobacoo trade, the Clearances the only reply. and Empire.

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The Enlightenment – An 18th Century Revolution of Thought Edinburgh International Festival 15 August 2009–3 September 2009

In partnership with the Edinburgh International Festival, Nature and the Wellcome Trust, the RSE presented a series of twelve discussions and talks exploring various aspects of the Enlightenment, as part of the Edinburgh International Festival in 2009. Forty-four eminent experts took part in the series, either speaking or chairing the events; all twelve events were well attended by lively and participative audiences. The twelve topics covered were: Visual Art and the Enlightenment; Scotland Exports the Enlightenment; Islam and the Enlightenment; The Ages of Optimism and Pessimism: Utopian and Dystopian Ideas; Science and Tolerance; Music and the Enlightenment: Classical and Vernacular Traditions; On the Dark Side: Witchcraft and the Theatre; Science and the Enlightenment; The Face of the Enlightenment Moral Universals and Moral Progress: the New Science of Good and Evil; The Enlightenment and the Academies; Political Economy: Adam Smith and Others The following are summary reports of each of the events. The first four reports were prepared by a young person who worked with the RSE during the summer on a work experience project. Eade Hemingway was a pupil at Hills Road Sixth Form College in Cambridge and obtained 10 grade As at GCSE level before coming to Edinburgh in August 2009. Whilst here, not only did she celebrate her 17th birthday but she also received the results of her AS levels in Maths, Economics, Philosophy and Art, for which she was awarded A, A, B and A respectively. She went on to study for her A levels, also in Maths, Economics, Philosophy and Art. When writing to offer her services to the Society she stated “I would like to offer my insights – as a young person, pre-university but post-compulsory education …. For example, I note that there are a number of talks and debates in August; maybe I could attend some of these and offer some feedback from a young person’s perspective”. Eade attended the first four of the Festival events and prepared the summary reports, which were edited by an experienced freelance report writer, Peter Barr, whom the RSE employs on a regular basis. Peter also prepared the reports on the remaining eight events. Introduced by Lord Wilson of Tillyorn KT GCMG, President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, His Grace The 10th Duke of Buccleuch and Queens- berry spoke at the first event and made an introduction to the series.

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The Enlightenment – An 18th Century Revolution of Thought Introduction to the series by The Duke of Buccleuch and Queensberry FRSE 15 August 2009

The good, the great and the us something of the spirit of the noble civic humanism abroad at the The Duke of Buccleuch reflects on time,” said the Duke, “and the the Enlightenment and the role of wish to make the RSE a forum for his distinguished forebear – the the nation”. third Duke of Buccleuch and the The Duke also suggested that the first President of the RSE… conversations taking place in It was highly appropriate that the 2009 reflected many aspects of 10th Duke of Buccleuch intro- that earlier era of which we duced the first of The should not lose, including the Enlightenment discussions, since image of the “intellectually good Henry Scott, the 3rd Duke of and great rubbing shoulders with Buccleuch, was the first President the financially and socially good of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and great, and the very best minds – not just a child of the Enlighten- of the professional elites mingling ment but also a sponsor of the with, enriching and being en- series of talks, in partnership with riched by the amateur thinkers.” the Edinburgh International As well as being open to newcom- Festival, Nature and the Wellcome ers, added the Duke, the good Trust. and great did not converse “in the rigid silos of arts and sciences, It was also appropriate that the self-absorbed and self-referen- Duke focused on a portrait of his tial,” but in open debate, without forebear which hangs in the RSE boundaries – “debate that was, if at 22 George Street, since the not revolutionary, at least unor- theme of the first talk in the series thodox and maybe a little radical.” was Visual Art and the Enlighten- ment. The 3rd Duke also had another interesting connection with one The current Duke’s ancestor held of the leading figures of the his position from 1783 until his Enlightenment. In 1763, the death in 1812, despite the fact he young Henry Scott went on the was not a scientist, nor even “a Grand Tour to Europe, accompa- practitioner of the arts or litera- nied by Adam Smith, who wrote ture.” But his appointment “tells to David Hume of his companion:

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“I flatter myself, that I shall spend support of the library, “whose the rest of the time we are to live inspiration and rationale was so together not only in peace and deeply embedded in Scottish contentment but in gaiety and cultural and intellectual values” – amusement.” According to the the same values that helped send current Duke, their friendship Robert Burns and Thomas Carlisle endured for the rest of their lives, on the road to Edinburgh. and Smith would sometimes As the Duke travelled the same spend weeks with the family at road that morning, grumbling Dalkeith Palace, engaging in about the rain, he was struck by “serious pragmatic discussion how spoilt we are now and how across a huge spectrum of easy it is for people today to enjoy subjects.” “all the ingredients of wonderful Henry Scott, his son and his civilised conversation, stimulated grandson also enjoyed a close by a thoughtful and eclectic cast relationship with Walter Scott of speakers,” like those on the (who also became President of the panel for the opening talk. RSE), receiving “torrents of letters Like his forebear, he added, he on every subject under the sun – also felt “a sense of pleasure and from sawmills to schoolmasters to of duty” to be present at such an monumental stones.” occasion, and hoped that others The Duke then talked about “one felt the same – suggesting “that of the most remote and godfor- with the material rewards of our saken corners of the Duke’s century there go responsibilities eventual inheritance,” the mining for engagement and participation village of Wanlockhead, high in in the conversations that enrich the Lowther hills, where the public civic society.” subscription lending library was Having earlier referred to the founded in 1756 – only the “rather nondescript portrait” of second in Scotland. “The library is the 3rd Duke of Buccleuch which still there today,” said the Duke, hangs in the RSE, the Duke then “and if you browse the shelves revealed how Walter Scott had it and early catalogues, it is hum- “cobbled together to fit a gap of bling to take in the diet of the RSE’s own making.” Accord- philosophy, theology, Greek and ing to a “perhaps apocryphal Latin that was read by flickering family story,” the RSE had first candle in the hovels that were been offered Thomas Gainsbor- homes.” ough’s portrait of Henry “in The founders of this remarkable relaxed woodland setting, with his institution had a sense of duty arms around a most huggable and were generous in their Dandie Dinmont dog,” but this

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was rejected by “the starched Perhaps the moral of the tale, the shirts then in charge as lacking Duke concluded, is “not to be too gravitas” for such a great institu- serious or portentous,” and to tion. “Their loss, our gain,” said remember those common-sense the Duke. “It hangs today at words of Adam Smith about Bowhill.” spending time “in gaiety and amusement.” Visual Art and the Enlightenment Alexander Broadie FRSE Professor of Logic and Rhetoric, University of Glasgow Sir Timothy Clifford FRSE former Director-General, National Galleries of Scotland Juliana Engberg Curator of The Enlightenments exhibition Duncan Macmillan FRSE Art critic, The Scotsman; RSE Curator 15 August 2009

Seeing is not always believing art’s connection to other fields In the opening event of The and the development of painting Enlightenment series, the four from the 18th Century until the speakers highlighted some of the present day. diverse opinions about what really Sir Timothy Clifford took a more happened in 18th Century critical view of the visual arts in Scotland – and whether the visual Scotland in the 18th Century, arts matched the achievements in pointing out the areas avoided – science and philosophy. such as sculpture – but also Alex Broadie discussed the praising the world-class achieve- relationship between artists and ments of Scottish architects philosophers, the influence of during the same period. philosophy on art, what artists Juliana Engberg talked about the think and how their perceptions Enlightenment in a more general are different from most other way, discussing its influence on people. the development of knowledge, Duncan Macmillan talked about not just in Scotland but around the birth of “modernism” during the world – with an emphasis on the Enlightenment, when artists the “New World” of Australia. (and other people) started to think Broadie started by saying that for themselves. He also described painting is “impoverished”

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without philosophy, and how we Macmillan started by pointing out appreciate art more if we under- that the “modernism” of the 20th stand the philosophy behind it. and 21st Centuries was to a great After a brief introduction to the extent formed during the Enlight- work of the 18th-Century philoso- enment – which in turn had its pher Thomas Reid, the founder of roots in the Reformation, when the Scottish School of Common people started to question Sense, Broadie said that one of authority and use reason in the great projects of the Scottish pursuit of the truth. Perception Enlightenment was the “science was also at the heart of the of man” – and the idea that to Enlightenment, said Macmillan, so investigate human nature, we painters were also of central should use the same methods we importance. use to investigate the world as a He then said that science and art whole. share a common pursuit. They ask “Painters have special ways of the same question: “How can we looking at the world,” he said. describe the world if we are part They paint what they see, he of it?” Or, as David Hume said: continued, but the question is: “It’s absurd to conclude we could “What do they see?” ever distinguish between our- Broadie then explained that adults selves and external objects.” may see a table, but infants see Enlightenment wasn’t just about colours and shapes. Seeing is an understanding reason – it was “idea,” said Broadie, and it is only about understanding the limits of after many years of learning that reason and what lies beyond. So, we manage to interpret colours while scientists had to ignore the and shapes as particular objects. problem outlined by Hume, Similarly, painters have to put assuming we could be objective, down the “original visual appear- artists could acknowledge the ance” and let the spectators problem and make attempts to interpret the blotches themselves. understand the world despite it. An artist paints with “ignorance” Thomas Reid developed the idea and spectators have to unlearn that our thoughts are intuitive not and “regress” to see the visual intellectual, that feeling not image as a child would and reason is the key to morality. Just become “adult infants.” And this as the information we receive on is one reason why philosophers our retinas must be read like a are so interested in artists, said language, so painters “record the Broadie, because they are con- sign, not what it signifies” – cerned with observation and which may produce a more reason. accurate picture of the world.

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Reid’s ideas also influenced artists mental to the Scottish Enlighten- like Monet, said Macmillan, and ment, Clifford continued, despite the Impressionists. the fact that most of its greatest Finally, Macmillan talked about exponents did not work primarily Marcel Duchamp, one of the in Scotland. “heroes” of contemporary art. Clifford then described what he According to Macmillan, Duch- felt was lacking in Scotland in the amp cut out the “messy creativity” second half of the 18th Century – and said that art is simply an act most notably, sculpture. Whilst of subjective will. This rejects the the Grand Tourists travelled to whole Enlightenment concept, Rome to admire its classical making every artist a “statement sculpture, they ignored their of identity” and killing the notion home-grown sculptors. Scotland of a common pursuit. Macmillan at that time was also importing art then suggested we have already from countries such as Italy, turned our backs on what really France, Holland and Belgium, but mattered in Enlightenment “that did not rub off on Scottish thought, so perhaps we are painters”, he added, although worthy heirs to the work of artists artists like Ramsay were more like Duchamp… influenced by French painting “So far,” said Clifford, “we’ve than anything Scottish. been talking about philosophers There was “precious little paint- and the Enlightenment and ing” of merit in Scotland during portraiture, but it’s broader than the Enlightenment, said Clifford, that.” Rather than praise the at a time when science and accomplishments of the Scottish philosophy were booming. Enlightenment, he focused on the Clifford then summed up by areas avoided and the lack of saying that there were many achievement. He also pointed out contradictions in Scottish art at that the Scottish Enlightenment the time – between what people wasn’t a unique phenomenon – it were thinking and talking about had been around since the 17th and what they were creating. So Century. He also thought the why, he asked, when there was ideas of the Enlightenment such a turmoil of ideas, did “didn’t get through” to the visual Scotland produce so little great arts in Scotland. painting? Most of its achieve- On the other hand, Clifford ments were “confined to believed that Scotland in the 18th portraiture,” he said. Century produced the greatest Engberg said the “New World” ever architects in the UK – “by was created by the Enlightenment miles.” Architecture was funda- – for example, her home town of

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Melbourne has marvellous seem to be on the rise, along with architectural features such as religions such as Buddhism. “Self- Corinthian columns, as well as Enlightenment” is becoming democracy and a health system for more important than Enlighten- all. And it all started here… ment, she added. She also brought greetings from Communication is a key aspect of the Kulin nation – an alliance of the Enlightenment, Engberg also five indigenous peoples who lived suggested, mentioning the letters in Australia 35,000 years before that passed between nations and the Europeans arrived. And philosophers, connecting the Engberg said this helps her realise most brilliant minds so they could that the Enlightenment “is not a share their ideas and build on bell jar” but a continuum – we are them. the product of an ongoing She summarised the Enlighten- process not a single event in the ment as a great “hybridisation” of past. thought and style. It gave us tools Engberg also commented that to build more – the foundations fundamentalism and superstition of progress.

Scotland Exports the Enlightenment Arthur L Herman author of How the Scots Invented the Modern World Ong Keng Sen Artistic Director, TheatreWorks Tom Devine OBE FRSE Professor of Scottish History, University of Edinburgh 16 August 2009

The conversation continues… talking about Scotland “export- Arthur Herman talked about what ing” the Enlightenment, he was the US imported from Scotland more interested in the contribu- during the Enlightenment, tions of different countries, including the “common sense” helping each other to achieve ideas of Thomas Reid and their mutual greatness. influence on the “creator of Tom Devine said that without modern American culture,” John Europe there would have been no Witherspoon. Scottish Enlightenment. He also Ong Keng Sen discussed the links traced the influence of Scotland between his country (Singapore) on America, focusing on church and Scotland. And instead of and universities, the middle class,

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the Clearances, the “Atlantic ideas, although Witherspoon also Superhighway” – and the key role felt he was due some of the credit of “a Scotsman on the make.” for developing the theories, later Herman began by discussing taken on by another Scottish Scotland’s “gifts” to America, philosopher, William Hamilton. focusing on Scottish philoso- Witherspoon also had a liberal phers, including the common attitude to his acceptance of sense theories of Thomas Reid students, taking the best candi- and his idea that our interaction dates from all towns, including with the world is between a Native Americans and black thinking subject and objective students. reality – in other words, we are Herman concluded by mapping not passive recipients of sense the line from Reid through perceptions, as John Locke Witherspoon to Hamilton, and on proposed. to pragmatism. In Herman’s view, One of the main questions posed the key idea is that there is a real by Locke and others was: “How world out there and our job is to do we know what, if anything, is go out and find it. And if Wither- real?” Reid thought we can tell spoon and colleagues had what is real by using our judge- developed a slogan, it would ment and that it is the power of probably be Nike’s “Just do it!” those judgements that makes us Ong explained that he had fully human. Our judgements are learned about the Scottish also based on certain principles, Enlightenment during a three- which Reid called “the principles month residency in Edinburgh. At of common sense.” Every rational that time, he also became more human being has these basic aware of the Greek and Roman principles, so in theory we all influence that still leaves its mark know what is real and what is not, on the city, which got him asking: what is right and what is wrong, “What is Scotland today?” and etc. We are also “built equipped “What was Scotland then?” to understand the world.” Ong described how, at the time of Herman then talked about the the Enlightenment, many different “creator of modern American elements all came together at the culture” – John Witherspoon, the same time, in the same place – President of Princeton University something still reflected in for 25 years and tutor to a future Scotland today. He also said that US President as well as many other he was less interested in Scotland influential American figures. “exporting the Enlightenment” Witherspoon’s teachings were and thought of it more as a based upon Reid’s common sense migration of ideas – the migration

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of soul and the migration that put our own experience in comes from “cultural flow.” So context, he said, including the instead of give and take between achievements of the countries countries, it was more about around us – realising we were sharing. only “one part in a grand Europe- Another issue raised by Ong was an symphony of ideas.” For Scottish nationalism versus example, if we look at Thomas Scottish cosmopolitanism, and his Jefferson’s library, we may “arro- interest in the latter. He also gantly” note that a fifth of his asked: “What is going to be the books were by Scottish Enlighten- future Enlightenment?” and “Can ment authors, and ignore the there be one?” four-fifths written by other European authors. Without Ong also emphasised the differ- Europe, he said, there would be ent strengths coming together, to no Scottish Enlightenment, so create the best possible outcome, why was there such a strong including travelling across the “Scottish stamp” on the develop- world and working with people ment of North America in the late from other cultures to achieve 18th century? greatness – for example, Scottish scientists asking Chinese artists to One reason, said Devine, was the produce drawings of birds and “Atlantic Superhighway of the plants, etc. – and benefit equally 18th Century,” not only helping from this collaboration. the export of goods and services but also ideas and people, the Singapore’s connections with commercial links underpinning Scotland were something Ong intellectual connections. had also learned about while living here, finding out for the Another reason for so much credit first time how much of his own going to Scotland was the impact world had been influenced by of university-trained Scots on Scotland. North America as a whole, especially in the early days of Ong concluded by saying that colonisation. For example, Enlightenment is about transfor- between 1680 and 1780, over mation of sources and a growing 800 university-educated Europe- sense of belonging to the world. ans were operating in the 13 Devine said that although the colonies which eventually became Scottish Enlightenment was no the USA, and two-thirds of them doubt a great thing, there is not had been educated in Scotland. enough criticism of its achieve- Half of all 19th-Century Canadian ments, so it’s important not to fall universities had direct Scottish into what he described as “the origins or Scottish influence on trap of ethnic conceit.” We should their development.

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The simple explanation is that class which was still a minority, Scotland had a lot of universities but a higher proportion of the producing lots of graduates, who total population than in any other had to look abroad to find work. country. And secondly, the Another explanation is that nearly Highland Clearances – the major everyone in Scotland was Chris- reason for Scots leaving Scotland, tian, including many sons of accounting for more than half of ministers, something which went the total. Migration also carried down very well in America. on over three centuries, motivated Devine then explained two aspects by the search for opportunity. A of Scottish migration that make it Scotsman on the make, Devine very different to other European concluded, was why the Scots countries. First, there was the were so influential in the 18th- export of an educated, middle Century transatlantic world, and later on in Australasia and Asia.

Islam and the Enlightenment Dr Ibrahim Kalin Georgetown University (Washington DC) and SETA Foundation (Ankara, Turkey) 16 August 2009

When Europe met Islam… there was any point in writing Dr Kalin started by asking what about the Enlightenment at a time the Enlightenment was and when its ideas and values seemed quoting Immanuel Kant: “We do to have ended in such brutal not live in an Enlightened Age,” fashion. Kalin then explained that said Kant, but in an “Age of he didn’t mean to say Islamic Enlightenment.” Dr Kalin also said culture was “unenlightened” but there were still a few “dark simply that Islam had never spots,” and quoted another experienced what the West did in German philosopher, Jurgen the 18th Century, questioning Habermas, who described the everything we thought we knew. Enlightenment as an “unfinished Islam didn’t go through the same project,” adding: “The history of stages that created what we call reason is not yet complete; the “the modern world” and there- light of reason was never fully fore did not feel so connected released during the Enlighten- with it – an issue which Muslims ment.” have debated since the 19th Century. The Islamic concept of After 9/11, Dr Kalin continued, an placing everything in a larger American historian wondered if

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context such as transcendence has on, a certain very famous French little appeal in the modern world, general, Napolean, studied the said Dr Kalin, and Islamic religion Qur’an… and Islamic traditions would be However, said Dr Kalin, Christian compromised if that were Europe also had a love–hate changed. relationship with Islam – it was How did Muslims create one of both admired and despised. In the the most advanced civilisations 17th and 18th Centuries, there and maintain it for centuries until were efforts to “rediscover” Islam, relatively recently (the 19th and also a mission to correct the Century), and why did it now Christian world’s “fanatical and seem so “backward” compared to distorted” views of Islam. the rest of the world? How can The Crusaders of the 11th and Muslims, Dr Kalin asked, now 12th Centuries were the first “catch up” with the modern people to come into contact with world – and do so while maintain- Muslims and envied the advance- ing their core values? ment of Muslim society and its Since the prophet Muhammad material achievements. The was first called an “imposter” in unexpected consequence of the the 8th Century – a popular Crusades was therefore a change opinion which continued in opinion, as well as the intro- throughout the Middle Ages – no duction of new things such as Western intellectual could remain chess, ink and perfume, and indifferent to Islam, said Dr Kalin. Muslims were no longer thought During the Enlightenment some of as “monsters.” philosophers were interested in When the first modern encyclo- Islam because they hoped it paedia was written in the late would provide an alternative 17th Century (the Historical and religious system to compete with Critical Dictionary by Pierre Bayle) Christianity. They were seeking a there were 25 pages on the religion without institutions – a Prophet of Islam, describing “natural” religion that could be Muhammad as “an imposter and understood rationally – and found a false teacher.” Although this part of the answer in Islam. wasn’t meant to be a positive Because Islam was a “natural description, it encouraged people theology” which appealed to to find out the truth for them- human reason more than super- selves, and this had positive stition and myth, it spread further repercussions, said Dr Kalin, than Christianity. Scholars and including travel to the Muslim historians of the period also world to witness the religious praised Muhammad for his tolerance of Islam, as opposed to worldly achievements, and later

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the “brutality” of many Christians peace with the “modern” world, when they came across different said Dr Kalin. beliefs. One French historian Islam’s encounter with modernity wrote at the time: “The teaching goes back to the 18th Century, of Islam conforms to the light of and since then Muslims have seen reason…and is neither gross nor (but perhaps not acknowledged) barbaric.” that modernism isn’t quite so Jews, Christians and Muslims all perfect. One of the consequences believe in a divine creator, Dr Kalin of the new thinking in Europe was continued, so how does reason fit colonialism, whilst improved with this? Enlightenment philoso- technology meant better weap- phers decided that reason was the ons, and rationalism could source of truth, and this led to the sometimes lead to racism. start of “ideological rationalism.” The encounter with the modern The philosophy that grew out of world produced three major the Enlightenment contradicted responses in Islam: both Christianity and Islam, and 1.Islamic modernism – wanting one effect of this was less hostility Islam to “catch up” with the towards Islam. Dr Kalin also talked West about the importance of reason in 2.Fundamentalism – the opposite Islam – something which may of modernism appear puzzling because reason is concerned with truth and logic, 3.People who thought Islam had while religion is concerned with to adjust but shouldn’t give up beliefs. According to Dr Kalin, its traditions fideism – the idea that you don’t There were certain traditions, Dr need proof to justify beliefs –was Kalin explained, that contributed never very popular with Islam. to the Muslim world’s previous Muslims believe that reason is successes, producing “philosophi- used to distinguish between the cal reflection, logical rigour and self and the non-self, and even to spiritual depth.” And he said that understand “the world beyond what the Muslim world needed reason” – which is why it is still so today was a revival of those important to Muslims. traditions. What does all this mean for us Dr Kalin concluded that in an today? Does Islam need an increasingly globalised world, the Enlightenment? If so, what form task of creating a civilised world will it take? And who will initiate cannot be the sole responsibility it? These are just some of the of any one nation or culture. We questions asked by those who must rise to the challenge togeth- want the Muslim world to make er, he said – which is why the

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Qur’an calls on all of humankind a Nelson Mandela – adding that to “fight for the common good.” we do not always listen to such One member of the audience said figures. that Muslim countries didn’t play Dr Kalin also said the values of the a large part in shaping the UN Muslim world must be respected Declaration of Human Rights and even though they are different. that we need common values to There are often double standards, achieve world peace. Dr Kalin said he added, regarding human it was a shame the Muslim rights, with more powerful countries weren’t directly involved, countries making lots of demands and wondered why the Muslim and often doing something very world does not have a Ghandi or different themselves.

The Ages of Optimism and Pessimism: Utopian and Dystopian Ideas Tom Wright writer of the Malthouse Melbourne production, Optimism Knud Haakonssen FRSE Professor of Intellectual History, University of Sussex Maggie Gee novelist Michael Kantor Artistic Director, Malthouse Melbourne 17 August 2009

Enlightenment vs Endarken- tracing the plots of three of her ment own books. Tom Wright talked about the Michael Kantor looked at the impact of the Enlightenment on positive side of human nature as Australia, exploring both the explored in Voltaire’s Candide – positive and negative aspects – the inspiration behind the current including colonisation. production of Optimism. Knud Haakonssen explained how Wright began by describing how Australia at one point was he had grown up in Melbourne, thought of as Utopia, and at a time when dystopian works of discussed the connections art such as William Golding’s between optimism and Utopia. novel Lord of the Flies and Stanley Kubrick’s film A Clockwork Orange Maggie Gee described the history (adapted from the novel by of dystopias and why so many Anthony Burgess) encouraged novelists write about them, him to “mistrust human nature.”

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He then described the paradox of were placed on the “respectable” the Enlightenment – was it like side of Sydney. The city itself switching on a light bulb or encapsulated the idea of “light “letting loose a plague upon the versus dark,” with the officers and world?” For Wright, this is gentlemen on one side of the reflected very clearly in the harbour and “uneducated founding of modern Australia, convicts” on the other – the and he sees the “colonisation of template for modern Australia, the dark continent” as a product with intellectuals versus the of the Enlightenment. Whilst survival instinct (which makes Europeans looked out of their ‘Aussies’ so good at sport!). windows and saw a benign Wright wrapped up his talk by landscape, “the eternal verities discussing “the problematic were turned upside down” when attitudes of encouraging Enlight- they arrived in Australia, where enment,” and how this can lead nature was hostile and dark. In to the feeling we have to control other words, Enlightenment other people and tell them they’re means one thing in one place and ‘wrong’ – for example, saying something quite different when it Muslim women need to undergo is transplanted to the opposite enlightenment. “There is always a side of the world. price to be paid,” he concluded. He developed this “paradoxical” Haakonssen echoed these ideas theme by describing the juxtaposi- by describing how many people tion of the graveyard where David used to think that Utopia really Hume and Adam Smith were existed – and imagined they buried, next door to the Political would find it ‘Down Under’. Martyrs Monument on Calton Hill However, when they reached the – in honour of the five Scots terra incognita of Australia, the transported to Australia in 1794 fantasy soon changed into reality for campaigning for parliamentary (cognita). reform. This was moving for There is a fundamental divide anyone from Australia to see, between optimism and Utopia. Wright explained, because these Optimism – like pessimism – is men were more than petty essentially about time: our self- criminals – they were a crucial part consciousness about the future. of what made Australia the society Utopia is stationary, unchanging, it is today. Wright also described outside of time. how the five men were sent with a note to the governor saying that To bring the two together requires despite their “criminal behaviour” draconian measures – some kind they were still men and should be of speculative theory, showing well treated, and as a result they Utopia as the goal of a process of

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which we are part. The idea of The first was set in the 1980s laws of history is one example, the when all that seemed to matter to idea of providence another. many people was “sex and Contrary to popular notions, shopping.” A couple go off much of the Enlightenment travelling, leaving their kids accepted the latter, and further, behind, but their lives fall apart that humanity could assist and they end up unsatisfied and providence in all manner of ways – lonely. The second is about and that was Enlightenment. climate change going into reverse, Voltaire, Hume and Adam Smith to make the point that human rejected such ideas – but that beings always look in the wrong didn’t make them pessimists. direction, using environmental As an author of three dystopian problems to exaggerate what she novels, Gee said this was one of wanted to say about society. The her areas of expertise. “No-one third was written before the Iraq writes utopian novels any more,” war, when many people thought it she explained. would not happen. And soon after the book was released, war She said the urge to write about broke out. dystopias often originated in rebellious childhood, when young Finally, she said that dystopian people start to question authority novels are proof that some of the and also feel that ‘no-one under- best things of the Enlightenment stands’ them. Gee also said that are still here – including the ability dystopian writing is a way of to be sceptical and realistic. expressing ideas without the Kantor talked about his fascina- irrelevant details you have to tion with optimism, fuelled by his include in ‘realistic’ novels. It is involvement in an adaptation of easier to express ideas set in a Voltaire’s novella Candide appro- virtual world. priately called Optimism. He then Every novelist is trying to highlight wondered how we can remain the fact that their experience is positive in face of so much bad interesting and that they have news and things to be negative something to say that they think is about, somehow managing to worth hearing, said Gee. And believe not only that bad things even though fiction means lies, won’t happen to us but also that she thinks novelists are ultimately good things may happen. interested in truth, but don’t The play, he said, unfortunately always believe what they’re told. doesn’t tell us how to remain Gee then gave a brief description optimistic. It is in fact a satire. of each of her dystopian novels. Voltaire is pointing out how stupid it is to remain optimistic,

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via his depiction of the character to the practical world, an idea Pangloss, who witnesses extreme- expressed in the very last line of ly negative events, but somehow the play, when Pangloss says how manages not to become pessimis- great the world is and Candide tic, the idea being that we have to replies: “That’s all well and good, be optimistic or “humanity goes but now we must tend to our to muck.” garden.” Originally, said Kantor, the “What does it mean?” Kantor Malthouse team thought they asked. For him, it is the radical would have to change a lot to fit idea that we need to return to Voltaire’s ideas in with contempo- more practical things. Faced with rary society, but in fact they still wars and natural disasters, “we work very well (the stage play is need to tread lightly on the soil,” set on an airplane). This shows he said. that despite the many changes Kantor said he hated to be naïve, since Voltaire’s time, the complexi- then concluded by saying: “It fills ty of the human mind is much the me with hope that there is same today. Voltaire understood something we can do,” despite all that human beings need positive the problems around us. thought, and also need to return

Science and Tolerance Baroness Onora O’Neill of Bengarve FBA philosopher and former President of the British Academy John V Pickstone Wellcome Research Professor of History of the Medicine, University of Manchester Lord Rees of Ludlow President of the Royal Society, Astronomer Royal, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge 21 August 2009

Science vs pseudo-science through war-weariness and John Pickstone set the historical political expediency, and partly context by saying that tolerance though the promotion of individ- was ‘invented’ towards the end of ual enquiry which tested theories the 17th Century. The persecution by arguments or experience. These of heresy (which had been seen as attitudes remain associated with endangering the spiritual health the ‘scientific revolution’ of the of the people) diminished, partly 17th Century, but were also

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associated with developments in evidence – “disciplined enquiry religious and political thought. not a free-for-all.” She also For John Milton, one could be a suggested that we should not pay “heretic in the truth” if one equal respect to every position, believed for the wrong reasons. and should differentiate between Tolerance created the space for arguments which rely on evidence enquiry. and those which do not. Pickstone argued that careful There has been a move away from scepticism still remained appropri- older conceptions of freedom of ate across all fields of enquiry – speech, said O’Neill, to thinner from those known since the conceptions of freedom of nineteenth century as science, expression. Good communication through the wider questions or enquiry needs structure, clarity which once constituted natural and discipline and self expression philosophy, and on to politics and can neglect all of these. “Mere religion. It was unhelpful to think freedom of expression comes at a of matters of science as now cost,” she continued, “and secure and as contrasting with distracts from what really mat- ‘mere opinion’ or fixed faiths. ters.” There is also the problem of Disciplined scepticism was libel and hate speech, she added, essential to the technical and which tempts us to introduce laws social development of the scienc- to control how we talk to each es; but we too easily forget that other in public. increases in gender, racial and Martin Rees explained that in the economic equality, for example, late 17th and early 18th Century, grew more from campaigns and medicine and astronomy were the debate than from any particular only professional branches of ‘faith positions’ (or indeed from science. But even though science ‘science’). today may be broader in scope, he Onora O’Neill pointed out that continued, it is not always “we are the generation which has “optimally deployed for the sake endangered the environment and of human welfare” – e.g. many trashed the economy,” yet is also scientists focus on weapons more insistent on human rights research and curing the diseases and more willing to embrace of the rich rather than tropical diversity. She then said toleration diseases. “Scientists as a tribe are was sometimes seen as easy and fascinating subjects for anthropol- equated with indifference. Instead ogy,” Rees then declared. of saying “anything goes,” we For scientists, the path to consen- should be more concerned with sus is a winding one, Rees said, critical enquiry and focus more on referring to the “vendettas”

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which sometimes exist in subjects particularly when it comes to like cosmology. When rival “low-probability, high-conse- theories fight it out, he explained, quence events.” For example, only one argument wins, and with Variant CJD, a scientist could sometimes only one piece of say there is a one per cent chance evidence clinches the argument – of one million deaths, and people e.g. theories like the Big Bang or may panic. In reality, however, Continental Drift. Very strong there have only been about 100 support for a particular viewpoint deaths. So what do you say and can also be problematic, al- how do you say it? though, on the other hand, “we Complex scientific questions can love to see a maverick vindicated.” be social and political minefields, The general public are interested and must be seen in context. The in subjects such as cosmology, as moratorium on gene splicing may well as health and diet, but not have been a good idea but it sometimes the “flaky ideas” are made sense at the time, Rees paid more attention than life and suggested. With synthetic biology, death issues, and this may lead to consensus is harder, and commer- problems with the claims made cial pressures make it more for alternative medicines or the intense. Dialogue with politicians confusion about MMR. At the has enabled progress when it same time, he added, “the media comes to stem-cell research, he should not exaggerate or gloss continued; but with GM crops, over the uncertainties.” the views became too polarised Climate change, Rees said, is right from the start and the whole another problematic area, particu- thing went wrong. “Scientists larly when it comes to political must engage upstream,” Rees action. Scientists are not in charge added. of the world, but Rees suggested When it comes to “pseudo neither scientists nor politicians science” or UFOs, said Rees, it is should make decisions alone – we also difficult to have a sane all must decide. At the same time, debate because the different sides some campaigners can get in the don’t use the same methodolo- way of rational debate. “The gies, but unlike Richard Dawkins, global village has its global Rees does not think astrologers idiots,” said Rees, later adding ought to be sued. “The heirs to that we also have to rise above the the Enlightenment should not level of the tabloids. allow intolerance,” Rees then Even when there is consensus, concluded, “but we must be there is always a problem with rational and use evidence.” measuring the scale of threats,

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Music and the Enlightenment: Classical and Vernacular Traditions Sir Roger Norrington conductor and academic John Purser Research Fellow, Sabhal Mor Ostaig, Skye Marjorie Rycroft Professor of Music, University of Glasgow 23 August 2009

From princely palaces to Norrington, Haydn was “a farmyard… weather vane for music in the The Austrian composer Joseph Enlightenment,” promoting the Haydn was the focus of attention idea that music should be enter- for much of the discussion, as the taining and available to everyone, three speakers outlined the in the same way that education dramatic shifts in music during should be entertaining. the 18th Century – including the John Purser then sketched out the ‘internationalisation’ of traditional Scottish connections, describing Scottish airs. the “aristocratic” composers of Haydn’s career was a metaphor of the early 18th Century, Sir John how music changed in the course Clerk (described as lawyer, of the century. Of modest birth, he dilettante and Mason) and the started off as a composer for the Earl of Kellie (drank too much and court, then later on became as died young), who according to famous as a pop star, moving Purser was “our own little from “servitude” and music as Haydn.” Purser also talked about “simply a job” to complete artistic the Scots’ love of Italian fiddles freedom and the joy of creativity. and the drive during the 18th In the process, his music also Century to integrate traditional evolved from private, religious and Gaelic songs with classical music, serious pieces to much more “making sonatas out of old Scots accessible and “recognisable tunes.” Purser also amplified the tunes” enjoyed by the general Masonic theme, describing how public. During the same period, the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Haydn also evolved as a man, Rite influenced major composers casting off the uniform of a such as Haydn and Mozart, and servant and adopting the Masonic how the Scottish composer James apron which symbolised the Oswald wrote music of Masonic universal brotherhood of man. relevance. And according to Sir Roger

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The starting point for Marjorie Thomson’s Orpheus Caledonius, Rycroft was the founding of the the first published collection of Edinburgh Musical Society in Scots songs and airs (1725), which 1728 by gentlemen intending to later inspired Robert Burns. At the “better themselves” by establish- end of the 18th Century, George ing the city as one of the major Thomson sent Haydn 30 Scottish venues for classical music on the airs which the Austrian composer European circuit, and the export arranged for a fee of two ducats of Scots tunes to Europe. As well per air, eventually completing as discussing the difference more than 200 such arrange- between folk music and high art, ments for voice and piano trio, Rycroft described the way in which many of which were set to words traditional tunes were translated by Robert Burns. Rycroft also into music which could be explained that Haydn, who performed by “amateurs and received only the melodies from young ladies” in middle-class Thomson, did not set out to homes, including Alan Ramsay’s match words and music – the Tea-Table Miscellany and William music just fitted.

On the Dark Side: Witchcraft and the Theatre Julian Goodare Reader in Scottish History, University of Edinburgh Ruth Little dramaturg and Literary Manager of Royal Court Theatre Rona Munro playwright of The Last Witch Adrienne Scullion FRSE Professor of Drama, University of Glasgow 25 August 2009

Spellbound 1727 – just before the Scottish Enlightenment officially started... The background to the discussion was The Last Witch by Rona Julian Goodare kicked off the Munro, a play which was commis- discussion by describing changing sioned for the Edinburgh Festival, attitudes to witches in the early inspired by the legend of Janet 18th Century, when The Last Horne, a senile old woman from Witch is set. The common people Dornoch found guilty of witch- may not have changed their craft and burned at the stake in beliefs very much, seeing witch-

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craft as the work of the Devil, but able part of city life and culture, during the Age of Enlightenment, and members of the clergy even the persecution of witches was took time out from the General becoming “old hat.” The judiciary Assembly to attend a perform- wanted to stop executions and ance. By 1796, the famous English the torture of witches. Politicians actor Henry Johnson appeared in wished no more religious wars, the play in full Highland dress, and the church itself was growing reflecting the fact that the Union much more moderate. Above all, was now more secure and scientific sceptics swept away Highland heroes no longer posed beliefs in demonology because any serious threat. “The Enlight- they thought the world could be enment illuminated the dark explained in natural – not super- recesses of theatre,” Scullion natural – ways. concluded. In the 18th Century, the theatre Ruth Little talked about her also went through lots of chang- interest in prejudice and scape- es, said Adrienne Scullion, and goating, and how witches women became much more active represented opposition to – and respectable – players. To authority – exemplified in modern illustrate this, Scullion described times by a radical feminist move- three productions of The Douglas ment of the late 1960s called by John Home, reflecting different WITCH – the Women’s Interna- attitudes to Scotland, women and tional Terrorist Conspiracy from the theatre over the decades. At Hell – who tried to “hex” Wall the first staging of the play in Street. The hunt for scapegoats Edinburgh in 1756, the famous usually leads to a paralysis of cry was heard “Whaur’s yer Wullie intelligence, Little continued, and Shakespeare noo?” Set in the the “perfect storm” of the witch dark and mysterious Highlands, trial. She also described the idea the play also attracted consider- that witches were supposed to able controversy, because there have more “slippery tongues” was a lot of prejudice against the and an “insatiable carnal lust” theatre at that time – and against which threatened the moral women appearing on stage. The establishment, and quoted the Jacobite rebellion was also still character Elizabeth Sawyer in the fresh in the minds of the audience Jacobean play The Witch of and cast its shadow over the Edmunton: “It’s all one to be a production. In 1784, a second witch as to be counted as one.” production starring Sarah Siddons Little then said that witchcraft was was staged at the Theatre Royal. a lens through which to observe The theatre by then was a respect- the behaviour of local communi-

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ties and ended by saying “we are probably romanticised the story brilliant at negative definitions” 60 years later. of those outside society, with the Because Janet Horne held her witch as the metaphor of the hands to the fire which would outsider. later consume her and described it Rona Munro shared her experi- as a “bonny warming,” she was ence in researching and writing either suffering from dementia or her play The Last Witch, and the extraordinarily defiant, said challenge of making an historical Munro, and the latter was how play interesting and relevant to a she chose to dramatise the modern audience. As well as character, since this was what she saying that research was some- found more interesting and closer times a good excuse for watching to her personal experience. Munro Vincent Price films, she praised the also said that women like Janet database created by Julian Horne who alienate or annoy their Goodare and colleagues which neighbours seem to suffer the provided so much useful raw consequences much more than material. She also said that the men. “If women get some power, story of Janet Horne was more they are often seen as being interesting because of what we repellent,” she added, referring to don’t know rather than the so- the demonisation of Hillary called “facts,” and described how Clinton. Walter Scott ‘rediscovered’ and

Science and the Enlightenment Geoffrey Boulton OBE FRS FRSE Professor of Geology and Mineralogy, University of Edinburgh Dr John Henry Director, Science Studies, University of Edinburgh 26 August 2009

Let there be Newton masterpiece, Principia Mathemati- According to John Henry, Newton ca. After this was published, was the driving force behind the people thought that everything Enlightenment and science was solved and that the only became the “new intellectual challenge left in science was “the authority,” taking over from donkey work” of the “Newtonian church and religion. “Science programme.” As the poet Alexan- made the Enlightenment possi- der Pope wrote: “Let Newton be, ble,” he continued, because of and all was light.” the amazing success of Newton’s

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No-one else made such an impact the chief reasons Scotland as Newton, an iconic figure who progressed so rapidly during the became the embodiment of the period. Add to this so many Age of Reason, said Henry. His people with so many different principles were applied not only to ideas in the same place at the subjects such as physics but also same time, and the end result was the study of man – a social science an “interdisciplinary riot,” said which was later developed by Boulton. thinkers in Scotland such as Adam So what was the role of science at Ferguson and David Hume. Newton this time? Boulton illustrated this analysed morals as if he was by describing the careers of three conducting an experiment. Psychol- leading Scots – the geologist ogy, said Henry, also owed a lot to James Hutton, the chemist Joseph Newton – for example the idea that Black and the inventor James attraction (or the association of Watt. Hutton was a “systems ideas) operated the same in the scientist” who reached the broad psychological dimension as in the conclusion that the planet went physical world. through a cycle of changes similar Henry then asked what made the to crop rotation, driven by internal Scottish Enlightenment so differ- heat and ground down by ent, concluding that the reason erosion. This not only brought was that Scots were very quick to him into conflict with contempo- adopt Newtonian ideas. And finally, rary scientific theory and the book he talked about the way that new of Genesis, but was frowned branches of science emerged in the upon because it was associated period, including chemistry and with the “dangerous” idea of electricity, both Newtonian in revolution. Hutton claimed that he origin. “Enlightenment science was based his theory on careful Newtonian science,” he declared. observation of objective data, “Why did the flame of the Enlight- using the “minimum of imagina- enment burn so brilliantly in tion,” but we now know that he Scotland at the end of the 18th actually developed his theory Century?” asked Geoffrey Boulton, before he had gathered the facts suggesting the country had not to support it. been so bright at the start of the Joseph Black, said Boulton, century. The John Knox-inspired engaged in a “reductionist, system of education, the opportu- experimental branch of science,” nities presented by Union with concerned with latent heat and England, which opened up new other thermal phenomena, or markets, and the fact that so many “analytical chemistry.” He took Scots travelled abroad – these were “enormous leaps of understand-

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ing,” said Boulton, because he of cause and effect” to produce was “taking apart the nuts and unexpected outcomes or “emer- bolts of reality.” Watt was an gent behaviour” which we are not instrument maker who improved “wired” to understand. Newcomen’s first working steam Boulton then asked: “Is our engine by a factor of four to confidence in the power of “power the industrial revolution”. human reason justified?” Is social He also owed little to science, said progress a by-product of scientific Boulton, who described Watt as progress? Or are enlightened an “enlightened technologist,” in views – such as historical progress tune with the ideas of a mechani- and the “perfectibility” discussed cal universe. by Adam Ferguson – profoundly Boulton then subverted the idea flawed? “What would Watt and that reason is by definition always his fellow improvers have thought a good thing. If these men had about the miseries of the industri- known the social consequences of al revolution and the their theories and inventions, he industrialisation of slaughter?” said, they may have “thought asked Boulton. And is it true that twice.” To explain this, he quoted social and ethical progress is the playwright Bertold Brecht, fiction, while scientific progress is who said the aim of science “is fact? not to open the door to infinite “If there were to be a modern wisdom, but to set a limit to Enlightenment, and we decided infinite error.” Boulton then that human affairs should be developed this theme by discuss- conducted primarily through the ing the modern scientific power of reason, what would that revolution ushered in by comput- reason look like?” he finally ing, “delving into the complexity asked.

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The Face of the Enlightenment Anne Bogart Artistic Director SITI Company Lee Breuer Co-Artistic Director of Mabou Mines Roger L Emerson Emeritus Professor, University of Western Ontarion, Canada Paul Goring Senior Lecturer, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim 30 August 2009

Appearances can be deceptive happened. Was it what Kant Was the face of the Enlighten- described as freeing oneself from ment the portrait of David Hume “self-imposed immaturity,” or was by Allan Ramsay (“not an easy it more to do with utility, as face to paint”), a face scarred by described by the Scottish encyclo- smallpox or the head on a paedist, William Smellie? Did it banknote? This was how the chair start with Voltaire in 1734 or John Leighton summed up what Spinoza in the 1670s? Did it end was probably the most abstract after the French Revolution, when debate of the series – trying to many critics thought it had led to understand the Enlightenment by the Terror? With this in mind, to “reading” its appearance. talk about the “face” of the Enlightenment depends on how Leighton set the tone when he you define it, he said. asked at the start if the face may be considered as a metaphor for Emerson also said that the the Enlightenment, or if we Enlightenment was part of a large should focus on what we can tell “improvement programme” from painted likenesses of people dating back to the Renaissance – the private and public faces of and the Reformation, the major 18th-Century portraits. He also difference being the ideas of the suggested that in an age of sceptical philosophers and economic and political uncertain- scientists, and the application of ty, we may look back on the Age their thinking across a number of of Enlightenment with a lot of disciplines. nostalgia. The Scottish Enlightenment was First speaker Roger Emerson not known as such until 1906, began by saying there was little and Emerson asked if its face agreement on what the Enlighten- could perhaps be the four ment actually was, or when it paintings of the Leadhills Mines

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by the Scottish painter David because of the growth of public Allan, recently acquired by the life – including coffee houses and National Galleries of Scotland, public exhibitions. Doing business because of their association with “face to face” meant that reliabili- improvement (the public library), ty was also a critical factor. Was science and technology, or the the face a window or a mask? portraits of people such as Lord Finally, said Goring, even though Alva, David Hume or Archibald people were ‘performing’ in Grant. Only a few thousand public, they also yearned for people were involved in the honesty, and this led to the rise of Enlightenment in Scotland, and physiognomy as a respectable most of them were Lowlanders. discipline during the 18th Very few were women. And Century, even though it was later ironically, Emerson concluded, the discredited as a science. faces were more likely to be Dutch As a theatre director, Anne Bogart or Italian, since these were the talked about how she first portraits that people in Scotland thought about how a stage play bought at the time. Paul Goring should ‘look’, and suggested that decided to take the subject we are often ‘seduced by the literally, talking about the “relia- façade’ – interested in looks rather bility of the face as an indicator of than the impulse or the ‘energy’ character,” and stating that behind an idea. She then declared although we think of the body as that we are at the end of the post- a natural constant, it is possible to modern era. There is nothing left study the history of the body in to deconstruct, she said, so maybe various ways, including the we are now entering the age of differences between the face of the “New Enlightenment,” the Enlightenment and our faces rediscovering stories and “new today. At that time, many faces ways of meaning through were marked by smallpox, despite stories.” the popular use of cosmetics, and many people’s noses had col- Fellow director Lee Breuer began lapsed because of mercury in provocative style by declaring treatment for syphilis. People then that all artists focus on “making a also consumed lots of sugar and buck,” and then described the dentistry was not widely available, history of patronage, pre- and so most people also had very bad post-Enlightenment. Before the teeth. Changing social patterns Enlightenment, Breuer said, artists also had an impact, said Goring. had to go to the church or Today we are the ‘Facebook’ aristocracy for funding, and as a Generation, but at that time there result became court “playthings” was a major shift in society or jesters, creating work which

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promoted the cause of their doing the dirty work now, we have patrons. After the Enlightenment replaced one form of slavery with – with its ideas of democracy, another and all become “wage technology, science and econom- slaves.” Politicians and corporate ics – what changed? Were we business are the new patrons of more advanced than the ancient the arts. The game has changed, world, when women, animals and he added, but the economics have prisoners were slaves? Breuer not. “We may as well hitch-hike to suggested that even though Rome,” he suggested. machines are supposed to be

Moral Universals and Moral Progress: The New Science of Good and Evil Paul Bloom Professor of Psychology, Yale University 31 August 2009

Are moral judgements ruled by mean such ‘disgusting’ acts are head or heart? morally wrong? Is it always better Where do moral values come to sacrifice one life if that will save from? Do we make our moral five lives? judgements based on reason or Did Uncle Tom’s Cabin do more to emotion? Can babies tell right end slavery in the US than thou- from wrong? And would babies sands of essays which argued the ‘punish’ a ‘bad guy’ if given the same? Did the comedy show Will choice? & Grace do more to change In the 1950s, most people attitudes to same-sex relation- thought inter-racial marriages ships than years of activists were wrong. Nowadays, the demanding gay rights? opposite is true. Meanwhile, These were just some of the attitudes to many other social, questions posed by Paul Bloom in moral, philosophical, religious the course of his lecture – a cross and political issues have also been between a stand-up act, psychol- turned upside down. But what ogy experiment and public has changed since then, and is opinion poll, described by one this moral progress or simply a member of the audience as “a change? master class in the art of public Just because we are ‘disgusted’ by presentation.” incest, necrophilia or the idea of The Enlightenment may have been eating the family pet, does that all about reason, but Bloom

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subverted the idea that we base “Instinctive empathy is universal, our moral judgements on reason, natural and important,” said suggesting that emotions and the Bloom, but there are huge influence of ‘stories’ are more differences when it comes to critical factors than rational attitudes towards more controver- arguments – based on his psy- sial subjects such as sex and chology experiments with babies religion, and Bloom believes that and adults. this can be explained according to Bloom also suggested that people three types of ethics: autonomy are ‘hard-wired’ to make moral (concerned with notions such as judgements, illustrating this with freedom, rights and equality); his description of an incident in community (concerned with duty, 1848, when a man called Phineas status, hierarchy and interdepend- Gage suffered terrible brain ence); and divinity (concerned with damage after an accident, leading purity, sanctity, pollution and sin). to a major change in character, There are also radical differences which suggested that his physical amongst people according to brain played a greater role in their politics, with conservatives making moral judgements than tending to be ‘disgusted’ by his powers of reason, which were certain things and liberals tending still quite intact. This raised the to say that something is ‘OK as question, said Bloom, of whether long as it’s fair and no-one is gut feeling or reason determines harmed’. our ability to tell right from To test where people sit on the wrong. political spectrum, Bloom then Bloom then discussed the idea of presented four scenarios – incest, the “foundations of a universal eating the family dog, using the morality” and our altruistic national flag to clean the toilet aversion to the pain of others, and having sex with a dead citing his experiments with babies, chicken – and surveyed how the observing their reactions to a audience reacted to each in terms cartoon which portrayed a ‘good of right and wrong. Every situa- guy’ and a ‘bad guy’, to show that tion was more complex than it the babies were ‘hard-wired’ to be appeared, and this led to complex capable of telling the difference responses – and moral dilemmas. and also capable of altruistic “People struggle to find reasons behaviour – unlike psychopaths to say why something is wrong,” whose lack of sensitivity makes Bloom declared, and our gut them indifferent. (Bloom also feelings tend to hold more sway claimed that James Bond was the than rational arguments. perfect example of a psychopath, To illustrate this further, he rather than Hannibal Lecter.) presented two scenarios where we

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are asked to decide the fate of the slave of the passions,’ and several people standing on a rail said that his own findings also track, as an express train ap- suggest that emotions tend to proaches. In the first case, the over-ride the rational side of the train will kill five people, but we brain – for example, when it can pull a switch to divert the train comes to changing attitudes to onto another line, thus killing slavery and sexism. Bloom also only one person. Do we pull the said there is a big difference switch – saving five people by between our idea of moral causing (remotely) the death of progress and what he prefers to just one? Most people tend to say call “moral change.” yes. In the second case, five “What are the forces underlying people are again on the rail track moral progress?” he asked. And as the train approaches, but this the answer, he suggested, was time we are standing on a bridge imagination and the power of with a very large person – ‘the fat stories which exploit our natural, man’ – beside us. If we push the empathetic responses to the real- fat man off the bridge onto the life suffering of others. For rail track, the train will stop and as example, he explained, when a result the five people will be charities use real people to make saved. Bloom then explained that an appeal, the end result tends to most people find it harder to be much more successful because decide what to do in the second we find it harder to turn down a scenario, measured with a brain person who really exists and scan of ‘emotional involvement’ stories which tug on our heart which highlights different strings, rather than a rational, patterns of activity in different impersonal appeal. Similarly, areas of the brain depending on feeling disgusted tends to shape the choice being made, even moral judgements, even though though it is logically the same this is an unreliable indicator of decision – five lives versus one life. ‘right or wrong.’ The key difference, said Bloom, is In conclusion, Bloom said, we are that in the second scenario, we ‘hard-wired’ to be moral creatures, have to actually touch the person, our morality is driven by gut not just pull a switch. Bloom also feelings rather than reason, and suggested that how we express our gut feelings tend to be such dilemmas can have an effect triggered by stories. “Man will on the outcome – for example, become better,” he concluded, using words like ‘killed’ or ‘saved’ quoting Chekhov, “when you can influence people’s decisions. show him what he is like.” Bloom then quoted David Hume: ‘Reason is, and ought only to be,

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The Enlightenment and the Academies Lord Sutherland of Houndwood KT FBA PPRSE former Principal, University of Edinburgh Paul Wood Professor of History, University of Victoria, Canada 1 September 2009

Back to school reason, rules of evidence and Chair Louise Richardson put the sometimes utility were what really discussion in context by describ- mattered. The natural sciences ing how the academies of the were also of central importance, 18th Century expressed the basic since the ideas of Newton and principles of the Enlightenment by Bacon provided a “proper trying to be independent of the universal method” in the search church and the state, encouraging for the truth. Newton also showed people to think for themselves us, said Wood, that truth was and be tolerant of other people’s something that could be discov- ideas. ered. And “commitment to Paul Wood started by defining a improvement” was the other few basic terms, asking if the major characteristic, he added, Enlightenment was a period or a whilst we should not forget that cultural and intellectual move- most scientists also supported ment. If it was a period, it lasted religion. from about 1690 until 1805, Turning to the meaning of when the Scottish clergy vetoed ‘academies,’ Wood said that some the appointment of John Leslie as institutions of that time were set a professor at the University of up with a more practical and Edinburgh, after a century when commercial emphasis, whilst the church had generally not national academies such as the interfered with such matters. RSE were closely tied to universi- If the Enlightenment was a ties. Two major factors were at cultural movement, said Wood, play in 18th-Century Scotland, he then its leading principle was added. There was general consen- toleration – at least in theory if sus that education was a good not in practice, as exemplified by thing because it would lead to Locke tolerating everyone except moral and material improvement, Catholics and atheists. Another in a country which was “culturally pillar of the movement was the backward” and had suffered idea that tradition can’t sustain a economic disasters and famine in modern way of life, and that recent decades. The school

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curriculum was reformed to meet when extraordinary four-foot-high the needs of the age, and this led waves were observed. The cause to dramatic progress in disciplines of the phenomenon was the such as medicine and even radical earthquake in Lisbon on the very ideas such as education for same day, whose seismic move- women. Wood also set out to ments were recorded many miles ‘ruffle some feathers’ by discuss- away. What was significant, said ing academic freedom, and the Sutherland, was that scientists – fact that it did not exist in the influenced by Newton – recorded 18th Century as we think of it the event and analysed the today. Academics could philoso- evidence, and sent a report to the phise freely but they tended to Edinburgh Philosophical Society avoid questioning the basis of which we can still read today. religion, and the establishment “This was not a cause or conse- still ‘micro-managed’ society, via quence of the Enlightenment, but figures such as the third Duke of the Enlightenment at work,” said Argyll, who was one of the great Sutherland. architects of the Scottish Enlight- The second point concerned the enment – although also an importance invested in education enlightened and moderate man, in Scotland, and the fact that the and a good scientist. The paradox, University of Edinburgh was not suggested Wood, was that state established by Papal Decree like control today suggests negative other institutions, but was created things such as bureaucracy, whilst by civic demand. In Aberdeen- then it did good things. shire, he added, there were three Stewart Sutherland began by universities in 1600, including reacting to this latter statement, one in Fraserburgh, also estab- saying that if you must have a lished because the community despot, “make sure he’s an wanted it. This tied in with John enlightened despot.” He then Knox’s belief in the fundamental said that the Enlightenment was importance of education and the not a thing or event but a process, idea of a “school in every parish.” with no specific starting or end The church also believed that first point, and that he would discuss principles and reason were it via three ‘vignettes’ which prerequisites for reasonable illustrated what was going on in debate – even when it came to Scotland during the 18th Century matters of faith. and beyond. Sutherland then described how First, he told the story of the universities went out “into the ‘perturbation of the waters’ on world,” with Scottish influence Loch Ness on 1st November, 1755, spreading to London and

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Princeton and even to the Univer- the Enlightenment principles are sity of Chile, whose first rector, institutionalised, academies take Andres Bello (Simon Bolivar’s on lives of their own and it tutor), was deeply influenced by becomes increasingly difficult to the ideas of Scottish philosophers, resolve the competing interests of including Thomas Reid and different disciplines, whose Dugald Stewart. knowledge is increasingly frag- Finally, Sutherland said, there was mented and compartmentalised. a widespread belief that for Secondly, we should note that reason and rationality to rule in universities and academies such as society, we needed to educate the RSE are hugely dependent on people – starting in primary the public purse – not always a school. But today there are also bad thing but also not always a two problems, he added. First, as good thing.

Political Economy: Adam Smith and Others James Buchan Author of Adam Smith and the Pursuit of Perfect Liberty Andrew Skinner FRSE Adam Smith Professor Emeritus of Economics, University of Glasgow 3 September 2009

The conversation continues… say “let the market do what it Gordon Brewer introduced wants,” then posed the question: proceedings by declaring that it “What are the limits?” was cheering to see so many James Buchan outlined Smith’s life people attending the Enlighten- from his birth in Kirkcaldy in 1723 ment discussions, at a time when until his death in Edinburgh in we are being “bombarded with 1790, to describe the human articles about dumbing down.” being behind the great legend. He then said that Adam Smith and Smith’s father was a customs his theories provided the back- official, a servant of the new drop to our current economic administration set up after Union, crisis, “a world in which the but he died before his son was banking system has exploded and born. Smith was devoted to his is now being propped up by mother all his life and never taxpayers’ money.” He also said married, said Buchan, and was that there had been a deeply affected by the death of his re-evaluation of Smith since the mother in 1784. Smith studied at 1980s, when it became popular to the University of Glasgow (which

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he loved) and Balliol College in during his travels, and returned to Oxford (which he detested), said Scotland in 1766, taking another Buchan. Early on, he was engaged nine years to complete The Wealth in philosophical enquiries, and of Nations, in the course of which wrote an essay on astronomy. In a banking crisis rocked his 1746, he returned to Scotland patrons, the Buccleuchs. What with no prospect of employment, made the book so successful, said no vocation or religious calling. Buchan, was that it was a new way Two years later he gave a series of of looking at history and society – lectures in Edinburgh which led to “not moralistic and with no his appointment as Professor of political axe to grind.” Logic and Rhetoric at his alma Buchan then described Smith’s mater in Glasgow, becoming final years, his absent-mindedness Professor of Moral Philosophy the and “worm-like” way of walking, following year. and summed up the major factors Smith was concerned with in his career. Most importantly, institutions such as the family, said Buchan, Smith believed (like marriage and taxation, and this his friend David Hume) that a led to an interest in political single principle like sympathy (the economy and jurisprudence, and ability to put yourself in some- the question of why some body else’s position) or countries are more prosperous specialisation could explain a wide than others – a subject which range of philosophical phenome- inspired The Wealth of Nations. na. Like many others of his age, he Buchan then quoted Smith stating was also enthralled by natural one of his central beliefs: “Little science and the theories of else is requisite to carry a state to Newton. During his lifetime, many the highest degree of opulence other factors also influenced his from the lowest barbarism but thinking, such as Scotland peace, easy taxes and a tolerable becoming more wealthy and administration of justice.” becoming a more polite and In 1759, Smith published his ‘polished’ society. The supernatu- Theory of Moral Sentiments and ral was also abolished from enjoyed worldwide success, which philosophy, with a little help from led to him embarking on a Grand Smith himself. Above all, said Tour of Europe in 1764 on a Buchan, Smith focused on the pension of £300 a year as tutor to betterment of society and the the young Duke of Buccleuch. drive for prosperity, and was anti- Even though he hated the idea of authoritarian as well as a a Grand Tour, Smith grasped the republican, against the idea of opportunity to meet intellectuals either being ruled from above or such as Voltaire and Franklin below.

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After describing Smith’s core Smith was also not a blind beliefs (accepted standards of believer in the supremacy of free behaviour, rules of law, the close market forces. According to links between ethics and econom- Skinner, Smith advocated an end ics, etc) and tracing his to the apprenticeship system and philosophical career, Andrew trade guilds, believing they Skinner focused on Smith’s inhibited freedom of trade, but he meditations on market forces also advocated taxation, and was versus regulation, as well as the acutely aware of the problems of doctrine of unexpected outcomes the credit structure. Smith sought and the so-called ‘invisible hand,’ to create an economic environ- and how we all live as ‘merchants’ ment in which individual initiative by exchanging the fruits of our could thrive, but he also thought labours. Smith’s critique of the that government must provide mercantile system may suggest public works, Skinner said, that economic equilibrium is like a believing that the profit motive law of nature, but when should would not provide things such as the State intervene? bridges and roads – or education. Smith talked a lot about high Many areas required intervention, concepts such as freedom and and government must scrutinise security and dynamic global and regulate to protect people. economic forces, but when it There are negative and positive comes to more domestic issues, freedoms, said Skinner, and things become more difficult. increased wealth can also lead to damage.

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Discussion Forum Engineering Scotland and Japan: Past, Present and Future (part of the Japan–UK 150 series) 3 September 2009

Bridges, beer and student education, science and technology exchanges… – not forgetting beer. The discussion forum at the RSE The first speaker, Professor Alex was part of the Japan–UK 150 Craik, described the emergence of series of events, organised to modern Japan between 1853 and celebrate 150 years of friendship 1885, and the Scotsmen who between Japan and the UK and played a key role in the process. encourage exchanges in culture, Among the leading figures were the arts, sport, education and Lord Elgin, who gained the first science. And the five speakers not trading concessions in the late only revealed some surprising 1850s; Laurence Oliphant, who connections between Japan and wrote a popular account of Elgin’s Scotland in the past, but also travels; William Keswick and Hugh shared their recent academic and Matheson (of Jardine Matheson business experiences – and their fame), who broke the law to help hopes for the next generation of five young Japanese samurai (the Japanese and Scottish engi- “Choshu 5”) sail to the UK to neers… study. Some of these young men Did you know that a young returned to Japan to play promi- Japanese engineer was involved in nent roles in government and the construction of that great business, including Kikuchi Scottish icon, the Forth Rail Dairoku, a mathematician who Bridge? Did you know that a later became the Minister of Scotsman founded one of Japan’s Education and President of Kyoto leading breweries? Or that University. Scotsmen played a key role in the One of the most colourful Scots in founding of Japan’s first universi- Japanese history was Thomas ties, shipyards and banks? Glover, who played a “dangerous These were just some of the facts game” selling arms to the to emerge from the evening’s Satsuma and the Choshu clans, discussions, which focused on the and founded a shipyard which links between Japan and Scotland was later bought by engineering since the mid 19th century, with giant, Mitsubishi. Glover also an emphasis on engineering, founded Kirin Beer, still one of

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Japan’s leading brands. Other enjoyed high prestige – a tradition leading Scots included John Black, that continues up to this day. one of Japan’s first newspaper Sadayuki Ujihashi of the Tokyo magnates, and numerous medical Institute of Technology then missionaries, bankers and engi- described the links between the neers – including Richard two countries from a Japanese Brunton, “the father of Japanese perspective, and discussed the lighthouses” (trained by the success of the exchange pro- Stevensons) who in his spare time gramme between his Institute and improved Yokohama’s drainage the University of Strathclyde. and macadamised roads. Japan’s Professor Ujihashi explained how shipbuilding, railways and iron Japan first opened up to the production also owed a lot to world, from the time Commander Scottish engineers. Perry arrived in Tokyo in 1853 with Craik then described the influence his “black ships,” until the Meiji of Scots on education in Japan, Restoration in 1868, and beyond. focusing on Henry Dyer, who In 1603, the Tokoguwa Shoguns became the Principal of the thought that they would rule Imperial College of Engineering in forever and banned foreign travel. Tokyo in 1872, recruiting many The port of Nagasaki was “a Scots and others with Scottish pinhole” through which Japan connections, including the saw the rest of the world, but the geologist John Milne, inventor of country lived in almost complete the seismograph, and the physi- isolation for about 250 years, cist Sir James Ewing, who when foreigners including the discovered hysteresis (the idea British established relations and that physical systems have forced Japan to open up its ports. memories). Among the Japanese The British had a major influence scholars with Scottish connections during this period, said Ujihashi, were Seikei Sekiya, who became and nurtured the talents of many the first professor of seismology young students like Yozo Yamao. at the Imperial University of Tokyo; When Yamao returned to Japan Tanakadate Aikitsu, who visited after his studies in Glasgow, he Lord Kelvin in Glasgow; and Kaichi joined the new government and Watanabe, who studied in played a key role in the founding Glasgow and worked on the of the Imperial College of Engi- construction of the Forth Rail neering. Ujihashi also described Bridge in the late 1880s. the development of Japan after “The Imperial College of Engi- the Meiji restoration, and how the neering,” said Craik, “set the Scots had helped, including the scene for engineering in Japan,” first telegraph in 1869, the postal and its students (mainly Samurai) system (1871), the founding of

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the Bank of Japan (1882) and the has spent time in Japan and he first telephone link between Tokyo and Ujihashi were the first and Yokohama in 1890. In academics to do an exchange, education, Scottish influence was with the first student from not just felt at university level, but Strathclyde (Dr Chris Roach) also in primary schools. He also visiting Tokyo in 1994. Some described Henry Dyer (a graduate students from Tokyo now spend of Anderson’s College in Glas- up to one year in Glasgow, while gow) as the “father of Scottish students visit Japan for a engineering education in Japan,” single semester, to carry out and said he played a key role in various projects; including the developing the curriculum, development of a remote-control including general science, where robotic arm designed for use in English was also taught alongside disaster recovery, biomimetic more technical subjects such as robots which mimic human maths. behaviour, and a “human-driven Kaichi Watanabe then came under snake vehicle.” The first integrat- the spotlight, with Ujihashi ed project started in 2008 and describing his studies in Glasgow from 2009 to 2010, ten students from 1884 to 1886, his work as a from Japan and eight from foreman on the Forth Rail Bridge Scotland will work as a team. Nash from 1886 to 1888 and his said that students from Strath- return to Japan, where he became clyde were now competing for an entrepreneur with an interest acceptance in the programme, in railways and civil engineering. with 25 students applying for only For his grand finale, Ujihashi then five places. displayed the famous photograph Nash also said that Henry Dyer’s of Watanabe, sitting in the centre legacy survives in the form of in- of the cantilever model of the class teaching and off-class bridge – then zoomed in on the training still encouraged today. He image of the Bank of Scotland also quoted Dyer’s ambitions for £20 note, printed two years ago, Japan: “Knowledge should be featuring the same image of the sought for throughout the whole young Japanese engineer. world, so that the welfare of the Dr David Nash of the University of Empire may be promoted (or in Strathclyde then provided an order that its status may be raised insight into the student exchange ever higher and higher).” programme set up by Strathclyde Finally, Nash said that the pro- and the Tokyo Institute of Tech- gramme is “all about nology – an agreement recently relationships and all about fun.” renewed until 2013. Nash himself

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To provide the commercial So what was the impact? Ashton perspective, Tim Ashton, Research said the first thing that impressed Director of Vascutek, then de- him and his colleagues was the scribed what happens when a President of Terumo immediately Scottish high-tech firm is acquired coming to Scotland to speak face by Japan’s largest medical device to face with the staff. The Presi- company, Terumo. And the plain dent said there would be no job facts are that Vascutek has more losses and no local management than doubled in size from about changes for at least two years, and 200 to 550 people, with turnover kept to his promise. The Vasutek up from about £23 million to £55 team carried on as usual, with a million. Japanese “transition manager” The origins of Vascutek go back to joining them in Scotland. Terumo 1979, when the company devel- people joined the board and oped a new kind of vascular graft engineers were sent out to work in a project involving Glasgow in the plant, along with represent- Royal Infirmary, the textiles atives from quality control and manufacturer Coats Patons and accounts. The two companies the University of Strathclyde’s share more technology now and bioengineering department. Ashton said that Vascutek has had Several inventions and Queen’s to make some “cultural adjust- Awards later, the company was ments” as well as learn to live taken over by Terumo, and has with new reporting requirements. since developed several more Recently, Terumo became the new innovations, and gone on to distributor for Vascutek in the acquire another company which Japanese market, and Ashton said makes porcine heart valves. the company would wait to see if this arrangement works or not. In 2002, Vascutek’s parent Ashton said that Japanese company got into difficulties and executives found it odd at first the Scottish subsidiary was ripe that British people laugh and joke for acquisition, with several US at meetings and sometimes “tear firms keen to move in. Ashton into each other,” but he said that revealed that Terumo arrived on their Japanese colleagues now the scene at the 11th hour, and know when they’re being ironic. even though it did not offer more Vascutek has also retained a cash, it offered better terms than degree of autonomy, according to the American favourites, and its Ashton. bid was accepted. The bottom line for Ashton is Terumo wanted to be a global continuing investment, technical player and Vascutek was the first collaboration, some extra bu- implant company it had acquired. reaucracy, good personal

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relations, higher turnover, more new Vascutek product, and staff and a new factory. Vascutek Terumo has signed a cross- also uses Terumo technology, licensing agreement which helps whilst Terumo engineers now split protect Vasutek’s intellectual their time between Scotland and property – not just a good Japan, and the manufacturing of example of how to conduct global some of Terumo’s vascular grafts business, but an exciting new has transferred to Scotland. A chapter in the story of relations Terumo research team is also at between Scotland and Japan. work on the development of a

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Professor Veronica van Heyningen Making Eyes – Lessons from Failed Miracles Henry Dryerre Prize Lecture 7 September 2009

Pick up any newspaper and there core-set of highly conserved will be frequent reports detailing interacting genes regulates eye the identification of yet another development in all classes of human disease gene. What is the creatures across evolution from significance of such discoveries? flies to man, suggesting the re- How can we use the information use of common underlying to learn more about the mecha- components. nisms of disease and about We have identified three major possible paths to improved genes with key roles in eye disease management and thera- development and function. All py? Our work on human eye three work as DNA-binding malformations illustrates these transcription factors that regulate principles. the expression of many other The eye is the ultimate precision genes in eye, brain and some instrument. It needs to be “built” other sites. Subsequently we very precisely in order to fulfil its determined how different types of function. Charles Darwin de- mutations cause abnormalities scribed the eye as an ‘organ of and were able to deduce some of extreme perfection’. When the mechanisms through which developing his theory of evolu- such regulator genes control the tion, Darwin felt that the eye complex processes of develop- provided a strict test for the ment. Each gene was found to theory, which stipulates that an fulfil multiple tasks in eye and organ cannot pass through a brain development, and they stage where function is lost, as interact with each other and essential components disappear additional eye and brain genes in when selection is relaxed – the different combinations, generat- “use it or lose it” concept. Eyes ing complex networks that ensure exist in several fundamentally the tight regulation required for different designs in different robust error-free development. animal groups; they are organised Detailed analysis of how normal so differently that they must have functions go wrong in humans evolved independently multiple and animals with known muta- times. And yet, as we shall see, a tion-driven eye malformations has

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provided strong insight into the process occasionally goes wrong, finely-tuned mechanisms of often as a result of altered gene normal development and mainte- function. nance, as well as into the etiology Identification of disease genes. of disease. Using animal models, Genetic eye disease is relatively we have also explored how the frequent and often familial, partly final outcome, the “phenotype”, because human societies look can be influenced by environmen- after people with visual impair- tal factors. ment and they survive and A brief introduction to eye reproduce relatively well. From development and organisation the early 1980s efforts were made The vertebrate eye starts to to identify genes responsible for develop as an evagination of the inherited diseases. Genes were brain, even before the neural tube mapped using a variety of ap- is closed. The evagination proaches to identify their balloons out and the curved chromosomal location and then surface of the neuronal precursor candidate genes in the region hemisphere touches the surface were tested to assess whether ectoderm, the outer layer of the they carried disease-causing body from which skin and also the mutations. One way to locate lens and cornea will develop. The disease genes most easily then contact triggers an invagination of and even now, is by identifying both the neural hemisphere and cases where some demonstrable the surface ectoderm, so that a chromosomal rearrangement is double-layered retina is formed associated with the disease of and the lens pinches off, while the interest. The first developmental surface ectoderm reseals and abnormality of the eye we studied eventually develops into the was aniridia (absence of the iris) cornea. The double retina forms which had been previously the outer pigmented retina and associated with chromosomal the inner layer becomes the soon- deletions that caused two unrelat- to-be-stratified neural retina. ed diseases because the two Photoreceptors develop on the disease genes were co-deleted by outer curve of the neural retina, a single event, suggesting that the adjacent to the pigmented retina. genes mapped close together. The neural connections from the Although such deletions arise very photoreceptors make connections rarely, they are highly recognisable with the visual cortex in the brain because of the co-occurrence of so that an exact map of retina is two rare diseases. At that time, produced. It is not surprising that well before the Human Genome this complex developmental Project had properly begun, the

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search for candidate genes in a Transcription factors (TFs) bind to chromosomal region was a chromosomal DNA at the required painstakingly slow process; but target sites. Access to the delicate following extensive work interna- DNA thread is modulated by tionally to map the deletions, a chromatin conformation resulting DNA-binding transcription factor from DNA interactions with gene called PAX6 was suggested support proteins such as histones. as the candidate gene by col- DNA transcription into RNA is leagues in Texas. We set about facilitated by an open chromatin helping them to prove that this conformation. Switched off genes was the gene. The process of reside in regions of tightly-packed identifying mutations in a gene closed chromatin. TFs may work was much harder in those days, by turning target genes on or off. but we succeeded, using both a Frequently a single TF can function mouse model for aniridia and as an enhancer or repressor of collected human patient DNA. gene expression under different More than a decade later, using circumstances. TFs work in similar chromosomal deletion concert with others of their kind, approaches we identified two including some that are required other transcription factors, each of for all gene expression (general which was shown to be mutated transcription factors) while many, in a proportion of rare anophthal- including our three eye genes, are mia (no eye globe) and tissue-specific regulators. microphthalmia (small eye) cases. The role of PAX6, SOX2 and The two genes identified are OTX2 in development and SOX2 and OTX2. disease The nature of the genes These three transcription factors All three genes are tissue-specific cause developmental malforma- DNA-binding proteins, expressed tions that affect the whole in the developing eye and brain complex structure of the eye – the and some other tissues. Each one diseases associated with muta- regulates the expression of tions at these three gene loci are multiple target genes important panocular. Other TFs are associat- for development. The pattern of ed with many different eye expression changes as develop- diseases, including retinal degen- ment progresses. Each of these erations, glaucoma, corneal genes fulfils multiple roles during disease and cataracts. eye and brain development, in Analysis of the expression pattern some other tissues too and also in of each gene during different adulthood. times in development – the spatiotemporal expression pattern

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– can be very informative about long-term aniridia patients (all the nature of the phenotypes to over 16 years old) was asked to be assessed. For these expression participate in a research project to studies model organisms are study their brain structure by MRI generally used, and the mouse is (magnetic resonance imaging), a highly favoured, because it is such non-invasive powerful analytical an amenable, manipulable model. method for imaging brain However, significant contributions structure. To everyone’s surprise, a are also made using zebrafish, as high proportion of the aniridia well as invertebrate models such patients were found to have as the fruitfly Drosophila and the absent or hypoplastic anterior nematode worm Caenorhabditis commissure, one of the key elegans. This is particularly true connections between the two for PAX6, which is very highly hemispheres. Other abnormalities conserved in terms of both observed frequently include function and amino acid se- olfactory system deficits even to quence. Indeed, PAX6 mutations complete anosmia, but this had are known in all of the mentioned been heralded by observations of organisms and these mutations considerably reduced olfactory are associated most notably with bulb size in mice. Another the eye phenotype, or other surprise was the high frequency of sensory system abnormalities in cases with absence of the pineal, the worm, which has no eyes. although no particular sleep Careful examination of the mouse pattern problems have been “Small eye” heterozygotes, and described. Finally one case with the neonatally lethal homozy- some hearing problems was seen gotes, reveals that the by an audiologist, who found that heterozygote is a good model for each ear functions normally, but human aniridia, while the ho- there is a problem with informa- mozygotes with no eyes have tion transfer between the two severe brain and olfactory system hemispheres. Subsequently, a abnormalities, which lead to number of other adults and also death within a short time of birth. some children were tested. Many Interestingly, heterozygous mice were found to have similar can be shown to have mild brain auditory transfer deficits, though abnormalities as well as the the children generally did not aniridia-like eye phenotype. show absence of the anterior Spurred on by knowledge of the commissure, raising the possibility expression pattern, and by the that the absence of the commis- severe homozygous mouse sure is a progressive feature of phenotype, a selected group of aniridia.

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What the details of the muta- Occasionally other associated tions tell us abnormalities are also seen, such Although classical aniridia, with as tracheo–oesophageal joining – absence of the iris, is generally SOX2 is also expressed in the caused by so-called null mutations relevant epithelial cells, so this where the most likely situation is associated anomaly “makes that there is a reduction in protein sense”, although the variable levels because one copy of the occurrence is not understood. gene does not produce protein, OTX2 null mutations also give rise we do find a number of mutations to anophthalmia and microph- which give rise to altered protein thalmia which are not readily from the mutated copy. These distinguished from the SOX2 cases, generally with a single phenotype. However, in this case aminoacid change (missense we have seen a number of mutation), often have a variant completely unaffected mutation phenotype, sometimes milder and carrier parents. There have also sometimes more severe than the been differences in phenotype classical case. There is a general severity within a family. Anoph- trend to specific amino acid thalmia and microphthalmia can mutations to be associated with be unilateral, particularly with particular phenotypes. The most SOX2 mutations. Recently a severe missense mutations are family with an inherited SOX2 actually associated with microph- missense change was reported thalmia which is indistinguishable with variable phenotypes some of superficially from phenotypes that which overlapped with Pax6- are caused by mutations at the associated iris coloboma. We other two loci. SOX2 mutations shall discuss the possible reasons are frequently found in the most for the phenotypic variability and severe cases with bilateral anoph- overlaps observed with these thalmia. All the mutations, which genes. are mostly loss of function in one Long-range regulation of gene copy, seem to arise anew in the expression germ cells of one of the parents. We were alerted to the existence Until very recently no vertical of important distant regulatory inheritance of SOX2 mutations elements outside the coding had been observed. This suggests region of developmental tran- a highly penetrant dosage scription factor genes like PAX6 by sensitivity for this gene. The several cases of classical aniridia anophthalmia is frequently where gene disruption arose by associated with brain anomalies, chromosomal breakpoints outside developmental delay and seizures. the gene. We showed that in the

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mouse Small eye model, a stop sub-set of the total PAX6 pattern. codon mutation within the gene Each regulatory element typically could only be corrected using a drives expression in more than large genomic piece of DNA which one tissue and the pattern included the intact PAX6 gene and changes with developmental extensive flanking sequence on timing. Generally each PAX6- either side of the gene. This led expressing tissue is regulated by us to begin to explore the com- several elements – for example the plex regulatory system of genes brain expression is controlled by a like PAX6 that fulfil multiple large number of enhancers which distinct roles in time and space, behave in a hierarchical manner in during development and even in some instances. As a result of an adulthood. Once genomic ancestral genome duplication, sequences became available, it zebrafish has two different copies emerged very quickly that the of the PAX6 gene, PAX6a and regulatory functions are associat- PAX6b. They have an overlapping ed with highly conserved genomic but distinct expression pattern. elements upstream, downstream PAX6a is more widely expressed in and within the introns of these brain, and PAX6b has taken on genes. PAX6 has most of its the role of pancreas control; both regulatory region in the down- are expressed in the eye. We were stream region (relative to the interested to find that evolution- direction of transcription). ary changes in the regulatory Surprisingly, all the downstream elements can be linked to the elements identified so far reside changes in expression pattern. within the introns of a neighbour- It is now considered that changes ing gene called ELP4, which is in gene regulation are a major apparently not affected by these mechanism for evolutionary elements, as it is ubiquitously change. Not surprisingly, it is also expressed, unlike PAX6 with its very likely that regulatory element strict expression pattern. To variation is involved in many assess the functional capacity of disease associated mutations. these conserved elements, we Some of these variants are likely to have used a system known as be implicated in the more subtle reporter transgenesis in mice and genetic predispositions to later to some extent in zebrafish. We onset common diseases. Genome- have shown for PAX6 that the wide association studies place predicted regulatory elements about half of all the recently behave as enhancers, showing identified disease-associated tissue-specific expression of the variants in regulatory regions. reporter gene in a pattern that is a One of the continuing mysteries is

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how all the different regulatory ways. It is becoming clear that elements work together to bring transcription factors participate about the complex control of within complex finely tuned individual genes and their fine networks which have nodes and coordination with other genes. some hierarchical characteristics. Enhancer function and tran- Network architecture, which is scription factor networks probably continuously evolving, is a very important determinant of It is clear that enhancers fulfil their developmental robustness. It is role under the direction of not surprising that developmental transcription factors that bind to abnormalities are very often them. There is plenty of room for caused by dosage-altering a large number of transcription transcription factor mutations. factors to bind to each predicted, sequence conserved, regulatory In order to expand our knowledge element. It is therefore not of transcription factor networks, surprising that these enhancers we have used bioinformatic are controlled by multiple, often approaches to predicting novel interacting transcription factors. PAX6 (and SOX2) targets, using a Thus it emerged that SOX2 and few already defined binding site PAX6 interact at the protein level sequences in a method termed by co-binding to neighbouring Hidden Markov Modelling. We sites in more than one target site, are now in the process of validat- including in controlling the ing the predicted targets using expression of a lens crystallin zebrafish as a model, since the protein and also in an auto- and predicted targets are by definition cross-regulatory loop modulating conserved between mammals and SOX2 expression (and also PAX6 fish. expression – target element not Phenotype modulation in yet clearly identified). The actual health and disease sequences binding SOX2 and We have remarked on the signifi- PAX6 at the two known targets cant phenotypic variation that can are very different, probably be associated with the same because the exact affinity for the mutation between families, within complex varies from tissue to families where we sometimes even tissue, where the expression levels see non-penetrance of disease in of the two transcription factors is mutation carriers, and even within probably critical and very finely a single individual (eg unilaterality tuned. This is just one example of in eye disease, kidney disease, interaction between two or more deafness etc). We wanted to transcription factors working in explore the mechanisms that the same developmental path- might underlie such variation. An

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important pointer was work in the of one of these further, we have fruitfly Drosophila, where it was very recently found that these shown in 1998 that cryptic proteins fulfil multiple roles, by mutations could be uncovered if showing a presence in the the function of the chaperone cytoplasm as well as the nucleus, system based around HSP90 (heat which is expected for a chromatin shock protein 90) was perturbed. modifier. It turns out from HSP90 has multiple roles in looking further at its interactors facilitating protein folding for that our protein associates with newly produced proteins, main- intraflagellar transport proteins taining structure for metastable and can now be identified by proteins and helping denatured immunohistochemistry in primary proteins to refold (or chaperoning cilia and in known ciliated tissues, them to their destruction). We such as the zebrafish lateral line decided to see whether the same structures. This is very exciting, system is also at work in more since ciliary abnormalities are complex vertebrates and used implicated in many diseases with zebrafish for this purpose. We variable phenotypes, including showed that we were able to obesity and diabetes, kidney modulate eye phenotype in two anomalies and developmental zebrafish mutants, both of which heart defects. It is most exciting turned out to be caused by to be able to associate the ciliary missense mutations. We were functions of environmental also able to uncover repeatedly sensing with chromatin modifica- rare microphthalmia and anoph- tion which would lead to changes thalmia cases in one particular in the regulation of gene expres- strain of zebrafish, initially at low sion. frequency, but this was increased Epilogue when we inbred selected It has been, and continues to be, predisposed parents. an exciting journey from the study To pursue the molecular mecha- of human malformations to begin nisms further, we set out to to unravel some of the deeper identify novel interacting proteins mysteries of biology and gene that associate with HSP90. regulation and hopefully also to Interactors which turned out to open up some possible avenues belong to a family of proteins for improvements in disease now known to be involved in management and phenotype chromatin modification were modulation. identified. Pursuing the function

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EVENTS 2009-2010 Visit to the RSE by the US Ambassador, Louis B Susman ...... 274 Darwin’s Sacred Cause: Race, Slavery and the Quest for Human Origins ...... 277 Darwin and Lincoln on Race and Society ...... 281 Believing in Change: Darwin, Lincoln, Obama ...... 292 Henslow’s Legacy, Darwin’s Inheritance ...... 296 Inching Towards Peace – A New International Humanitarian Order ...... 300 Credit Crunch and Recession: What Have we Learnt? ...... 304 The Apocryphal Gospels Then and Now ...... 308 Facing up to Climate Change ...... 312 The Invisible Enemy: A Natural History of Viruses ...... 316 One Brain – Two Languages: Myths, Facts and Advantages of Child Bilingualism ...... 321 Bilingualism in Later Life: a Protection against Dementia? ...... 323 Energy ...... 326 The Importance of Being Red ...... 330 The simplicity and complexity of wind: an engineer’s tale ...... 335 A Question of Chemistry: The Role of the Composer and Librettist in the Creation of Opera ...... 338 Thomas Reid and the Art of Philosophy ...... 346 China’s Environment and the Future ...... 351 Diabetes & obesity: getting to the heart of the matter ...... 355 The Art of (Women) Walking: an Embodied Practice ...... 360 An Epidemiological Perspective on the Causes and Prevention of Breast Cancer ...... 363 Black Holes, Black Magic and Interstellar Travel ...... 366 Climate Change During the Last 10,000 Years: Reconstructions and Uncertainties ...... 367 Global Action on Climate Change: the Road to Cancun ...... 371 The Future of Islam for Muslims in the West ...... 375 Probing the Dark Side of Einstein's Universe ...... 379 Spitalfields Day: Geometry and Algebra ...... 379 Facing up to Climate Change Lecture ...... 380

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Meeting the challenges ahead Visit to the RSE by the US Ambassador, Louis B Susman

29 October 2009

On his first official visit to Scot- formidable power of the US in the land, the new US Ambassador to realm of foreign policy. Britain, Louis B Susman, described Susman said the new administra- the major issues in the world tion had inherited more problems today and outlined how President than President Franklin D Roo- Barack Obama is seeking to lead sevelt in 1933 – two wars, a the way on several fronts, includ- global financial crisis, the constant ing the financial crisis, climate threat of terrorism, major energy change and terrorism… and climate issues and the need After praising “the independent to address America’s lack of a and adventurous spirit” of health-care programme. In Scotland, Ambassador Susman Susman’s view, the world was focused on the challenges facing closer to a depression at the start the US and Scotland – and the rest of the year than many people of the world – and said that he realised, and President Obama’s was optimistic because we have first priority was to direct the US entered “a new era of possibility Treasury to restore stability to the and hope,” with President Obama US financial system, stabilise seeking greater engagement with financial markets and restore the rest of the world, based on confidence, helping the banks mutual interest and mutual and consumers, including small- respect. sized businesses, as well as the “President Obama is the single housing market – which at one most intelligent politician I’ve ever stage was in freefall. “There is no met,” he continued, “in terms of question that this economy is still his intellect and his curiosity.” But very fragile,” said Susman. history will not judge President “Recovery will be slow and Obama by how quickly he burst unemployment is way too high, onto the national scene, Susman but at least we have stopped the added, or even for his magnificent bleeding and managed to get on oratorical skills, but by what he the right track.” We must be accomplishes, what changes he vigilant and recognise that this is brings about and how he uses the a global recession, he added, and we still need regulatory reforms to

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make sure this kind of crisis protecting the environment or doesn’t happen again. energy security but a “moral The US is the only industrialised imperative,” and President Obama nation with no national health “will lead, not follow, on the issue programme, Susman continued, of climate change,” said Susman. and the high cost of health care Education is another major issue makes the US less competitive. for the new administration, which President Obama’s plans for is committed to ensuring that the health-care reforms are still a US has a better educated work- “work in a progress,” said force to compete in the 21st Susman, but he was confident the Century. One of the new educa- Health Care Bill will be passed in tional programmes is Race to the 2009. The first US President to Top, with funds of $4.3 billion to suggest that all Americans should “leverage change,” awarding the have health care was President money to the states “who most Theodore Roosevelt in 1912, said embrace reform.” In higher Susman, and President Obama education, the US aims to have was determined to be the last. the highest proportion of gradu- Moving on to foreign policy, ates per head of population by Susman said the US is now the year 2020. Scotland’s educa- implementing the concept of tional system is greatly admired in “smart power” not unilateral the US, said Susman, and one of power – working more closely our greatest gifts to the US was with its allies and “not being Andrew Carnegie, who built an afraid to talk to our foes as well as estimated 3,000 public libraries in our friends.” Another aim is to 47 states. “dismantle Al Qaeda so they Susman then discussed the never come back to hurt us,” but “special relationship” between Susman also stressed that US the US and the UK, and said that policy would not be “governed by anyone who thinks it has dimin- timetables” but by the need to ished is wrong – and is ignoring get it right. The aim is to bring the lessons of history and the peace and permanent stability to realities of the world today. The all the troubled regions, including two countries continue to work Pakistan, Iran and the Middle East. side by side, especially when it Climate change is also a priority, comes to law enforcement, the according to Susman, with the economy and military matters, and new administration investing $80 “America has no better friend or billion in clean energy pro- more dependable ally,” said grammes, including research. The Susman. The US strongly disa- issue is not just a question of greed about the decision to

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release Abdelbaset Ali al-Megrahi, Britain’s serving troops, including but the US will not let this Scottish regiments. undermine the special relation- Finally, Susman said that President ship, Susman continued, since we Obama had not just done a lot to share too much in terms of our improve the image of the US commitment to democracy, the abroad but had also inspired rule of law and tolerance. Susman young Americans to serve their then added that the US was country in a way that no other “eternally grateful” for the President has been able to do courage and the sacrifice of since John F Kennedy.

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Professor James Moore Darwin’s Sacred Cause: Race, Slavery and the Quest for Human Origins Science and Society Book Discussion 12 November 2009

Professor James Moore, of the reviews and is on its third printing Open University, led an informal in the UK, argues that Darwin’s discussion of Darwin’s Sacred work, The Descent of Man, was Cause, which he co-authored with profoundly influenced by the Adrian Desmond. The event was biologist’s passionate opposition held by the Science and Society to slavery. This is in fundamental Reading Group as part of the opposition to an old but persist- RSE’s year of celebrations to mark ent notion that science is done in the bicentenary of the British a vacuum free from social influ- scientist who developed the ence. With the idea of social theory of evolution by natural influence, the Professor, said selection. comes a worry that a notional Raised in Middle America to a “pure germ of scientific” truth is Christian family who regarded contaminated by external forces, Darwin as atheistic devilry – and that truth may have a history and potentially communistic – Profes- is not as absolute as many wish to sor Moore said he was taught believe. nothing of the theory of evolu- Professor Moore argued that tion. During his introductory talk Darwin, like all people, had his he described how crossing the thinking influenced by the Atlantic to the more liberal- circumstances of the era in which minded shores of the UK was a he lived. As such his The Descent revelation and an act of self- of Man cannot be divorced from liberation. Once in this country he the forces that affected the views built a thriving academic career as of its author – highly important a historian with the Open Univer- among these was his conviction sity, and has expressed his deep that all humanity had a common fascination with Darwin in a origin. This flew in the face of number of books. These include much contemporary thought the 1991 biography Darwin and which often sought to demon- Darwin’s Sacred Cause, which was strate that different races had published this year. separate origins. The new work, which has enjoyed Despite its title, much of The excellent mainstream media Descent of Man is concerned with

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other species, and two thirds of provided scientific support for the the book concentrates on sexual moral arguments against one selection. Only a few chapters group of humans enslaving directly address human origins. another. Whether interpreted in This has led some, including religious terms or not, Professor Richard Dawkins, to claim it is Moore claims this sense of science effectively two books squeezed as a means to prove that humanity between one pair of covers. was a brotherhood genuinely However, Professor Moore and sacred to Darwin. Desmond reject this idea and Following the Professor’s intro- claim that the wide-ranging ductory talk, the session was content has a specific purpose. opened to discussion with the “He has a vision of life on Earth in reading group. A variety of topics which every plant and animal, were covered, from the levels of including human beings, mind, sales in the USA and UK to the body, society, past and future, all religious and political atmosphere of this was part of one law-bound of the period. A key theme was system.” Human development whether Darwin’s science was was, therefore, one small aspect indeed motivated by opposition of the wider process of evolution. to slavery. Sexual selection was Darwin’s Have US readers been less recep- unique explanation for the natural tive to the book than Britons divergence of human races and because they still shy away from for many of their physical and the issues raised by slavery in their mental characteristics. own country, and are still more Darwin’s Sacred Cause also interested in the treatment of recognises that the biologist came Native Americans? from a Unitarian religious back- The Professor responded that ground and challenges the while it is the case that there is a concept that his science was from great deal of interest in the an atheistic perspective. treatment of Native Americans, Instead, when Darwin was the issue of black Americans was gathering his data, he believed highly topical. Publication of that Creation was a miraculous Darwin’s Sacred Cause coincided work of God, but that geological with the inauguration of President evidence placed this origin Obama – who had referred to millions of years in the past rather himself as a ‘mutt’, that is, of than thousands. There was a mixed race. There are also millions single tree of life with many of Americans who are interested branches and the races were in Darwin, even if some think he is merely the tips of twigs at their the Devil incarnate. outmost extremities. Such views

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Did you write the book as a But how great was the evidence scientist or an historian? that he was motivated by opposi- Professor Moore explained that he tion to slavery? and his co-author both have The Professor said there is more scientific training “but we are evidence that Darwin was passion- historians first of all. `Science must ate about slavery than that he not be left to the scientists, loved his wife, but that the latter science’s past must not be left to fact is simply accepted, and it is the scientists.” He added that the widely acknowledged that it made social pecking order means that it possible much of what he did, is accepted that a number of and the former is seen as contro- famous-name scientists are versial. regularly asked to talk on histori- You picked the title from hell cal topics, even though they do it because you have the name rather poorly. Historians, by ‘Darwin’, whom to many in contrast, are not asked to cross America is a hate figure. It’s also beyond their disciplinary bounda- got the word ‘slavery’ there that ries and talk on subjects such as the Americans are still struggling genetics. to come to terms with, and the Why is your book seen as being so word ‘sacred’. controversial? The phrase ‘sacred cause’ came “The subject matter had got to be from a Darwin letter praising a controversial and we knew the mixed-race Jamaican magistrate book would be controversial, and for his work for ‘the sacred cause the sound of breeches being of humanity’ – as soon as the loaded is heard across the Atlantic authors saw this they felt they had as we wait for the academic the title which summed up their reviews to come out, but it’s fine argument. to disagree about these things.” When he used the word ‘sacred’, . But what is so controversial did he mean it in a religious about it? As a reader I found, that sense? as with many well-argued books, Desmond believes it was rhetoric, the argument draws you along. but Professor Moore argues that “Which is what makes them the people who spoke of the dangerous - if what they are ‘sacred cause’ often did feel it was arguing is considered `bad’.” somehow divinely ordained. He What was it like to have to deal added that when Darwin was with so much correspondence. writing On the Origin of Species You constantly cite your sources, he was a man of faith, though not and there was such a vast amount. of Christian faith.

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Where did you come up with the Is it not the case that you are hypothesis that Darwin was so trying to impose 21st-Century influenced by slavery? He was a attitudes towards race on a great thinker, great thinkers get a 19th-Century figure and that bee in their bonnet about some- today Darwin would be deemed thing, they care about it, surely racist? that’s enough to explain what he Professor Moore rejected this did. suggestion, saying the whole “One orthodox explanation is that enterprise for an historian is to this is what great scientists do see the world from a contempo- because they are geniuses but if rary perspective – “Darwin was you think about it, it doesn’t racist, we make no bones about explain anything. Once you say that.” that then history ends, it’s the Was Darwin not influenced by the secular equivalent of a miracle.” Bible in his thinking with its Moore continued by arguing that imagery of a single tree of life? Darwin’s remarks on the subject of “Darwin took certain things for slavery demonstrate his passion granted growing up, as we all do, over the issue. He added that it such as our parents’ love – Darwin provides the best available took for granted that there’s a explanation for the emergence of God, a creator-God when he a young man who was prepared stepped on the Beagle.” Darwin to develop unorthodox ideas that also believed that history was were so dangerous they could moving in a direction that was wreck his career. While the cutting objectively good and he believed edge of contemporary science was in the brotherhood of the human that the human races were race – these were all givens for separately created species, Darwin him. At the same time he saw that challenged it all, claiming that creation must have taken millions humans were one species, with a of years. He had to confront issues common origin and that the such as the flood story, which if diversity of all living things could true meant that all the human be explained by the gradual races descended from the eight transformations engendered by survivors in about 4,000 years. natural selection. That called for an awful lot of human diversification in a very short space of time.

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Darwin and Lincoln on Race and Society Joint meeting with the Institute for Advanced Studies in the Humanities, University of Edinburgh 13 November 2009

Charles Darwin and Abraham Lincoln were born on the same day in the same year: 12 February 1809. The 200th anniversary celebrations on both sides of the Atlantic remind us that the American President and the British zoologist jointly helped to shape the modern world. Questioning established hierachies of nature, race and class, their legacy of civil and scientific liberalism still holds radical potential today. The one-day meeting brought together three renowned speakers to explore topics which ranged from President Lincoln’s reasons for the emancipation of slaves, through Darwin’s links to Enlightenment thought, and on to the motivations which drove his development of the theory of evolution by natural selection. The speakers and audience were welcomed by Rev Canon Professor John Richardson, Programme Convener of the RSE. The conference was the first joint event to be organised by the RSE and the Institute for Advanced Studies in the Humanities, University of Edinburgh.

Session 1: Debates over Lin- His subject was “the most coln’s Evolution American of Americans”, Abra- Professor Catherine Clinton of ham Lincoln, who had saved the Queen’s University, Belfast was Union from destruction and introduced by Professor Frank emancipated what he termed “the Cogliano, who described her as a coloured race”. This address was leading historian of the USA. He in keeping with the raising of added that she has also done Lincoln to secular sainthood much to enliven the community of within a generation of his death – historians of the US on this side of a remarkable transformation for a the Atlantic and is a prolific man who was widely reviled in his author who has written or edited lifetime. more than two dozen books. Choate quoted the Gettysburg It was 109 years to the day since Address in full, which Professor the new US ambassador to Great Clinton described as “American Britain, Joseph Hodges Choate, gospel, a secular prayer that gave the inaugural address to the symbolises the man, the moment Edinburgh Philosophical Institute. and the power of myth to elevate 281 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

both”. Lincoln’s reputation has The first statue of Lincoln outside been built on the ending of the USA was unveiled in Edin- slavery which he described as the burgh in 1893, motivated by a central act of his administration desire to provide a suitable burial and the greatest event of the 19th place for, and site to honour, the Century. The proclamation of Scots who had fought for the emancipation was seen by Karl Union in the American Civil War. Marx as the most significant The $6,000 memorial was document in American history. It coincidentally located near that of invoked the right of freedom for David Hume and the Martyr’s all, placing it above commerce, Monument, and the burial place but not above the law. of the poet William Knox – a Professor Clinton outlined the favourite poet of Lincoln. The immense reach of Lincoln’s statue depicts Lincoln as the great influence, something reflected in emancipator, seated above the the world-wide interest in this figure of an African American year’s bicentenary celebrations of (rather than Scottish) soldier his birth. The coincidence that he clutching the standard of the 79th was born on the same day as New York Highlanders. Darwin has often encouraged Professor Clinton argued that people to ask “who was more Lincoln’s life reflects a story of important, Darwin or Lincoln? intellectual growth, saying “his Who had more influence, Lincoln ideas were fluid yet deliberated; or Darwin? … Who was born first, fresh yet built on a foundation of Darwin or Lincoln?” Professor intense reasoning and calculated Clinton argued that the very feeling; he was a seeker who question “who’s number one?” never took anything for granted”. demonstrates Darwin’s primacy, as These qualities provided him with it underlines how good, better, the resources to hold together a best – the survival of the fittest – disintegrating nation. He did not has come to frame so many of our preach racial equality, but equality perspectives. Yet, in terms of of opportunity, suggesting that books published, memorials and even black women had the right statues erected, Lincoln far to the fruits of their labour. outstrips Darwin. The former is Lincoln’s status as a champion of the subject of 45,000 books, the African American rights is much- latter 20,000. There are more debated. Most late 19th-and early statues of Lincoln in Hertford, 20th-Century biographies suggest Connecticut – 15 have gone up he was repelled by slavery from an this year – than there are of early age (influenced by his Darwin worldwide. Even in the UK parents’ Baptist connections), but they are level-pegging.

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with a defining moment when he whether emancipation was a tactic first encountered its realities on a to save the Union or whether flat boat ride to New Orleans in Lincoln’s supremacist rhetoric had 1828. Professor Clinton argued been designed to maintain vital for a more subtle view that political support as he awaited the upbringing and experience right time to achieve his true inclined him to empathise with all goals. The move to emancipation, who struggled to better them- which Prof Clinton suggested was selves. Lincoln visited a question of policy and law slave-owning homes, accepting rather than principle, happened at use of a slave valet, but was a time when Lincoln was sur- uncomfortable with mastery. rounded by change and felt an Equally, he detached personal urgent need to shift the terms on distaste from professional duties which the Civil War was being as a lawyer and the demands of fought. It was also at a time when political expediency. However, hundreds of thousands of African after 1854 he showed an acceler- Americans were fleeing behind ated concern about slavery and its Union lines to seize their freedom. corrupting influence. By the late In 1862 Lincoln felt the nation 1850s he began to use terms was at a crossroads, with so many about slavery such as “monstrous dead that it must be cleansed by injustice” and a “national crime”. worthy acts. They could not rest Despite the development of his unless purpose was given to their views, Lincoln feared that aboli- sacrifice. “The nation could not tion could arouse racial tensions, just be bathed in blood, it had to often towards the African Ameri- be baptised in blood”. Lincoln’s cans themselves. He believed reputation as an emancipator emancipation would underscore rests on his recognition of the white superiority, and in 1858 he need for a Union that was worthy contemplated colonisation and of preserving. the separation of the races. Session 2: Darwin and the Lincoln publicly voiced his opposi- Enlightenment tion to equal rights for blacks Dr Jon Hodge, recently retired many times – something scholars from Leeds University, has exten- frequently fail to mention. sively researched Darwin’s theories Nonetheless, it was ultimately of creation and evolution. Chair- Lincoln who made the dramatic ing the session, Professor Susan and sudden decision for the Manning described him as being uncompensated and immediate uniquely qualified to take on a emancipation of all slaves. The subject as large and interesting as inevitable question, around which Darwin and the Enlightenment. there is deep disagreement, is

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While saying that “Darwin and . and a commitment to action for the Enlightenment is an impossi- greater prosperity and better ble topic twice over,” Dr Hodge governance. admitted that those who are Buffon lacks the first, as he retired have a certain licence to wanted to keep his royal patron- take on such challenges. In age, but exemplifies the other discussing Darwin, he concentrat- three elements. His central ed on the formative years of proposal was “to give a narrative 1838–39. These were “wonder for the life of the Earth and the years”, after his period studying life on the Earth”. At causal level medicine in Edinburgh and the narrative is one of Cartesian beyond the Beagle voyage, when ambitions and the new resources he was a bachelor in London provided by Newton; it is about running three series of notebooks heat and gravity, and contains no on the Earth, life and the mind. miracles or Biblical structuring. This was when Darwin was at the Gravity is steady, heat disperses, peak of his intellectual creativity, so the history of Earth is one of coming up with many of his cooling. In earlier days of greater greatest ideas. heat, creatures came into exist- In examining the Enlightenment, ence through spontaneous Dr Hodge focused on Georges parentless birth, and man is Buffon, the 18th-Century French- integrated into the scheme – with man who published a 36-volume the exception of his intellectual work on natural history. Dr Hodge capacities. argued that “if anyone is Enlight- Dr Hodge moved on to Jean enment it’s Buffon” and that, Baptiste Lamarck, an early protégé despite profound differences in of Buffon and prominent in the their scientific ideas, he and 1790s, who rejected cooling, as Darwin shared fundamentally the Sun maintains the Earth’s similar Enlightenment beliefs and temperature. He claimed that attitudes. Dr Hodge described the nature could only generate simple attitudes and beliefs underpin- organisms, so life forms had ning Enlightenment thinking as undergone “complexification” based on: over time, and he proposed an . a critique of the injustices and ape ancestry for man. Dr Hodge inefficiency of the Ancien then moved to the Scot, James Régime; Hutton, who believed today’s . the valuing of education, species had always been present, knowledge and science; but that there was constant destruction and renewal of land . belief in progress and the by heat and water and that life future;

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tried to adapt according to gence as the pattern for life on providential principles. Earth. At this point his views on Darwin saw Lyell as superceding the development of species were Hutton, and Dr Hodge claimed in line with Lamarck, though soon Darwin saw himself as the greater afterwards he broke away. For successor of Lamarck. And Lyell, Darwin, changes in habits lead to the great geologist of the late changes in species, a direction Scottish Enlightenment, was the that would later lead to natural author with the greatest influence selection and transvariation. on Darwin. He saw individual Darwin’s notebooks show he was species as going extinct and new a materialist (mind is the workings ones arising over time. But they of the brain) and, a determinist were formed in their original (there is no chance in nature or features and placed in the most free will in humans), and his suitable location. Lyell, like others science assumes a deity but has associated with the Edinburgh no reference to the Bible. Many of Review, also opposed those who Darwin’s mentors were also regarded the horrors of the French sympathisers of Lamarck. These Revolution as an outcome of included Humboldt, a German Enlightenment thinking. He kept and a Romantic, who was essen- faith with Enlightenment princi- tial to Darwin’s decision to board ples and favoured peaceful social the Beagle. However, Dr Hodge improvement through Reform. Dr dismissed any suggestion that Hodge placed Darwin with “one Darwin’s views were German foot in the Edinburgh Review and Romantic. Where they spoke one foot in the Westminster about archetypes, he spoke about Review its more radical and ancestors, and where they referred Benthamite competitor. to the ‘soul’ of nature, he would Turning to Darwin’s scientific not say that nature was mechani- views, Dr Hodge claimed he never cal or animistic. His science (a rejected the physical aspects of theory of matter and force) was Lyell’s Neo-Huttonian views, but in profoundly non-Romantic. other areas sided with Lamarck. Humans are bundles of muscles Darwin came to think that and nervous tendencies inherited ancestry rather than adaptation from ape ancestors; there is no could be crucial to the timings, self. placing and extinctions of species. Dr Hodge explored and rejected By 1838–39 he had developed the the possibility that Darwin was idea of an irregularly-branching linked to other Counter-Enlight- tree of life, similar to that pub- enment views, such as those of lished in On the Origin of Species, the Oxford Movement, which with branching, adaptive diver- yearned for a return to Mediaeval

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and pre-Reformation values. behind The Origin, despite what Likewise there was little sense that Darwin was taught in Cambridge. he sided with the likes of Col- Session 3: Darwin’s Progress eridge in aiming to transcend the and the Problem of Slavery Enlightenment, which they A leading figure in the history of regarded as putting insufficient science, Professor James Moore of emphasis on the artistic and the Open University, was wel- poetic imagination as distinguish- comed by Professor Charles ing features of humanity. Withers, who described his Ultimately Darwin was much more biography of Darwin, co-authored indebted to the 18th Century with Adrian Desmond, as possibly than many people have suggest- the greatest ever written about ed. This is despite the impact on Darwin. Moore and Desmond political and social thought of the have now published, Darwin’s French Revolution and the Sacred Cause, which argues that emergence of concepts of ‘left’, his science was underpinned by a ‘right’ and ‘centre’. Even though desire to oppose slavery and Darwin regarded himself as a uphold the brotherhood of radical, Dr Hodge said this did not humanity. preclude continuity from 18th- To understand Darwin it is vital to Century values. Likewise, he put aside phenomena and events rejected the idea that 19th- that were as yet unknown, to see Century thought had necessarily the world as it unfolded before broken with the past due to the him, and appreciate the forces Industrial Revolution. Dr Hodge and ideas which motivated him. questioned the validity of the Liberation was so important to Industrial Revolution concept and him that he had intended to argued that the prime forces propose to his future wife, Emma behind the building of the British Wedgwood, in August 1838, on Empire, and other major changes “the weekend when slaves were of Darwin’s time, were due to the set free”. Emancipation was a established forces of landed and cause to which the Wedgwoods City capitalism. Thus there was a were dedicated, and to which greater continuity between the Darwin and his wife were devoted. centuries than had been sup- Darwin also believed in progress posed – and Darwin is a prime and the abolition of slavery was example of this being so. This in an event that appeared to justify turn related to the Scottish his hope for a future that was Enlightenment thinking he was better than the past. exposed to while in Edinburgh, and which Dr Hodge believes to As a young man in London, one be the main formative influence of Darwin’s dining companions

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was the radical young journalist Darwin’s world view, which and abolitionist Harriet Beecher emerged from his belief that Stowe – so loathed by American anything which conformed to the supporters of slavery that she was laws of nature might happen. threatened with lynching. The Slavery should pass away as a depth of Darwin’s abhorrence of temporary evil, but might not. He slavery is revealed in a notebook was outraged when his mentor, passage of 1838: “Animals whom Lyell, was prepared to tolerate the we have made our slaves we do forced break up of black slave not like to consider our equals. … families while lamenting that Do not slave holders wish to make some slave-owning whites failed the black man other kind?” to prosper. The unfolding of Professor Moore argued that events in the USA, as it plunged Darwin saw it as akin to the towards civil war on an industrial arrogance of the slave master to scale, crushed Darwin’s optimism. think that humans are unique and Professor Moore summed up his unrelated to the rest of life. The feelings by saying that “a man Creationist and slave master are who in the name of suffering comparable in the lowering of slaves damned the white man’s some and the elevation of arrogance in believing himself the themselves. He believed that such God-like goal of creation could concepts could be undermined by not rest comfortably in the belief demonstrating common ancestry that history must realise his own and a single family tree of life. highest goal, the abolition of slavery.” His health suffered and To Darwin it was essential to he was distressed by illness and argue for progressive ideas, for death within his family. After the while he believed that progress victory of the Union and the was a rational expectation, he saw abolition of slavery in the USA, that it was not necessary, it was Darwin’s optimism returned. contingent, and could be thwart- ed. Simultaneously he regarded During the dark years before then, the Earth, and the life upon it, to there was no sense of an inevita- be part of a law-bound, but ble end to slavery. The Southern ultimately progressive, universe. states defended the practice on At a social level it was possible to Biblical grounds and attempts identify the tendency to progress were made to claim that black at work in developments such as servitude was no worse than, and the expansion of the British could even be preferable to, the Empire, which he regarded as a miserable conditions of industrial civilising force. workers in England. At the same time a new racial science, partly Professor Moore argued that financed by the slave-cotton there was a profound tension in 287 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

textile industry, was emerging, to truth. He would thus be able to that argued for the separate and dismiss Agassiz’s ‘heresies’ miraculous origins of the races. through the facts alone. But The movement was made authori- Darwin then realised his ideas on tative by the popular Harvard evolution were at risk of being professor, Louis Agassiz, whose ‘scooped’ by Alfred Russel work threatened to provide slavery Wallace, so his great manuscript with intellectual legitimacy. “was cut, crushed and rushed into Darwin, said Professor Moore, print” in 1859 as On the Origin of “knew the way the wind was Species. Though it contained blowing; in his face.” almost nothing about human In 1854 Darwin set out on an origins, that is what the book was enterprise to tackle Agassiz’s views fundamentally about. on a global scale. First he over- When the American Civil War turned Agassiz’s creation science broke out in 1861, Darwin was in which plant, animal and human perturbed at Lincoln’s failure even species were supposed to have to mention slavery in his call to appeared miraculously in their arms and ardently believed it appointed zones. He then showed should be the essence of the that species could be flexible Union’s aims. He quarrelled with enough to adapt to different his American colleague Asa Gray circumstances around the world, who believed that the mainte- with no need for divine pre- nance of the Union was the purposing. Finally he explained overriding objective, rather than how human races had diverged the redemptive ambition of from a single stock, replacing lessening human suffering. The divine miracles with a natural depression Darwin suffered over mechanism. The last of these was the war and the potential survival shown to be selective mating – of slavery was compounded by the just as this had been used to continued refusal of Lyell to bring about fancy varieties of accept the common descent of all animals, such as pigeons, it had the races from ape ancestors. yielded distinctive features among Darwin’s spirits lifted after the groups of humans. Union victory and a year later he Darwin’s plan was to publish a wrote to Gray: “I can hardly yet huge book called Natural Selec- realise the grand magnificent fact tion, which would take years to that slavery is now at end in your complete, and would include his country”. Darwin believed that natural explanation for the races humanity had returned to the of man. This was in keeping with road of progress – sometimes the notion that devout science led cruel, but ultimately producing

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virtue, as ape species and human and, by extension, Romans. races were destroyed and some Monogenism, whether of Chris- race more civilised than the tian, Muslim or Hebrew origin, Caucasian emerged triumphant. was bound by its counterpart, pre- Session 4: Panel discussion Adamism (referring to all colonised peoples). The speakers and session chairs, took questions from the audience. The panel was asked whether Wallace and Darwin fitted James Questions: Clerk Maxwell’s view of two Was race the big issue of the 19th mindsets, one based on the Century and was it the Victorian building up of many smaller ideas take on the 18th-Century science and insights and the other which of man? takes an overview. Clinton: In the 19th Century there Hodge: There are differences and was a clear perception that issues similarities between individuals of race were the centre of a truly and within groups, even where Titanic intellectual and moral people have common outlooks. struggle. This persisted into the What is intriguing is that two 20th Century when, in the 1960s, people of such different experi- higher education institutions were ence and upbringing as Wallace still running courses on the and Darwin came up with such subject of race. similar theories. Moore: The history of race tends Kohn: Both Darwin and Wallace to be understood in a Whiggish attempted to explain this them- fashion as a direct moral line selves with the cognitive leading up to the horror of the psychological explanation that Nazi death camps. In fact there they were both species men who was no straight line or obvious were finely attuned to differences moral divide. Victorian scientific between specimens. racism was once at the cutting Moore: As a specimen collector, edge of empirical science, claim- Wallace made his living by making ing to be inspired by the fine distinctions between living Enlightenment. It was also organisms and the places they informed by an anti-Semitism inhabited. He sought specimens which desired an escape from that differed slightly from one “Jewish” views of the Bible. another because collectors would Hodge: The discourse of race was would pay good money for them. historically consolidated through Hodge: What Darwin and Wallace imperialism. Before that the missed as their common link was standard point of reference was that they were both closely the ancients, namely Jews, Greeks

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aligned to aspects of Lyell’s topics, such as biogeography and thinking and others were not. taxonomy. This was a man who Was the idea of evolution by was just as reputable, indeed he natural selection simply an idea was better trained than Darwin, whose time had come, and if it but he is hugely removed in his had not been Darwin would it just thinking. With hindsight we think have been someone else? there was only one way to make sense of the evidence around, but Hodge: As a historian it’s a phrase at the time it didn’t seem like that he rejects because it fails to at all. address the causes that lead to events and ideas. He also stressed Moore: In every field of human the undecidedness of ‘scientific’ experience and endeavour today matter, which means that evolu- we see that people with access to tionism happened in history, in the same information regard it in circumstances that allow us to see different ways. it was far from consolidated at the Why is it that so long after Darwin time. 45% of Americans still believe in Moore: If Columbus hadn’t Creationism? discovered America someone else Clinton: That has a lot to do with probably would have, but the the way the media frames the theory of natural selection is not questions that are asked, though something you can land on, like a there is certainly a Biblical Right in continent, or even stub your toe America. on. While it is likely that some Moore: Most of the Creationists I theory of evolution would have know in America are also “social taken hold, it would not necessar- Darwinists”. ily have been what we now refer Hodge: American attitudes may to as Darwinism, and we would relate to the origins of white not now be calling ourselves settlement by Bible-devoted Darwinians, we would be some- Europeans who sought a new thing else. land where they could maintain a Isn’t it true that all the necessary culture of religious intensity. This, evidence was there, and the combined with community control techniques and intellectual basis over educational curricula, has were in place for this theory to allowed Creationism to persist. emerge? Cogliano: The antecedents of Hodge: It’s salutary to read the today’s Bible belt were not as work of Agassiz from the same described by Hodge, and were less time as Darwin’s Origin of Species. religious in the colonial period He covers many of the same than subsequently. Indeed, many

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people we regard as conservative hierarchical and exploitative; today fundamentalists today hold the people see the discovery of their views of the 19th-Century people origins as placing them within a in the north of the USA whom we global framework. now see as the progressives. Hodge: The Victorian view of the What was the distinction between history of science and religion is species and races in Darwin’s best summarised as: give science mind? freedom and it will undermine Moore: He saw that species were religion. He also responded to a groups that had diverged from related question about the one another, but that the human influence that the church exerts races had only gone a very short on science by answering the distance from the diverging point. question of ‘who can we expect to think independently?’: ‘people of Are we less inclined to prejudice moderately independent means’. today than in Darwin’s time about the way we perceive other people Moore: Race is a biological fact as and cultures well as a matter of social perception. I think there is now precious Clinton: The idea of the social little reason to be confident in construction of race is now a continuing social, economic and fertile area of inter-disciplinary technological “progress” (whatev- study. At Harvard, Henry Louis er that may be); indeed, we face a Gates junior, head of African and future in which things could get African-American studies, has said progressively worse for humans “we are all Africans now”. In the and every other species. 19th Century, seeking origins was

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Dr Marek Kohn Believing in Change: Darwin, Lincoln, Obama 13 November 2009

Dr Marek Kohn, author, journalist All three men are transformational and Fellow of the Centre for figures and Obama’s achievement Applied Philosophy, Politics and casts new light on the other two – Ethics at the University of Brighton not always on the aspects of their was welcomed by Hector Mac- lives we hold most dear. Indeed, Queen, a Vice-President of the both would have found the RSE. The lecture was the culmina- election of an African-American tion of a day-and-a-half of President highly surprising, given activities, organised in conjunc- the political conditions and racial tion with the Institute of divisions of their world. And when Advanced Studies in the Humani- the US writer William Roscoe ties, University of Edinburgh, that Thayer looked ahead to the were devoted to Charles Darwin Lincoln/Darwin centennial he saw and Abraham Lincoln. It provided it in racial terms. Thayer wanted to a modern perspective on the unite the USA and Britain in a issues of slavery, race and evolu- “Pan-Anglo-Saxon reunion … to tion that were such forces in the feel the thrill of common hopes lives of both men, whose bicente- and common emotions, and to naries this year are backlit by the realise … that blood is thicker election of President Obama. than water.” “One thing is for sure, we have Obama’s challenge to his nation is known this was coming for a long to move beyond race without time. The coincidence of the births denying its significance in Ameri- of Darwin and Lincoln was noted can life. As Lincoln’s successor in 100 years ago, when their joint office he led the bicentennial first centenaries were commemo- celebrations. He has noted that rated. But we’ve only known for Lincoln’s views on race were one year, with the election of “limited” but has pointed to Barack Obama last November, that common ground – both recognise the day of the joint bicentennial that a house divided against itself would be bathed in the afterglow cannot stand. Obama presented of the inauguration of the first Lincoln as a man who understood African-American President of the the proper balance between United States.” government and people. The view

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he expressed, seen with deep vision, expressed in The Descent suspicion by many Americans, is of Man, was that “the civilised that the state enables society to races of man will almost certainly achieve what cannot done by exterminate, and replace, the individual efforts alone. savage races …”. Lincoln served in During the election campaign a military campaign against native scientists were heartened when Americans who were trying to Nature published Obama’s recover their lands in Illinois. response to the questions: The racial attitudes of Darwin, . Do you believe that evolution by Lincoln and their contemporaries means of natural selection is a can be divided into morality, sufficient explanation for the sympathy and nature, assuming variety and complexity of life on different proportions in different Earth? minds. Some saw slavery as immoral, but lacked sympathy for . Should intelligent design, or slaves. Others saw those of some derivative thereof, be African descent as inferior in taught in science class in public intellect, yet thought it wrong to schools? treat them as property. The British Obama replied: “I believe in biologist Thomas Henry Huxley evolution, and I support the scorned equality, saying that “our strong consensus of the scientific prognathous [projecting-jawed] community that evolution is relative” would never “be able to scientifically validated. I do not compete successfully with his believe it is helpful to our stu- bigger-brained and smaller-jawed dents to cloud discussions of rival, in a contest which is to be science with non-scientific carried on by thoughts and not by theories such as intelligent design bites.” Huxley believed slavery that are not subject to experimen- should end, to cleanse the tal scrutiny.” He was declaring Caucasian conscience. Darwin that he valued the scientific remarked positively about the criteria of knowledge. intellects of black people he met, As a President, whose style is especially the “Negro or Mulatto distinctly cerebral, Obama pursues children” who “examine every a foreign policy based on dia- thing with the liveliest attention”. logue, inclusion and a readiness Yet he accepted a conventional to re-set relations. This is some- view of racial hierarchy in which thing Lincoln and Darwin would negroes and Australians were have struggled to believe in, lower races. coming as they did from a world Lincoln was convinced of the of aggressive empire-building and inferiority of Africans and stated subjugated peoples. Darwin’s in 1858 that he opposed them

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being voters, jurors, office holders branch of psychology devoted to or inter-marrying with whites and measuring intelligence. Its even doubted that the two races proponents argue that IQ tests could live together harmoniously. provide reliable measurements of The abolitionist Frederick Doug- intelligence, that genetic factors lass claimed his arguments are largely responsible for varia- against the extension of slavery tions in intelligence between “had their motive and mainspring individuals, and that this genetic in his patriotic devotion to the factor explains at least part of the interests of his own race.” Quite gap between the average scores simply, slave-owning enterprises of black and white Americans. In were out-competing those which 1994 Richard Herrnstein and had to hire labour. Yet Lincoln Charles Murray published The Bell delivered emancipation, and his Curve, which purported to show own views changed. In his last that very few black people would speech he discussed votes for be part of the ‘cognitive elite’ of blacks, though confined to ex- professionals and leaders. The soldiers and those deemed the counterarguments emphasised brightest. The story goes that his that environmental factors audience included the actor John influence test scores and pointed Wilkes Booth, who was planning to political motives behind the to kidnap the President to work. One civil rights lawyer and advance the Confederate cause, writer claimed that Murray was but was so outraged by talk of using his arguments to support even limited citizenship that three welfare cuts and an end to days later he murdered Lincoln. affirmative action. That lawyer was Segregation remained a legal Barack Obama. reality in the USA until the 1960s, Obama returned to the subject in by which time racial science had 2008, pointing to inferior schools largely been discarded. Scientists as a reason for the gap in achieve- became doubtful that race was of ment between black and white much use as a concept in their students. He argued that the research and declared that there income gap was partly a legacy of was no evidence of significant discrimination that had prevented mental differences between races. black families from accumulating Most importantly the Nazis had wealth they could pass on. He “shown that racial science was spoke of material circumstances infinitely worse than useless when and what it is like to live in those applied to society”. circumstances. Obama calls for Despite a widespread belief that change based on the idea that science had decisively rejected everyone can and should contrib- racial difference, it persisted in a ute to the collective good. It is an

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optimistic view of society, starkly human brotherhood. Despite the opposed to the negative one that apparent triumph of his science it sees many as incapable of civic is still rejected by many with a participation. He affirms human religious view of the world’s unity and insists that problems origins. Like Lincoln, though, emerge from cultural, political and Darwin would have been sur- economic factors and not biology. prised that a man of African The visions of Darwin, Lincoln and descent would now hold the most Obama differed greatly. Lincoln powerful office in the world. called black leaders to the White While race “is the obvious, House to tell them he could not insistent, nagging theme that countenance the idea of equality. connects the three figures” they Now the son of a mixed marriage are also linked by change. The occupies those same offices. And changes have been immense. Yet yet the idea that certain ethnic Obama faces problems that are groups cannot live together has a echoes from the days of Lincoln 21st-Century resonance. The and Darwin. He seeks to tackle differences may now be presented them in a way that upholds the as cultural and religious, but they best of the traditions for which are treated as insurmountable. they stood. And the three con- Darwin saw change as “the source verge most closely in their shared of life’s variety” and argued for belief in reason.

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Professor John Parker Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge Henslow’s Legacy, Darwin’s Inheritance Supported by Darwin 2000 23 November 2009

Before he was a guru, Charles was admitted to St John’s College, Darwin was a disciple. John Parker Cambridge, to study mathematics, revealed the scientific legacy of although his interests and John Stevens Henslow that gave pursuits were much broader. his favoured student the intellec- Henslow excelled at everything tual context and tools necessary to and his rise was meteoric. In rewrite the rules of life. 1822, a geological field map of The assumption that underlies Anglesey made Henslow’s name in most of the musings on Charles scientific circles and the following Darwin in this, the 200th year year, just five years after graduat- since his birth, is that the author ing in mathematics, he was of On the Origin of Species elected Professor of Mineralogy. stepped aboard HMS Beagle in Two years later, he was also ignorance, only to stride back elected Professor of Botany. ashore almost six years later fully Henslow’s early research interests equipped to deduce the theory of sound diverse, Professor Parker evolution by natural selection. admitted. He explored the John Parker’s research into the life geology of complex regions and and work of the Cambridge produced the first geological field Professor of Botany, John Hens- map of the Isle of Man. He probed low, suggested the truth was the mathematical underpinning of somewhat different. Great the new science of crystal struc- teachers often feature in the tures. He carried out the first development of great people. For dissection of a mollusc in the Darwin, that teacher was Henslow, British Isles and considered its a man whose name has been whole life cycle, taking what barely mentioned amid all the might be described as an ecologi- bicentennial debate, yet without cal approach. He contributed whom the word Darwinism would marine biology specimens to the not have made it into the diction- Natural History Museum. ary. But it was his passion for plants John Stevens Henslow, 1796– that commanded the most energy. 1861, was born in Rochester, The earliest Henslow botanic Kent. Educated in Camberwell, he specimen that Professor Parker

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has been able to confirm came showed in nature. He looked at from his undergraduate years. It the natural world like a landscape was woad, gathered and pressed of mountains. Each peak repre- in 1816. Even then, Henslow sented a species and was defined showed a consistent and system- through patterns of variation. atic approach to collecting and But this landscape was not recording. That approach let him unspoiled. Henslow realised that create an unprecedented botanic these patterns were disturbed by database when, in 1820, he what he called monstrosity – decided he would collect the isolated variants that produced entire flora of the British Isles. unusual numbers of leaves, grew Henslow developed a remarkable to strange proportions or exhibit- network of 110 naturalists and ed some other abnormality. For enthusiasts from Shetland to the Henslow, these monsters were the Channel Islands. Even his maiden key to understanding plant aunts joined the project. Ultimate- development and they feature ly, he collected about 7,000 appropriately in his herbarium. specimens himself, while his Sadly, the tools used to explore collaborators added a further ‘evo-devo’ today were not availa- 8,000, ensuring he was able to ble in the 1820s and so he had cover the 1,200 species of what little prospect of developing such Henslow considered native work further. species. He did, however, have a way to But this was no taxonomic explore the limits of a species – exercise. Henslow was driven by a hybridisation. If he could hybridise desire to understand how plants two plants and produce fertile developed, grew and behaved. offspring, he knew he was dealing Professor Parker explained that he with different varieties not was fixated with variation. species. He used this experimental The specimens in his herbarium, criterion to test his ideas – in this still kept in Cambridge, make this sense Henslow was an experimen- obsession clear. When, for tal population biologist. He also example, he collected a tuft of believed that this approach gave moss from the Gog Magog hills him a way, if he could accumulate outside Cambridge in 1821, he sufficient data, to establish the dissected and presented a full laws of heredity. Professor Parker range of size variants. Henslow noted that Henslow was wrong to carried out the world’s first make this assertion and, indeed, population study on a mathemati- that mistake would manifest itself cal basis to define living species by as a major weakness in Darwin’s the patterns of variation that they laws.

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But it is the scope of Henslow’s that the admiration was mutual. project that is most significant. His Henslow saw an innate brilliance 14-year botanical research in the failed medic. programme tried to understand In 1831, Henslow was asked to the nature of species, all built on a recommend someone to go on a bedrock of systematically collected geological surveying expedition specimens. around the world. His response Among those specimens in was remarkable – he put forward Henslow’s herbarium are some he an unknown, someone who was, collected with some of his in his opinion, “the best person I students on a fieldtrip to Gamlin- know for that position”. So gay in May 1830. And with him Darwin joined the crew of the that day was a young man who Beagle. Before he went, the would become Henslow’s most teacher sent his protégé on a devoted student, Charles Darwin. preparatory geological field trip to Darwin had arrived at Cambridge Snowdonia with his colleague, the in 1828 after dropping out of geologist Adam Sedgwick. He also studying medicine at Edinburgh. asked Darwin to bring him back His despairing family had sent him some specimens of night-scented to get an ordinary degree in stock for the herbarium. This is theology to prepare him for a life the oldest known Darwin speci- as an Anglican minister. The men, arranged to show patterns young man, however, attended of variation as Henslow demand- only one series of lectures – those ed. given by Henslow. Professor Parker noted that By all accounts, Henslow was an Darwin set off not only with the inspirational lecturer, pioneering skills his teacher had taught him the use of illustrations, field trips but also his ideas about how to and regular Saturday nature understand variation. He promptly rambles. Darwin became hooked. set about collecting population He attended Henslow’s lecture samples and started to see all series not once but for three years, sorts of patterns within them. He never missed a nature ramble, also collected monstrous forms enthusiastically participated in that Henslow believed to be a key field trips and joining his teacher’s feature in natural selection. And social evenings with some of the he sent his specimens back to greatest names in science. So Cambridge, where most still devoted was this student that to reside. other dons he became known On 6 November, 1835, while simply as “the man who walks Darwin was somewhere between with Henslow”. It seems, though, the Galapagos Islands and Tahiti,

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Henslow read extracts of his The teacher had helped shape the correspondence to a suitably scientific context of his student impressed audience at the and he was now able to help him Cambridge Philosophical Society. gain the necessary level of He had them printed and pub- recognition to pursue his own lished. Darwin had left Cambridge research. Henslow’s contribution as a ‘nobody’ with an ordinary to Darwin’s work was far greater degree in theology. But thanks to than a letter of recommendation Henslow’s efforts, he returned as a to sail on the Beagle. Professor respected scientist. Parker confidently described Henslow as “Darwin’s mentor and creator”.

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HRH Prince El Hassan bin Talal Inching Towards Peace – A New International Humanitarian Order Part of the Edinburgh Lectures Series 17 November 2009

In the Edinburgh Lecture, Prince which takes into account the Hassan El Hassan bin Talal of needs and aspirations of the Jordan called for a humanitarian whole human race, to do what we approach to address the problems can to put right what is wrong, facing the world and, in particular, not just with the environment, but the West Asia–North Africa with humanity as a whole. (WANA) region. Covering areas The issues facing the world including climate change, nuclear include: environmental concerns; weapons, water and oil, he said the growth in world population; that the human aspect must not the imbalance between wealth be ignored. and poverty; and violence which Violence and disaster, natural and springs from the need to defend man-made, are daily news, but or assert political boundaries or what can we, as individuals, do to religious faith. prevent them or at least mitigate Prince Hassan described many of their effects? How can we get at the groups and initiatives set up the roots of what goes wrong and to tackle these problems; he has change what grows from them? played a leading role in many of These were the questions posed these projects, including the UN by Prince El Hassan bin Talal in his Independent Commission on first lecture as an Honorary Fellow International Humanitarian Issues, of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. which he co-chaired in the early His talk was the RSE’s contribution 1980s. Its report, called Winning to the prestigious Edinburgh the Human Race?, outlined global Lectures series. It outlined the issues such as population, poverty problems facing the world today, and the environment. It also suggested how these should be described the plight of the victims tackled, and ended with a plea to and looked at man-made and the RSE and to Scotland more other disasters, including famine, widely to work together to desertification, nuclear power and address them. industrial disasters. In particular he said the problems The report recommendations should be addressed from a included a UN code on disaster “humanitarian perspective”, management, building global

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consensus and strengthening would be a basis for an equita- multilateralism. As a result, the ble policy on this, to allow Independent Commission on people to feel empowered and International Humanitarian Issues in control of their own destiny; was set up, but sadly the issues - Culture and education – outlined in the report still remain modern technology and pressing today. communications give us Prince Hassan said that the knowledge about other humanitarian perspective takes societies, but must also give us into account eight elements. understanding so that we can These are: draw strength from diversity; - Human solidarity – including - Universal consciousness – respect for human life and globalisation is not just about dignity now and for future economics or the spread of generations; capitalism; it is rather about the - Dialogue – between all the emergence of a common global world religions to mobilise consciousness which implies people to tackle shared prob- compassion and altruism and lems; where injury to one is injury to all. “We neglect the principle of - Security – which must be the ‘Global Commons’ at our achieved through winning peril,” said Prince Hassan. hearts, not by restrictive action, and by tackling the causes of Shared values such as respect, conflict, such as poverty and responsibility and altruism have marginalisation; helped ensure humanity’s survival and wellbeing from time imme- - Economy, energy and the morial, the Prince said. The start of human environment – these the 21st Century saw a change in common issues should be human conflict from earlier wars addressed together, with a between defined nations, to long-term perspective; internal struggles, such as those - Multilateralism – all parties in Rwanda and Bosnia. The events should share a common code of of 11 September 2001 changed conduct on security, economy the focus of debate from geno- and human development; issues cide to the prevention of terrorism such as arms control, reconcilia- and the risk of weapons of mass tion after conflict, and the destruction. The ‘right to protect’ environment, depend on such a became a major issue discussed in code; a number of international fora. In - Democracy and civil society – 2005 it was agreed (at the World such a common code (above) Summit) that every state has a

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duty to protect its population ted to a regional peace process from crimes against humanity and based on the Helsinki model, that the international community whose objectives are threefold: must help them to do so. Prince economic, human and cultural. Hassan hoped that a future UN Economy includes the all-impor- Resolution would embody these tant world resource of oil. He principles. believes a West Asian consensus For the final part of his lecture, the would stabilise the global com- Prince moved from a universal to a munity and relieve tensions at the regional perspective, particularly vulnerable ‘choke points’ of the addressing the region from which oil economy. Human security he comes. “A third world country, depends on preventative diploma- that is my first world country, the cy, he said. There must also be fertile (and at times futile) crescent action to address the issues which that embraces Iraq, Syria, Pales- arise from the displacement of tine, Israel and Saudi Arabia, with people, including those displaced Jordan in its midst,” he said. by climate change, conflict or economic circumstances. There are huge pressures on this region – which Prince Hassan calls Culture covers issues from poverty West Asia. These include not only to climate change and, indeed, issues such as Gaza, but also the impact of climate change on pressures on human, natural and human society, such as its effects economic resources. Water is a on nutrition and health, is major issue, which is why Prince blatantly apparent. A global Hassan has urged the creation of consensus is needed “on the a supranational Water and Energy control of water, on agricultural Community for the region. priorities and on health, and policies for the containment of The Prince has also established a migration, if poverty is not to Regional Human Security Centre increase,” he said. in Jordan and the West Asia– North Africa (WANA) Forum, which Now, more than ever, we cannot recognises that many of the afford to squander any of our region’s problems are shared by endangered assets on unproduc- the countries of the southern tive conflicts and war, the Prince Mediterranean, in particular added. He called for an official Egypt. He has called for the conference for security and co- ‘greening’ of the WANA region operation in WANA, the remit of and for a regional cohesion fund which would encompass a wide to benefit the region in the long range of issues affecting the term, not just in times of conflict. region. This would include a common policy on water control Prince Hassan said he is commit- and a robust “composite security”

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to prevent terrorism and reduce In achieving this, he invited the wasteful expenditure on defence. RSE’s help, saying that the body “Only then will a rule of humani- was founded for the advancement tarian and international law have of learning and useful knowledge. substance; only then will we build “West Asia is in desperate need of a ‘template for peace’ in WANA.” such support,” he said, adding Prince Hassan hopes it will not be that he would like to see lectures another 30 years before current and debates in Edinburgh on the problems are resolved. Indeed, he practical means of realising the can discern at least some progress goals he had outlined for West world-wide towards a new Asia. “Both our countries could ‘humanitarian order’. “Inch by benefit from an international inch we have crawled forward. exchange of research and enter- Unless we expand the scope of prise.” our efforts and increase the pace He concluded: “It is only by we may be too late,” he said. spreading learning and knowl- “Common understanding of edge of the facts and needs that these facts is now shared between we can hope to win the battle for the nations of the world, but we people’s minds, by which a need to turn understanding into resolution of the present prob- action, here, there and every- lems, in which we all have an where.” interest, can be achieved.”

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Martin Wolf Credit Crunch and Recession: What Have we Learnt? The World after the Financial Crisis in partnership with The David Hume Institute 25 November 2009

Martin Wolf, Chief Economics 2000s in terms of accumulations Commentator for the Financial of household debt, asset prices Times, addressed the causes of and global current accounts, was the current economic crisis and unsustainable. It is also important the prospects for recovery. His for the future, not least because lecture concentrated on the UK, our swapping of immense private whilst placing it within a global sector obligations for huge public context. The event was organised sector obligations is equally by the Royal Society of Edinburgh unsustainable. in collaboration with the David A second quote was from Paul Hume Institute. Mr Wolf was Volcker, who told the Economic welcomed by RSE President Lord Club of New York in 2008: “The Wilson of Tillyorn and Institute bright new financial system, with Director Jeremy Peat, and the all its talented participants, with event was chaired by Bill Jamieson all its rich rewards, has failed the of The Scotsman. test of the marketplace.” Mr Wolf The global economic crisis has not added that the Club is Wall only left the UK economy severely Street’s meeting place and that damaged, but there is no clear “there were probably a thousand sign that a route to strong and people there, and he told them sustained recovery is being that they were incompetent and charted. Mr Wolf argued that had screwed up completely”. The there are currently few indications third quote, from John Maynard that the conditions exist for a Keynes, was that “A sound banker recovery led either by exports or is … one who, when he is ruined, private domestic spending. is ruined in a conventional and Mr Wolf opened with three orthodox way along with his quotations which he said cast fellows, so that no-one can really light on the crisis and its after- blame him”. The collective failure math. The first was Stein’s Law of the banking sector, and which says “Things that can’t go subsequent bail-outs, has demon- on forever don’t”. Despite its strated Keynes’ point. simplicity, it is highly relevant, as Addressing the nature of the so much that occurred in the early crisis, Mr Wolf said the central

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insight he can offer is that it is of in the G7). The backdrop was one a type frequently associated with of accommodating monetary developing countries, but at the policies and regulatory failure. core of the world economy. It is a Mr Wolf offered a detailed classic Minsky Cycle. This began analysis of key causes of the crisis, with the emergence of new arguing that the decisive element opportunities – including sub- was “the scale of the growth of prime borrowing – which was the financial sector itself”. Over followed by the growth of a new the past 25 years its balance sheet class of lenders and which went from c.20% to c.120% of engendered a huge spree of GDP, doubling in the last decade – borrowing. An asset price bubble with the UK situation being even grew, then burst, leading to panic, more extreme, reaching 250% of as there was no way of identifying GDP. Even more extraordinary was the worth of assets and, therefore, the growth of aggregate assets of little chance of selling them. UK banks. This occurred within The crisis has involved a combina- the context of a financial system tion of macro-economic and which is inevitably fragile because financial causes and ideas. This it bets on the unknowable future. included belief in “the great Mr Wolf identified three character- moderation”, that the business istics which make the present cycle had been tamed, achieving crisis distinctive. These are: sustainable low-inflation, mone- - that it hit the core of the world tary stability and stable growth. economy This encouraged the financial sector to underestimate risk even - that lending patterns were though investors, such as pension complex and opaque funds, were eagerly seeking - and, more positively, that the higher returns. But the dominant most affected economies were factor was the burgeoning of able to spend their way through global imbalances and extraordi- the crisis. nary accumulations of reserves. Looking at the prospects for a Emerging countries, especially return to stability Mr Wolf began China, kept large current account by focusing on the massive surpluses and reserve accumula- retrenchment in private spending. tions, and became capital This means there is a long way exporters. This capital fuelled a back to private spending-driven house price bubble in the West, health and leaves us dependent made worse as consumers then on a government-driven economy. borrowed against their property In the UK alone the cost of public (with household debt markedly sector support operations, to higher in the UK than elsewhere avoid recession turning into

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slump, has been the equivalent of Keynesian models and ways of 74% of GDP. At the same time thinking; bank holding write-downs are - inflation targeting failed to about $600 billion, half that of deliver stability; the US. - and that we cannot handle At a macroeconomic level the UK, global capital flows in a stable like other developed countries, manner. has reversed its position from one Underlining the second point, Mr of spending far more than its Wolf attacked the concept income, to one where the house- adopted by central bankers that hold and corporate sectors have the difficulty of identifying slashed spending and are build- bubbles makes it better to clear ing up savings. The result is that up after they burst than to try to governments have ended up with intervene beforehand. This is deficits of wartime proportions because “the mess can be so large (UK indebtedness is projected to that it’s almost impossible to clean rise from below 40% to c.90%). it up … it’s far better even if you A return to economic good health don’t know exactly how big the requires some combination of bubble is to be roughly right than strong recovery in private domes- precisely wrong”. Mr Wolf tic demand and high levels of expressed concern about the level export-led growth. Household of global imbalances, saying that debt levels hamper the former and for emerging countries to be a structural lack of competitive- major capital exporters is “per- ness, plus inadequate global verse”. He characterised a demand, make the latter very situation in which “we have used difficult. This creates huge the excess savings of Chinese challenges in cutting the public households to build houses in the sector deficit without causing Mid-West that nobody wants” as further economic damage. At “crazy”. A rebalancing of demand present the prospects for growth is needed and poor countries in 2010 are below trend at only must be able to run current 1–1.5%. account deficits. This in turn Mr Wolf said there have been demands more effective global three big lessons for macroeco- insurance mechanisms. nomics: Turning to whether we can fix the - that contemporary economic financial system so that it doesn’t theory is in serious trouble – generate large instabilities, Mr modern theory having been Wolf was pessimistic. Whilst we abandoned in favour of do learn from history, we soon forget its lessons. The bail-out of

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financial institutions has negated which is too large to be managed one option, which is to make and contained. Even more people more afraid of the conse- worrying is that the response to quences. The other main option is each of the many crises over the to find ways of controlling future past 30 years has been the problems and making the system pouring out of ever more money. more robust. At the moment Mr Wolf raised the spectres of efforts are being directed towards whether the end games would be raising capital requirements and fiscal collapse or massive inflation. creating a more effective resolu- Mr Wolf concluded by saying that tion regime. However, Mr Wolf the current economic position doubted that these measures are cannot be sustained and that it is sufficient. Considering a series of unclear how the UK, and the more radical solutions being world, will return to stability. “In proposed by some economists, he the end I’m afraid that I don’t concluded that they either held offer up answers to the crisis. This too many dangers or were is a very disturbing event, and we politically unacceptable. However, have not resolved the crisis in any each points to the inherent way.” fragility of the existing system,

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Dr Paul Foster The Apocryphal Gospels Then and Now BP Prize Lecture 7 December 2009

The early centuries after the death two means by which they have of Jesus saw the creation of many been transmitted. One is through texts which have a claim to be repeated scribal copying – the gospels. Their contents are often most common means by which very different from the four New Testament and other Biblical canonical works – Matthew, Mark, texts have passed between times Luke and John. Delivering the and cultures. In other cases texts annual BP Prize Lecture, Dr Paul have been lost or forgotten then Foster, University of Edinburgh rediscovered, sometimes by Senior Lecturer on the New archaeological excavation. Testament, considered the There is a wealth of information contents and purpose of these within these “non-canonical non-canonical texts and what they gospels”. In considering what this can tell us about early Christian term covers, Dr Foster said he faith. preferred ‘non-canonical’ to “There are also many other things ‘apocryphal’ because it is relatively which Jesus did; were every one of neutral, while the latter is now them to be written, I suppose that seen as meaning spurious or false. the world itself could not contain The word ‘gospel’, he said, needs the books that would be written”. to be understood as it was in The Gospel of John ends by antiquity and not simply as acknowledging that it contains referring to a work such as the just some of the traditions about four in the New Testament. It was Jesus. If this reflects a contempo- strongly associated with the rary reality, that there were many Roman Imperial cult and was other stories and sayings in often understood as the oral circulation, Dr Foster said it is declaration of great events or fascinating to consider what they good news connected to an were and what happened to emperor. In a politically subversive them. move, it was adopted by the likes Fortunately, some early Christian of Paul to mean news about stories and sayings linked to Jesus Christ and his message of salva- were written down and have tion. By the later second Century survived to the present. There are the word gospel was being used

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for written and not just oral Judas and even he got it wrong by declarations. betraying the Lord”. The most Early Christians regarded a variety famous non-canonical gospel is of texts as precious and their that of Thomas, which consists of opinions differed as to whether a Greek prologue and 114, often more or less should be preserved esoteric, sayings attributed to in the New Testament. We now Jesus. Again, it may have been have extensive or fragmentary used by an elite group practising a writings from, or are aware of the mystical and ascetic version of one-time existence of, more than Christianity. The survival of several 40 gospel-like texts. Much has examples of the gospel show it been added to the corpus thanks was quite widely known in the to archaeological finds, mainly second and third Centuries. from Egypt. These include the The Gospel of Thomas claims to Gospel of Peter, which was part of be “secret sayings” of the “living a parchment codex (or book) Jesus” and promises life to those found in a Christian grave at who seek a higher understanding. Akhmim in 1886–7. During the It purports to have been written same decade two junior scholars, by Didymus Judas Thomas. Bernard Grenfell and Arthur Hunt Thomas was, in another text, said made, the Oxyrhynchus discovery to be the twin of Jesus, so gospel of 250,000– 500,000 (c.1,600– readers would have seen it as 1,700 year-old) papyrus fragments having great authority – taking in hidden deposits up to 30ft them back to the lifetime and deep. A third discovery, at Nag family of Jesus. The gospel is Hammadi in 1946, was made by reminiscent of mystery cults of the an agricultural worker, who found era which promised initiates a jar containing 12 complete special insights that allowed them codices plus fragmentary pages to progress to the spiritual realm. from around the mid-fourthth The text puts an emphasis on century. Many are of what is James the Just, leader of the sometimes termed a “Gnostic” Church in Jerusalem – brother or nature. The Nag Hammadi texts, half-brother of Jesus – who was suggested Dr Foster, may have put to death in 61 AD. It may been for an elite group of Chris- indicate that those who made use tians. of the texts had a “more positive More recently, the Gospel of Judas attitude to Jewish law and has been recovered, which attests traditions and practices” than the to a subversive strategy by “critics “more radical, pro-Gentile, form of apostolic Christianity. The text of Christianity spread around the mainly says the only apostle who eastern Mediterranean and understood Jesus’ message was beyond by the apostle Paul”. It is

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unclear whether this alignment Infancy gospels, describing the with a Jewish Christianity is a youth of Jesus, are a different strategy to assert authenticity for form of non-canonical text. Some the gospel or a theological of the tales proved highly resilient, position. including one from the Infancy Another characteristic of the Gospel of Thomas (not the gospel gospel, in common with some discussed above) in which Jesus is other non-canonical texts, is the chastised by Joseph for breaking concept of the transformation or the Sabbath by making a dozen surpassing of gender. This is clay sparrows. The five-year-old reflected in the statement about then brings them to life, which Mary Magdalene attributed to means no sin has been commit- Jesus that he would “make her ted. This was not only depicted in male in order that she too may later western medieval art but also become a living spirit resembling appears in the Koran. The tradi- you males”. Thomas continues tions in infancy gospels plugged that every woman who makes the gap left by the canonical herself male can enter into the gospels which said little of Jesus’ kingdom of Heaven. life before the start of his ministry. Some stories, though, run counter Moving to the Gospel of Philip, Dr to our own ideas of Jesus. In one Foster discussed the importance case another child ruins some of understanding non-canonical puddles of water made by Jesus, texts from the perspective of the who tells him that he will dry up – societies which produced them. the other child promptly dies. This gospel was recently made According to Dr Foster, it can be famous in Dan Brown’s “ripping difficult for post-Enlightenment yarn” The Da Vinci Code, in which people to understand the mind- it was used to back the idea that sets of antiquity, some of which Mary Magdalene was the wife of have Jesus performing miracles Jesus. The claim partly rests on which lead to others dying or references to Jesus frequently becoming sick. One factor is that kissing Mary, sometimes on the it was a time when “the more mouth. Dr Foster suggested that miraculous, the more spectacular this imposed a modern and something is, the more likely it is sexualised view of kissing rather to commend faith”. than a contemporary one in which kisses were a sign of kinship, and Different again is the ‘Protoevan- a context in which followers of gelium’ of James which promotes Christ may have exchanged their the idea that not only was Mary, birth family for their religious mother of Jesus, a virgin at the group. time of his birth, but remained so

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afterwards. Joseph is an aged According to Dr Foster, such a tale widower incapable of sexual is in keeping with theological relations and Mary is left intact traditions that establish a piety even by the birth process – which around the cross, some having it takes place when Mary is alone move or utter, others having it and a cloud passes over her – after planted in Hades as a sign of which the baby is suckling at her Christ’s victory. The text heightens breast. A midwife who arrives later miraculous content to show that and doubts the tale has her hand certain events demand belief – turned leprous until it is healed by and may also have been intended touching the infant. as a gripping read. The final text Dr Foster discussed The Gospel of Peter also swaps was the Gospel of Peter, his own the canonical last words of Jesus specialist area of study, which “My God, my God why have you begins and ends mid-sentence. It forsaken me?” with the less is a passion and resurrection problematic “My power, the which appears to pick up from the power, you have left me”. This point in Matthew where Pilate underlines that early Christians washes his hands of Jesus and were happy to reword traditions starts by saying that none of the and deal with them freely. Jews, or Herod Antipas, would do In conclusion, Dr Foster suggested likewise. By depicting Pilate as that the non-canonical gospels, simply weak, the gospel shifts with the possible exception of blame for the crucifixion away Thomas, do not contain traditions from the Romans and onto the that can be traced back to Jesus. Jews. Section ten of the gospel They do, however, offer many contains an embellishment of the insights into the piety and diverse resurrection which describes forms of belief among second and elaborate precautions being taken third Century Christians. They to prevent Jesus’ disciples remov- reveal a messy, vibrant and creative ing the body from the tomb. It set of ideas that was later replaced then has two Heaven-sent figures by a more monolithic orthodoxy. entering the tomb and re- “Maybe the lesson for today,” emerging with a third figure. The said Dr Foster “is that we should cross follows them out and after a be more comfortable with voice from above asks “have you diversity and not stigmatise those preached to those who sleep?” it who don’t agree with us.” miraculously answers “yes”.

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Professor Paul Jowitt FRSE Facing up to Climate Change The RSE Christmas Lecture 16 December 2009

This year’s Christmas Lecture was greater than those of Bangladesh. given at Lochaber High School, But if global warming results in Camaghael, Fort William, as part the predicted 50cm sea level rise it of the RSE’s programme to will inundate vast areas of organise events and discussions Bangladesh, exposing six million outside the Central Belt. people to disease and hunger, Humanity faces cataclysm and and forcing mass migration. While conflict unless it faces up to the immediate impact of climate climate change. Professor Paul change will be most severe for Jowitt FRSE, of Heriot-Watt those nations, and people, least University, and President of the responsible for its creation, the Institution of Civil Engineers, results could be catastrophic for considered what will happen if we all. While Hurricane Katrina was fail to act and the merits of probably not directly caused by different approaches to tackling global warming, similar events are the problem. Introductions were likely to become more frequent provided by Jim Sutherland, the and severe as the planet gets school’s Head Teacher, and RSE hotter. President Lord Wilson of Tillyorn The hurricane caused £125 billion KT GCMG. of financial damage to New “Climate change is real” – these Orleans but “the social cost was were the first words in a declara- far greater because a whole city tion by 11 national science was reduced to chaos,” he said. academies, including those of the Professor Jowitt showed how UK, France, Russia and China, in structural failings had contributed 2005. It went on to cite World to the rapid collapse of the New Health Organisation evidence that Orleans flood defences, causing a the bulk of greenhouse gas chain reaction as power and clean emissions, the root cause of the water supplies were cut. With no problem, come from the devel- access to money, fuel, food or oped world but that most deaths other necessities there was a swift linked to climate change are in breakdown in law and order – developing countries. even though it took place in the Professor Jowitt stated that UK richest and most powerful country carbon emissions are 50 times in the world. “What happens is

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that people’s behaviour reduces to Europe could be submerged, depths it would not normally do,” while areas of southern Europe said the Professor and warned: “it might become desert. Fragile could happen here too. It takes ecologies in areas of Africa, Asia about eight hours”. and elsewhere could cease to be Science is advancing all the time, able to produce food. but the expectation is that we are Professor Jowitt then asked the heading for global temperature audience to vote on a series of rises of 2–4 degrees Centigrade, questions about their perceptions sea level rises of 0.5m and the of the impact of climate change. vanishing of the Arctic summer ice What is the biggest threat from by the end of the century. Because global warming? the Earth takes time to adapt, a) Food security some effects of climate change are b) Terrorism already locked in and would take c) Access to fresh water (most place even if CO2 emissions were halted today. Nonetheless, the votes) economic evidence shows it is Is population growth a bigger much more cost-effective to act threat than climate change? now rather than to try to clear up a) Yes afterwards. b) No (most votes) Turning to the role of engineering Can carbon offset compensate for solutions in confronting the greenhouse gas emissions? problems we could face, Professor a) Yes Jowitt showed slides of the huge b) No (most votes) extent of flooding in Holland caused by the great storm surge The Professor likened carbon of 1953. The Dutch responded by offset (planting trees to soak up CO while still using polluting creating defences which allowed 2 them to protect vulnerable areas energy sources) to “giving money of the country. However, such to the hostel for fallen women solutions are not always possible. while still using the brothel”. The courses followed by large Bio fuels are not a solution but rivers in the low-lying delta the source of new problems? regions of Bangladesh are a) Yes (most votes) constantly shifting, making it b) No impractical to build barriers. Commenting on bio fuels, the Left unchecked, climate change Professor Jowitt highlighted that will massively increase the amount the land used for growing the of water in some areas and reduce crops to produce them is vital to it in others. Parts of Western world food production.

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What is the most effective source relies on profit and competition to of carbon-free energy? drive the development of future a) Wind technologies that will solve the b) Nuclear (most votes) world’s problems. Another was to c) Wave act in a more co-operative fashion, treat markets as servants not The best response to climate masters, and to act now. Asked to change is: vote on which they favoured, a) Move to high ground? around 75% of the audience b) Build defences regardless of chose immediate action. cost? The audience was asked to look at c) Tell society that it needs to the kinds of world that could take tough decisions and result from the success or failure prepare for the consequences? of policies that were optimistic or (most votes) pessimistic about the capacity of One of the chief difficulties for future technologies to solve humanity is that the future is climate change problems. These tough to predict. Professor Jowitt were characterised as a Star Trek gave the example of how, as world of slick and reliable technol- recently as 1957, most interconti- ogy, a Mad Max social breakdown, nental transport was by ship and a green Ecotopia, or overbearing there was little expectation of the Big Government. In common with mushrooming of cheap air travel. findings from the USA and This presents immense challenges, Sweden, the audience regarded because while we know that the Ecotopia as the best possible climate is changing, we do not outcome and was concerned that know the direction that society reliance on future technological will take – perhaps becoming developments could result in more selfish or possibly more co- social collapse. Ecologically- operative. Nor can we predict how minded approaches, said power and influence will be Professor Jowitt, were likely to be shared out between important the most reliable in addressing players like politicians, multi- seven major pressures facing the national corporations or ordinary world. people. These are: Professor Jowitt argued that the - Land demand; answers to these questions will - Changing demography; help determine where we end up. - Fossil fuel depletion; He used scenario-planning - Changing diet; techniques to look at possible outcomes. One option was to take - Climate change; a free-market approach which

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- Presence or absence of water; technology that permit clean and energy production from coal. - Urbanisation. At the same time measures must More than half the human race be taken to ensure buildings now lives in cities, often in slums, become energy efficient. This is and people are continuing to not just about ensuring that new abandon the countryside in and iconic structures are environ- millions. These changes and mentally friendly, but retrofitting pressures require concerted action existing buildings as most of them which takes account of a whole will remain in use for decades to variety of factors if we are going come. We also need to consider to cater for human need without the problems that can arise from destroying our environment. clean energy projects. In Africa the Professor Jowitt argued that the traditional sources of energy, such solutions require fundamental as charcoal, are vanishing. A plan changes in the operating systems to generate 40GW of hydro- driving human society. “There are power from damming the Congo lots of interacting systems going could bring immense gains. But on here … and we need to rethink we have seen how the Three what we are going to do,” he Gorges Dam project in China has said. resulted in mass displacements of Addressing the issue of how to people, damage to biodiversity, combat climate change Professor land loss and the destruction of Jowitt said the need is for far- archaeology. reaching changes in our Professor Jowitt concluded with a behaviour and the technology we call to engineer the world away use. Change has to happen at all from the environmental crisis and levels from individuals to busi- to tackle poverty. This demands nesses and to whole nations. We the creation of entirely new must also ask searching ques- infrastructures which reduce tions. For example, if nuclear carbon emissions, mitigate the energy is to be part of the solu- locked-in effects of climate tion, then it is important to change and prepare us for down- consider what will happen if there stream consequences such as is a sudden expansion in demand population movements. He added for enriched uranium, leading to that a new golden age of engi- high prices and shortages. There neering is needed if we are going also has to be planning for risks, to achieve these goals and guide such as terrorist attacks or the world safely to the end of the accidents. We also need to look at present century and beyond. options like carbon capture

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Professor Dorothy Crawford FRSE OBE Professor of Medical Microbiology, Basic and Clinical Virology Laboratory, University of Edinburgh The Invisible Enemy: A Natural History of Viruses Science and Society Book Discussion 26 January 2010

Viruses might be small, but they the equivalent of £400,000 in can be deadly. Light on their feet today’s money, being so expensive and quick to adapt, they constant- because they were weak and ly try to evade man’s best attempts unreliable due to the virus to keep them down. From small- infection. pox to HIV, from flu to ebola, The second question she is asked Professor Dorothy Crawford is why she wrote the book. She reminded us why we should take was “irritated with the press”, she viruses seriously – and why we said, because they persistently use should respect them too. the term ‘virus’ for all sorts of Professor Crawford began by “nasties”, routinely mixing it up discussing her book, The Invisible with bacteria; E. coli, for example, Enemy: A Natural History of which is a bacterium, but is Viruses. Seven years in the writing regularly called a virus. – largely because the field moves There are huge differences so quickly – it provides a scientific between the two, she says, and account of viruses. not only the size (bacteria are Viruses are tiny, but they are much larger). Viruses are unique, abundant, diverse and ubiquitous. because they are particles, not She is often asked, she said, why cells – “a piece of bad news she illustrated the book with a wrapped up in protein”, to quote tulip. This was because of tulip Sir Peter Medawar. They have no mania, which gripped Holland in molecular machinery for generat- the 17th Century. When tulips ing energy or making proteins so, were imported to Holland, the in order to survive and reproduce, Dutch created new varieties which they rely on host cells, which they were variegated, with breaks in invade. Although she often uses the colour. These became hugely the terms ‘smart’ and ‘clever’ to desirable. But, as it turned out, describe viruses, Professor the ‘breaks’ were caused by a virus Crawford stresses that they have (brought by aphids from sur- no brain, and there is debate over rounding fruit trees), which whether they can be considered stopped the affected cells devel- ‘alive’. oping colour. The tulips cost up to

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Nevertheless, they are the most urinating in the buckets of fruit to abundant form of life on the save the walk to the loos – and to planet – or ‘virosphere’ – have increase the weight of the fruit been around since ancient times, (they were paid by weight). are ubiquitous, and there are Factors which aid viruses to infect more than 100 million different and spread among humans types. Just one litre of sea-water include exposure to animal contains 10 billion viruses and, viruses, crowding and poverty, and laid side by side, the viruses in the travel. This is illustrated by HIV, the ocean would span 10 million light ‘killer’ virus, which has been years or six galaxies. “The stupi- responsible for more than 25 dest virus is cleverer than the million deaths so far, mostly in the cleverest virologist,” said George developing world. The source of Klein. That’s because viruses are so HIV has been traced to a chimpan- quick to evolve. Over the years, zee subspecies, Pan troglodytes. host species have evolved immune troglodytes. A technique called mechanisms to combat virus ‘molecular clock’ has shown that it attack, but viruses have evolved is a hybrid virus, probably a ways of evading host immunity. In combination of viruses from two this ‘arms race’ the viruses have monkeys. the advantage of being able to Although HIV probably first evolve faster. transferred to humans in 1900, it Viruses have evolved to spread in took around 60 years before it any number of ways – through began to take off. By 1959 it had skin-to-skin contact, in water, spread from rural Cameroon to from animals, in food and in the the over-crowded city of Kinshasa. air, to name a few. From there, it travelled to Haiti, To illustrate, she quoted an possibly with a single infected example from her book, which traveller, then, in 1969, to the US, involved a dinner at the elite where it began to spread through Apothecaries’ Hall. Two weeks the population and the world. later, the chef, a waiter, and 50 Crowding and poverty are dream distinguished guests went down conditions for viruses, whether with jaundice caused by hepatitis that be in a poverty-stricken A virus. The finger was eventually shanty town or a luxury cruise pointed at the raspberry parfait, ship, some of which have been hit specifically at the raspberries, by epidemics of gastroenteritis which had been picked near caused by norovirus. Dundee two years previously, and Smallpox too, the world’s most frozen. The case uncovered some deadly virus to date, probably unsavoury practices by berry- passed to man from gerbils or pickers, including the habit of

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camels and probably took hold ics of the past were caused by when man moved from the much the same factors which help ‘hunter-gatherer’ phase and viruses spread, that is, animal started to live closely with domes- microbes, crowded living, travel- ticated animals. And, as travel lers and poverty. times have collapsed, it has And it is still happening. In 2003, become much easier for viruses to there was an outbreak of monkey go global. It now takes under a pox in the US, which affected 71 day to reach Australia from the people before it was controlled. UK, whereas it would have taken a The finger was eventually pointed year in the 18th Century. at the exotic animal trade, which Persistent viruses, such as those had imported it in a giant Gambi- which cause warts, were inherited an rat. This spread to prairie dogs from our primate ancestors. They in a pet shop, which in turn rarely cause serious illness, and passed it to humans. “How mad is have a survival strategy designed that?” concluded Professor to cause long-term infection in an Crawford. otherwise healthy host. The Questions herpes virus family, for example, The talk was followed by an dates back some 400 million extremely lively question and years. It has co-evolved with its answer session, chaired by RSE hosts, showing remarkable President, Lord Wilson of Tillyorn. adaption, and it doesn’t go away. It covered issues ranging from The chicken pox virus stays in the whether viruses were alive to body once the actual disease has which viruses Professor Crawford passed, hiding in the nerve cells in respected most. the spinal column and sometimes being reactivated in the form of Asked if journalists who misused shingles – which can, in turn, pass the word ‘bug’ should be fined or on chicken pox to a new genera- otherwise punished, Professor tion. Crawford said she did not feel as strongly about that as the ques- Professor Crawford spoke a little tioner clearly did. She had even, about her latest book, Deadly she admitted, used it herself. Companions: How Microbes Shaped our History, which was One member of the audience published in 2007. This covers a described how he had been taken wider range of microbes, and to hospital more than 20 years looks at why epidemics and ago, having fainted in the night, plagues happened at certain and been diagnosed with a virus. points in our history, and whether Doctors told him they didn’t know our lifestyle was to blame. She what the virus was, but said that concluded that the great epidem- didn’t make a difference to the

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treatment, and he made a full Before the evolution of bacteria, recovery. Would treatment be so how did viruses reproduce haphazard now, he asked. themselves? Professor Crawford said he was Professor Crawford said there was lucky to survive, because we knew a theory that viruses might have far less about viruses then, and degenerated, and might have there were few antiviral drugs. once been free living bacteria. In Today we can diagnose more any case, as soon as an organism quickly and have more drugs at developed, viruses would be quick our disposal. to take advantage. Asked how the virus in the frozen Given that the story of viruses raspberries had survived, Professor keeps changing, does Professor Crawford said that freezing does Crawford plan to write another not kill viruses – indeed, the book? viruses used in her research are ‘Yes’, she said. She is planning stored at -20C “and they thaw all one about the origins of HIV, in right”. the style of a detective story – the Given that America had been work done to trace the spread is essentially divided from the world fascinating, she said. until 1492, she was asked, were Asked if we should still live with the persistent viruses found now domestic animals, including birds, the same as in other parts of the Professor Crawford said they were world? a threat (because they pass on They hadn’t really diverged, said viruses). Swine flu was a reminder Professor Crawford, which shows of that, she said. We’re never that they were very ancient and going to conquer viruses, so we stable viruses. have to think about how we live. Asked the question she had Would it be possible for man to herself invited, that is, “are viruses bring back viruses from outer alive?”, Professor Crawford space? There’s a possibility, but responded by asking for a there’s no scientific evidence so definition of what it means to be far, she said. alive. She believes that viruses are Asked about resistance to drugs, pieces of DNA which hijack cells, Professor Crawford said that so “does that mean living?” Lord viruses were already becoming Wilson asked the audience to resistant to antivirals – because vote, and, fairly overwhelmingly, viruses have the ability to evolve the audience decided that viruses so quickly. were not alive. The Epstein-Barr virus, and other herpes viruses, are the viruses she

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works on and are most respected now much safer. Working towards by Professor Crawford. Most eradicating poverty would also be human bodies are infected with good, she said. Epstein-Barr and, in most cases, it Asked if we need viruses to keep doesn’t make them ill. These our immune system in good viruses don’t want to make the shape, Professor Crawford replied host ill; they want it to survive so that that is a theory, but she is not they can survive, she said, and convinced, since vaccines also Epstein-Barr “has it taped”. stimulate the immune system. Viruses can already be used as Part of her work is looking at why technical tools, as vectors to take viruses hit people differently at DNA into cancer cells, for example, different ages, but she doesn’t she said, when asked about their have a definite answer yet, she possible use in medicine. said in response to another Asked if we can synthesise viruses, question. It might be that people Professor Crawford said we could who, for example, develop do so if we knew the DNA glandular fever become ill because sequence. Making a new virus their immune system over- would be risky, however, as you responds to the virus and causes wouldn’t know how it would act. the symptoms. Perhaps the There was a story some years ago, response is less strong in a child she said, that the USSR was because the immune system is less manufacturing a combination developed. between smallpox and ebola, but Finally, Lord Wilson, feeling sorry fortunately there was no evidence for the animals being blamed for that this had happened. passing humans viruses, asked if it She was asked several questions was a two-way street. Yes, we pass about what we could do about viruses back and forth with viruses. We already are fighting animals, said Professor Crawford. back, she said. For example, But naturally we pay more viruses used to be transmitted via attention when animals pass them blood transfusions, but these are to humans.

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Professor Antonella Sorace FRSE Professor of Developmental Linguistics, University of Edinburgh and Dr Thomas Bak Human Cognitive Neuroscience Team, University of Edinburgh Why Bilingualism Boosts Your Mind at all Ages 3 February 2010

While the number of bilingual families is rising, it is far from the norm for children in mainstream Scottish, or British, society to be brought up speaking more than one language. Antonella Sorace, Professor of Develop- mental Linguistics at Edinburgh University and Dr Thomas Bak, of the University’s Cognitive Neuroscience team, examined some of the advantages bilingualism can offer in childhood and later in life. The lectures took place at Oban High School, where the speakers were welcomed by Head of Languages Helen Hope. The session was chaired by Sergio Della Sala, Professor of Human Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Edinburgh.

Professor Antonella Sorace One Brain – Two Languages: Myths, Facts and Advantages of Child Bilingualism

In the UK we tend to regard languages spoken by minority bilingualism as something special, groups, such as Gaelic, depends but in most parts of the world it is heavily on persuading each normal to grow up speaking two, generation to pass them on to the or more, languages. This is next. In order to encourage and despite the fact that, in Britain, we enable parents, and others, to live in a society with tremendous pass languages on, it is important international mobility and in to understand how children learn which there are many multilingual languages. groups. “One of the problems that we Recent research suggests that at have to face is that there are a lot least 161 languages are spoken in of misconceptions about bilin- Scottish schools. “This linguistic gualism, so because of these diversity creates a real need for negative attitudes, sometimes information about how bilingual- children don’t have the opportu- ism works … this diversity is nity to develop more than one something precious, it’s some- language, even when they could,” thing we want to maintain,” said said Professor Sorace. These Professor Sorace. The survival of misconceptions make it harder to

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maintain minority languages, not future advantages in the job least because they can raise market,” she added. doubts in parents about what is There are other less well-known best for their child. The Professor benefits, such as gaining an outlined a series of common automatic understanding of how myths about bilingualism: language works. By having two - it delays a child’s mental names for objects, such as an development; apple, they understand that words - it causes confusion so the child and labels are a matter of conven- learns neither language tion and not natural – that they properly; are cultural tools. This may be why bilingual children often find it - it’s only useful if the languages easier to learn third and even are widely spoken; fourth languages later on. - it happens spontaneously if Bilingual children also find it both parents are native speakers easier to recognise sounds in of another language. spoken language. This can give The Professor said the first of them a head start when they are these ideas seems to rely on the learning to read in languages like curious idea that a child’s mind is English or Gaelic because they are like a box with limited space, so quicker at grasping that letters on you overfill it by trying to force in a page correspond to spoken two languages. The reality is that sounds. In fact, bilingual children the brain is very flexible, and are often more precocious certainly not geared to be mono- readers. lingual. Indeed, the delight about Far from leading to confusion, learning languages at an early age research shows that babies of is that it is almost effortless. If three months old are already able there is sufficient exposure, to distinguish between languag- encouragement, and if it is fun, es, even when they are very similar, then children will learn two, or such as Spanish and Catalan. Nor even three, languages. do children inappropriately mix up According to Professor Sorace, languages in conversation. Where research demonstrates that there people do mix it is not random, are significant advantages in but according to complex rules. In bilingualism – whether this some cultures the capacity to involves learning from birth or a jump between languages is a little later in childhood. These valued skill. Bilingual children include greater tolerance of learn quickly whom to address in differences, interest in other what language, which means they countries, and having access to have taken the major psychologi- two cultures. “They may also have cal step of being able to put

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themselves in someone else’s In looking at potential disadvan- shoes. According to Professor tages, she said that some Sorace, the ability to distinguish bilingual children start talking a between what they know and little later, but still within normal what someone else knows boundaries. They may start off emerges around a year earlier in with a smaller vocabulary in each bilingual youngsters. Similarly, of the languages, but the number tests have shown that their of words they know across the attention levels, ability to switch two can be greater. tasks requiring different instruc- If parents are to succeed in tions, and capacity to filter out bringing their children up to be distractions are also better. bilingual, they cannot leave it to Overall, the Professor said, chance. Transmission between bilingual children are more generations means they must flexible at reasoning, which can be make a substantial effort to useful in many situations. This ensure the children get lots of appears to be because they get exposure to each language and very good at blocking out one feel that it is valued. Where this is language when they are using the done, she concluded, it is an other, but being able to switch to investment which will prove the other straight away. These valuable for the rest of their child’s kinds of benefits exist regardless life. of what the languages are. Professor Sorace encouraged “Whether they are spoken by 50 anyone with an interested in the people or five billion people is issues she raised to visit the completely irrelevant, and this is Bilingualism Matters website at another reason for keeping www.bilingualism-matters.org.uk/ minority languages active,” said Professor Sorace.

Dr Thomas H Bak Bilingualism in Later Life: a Protection against Dementia?

Dr Bak, who grew up in the Polish Subsequently he went to universi- city of Krakow but had a German ties in Hamburg and Freiburg, and mother, opened by saying his own later took up posts in Switzerland, family had worried that raising then in Cambridge and now in children bilingually could cause Edinburgh. confusion. Nonetheless, he was In Edinburgh Dr Bak has main- exposed to German at home and tained his interest in language succeeded in picking it up. disorders, but is now also study-

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ing dementia. That day’s news added that further research is vital headlines pointed to the rapidly before the findings can be treated growing demands being placed with confidence, as there might on the NHS by the increasing be other explanations for the number of patients with demen- findings and in order fully to tia. Dr Bak added that medical understand the implications. science has had little success in If it is true that bilingualism leads finding drugs to prevent or treat to relatively higher mental dementia – the best available can function in later life, Dr Bak stall its progress for around a year proposed that it should also but are very expensive. impact on dementia, by delaying There is, however, evidence to its onset, making its effects less suggest that bilingual people may pronounced, or by slowing its have highly significant advantages progress. A study by Bialystok in coping with dementia. Work conducted in Toronto, where 50% with students in their 20s shows bilingualism means that languag- that those who are bilingual from es spoken are recorded on patient an early age perform much better notes when they are admitted to in certain complex cognitive tests. hospital, suggests this may be the This was true whether the stu- case. A small sample of 184 dents had been raised from their patients presenting with dementia earliest years as bilingual or had suggested that those who were learned a second language bilingual were developing the between the age of around four condition four years later. and puberty. Again, further research is needed According to Dr Bak the generally as there are many unanswered higher performance of bilinguals questions. One important issue is over monolinguals in non-verbal whether the key factor is the reasoning does not appear to be learning of languages at an early confined to childhood, or early age, regardless of what is spoken adulthood, but extends into old later in life, or whether the age. One study which points in benefits rely on continued use. It this direction was by Kave and is also unclear whether bilingual- collaborators, which looked at ism helps with all forms of around 800 people in Israel who dementia, or just some. had come from many different The degeneration caused by countries and backgrounds. “The dementia tends to be gradual and results were quite stunning, it is difficult to pinpoint its start – namely that the mental function there normally seems to be a pre- was better the more languages clinical phase where the brain cells people spoke,” said Dr Bak. He are dying but the symptoms are

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not noticed. In all but the final It is very much in the interests of stages dementia also tends to be the health service and policy selective, so a patient may lose makers to carry out more work to certain abilities, or kinds of identify whether bilingualism memory, but retain others. This is does indeed have a major impact important, as the less affected on dementia and to discover why. parts of the brain may help According to Dr Bak there are compensate for the more dam- parts of Scotland, such as the aged areas. Western Isles, which are ideal for In considering why bilingualism research. This is because they have might be an advantage, Dr Bak bilingual populations of similar suggested that one option is that social and genetic backgrounds. it stimulates the process that This would allow researchers to be strengthens the links between sure that effects they were different parts of the brain. Brains observing were related to bilin- with more and better connections gualism and not other factors. might take longer to start show- Such research programmes would ing the effects of degeneration. benefit the communities them- Alternatively, the reason might be selves by attracting greater clinical functional. Bilingual brains are resources and large amounts of better at control, resource alloca- funding, putting them specifically, tion and switching from one area and Scotland more generally, at to another. So if one area is the forefront of a hugely valuable damaged they may be better at area of study. This in turn, added getting another to take over. Dr Bak, would promote the Gaelic language and strengthen the view that it is an advantage rather than a burden.

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Professor Jim McDonald FRSE Principal and Vice-Chancellor, University of Strathclyde Energy ECRR Peter Wilson Lecture 16 February 2010

Scotland has an opportunity to per cent of its wave resource and realise its great renewable energy 25 per cent of its tidal resource. potential while developing other While Scotland’s peak electricity low carbon technologies and the demand is about 6GW, there is an required infrastructure. Jim estimated 11.5GW of available McDonald argued that the nation onshore wind power, 25GW could lead the world in creating offshore wind, 10GW tidal and an energy industry for the 21st 14GW wave. Professor McDonald Century. believes that much of this renewa- The Scottish Government has set ble resource would be exploitable ambitious targets for the nation’s over the next 20 years. energy provision. By 2011, 31 per Scotland is “blessed” with its cent of electricity will be from wind resource and has begun to renewables; 50 per cent by 2020. exploit it. Professor McDonald Furthermore, there will be a 42 lives a few miles from Europe’s per cent carbon reduction by largest onshore wind farm, 2020; 80 per cent by 2050. Whitelees Windfarm near Glas- Professor McDonald regards these gow, which produces 322MW targets as opportunities that peak output from 140 turbines, Scotland has to capitalise on if it is while there are plans for a larger to become one of the green development, the Clyde Wind powerhouses of Europe. This Farm, which will approach requires addressing Scotland’s 600MW. The largest commercially energy base – renewables, available turbines are 120 metres hydrocarbons and nuclear power across and generate 5MW each, – as well as the means to distrib- while a new generation capable of ute electricity. 10MW is on the horizon. At the Professor McDonald said that other end of the scale are micro Scotland could be particularly projects such as the eight 1.5KW effective in developing renewable turbines installed in the facia of technologies such as onshore and The Lighthouse building in offshore wind, marine, hydrogen Glasgow. and fuel cells, and biofuels. We Increasingly, the opportunity to have around 25 per cent of deploy such innovative technology Europe’s wind energy resource, 10 will be offshore. Scotland has

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some experience here. The take it to the limits of its technical Beatrice Wind Farm Demonstrator, capability. A range of ideas to off the northeast coast, was the replace this is emerging, but it world’s first deep water offshore essentially boils down to major wind installation, with two 5MW investment in infrastructure. turbines. Power electronics would allow a There is significant potential in multi-variable frequency power Scotland’s wave and tidal resourc- supply to take the place of the es. The country already possesses existing 50Hz, three-phase 240V an impressive research and supply that was the product of development laboratory in the pre-war technology limitations. “It European Marine Energy Centre can completely change the way in (EMEC) in Orkney. EMEC, which which we deliver and transmit Professor McDonald regards as a electrical energy,” Professor “genuine jewel in our crown”, McDonald said. takes research and development The big push is towards the Smart to demonstration and deployment grid. This would see large-scale in the world’s only grid-connected grids dissolve into hundreds of wave and tidal test centre. There smaller networks that could are more than a dozen devices reconfigure into autonomous currently being trialled, based on power islands. Power electronics university know-how, but also and advanced control systems involving innovative SMEs and would optimise network security some larger companies. and capitalise on the available Professor McDonald estimated generation. Professor McDonald that the marine energy industry is said the opportunity to redefine roughly where the wind energy the grid for the 21st Century has industry was 15 years ago, with to be grasped within the next five remarkable projects such as the years. Pelamis wave energy converter The mismatch between the leading the way. But he argued existing grid and the location of that to maintain a grip on this the onshore wind farm sites also opportunity, scientific literacy has suggests new infrastructure is to be retained and translated into needed. It will not be cheap. The economic development. 170-mile Beauly–Denny power Another significant area for line will cost £400 million. “If energy is in electricity transmission we’re going to rewire Scotland and distribution. The UK Grid was and add a potential subsea grid, conceived in 1926 and its 60-year- we will need probably more than old infrastructure is reaching its £10 billion of network investment capacity, with some of the chal- over the next decade,” Professor lenges linked to renewables set to 327 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

McDonald said. But without such Other important energy issues investment, he warned that include advances in technology Scotland will not have the trans- around gas and oil, which mission capacity to capitalise on Professor McDonald believed its renewable resource. would be around for at least Such networks might then be another generation. He also more fully linked to Ireland, the argued that nuclear power should south of England and Scandina- remain part of Scotland’s energy via. France and Germany want a mix, although without future European supergrid that might be investment, there will only be two further connected into the working nuclear power stations in Mediterranean, North Africa and the country by 2020 and none by then on to the Gulf states. The 2030. concept of a world grid has been Professor McDonald said there is proposed. Progress would be an opportunity for Scotland to rapid, Professor McDonald said. lead on carbon storage and Another significant area is the sequestration demonstration built environment, focusing on projects, taking high-quality demand-side management. This university research through to includes developing more effec- deployment, through initiatives tive use of energy, novel materials, such as the prospective Peterhead sustainable architecture and even carbon capture and storage new ways of living. One concept is project. Such an industry could to distribute power around provide Scotland with 10–15 buildings through the Ethernet. thousand jobs over the next This could supply low voltage DC decade. at levels sufficient to power Proposals to create a Scottish devices such as PCs. National Energy Laboratory could The poor performance of build- bring together and learn from ings leads to significant waste of ventures such as EMEC, the energy. Digital design could assess Aberdeen Harbour Demonstration the feasibility of more advanced Offshore Wind Farm, the Hydro- energy management systems. gen Office Demonstration Centre Building regulations might help at Methil and the Power Network drive this. “If we were a bit more Demonstration Centre at Cumber- demanding and ambitious about nauld. This would further bridge the types of specifications we are the gap between the research building to, we might move community and industry. forward,” Professor McDonald If this approach was replicated said. across Scotland, Professor McDon- ald argued it would present

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Scotland as an innovation hub for In an urban setting, Professor the world “where we cannot only McDonald is currently involved in conceive of energy ideas but get the Sustainable Glasgow initiative, to products that are ready to roll which aims to make the city one and support the growth of of the most sustainable and low industry and the creation of jobs.” carbon cities in Europe. The Professor McDonald emphasised creation of an integrated low- the need for a multidisciplinary energy system would create jobs, approach, which is being champi- reduce emissions and attract oned by the Energy Technology investment. Partnership (ETP), an alliance of While he acknowledges that the Scottish universities that he chairs recent lack of an agreement at the and co-directs. This includes not UN Framework Convention on only science and engineering but Climate Change in Copenhagen also the social sciences to address was disappointing, Professor the impact of these technologies McDonald argued that there is a on people. genuine opportunity for Scotland The ETP covers many Scottish not only to become a low carbon academic research groups that are country but also an international pioneering different fields that leader. This requires continued could have a significant impact on support for universities, develop- Scotland’s energy future. Scot- ing new skills for the renewables land’s research pools are already industry, attracting investment bringing together expertise from a and better integration of planning great range of disciplines to tackle regulation and investment. issues such as energy and climate “We need to act now, Professor change. McDonald said. “Scotland has The concept of wind crofting, great energy resources but we’re coined by the green energy not in a one-horse race – most of pioneer Gordon Proven, is the rest of the world is looking to beginning to generate interest. do this as well. We have a signifi- This would involve rural communi- cant opportunity to realise the ties harvesting the wind through commercial value and policy distributed networks of 5–10KW targets by getting genuine turbines over several thousand partnership between Government, acres. A low-cost DC network the private sector and universities would connect farms and homes and colleges. We’re big enough to and, through a single grid be significant in Scotland and interface, could have commercial small enough to be practical value by selling surplus energy. about realising this.”

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Professor Jonathan Rees FMedSci Grant Professr of Dermatology, University of Edinburgh The Importance of Being Red David Anderson Berry Medal Lecture 1 March 2010

Delivering the David Anderson differences in body area) are most Berry Medal Lecture, Professor commonly found on the tops of Jonathan Rees described his work men’s ears – not women’s ears, in discovering the gene which which tend to be protected by determines whether we have red hair. In the absence of hair, the hair or not – and discussed the pigment melanin protects against pros and cons of being red. the UV rays. Where melanin is Around half the patients who visit absent, the skin is not protected a dermatology clinic do so and, exposed to sunlight, will because of an evolutionary burn, or go red. This is because decision made around one and the rays damage the DNA in our three quarter million years ago. skin cells; when they repair, the That was when our ancestors redness goes. Melanin could be moved from the forests into the described as an inbuilt sun-block. plains and deserts, due to climate Indeed, Professor Rees showed a change: from the forest, where a slide showing skin cells with dark dense coat of hair was an asset, to melanin on top, much like “little the open, where we evolved by sun-hats”, as he put it. These shedding our hair and becoming melanin pigments absorb UV rays, much more effective as hunters thus protecting against damage. and endurance runners as a result. Genetics show us what happens This nakedness may have helped when melanin isn’t there. Various us sweat more efficiently (which is conditions are associated with why a human will beat a horse in poor melanin production, even in a race over marathon distance), those countries where protection but it left our bodies vulnerable to against the Sun would seem an the rays of the Sun, specifically to evolutionary necessity, such as in ultra-violet (uv) rays. The rays of equatorial Africa. Nevertheless, the Sun can be dangerous to there are forms of albinism in exposed skin. Skin cancers are Africa, which drastically shortens most commonly found in areas sufferers’ lives, and also vitiligo, a exposed to the Sun, such as the disorder found world-wide, where top of bald men’s heads, while patches of skin which have lost melanomas (when adjusted for pigment are vulnerable to Sun

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damage, while the pigmented Mendel, the ‘founder’ of genetic areas of skin are protected. studies, was interested in inherit- So why do people in different ance, and followed this through parts of the world have different by studying garden peas. He came skin colours? This was something up with what Professor Rees calls which fascinated the Victorians, an extraordinary hypothesis for who were great explorers and the time, on inherited characteris- who produced maps of skin tics. Peas inherit two ‘particles’ colour across the Empire. They (genes), one from the mother and noted that skin colour seemed to one from the father. Furthermore, be different depending on the if they are different, one will be environments in which people dominant and one recessive. His lived. These explorers did not hypothesis on inheritance was at come up with an explanation odds with the ‘experts’ of the time however; this being left to a man – and perhaps he was able to who by contrast literally only left come up with this because he was his garden once, Gregor Mendel. in part an outsider, not a career scientist, said Professor Rees. One We all recognise an association example would be sex – men and between place, appearance and women produce children who are ancestry, said Professor Rees, boys or girls, not an ‘average’ of speculating on the assumptions the two. It’s a binary effect. that would be made by two Mendel’s work lay dormant until people with red hair and freckles the turn of the 20th Century, and meeting anywhere. Oscar Wilde soon after this his ideas were said that it is only shallow people applied to the inheritance of red who do not judge by appearanc- hair. If two people who carry the es, that the true mystery of the ‘red hair gene’, but do not exhibit world is the visible, not the red hair, have children, on average invisible. Professor Rees thinks close to one in four of their that Wilde was on to something. children will have red hair. This Quoting Jacob Bronowski, he said pattern of inheritance, that “Man has only one means of following an autosomal pattern, discovery, and that is to find was described almost half a likenesses between things”. That’s century earlier by Mendel in the what genetics is – the “study of garden pea. that which makes related individuals alike and different at the same “Most of what we’ve learned from time”, he added. Humans have human pigmentation, we’ve been studying genetics for years – learned from mouse geneticists” with an interest in how to modify said Professor Rees. In the early inherited characteristics; for 1990s, scientists were able to example, in improving plants. explain the basis for many of the

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differences in coat colour (and that there isn’t a simple, black and other characteristics) in mice. This white answer – it’s ‘shades of grey, showed that the production of or shades of red’. The changes in brown melanin or red or yellow the gene differ to varying degrees pigment in the pigment cells (i.e. and it’s not all or nothing. melanocytes) of mouse skin, Using human genes, it is possible depended on the functioning of a to create mice in a range of particular receptor, the melanocor- colours. Professor Ian Jackson has tin 1 receptor (MC1R). Professor shown that creating mice using Rees and colleagues (Professor differing variants leads to mice Tony Thody in Newcastle and where the colour is not the same. Professor Ian Jackson in Edin- Although it’s a small gene, there burgh) set to work to sequence are over 100 variations in it. Some the MC1R in humans, and variations have profound effects, discovered that there were lots of but others have more moderate changes in this gene in people effects. with red hair. If the receptor didn’t There are degrees of red hair. work properly, you got red or People who have one variant in yellow pigment, and got the the gene are more likely to have ‘phenotype’ of a redhead. If it did auburn hair, whereas people with work properly, then you would two variants are more likely to switch on darker pigment. have strawberry blonde or bright While this pathway seemed to red hair. People who have red provide an explanation for red beards, but don’t have red scalp hair in humans, there were a few hair, are more likely to carry one problems with the idea. One was variant than people who don’t that while they were looking for have red beards. Similarly, people one change, or maybe two with two variants have more changes, there seemed to be freckling sites than those with no many, many changes. It’s unlikely variant, and people with one that people sitting next to each variant are somewhere in the other, for example, would share middle. Within each group – one the same sequence of the gene. In variant, two variants, or no the experiments, some people had variants – there will also be one change in the gene, some variation because, for example, had two and some had three – so other genes may be at play, so hair there must have been more than colour won’t be identical for all one change at this locus on each people. We can see this effect of chromosome. gene dosage not just on hair When you look at the pattern of colour but also on skin colour. inheritance of red hair, you find People with two variants are very

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sun sensitive and don’t tan, while There is lots of variation in MC1R. those with no variants are at the Why should this be? If one looks other end of the spectrum and at many genes, there is more tend to tan well and burn less variety in Africa than in popula- frequently. tions out of Africa. This largely Professor Rees described some reflects that Man has been in work done with colleagues in the Africa longer than anywhere else, West Indies on people who are and the rest of the world is in one ethnically black, but who have red sense a subset of African diversity. hair (‘Red Ibos’). Even against a MC1R is, however, very different. very different genetic background, Most diversity is in non-African the red hair shines through, he populations. How can we make said. sense of this? Although this genetic information In Africa, having pale skin and red is useful in a research context, it is hair would not be an advantage less so in a clinical environment. for those living near the equator. Although we are very good at Out of Africa, however, there predicting who will have red hair, could be an advantage. Pale skin we’re less good at predicting who is better than dark skin at making will develop skin cancer. Indeed, vitamin D (for which sunlight is we can probably predict it just as essential); for example, giving well by looking at the person, people with pale skin more without needing to sequence the protection against rickets, which DNA. could be fatal. Moving away from the equator, there is less UV Our knowledge of MC1R has radiation, so people with pale other uses, however. Red hair was skin, who are better at making probably the first example of vitamin D, have an advantage. where you could take scene-of- crime DNA and make informed For the last 25,000 years or so, guesses about what the individual humans’ diet has been cereal- looked like and be right a lot of based, and vitamin D status would the time. have been sub-optimal. Going out in the sun is a way of getting Another forensic application vitamin D, but it is hazardous could be using the genetics to because prolonged exposure to reconstruct our biological past – UV rays can cause skin cancer. We as done by a group in Spain some can define the extremes – i.e., the years ago, who published a study risk of bone disease or of skin showing that Neanderthals had a cancer – but are less confident variation in MC1R which would about what’s happening in the have caused them to have red hair. middle. It’s difficult to say how

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much sunshine people need and those without red hair. Professor what the benefits are between Rees said that he normally these extremes – there remains avoided expressing any opinions much disagreement between on such phenomena. However, different scientists and clinicians. recent work in mouse and man Finally, Professor Rees has argued has suggested that certain red- that the changes seen in MC1R hair- associated alleles are are as a result of adaptation of the associated with differences in pain skin to the environment over the perception. The biological last 50–100,000 years. However, significance of these differences is one should be aware that other currently unknown. If further less explored factors may be at works confirms these observa- work. There are lots of anecdotes tions, it might appear that about differences in behaviour sunburn might indeed be more and physiology of those with and than skin deep.

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Ian Irvine Technical Director, SgurrEnergy The Simplicity and Complexity of Wind: an Engineer’s Tale RAE/RSE Joint Lecture 16 March 2010 Part of National Science and Engineering Week (12–21 March 2010)

The energy in the wind is generated by the Ssun heating the Earth’s atmosphere which then cools as the Earth rotates on its axis, forcing movements of large volumes of air across the globe; a simple behaviour that will persist for as long as conditions on earth allow. Humans have been utilising this energy for thousands of years and used increasingly technical developments to efficiently extract its power. However, despite the general development of engineering capability, there is still some way to go towards fully optimising the potential of wind energy conversion devices. Ian Irvine, co-founder and Technical Director of SgurrEnergy, explained why he believes the origin of this issue is the character of wind and a general lack of understanding of the complexity of this renewable energy resource. Ian also explained his belief that remote sensing will enable wind energy technology to increase its contribution to carbon emission reduction. Full report ISBN No 1-903496-53-5

As climate change and declining more, the capital costs of con- supplies of fossil fuels become structing wind projects is relatively increasingly pressing issues, it is high, so it is essential to have becoming widely acknowledged accurate revenue (i.e. wind that we need to derive more of resource) predictions in order to our energy from clean and gain access to financing. renewable sources such as wind As a result, estimation of wind energy. However, wind energy is resource and character is the not without its difficulties, and single largest risk factor when key amongst them is the difficulty considering the viability of a wind of predicting accurately the wind farm project. The energy output resource and character at a of a wind farm installation is potential wind farm site. It is typically proportional to the often said that the wind is free, square of the wind speed. So the which is true, but the uppside to difference in energy output this coin is that it is also variable between a 6m/s project and a and difficult to predict. Further- 7m/s project is about 35%, even

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though the difference in wind ed to a long-term value, reducing speed is only about 17%. Given the uncertainty associated with this level of sensitivity, it is temporal variation. therefore crucial that a developer Turning now to variation in wind does as much as possible to speed with space, wind flow is minimise uncertainty in assess- affected by the local topography ment of the wind resource. The of the land, roughness effects wind character will have a signif- such as areas of forestry or cant impact on operational costs houses, and obstacles such as and turbine life. single buildings. In addition, it is When considering wind resource, also affected by the wind turbines it is important to realise that it that make up a wind farm. A varies both in time and space, and number of software packages any wind assessment campaign have been developed to model must address both of these issues. wind flow, allowing single-point Looking first at time, wind speed wind measurements from a varies from one second to the measurement mast to be extrapo- next, and from one year to the lated across a potential wind farm next. Standard deviation in mean site. However, these models are annual wind speed is about 6% in generally limited, and so it is the UK, which would result in a strongly recommended that wind variation in energy output of measurements are made at several around 12%. To minimise the locations across a wind farm site uncertainty associated with to ensure that the model is variation in wind speed over time, correctly calibrated and to reduce the ideal solution would be to uncertainty. The conventional measure the wind speed at a method for capturing wind speed proposed wind farm location for a and directional data has been the very long time, for example 25 use of anemometer cups installed years, before building the wind on met masts at various heights; farm. However, this is not gener- the data is logged and analysed ally practical, and so wind speed is using computer modelling typically measured for a period of techniques to build up a picture a year, and the data collected is of the entire site. This allows then corrected to a long term consultants to then design the value through a procedure called wind farm and position the wind Measure–Correlate–Predict (MCP). turbines. This involves correlating the wind However, Lidars are quickly data measured on site with becoming the tool of choice for concurrent data from a long-term this type of work. Lidars use a met station and effectively allows laser to measure wind data, and, one year of data to be extrapolat- compared to a mast, they are

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highly portable, can measure at A strong wind measurement various heights and are easy to campaign accompanied by good deploy. analysis and modelling will SgurrEnergy’s Galion Lidar is the typically result in an uncertainty in second generation of this mature the energy yield prediction of technology, transforming wind around 10%. This could make it measurement campaigns and easier to secure finance and the allowing a far greater understand- best possible terms. ing of this complex energy source.

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Discussion Forum A Question of Chemistry: The Role of the Composer and Librettist in the Creation of Opera 19 April 2010

In his opening remarks, Lord Wilson of Tillyorn, President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, said it was unusual for the Society to have an event focusing exclusively on the arts. Nevertheless, the word “chemistry” in the title would reassure any of the Society’s members who feared it might be straying too far from the sciences. He said the choice of subject illustrated the Society’s desire – in contrast to its London counterpart – to cover “the whole waterfront of intellectual life” in Scotland. Lord Wilson introduced Alex Reedijk, General Director of Scottish Opera, who was to chair the discussion panel. He pointed out that Mr Reedijk’s previous experience – as head of NBR New Zealand Opera, Executive Director of the New Zealand International Festival of the Arts and the first promoter of the Edinburgh Tattoo outside Scotland – had amply equipped him for the task of finding new ways to put across opera.

Alex Reedijk talks with composers and writers, After welcoming onto the stage Mr Reedijk had sensed a ground- his three fellow panellists – the swell of enthusiasm for opera and composer Stuart MacRae, the a desire to be involved in creating author Louise Welsh and the new operatic works. His task was Financial Times music critic to find a way of tapping this Andrew Clark – Mr Reedijk said enthusiasm. The template he that when he took up his post devised was Five:15 – an evening with Scottish Opera in 2007, he of five operas, each written by a faced the challenge of defining its new composer –writer partnership attitude to operatic creation in the and lasting 15 minutes. The 21st Century. The company had purpose of the 15-minute format developed a strong tradition of was to get works on stage as representing the 17th, 18th and quickly as possible. It minimised 19th Centuries in opera. It was the risk of failure, for the audience emerging from a difficult period as much as for the creative teams. in its history, but had yet to The first Five:15 duly took place in formulate a policy on new opera. 2008. It was such a success that Full-length operas could take up the process was repeated in 2009 to five years from germination to and is about to go into its third performance; Scottish Opera year. could not wait that long. In his

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There is another good reason for Canada, the Tapestry New Work working in the “short opera” Studio Company. Tapestry has format: contemporary opera in the paired three alumni of Five:15 UK has focused extensively on the with three North American composer. There has not been counterparts to produce another enough focus on the librettist, on batch of new works, one of which the narrative, on the idea behind has since been performed in the the opera. To help to shift the Russian city of Rostov – and a focus, each creative partnership in Rostov-based composer is Five:15 starts by providing a one- contributing to the latest Five:15 page summary of their proposal. It in Scotland. The Royal Opera is Mr Reedijk’s experience that House in London is also introduc- when it comes to fleshing out the ing various manifestations of proposals, the partnerships that short new operas. work best are those where the “I am quietly pleased that what two partners are honest with each started off as a small idea in other, recognising when material Scotland has spread around the had to be cut, either because it is world,” said Mr Reedijk. Five:15 not good enough or does not fit has been financed entirely from the scenario as it develops. private sources: that shows a Mr Reedijk defined opera as “a willingness of people in Scotland judicious blend of music and to get behind new and good theatre – a form of story-telling ideas. Looking to the future, Mr with music”. He said the 15- Reedijk announced that Stuart minute format is not an end in MacRae and Louise Welsh, whose itself. It is a muscle-building opera Remembrance Day had process which should enable enjoyed a success at the 2009 Scottish Opera to produce a full- Five:15, have been commissioned length work every two-to-three to write a 45–60 minute piece for years. performance by Scottish Opera in There is another, equally impor- 2012. tant dimension to Five:15. It has Andrew Clark enjoyed an international “viral To understand operatic creation spread”. Cape Town Opera has today, and especially the changing adopted Scottish Opera’s idea and relationship between composer is hoping to perform a Five:15 and librettist, some sort of context work from Scotland later this year, is needed: how has opera evolved alongside others made in South over the centuries, and what is Africa. Scottish Opera has also going on elsewhere in the opera developed a partnership with a world today? Picking up this privately-funded project in theme, Mr Clark reminded the

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audience that opera’s roots lie in musician and often an opera 17th-Century Italy. It grew out of conductor, as Wagner was, and popular entertainments involving later Strauss and Zemlinsky. He all the arts – music, song, story- was still subject to the censorship telling, drama, poetry, movement, rules of the day, but his genius design. By the 18th Century it had was the driving force. Librettists established itself in the form we were there to do the composer’s recognise today, but it was an art bidding. Verdi, for example, form for the privileged. The frequently bullied his librettists composer worked on a by-your- and substituted his words for leave from his patron – either an theirs. aristocratic public as in Handel’s The problem with opera in the London, or a ruling monarch, as at 20th Century, Mr Clark argued, Versailles and Saint Petersburg. was that it lost touch with its The libretto was little more than a popular roots. Post-1945 Mod- peg on which the composer could ernism rejected opera in its hang his music. It often followed traditional guise. While Pierre a plot that, by implication, Boulez famously called for opera underlined the wisdom of the houses to be blown up, Karlheinz ruler who had commissioned it. Stockhausen concocted wild and As the 18th Century progressed, wacky visions, as lengthy as they so did opera. It started to reflect were impractical. Luciano Berio, at the society around it. Mozart’s The heart a lyrical composer, re- Marriage of Figaro spoke of social nounced traditional story-telling change under the shadow of the in favour of what he called French Revolution. Beethoven’s “musical action” – a collage of Fidelio, written shortly afterwards, ideas with no coherent narrative. treated the themes of tyranny and Thanks to the enormous influence injustice. As the Romantic era of these and other leaders of the dawned, Weber’s Der Freischütz avant-garde, composers lost touch hinted at all sorts of psychological with the opera house. They complexities and social taboos. retreated into academia, wrote During the 19th Century, opera’s instrumental and electronic music popularity grew in harness with and favoured spaces and forces the rise of the bourgeoisie. The that lay beyond conventional composer was lionised: he had to resources. Opera was dismissed as entertain, but he also had to an outdated art form. respond to the romantic ideal of The same period witnessed the art as something edifying and rise of popular culture. Film and uplifting. Like his predecessors, he television supplanted opera as the was invariably a practising medium for communicating

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stories about life, love and the marketing over substance. Their human experience, absorbing selling point is the fame or much of the available creative notoriety of the plays or novels on talent. By the late 20th Century, which they are based. One type of opera had become an interpreta- American opera that has aroused tive art, not a creative one. The interest elsewhere is the docu- creativity was to be found in mentary opera, based on the lives directing – finding new meaning of public individuals of the recent for old-established tales. The past. Mr Clark cited John Adams’s opera house became a museum. Nixon in China as the best-known. The art of libretto-writing fell by Whether these works have the wayside. enough intrinsic value to appeal Since the 1990s, opera has fought beyond their immediate historical back. While composers and context is an open question. authors often lack practical Mr Clark reminded the audience experience in the medium of that for every successful opera in opera, Five:15 demonstrates they today’s repertory, there are still have enthusiasm for it. That is hundreds that had fallen by the a marked change from the 1960s, wayside. He said that if the art 70s and 80s. Some attempts to form is to survive, composers and revive the art form elsewhere librettists today need opportuni- suggest many would-be compos- ties, such as Five:15, to give their ers and writers are intent on ideas practical shape. They also ‘reinventing the wheel’: in their have to be allowed to make enthusiasm for experiment, they mistakes. The legacy for future have made elementary mistakes. generations should be a corpus of Some have not even visited an operas reflecting the problems opera house to learn from and preoccupations and artistic tradition. priorities of our time – just as In continental Europe, established composers and librettists of the composers are still writing large- past have done. scale stage works – mostly to a Stuart MacRae and Louise formula that tries to fuse opera’s Welsh vocal and dramatic essence with The two creative members of the the musical and intellectual legacy panel made their presentation as of post-war Modernism. Hardly a ‘double act’, taking turns to any of these works have joined pursue their argument and react the repertory. North America is to the other’s comments. In his producing full-length works, initial remarks, Mr MacRae usually to an old-fashioned recalled that he had spent much formula. Most are triumphs of of his early career writing for

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orchestra and ensemble, and that “For a writer that is very satisfy- opera represented a step into the ing,” she said. unknown: it made different Mr MacRae said one of the most demands. Outlining the history of positive aspects of the Five:15 his working partnership with Ms commission is that it takes the Welsh, Mr MacRae said they had form of a developing process, in become friends and admirers of which the creative team discusses each other’s work before they ever ideas with Mr Reedijk and the thought of collaborating on an stage director Michael McCarthy, opera. During preliminary discus- and benefit from their practical sions with Mr Reedijk about advice and guidance. What is Five:15, Mr MacRae had recog- missing from the education of nised that narrative was not his modern composers is the oppor- best suit, while telling stories was tunity to write dramatic music, a one of Ms Welsh’s great gifts. On genre that goes far beyond the that basis, it seemed a logical step process of working out how to to invite her to collaborate. put words and music together. Ms Welsh said she needed no Composers today are accustomed persuading: she had felt envious to developing relationships with of the writers selected for the first orchestras, ensembles and Five:15 in 2008. Writers spend a singers, but not opera houses. lot of time on their own, and so They will readily dissect any opera the opportunity to collaborate, they hear, but their analysis rarely especially with someone she knew goes beyond the music. It is and trusted, was too good to necessary to relate the music miss. Friendship did not mean intrinsically to everything else, they never disagree, but they do “and when you start getting so with courtesy. Their advantage involved with the medium as we is that they do not have to go have, you see it in a totally through the formalities of getting different way,” Mr MacRae said. to know each other, as many He added that most operas in the collaborators do, before being repertory have good music, but able to say “That’s rubbish!”. Ms what really makes an opera work Welsh has been an opera goer but is the way all the elements speak does not consider herself a to each other and form a unit. knowledgeable one. The chance Having the right words is an to learn is something new. She is essential starting point. In that not being called upon to adapt context, it is important to let the someone else’s play or short story, librettist take an idea forward and but to engage with a particular art not let the “composerly side” get form and write specially for that. in the way.

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Describing their modus operandi, Mr MacRae explained the rele- Ms Welsh said the germ of vance of a word-count: singing Remembrance Day – “the initial words takes longer than speaking spark and vision” – had come not them. It is necessary to maintain from her but from Mr MacRae. subtleties and subplots and keep They began by meeting in a café the piece working on various for a lengthy chat. Each would levels, while using the minimum then mull things over on their number of words; in that context, own and reconvene a week or so the composer needs to keep the later. She said Mr Reedijk and Mr librettist informed of places where McCarthy had “put us through the music could cover ground that our paces”. When finally the time might occupy several paragraphs came to write the libretto, more in a novel. Mr MacRae said that changes took place, because “a once he had grasped these structure and a plan are not the lessons and adapted his tech- piece, and as soon as you begin to niques to the 15-minute format, write it, things become apparent Remembrance Day became easier that weren’t apparent when you to write. The challenge now, started.” writing a 45-minute piece for Mr MacRae said the only problem 2012, is to hold the audience’s about their initial conversations attention over a longer span, was that they generated so many while letting the piece breathe, ideas: a lot of the creative process “because you can’t be at the involved honing down the threshold of intensity for 45 material to what was absolutely minutes.” necessary. In the end each had to Ms Welsh concurred, adding that go off and do their part of the one of the challenges of a longer work. Ms Welsh would make a piece is not to be frightened of it. first draft of the libretto, and after It is important for the librettist to “a bit of shuffling around” with trust the skill of collaborators, what she proposed, he would including singers and orchestra, then get to work on the music. and not to overwrite. What they Ms Welsh said she regards Mr had learned was that there is no MacRae as the “senior partner”. “right” way to create an opera: She will ask him about structure, each of the Five:15 partnerships timing and words; they will also has found its own individual way. discuss voices and instruments. Mr MacRae pointed out that, She said it is useful to have a tight while he would not dare to remit, even down to the number compare himself with Puccini or of words she can use. Verdi, “their work is what we are competing with for stage time.”

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Unlike in Handel’s day, composers the words. For the longer piece and librettists of the 21st Century now being developed, a more were not writing three or four traditional configuration will be operas a year. An opera company used – and there will be a greater might produce one full-length role for stage design. piece every three or four years, Another questioner asked how and that increases the burden of writing for the voice compares to expectation. Being part of a team writing for the page. Ms Welsh helps to ease the pressure. said she is accustomed to thinking Invited to comment on what Mr about the voice: even while MacRae and Ms Welsh had said, writing novels she reads each Mr Clark observed that it is easy to sentence aloud, “a good way of forget that until the late 19th pointing up what’s wrong”. While Century, almost everything an writing a libretto, she thinks in opera company produced was terms of rhythms and tunes, even new, not a revival of existing if she refrains from sharing her works. What Five:15 proves is that tunes with Mr MacRae – who said opera is alive and well, and is still he is glad Ms Welsh feels able to changing and developing. It tell him when she imagines a cannot not repeat the past; it has repeating rhythm in the back- to come up with new solutions to ground of a certain section, “as it old problems. may save me from having to work Questions and Answers it out for myself.” The question of design was Did libretto-writing involve a raised: how did it figure in the degree of poetic writing? Ms creation of a new opera? Mr Welsh said she sees the libretto as Reedijk replied that it had not offering more scope for poetic been the intention of Five:15 to turns of phrase than a novel, but “get bogged down in the artifice it cannot function properly of opera, scenery, props etc”, but without music. Mr MacRae added to focus instead on the truthful- that the libretto Ms Welsh has ness of the story-telling. A clear, provided for Remembrance Day open set, perhaps with a small has many poetic turns of phrase bench, encourages everyone to without manifesting itself as use their imagination. A design poetry. Ms Welsh said that what issue specific to Five:15 is the they are aiming at is an idea of positioning of the orchestra: for speech, involving half-rhymes and practical purposes it had been rhythms, rather than “actual decided to place it behind rather speech”. Before starting to write, than in front of the playing area, one of her techniques is to draw in order to maximise audibility of up a vocabulary list relevant to the subject.

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Did the composer need to be being told the story beforehand, aware of the sound of vowels at Ms Welsh said she likes to have a the top of the voice – and when copy of the libretto of the opera writing each role, did he have she is seeing, but usually leaves specific voices in mind? Mr the reading of it till afterwards. As MacRae said he has learned not to far as her own narratives are use certain vowels on high notes. concerned, she prefers not to give He has also learned to be sensitive away her surprises to the audience to this during the rehearsal in advance. process, making small changes How does a composer control the where necessary. Similarly, if a line musical/lyrical narrative within the of the libretto proves unsympa- overall shape of the work? Mr thetic to musical development in MacRae said that once the terms of rhythm or length, he has composition process is underway, had no qualms about asking Ms it is like juggling: you have several Welsh to make changes, perhaps balls in motion at any given time, by lengthening the line to suit a and with every bar and syllable, musical climax. One of the great the composer has to judge how it pleasures of working with singers relates to the character who is is discovering the character of singing, the other characters on their voices and how tailoring the stage, its place in the overall music to suit can improve the timescale and its relationship to result. Ms Welsh added that in the words before and after. The any creative work, be it science, pacing is partly dictated by shifts literature or opera, it is the solving in the libretto and the changing of problems that usually gives moods of each character. During most satisfaction. the composition of Remembrance Did Ms Welsh have a view about Day, it had been useful to keep a singers’ diction? And should the notebook following the mood of audience be given a copy of the each character, and trying to find libretto in advance? Her reply the patterns and threads within suggested the responsibility for that – a technique designed to verbal clarity lies as much with make the opera multi-layered and librettist as singer: part of her task multi-textured. At the same time it is to write words and phrases that is easy to overcomplicate the allow clear diction. “I have the whole process. Getting the pacing ego of any other creative artist: I right – the sense of a drama don’t want my genius to be lost.” moving forward – is the hardest [laughter] As to the audience task of all.

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Professor John Haldane FRSE Director of the Centre for Ethics, Philosophy and Public Affairs, University of St Andrews Thomas Reid and the Art of Philosophy 26 April 2010

Reputations come and go, as he hoped he would not leave Reid Gordon Graham, the Henry Luce scholars without something to III Professor of Philosophy and the take issue with. Arts at Princeton Theological In saying that, he was thinking Seminary, pointed out in his not only about the issues that introduction to this lecture on the Reid was most associated with but life and influence of Thomas Reid. about the nature of philosophy Two hundred years ago, a century itself, particularly in relation to the after his birth in Scotland, the star natural sciences as invoked as of Reid, an 18th-Century Scottish opposition to traditional philo- philosopher, was in the ascend- sophical understandings. This led ant. A century later, it had sunk neatly on to the “art” of philoso- without trace. Yet, 300 years on, phy – the title of the lecture - a in the tercentenary year of his discipline which may now be birth, his star is rising again. “Reid under threat. is back,” Graham said, adding So how was Reid’s reputation that no-one was better qualified recovered? The revival dates back to tell us why than John Haldane, to 1941 with the publication of Professor of Philosophy at St an abridged version of Reid’s Andrews University, who has Essays on Intellectual Powers of rekindled interest among scholars Man produced by the late Antho- on both sides of the Atlantic in ny Wolseley, who was at the time Reid’s work. in military service with the Dra- So much esteem is Reid now held goon Guards in the Middle East in that celebrations of his tercen- but later became Professor of tenary are being held both in Moral Philosophy at St Andrews Scotland, his birth place, and in University. Wolseley saw in Reid an America (at Princeton), where the affinity with the style of philoso- Scottish philosopher’s influence is phy then developing in England, still widespread, Haldane said. with particular attention to Some of the scholars who were ordinary language and the due to be at both events were diagnosis of sceptical philosophi- here today and although his cal theories arising from mis-use lecture was intended for those of the language. with no prior knowledge of Reid,

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It was possible to say that Wolse- to life as a critical philosopher by ley rediscovered Reid. He was reflecting on Hume’s sceptical certainly neglected, even in empiricism, which Reid sought to Scotland, partly because his counter by placing human writings were not easily available, knowledge on a better founda- but more so because of the tion than that of impressions and prevailing verdict on his Scottish ideas. For this reason, Reid was School of Common Sense system described as the Scottish Kant. As of philosophy. That verdict dates it happens, Kant believed his own back to Emmanuel Kant in the grandfather to be an emigrant 18th Century, but which was from northern Scotland, so he revived by 19th-Century Scottish could himself have taken that neo-Kantians philosophers, moniker. However, Reid’s anteced- namely James Frederick Ferrier, ents were in no doubt. On his Professor of Moral Philosophy at father’s side he had clergy and St Andrews. Prior to Wolseley’s officers of the court. On his 1941 edition, scholars would have mother’s side there were a to have gone back to Sir William number of distinguished mathe- Hamilton’s works from 1849. maticians. These ill-served Reid in two With this family background, it is respects, with their double no surprise that he showed an columns and small print and the appetite for study and intellectual long notes that Hamilton made to life. Educated at home until the improve them, when no improve- age of 10, he went to school in ment was called for. Wolseley’s Kincardine, then briefly to Aber- work had the disadvantage of deen Grammar before Marischal being an abridgement, so the College. At that time, Marischal serious work of producing a operated a regenting system in critical edition only got underway which each student was taught 20 years ago by Princeton Univer- natural, moral and metaphysical sity and Edinburgh University philosophy by the same teacher Press. These volumes are trans- throughout. For three years, Reid forming the study of Reid, was instructed by George Turn- Haldane said, so once again, as in bull, an important figure in the his own time, he is becoming read development of Scottish moral and appreciated. philosophy. So who was Reid and what was Turnbull could not have failed to his background? Reid was born in influence Reid. His principles of the manse in Strachan in Deeside, moral philosophy, published in in 1710, a year to the day before 1740, included particular claims David Hume and 15 years before that contain echoes in Reid’s own Kant. Reid, like Kant, was brought philosophy. Turnbull maintains

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that judgements and reasoned a world of objects beyond our conclusions in the moral sphere own faculties. should be tested against common Reid saw very clearly the meaning sense, which is fully adequate to of Hume’s ideas, perhaps more determine their truth or falsity. clearly than anyone else. He was in The idea that common sense fact the first philosopher to do so, provides a standard appears in as he was a reader of the Treatise Reid’s own thoughts, although on Human Nature, published in broadened and deepened. It 1739 when Hume was just 27. A became a term in Reid’s philoso- little over a decade later, Reid phy and has been ascribed to his published his Inquiry. It was only name ever since the publication in this that awakened Kant from his 1764 of his Inquiry into the ‘dogmatic slumber.’ It was a Human Mind on the Principles of quarter of a century later that Reid Common Sense. One school of published his rejoinder to Hume’s thought was that common sense philosophy, but he had been was literally another sense, with a working on it for many years. But sense faculty or organ, but this is it began with readings of Hume not what Reid meant, Haldane once he was established as the argued. It was not a distinctive minister in Newmachar, west of power of the intellect, nor the Aberdeen, in 1737. The years that common consensus conceived of followed brought marriage to his as a general opinion. It is reason cousin Elizabeth and the start of a itself, according to a set of family. Two of his daughters were principles, the negation of which born either side of the 1745 is self contradictory of self- rebellion. The same year, Elizabeth refuting. fell ill and Reid wrote a petitionary Reid describes this as the first prayer on her behalf, asking for degree of reason, which judges a her life to be spared. She was 22 thing self-evident and puts it to and her life was spared and she use to refute Hume. Hume saw lived on until 1792. Reid was then knowledge as rooted in experi- 82 and wrote of the “bosom ence, as did Reid, but in a much friend” to whom he had been pared-down way of flickering married for 50 years. Between impressions. On that basis, Hume times, he had been publishing, concluded that our ordinary had been elected to Regent understanding of the world Mastership at King’s College, in around us was a mental construc- Aberdeen, co-founded the tion. That produced a scepticism, Aberdeen Philosophical Society, because we have no direct gained a doctorate of divinity at experience ourselves that there is Marischal College in 1752 and later become Professor of Moral

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Philosophy at Glasgow University ambiguity in that it suggests two in succession to Adam Smith. philosophies. One is avowedly At the same time, Reid sold to a sceptical, which is what Kant and publisher the text of a reflection Ferrier were troubled by. In the on the scepticism of Hume’s sceptical system, certainties are philosophy. Letters between them dissolved into impressions and suggest a mutual respect, but ideas. In the second, we return to Kant was not as kind. But while a more mature common sense. there is no evidence of Kant ever Here nature is the beginning and reading Hume’s work, Ferrier had end of things. So was Hume an no such excuse to miss the point unsettling radical or a reassuring of Hume’s philosophy. conservative? One way of regarding Hume is as a certain kind of In 1774, Reid published A Brief naturalist; but how would he have Account of Aristotle’s Logic, his responded to questioners? How only publication while teaching at would he have responded to a Glasgow. A month later, he wrote real thinking Aristotelian, which is he was growing old and said he what Reid was? was going to retire. What he did, Haldane said, was set about Reid was in the middle, with Kant amending his lectures for publica- and Ferrier at one end and Hume tion. He died in 1796, followed by at the other. Ferrier is withering Kant eight years later, so within a (about Reid) in the 19th Century decade the two great anti- and he was influential, which sceptical contemporaries of Hume partly explains the neglect of Reid. had passed away. People have But, Haldane argued, if we merely speculated on how they might be look at the mind scientifically, compared. Kant’s influence has then we lose sight of what the been the greater, Haldane said, mind is about, which is conscious- and his imaginative powers were ness. Ferrier was over-ambitious in superior, yet his writing is more his attack on the commonsense difficult and most obscure where tradition deriving from Reid; but, it needs to be clear. Reid, by like Kant, alludes to the successors contrast, is wholly devoid of of Reid, who were second rate, pretension and lays great store on rather than Reid himself. He also clarity and brevity of expression. In brings philosophy into ridicule, that, his prose is the most modern doing great damage. If we have to of any 18th-Century writer. choose between a study of nature that is merely an observation of So Reid on the art of philosophy? objects or this crazed attempt to More needs to be said about define everything logically and Hume, Haldane said. The power of scientifically, then philosophy will his (Hume’s) thought resides in its lose out.

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The greatness of Reid is that he philosophy, there would be no negotiates a course between questioning of the directions in these two extremes. He believes which science was being taken. philosophy can yield substantive What Reid offers us is a view of knowledge about the world and the nature of philosophy that the cause of the world and the raises it, with dignity, into an conduct that should regulate us. inquiry into nature, but without But it is achieved not by pure logic the absurd pretensions of think- but by inquiry into the world and ing an inquiry into nature is some ourselves. sort of special domain of facts. We Scepticism is overcome by show- are investigating what is familiar ing its impossibility. But if there is to us, and what is revealed to us nothing to be discovered beyond in the wise and prudent judge- what science engages with, there ment that philosophy aims to would be no scope for philoso- arrive at is supported by the phy. But with no scope for principles of common sense.

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Professor Peter Raven, HonFRSE FAAAS President and Director of the Missouri Botanical Garden; George Engelmann Professor of Botany, Washington University in St Louis China’s Environment and the Future Facing up to Climate Change Lecture Supported by the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 12 May 2010

China has one of the richest flora crop agriculture, which started in in the world. Yet it is being the eastern Mediterranean 10,500 threatened by the environmental years ago and laid the founda- impact of the country’s remarkable tions of civilisation. At the time, economic growth and by global the world’s human population climate change. Peter Raven was smaller than that of Scotland argued that acting morally to today. By the time Thomas secure sustainability is the only Malthus wrote about population viable response to both challeng- growth outstripping the food es. supply 200 years ago, that global In 2013, botanists from around population was approaching 800 the world will gather in Beijing to million. Today a third of the celebrate the completion of the planet’s land surface is devoted to English translation of the Flora of food production, with 7.1 billion China. Professor Raven has been people to feed and another 2 to involved in the ambitious project 2.5 billion more projected before since it was proposed by Chinese the population curve levels out. scientists in 1979. He drove the Professor Raven noted that work forward in 1987 by devising individual levels of consumption an effective formula to turn the differ so significantly between second edition of the 120-volume developed and developing Chinese Flora into a more concise countries that the overall impact is English version. The endeavour a compound of population, not only recorded the great affluence and technology. diversity of plant life in China for When Professor Raven was born the first time, it also took Profes- in Shanghai in 1936, China had sor Raven back to the country of 500 million people, a quarter of his birth and fired his interest in the world’s population. Today it the impact of China’s enormous has 1.3 billion people, 19 per cent economic growth on the country’s of the world’s population. Its environment. economy has grown by around 10 Such environmental pressures per cent each year for the past two stem from the development of decades.

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Professor Raven said China and its species of plants. In China there 1.3 billion people will have a huge are 31,500 in an equivalent area. impact on the prospect of achiev- We rely on biodiversity for our ing global sustainability. As its food, most medicines worldwide, level of consumption has risen, and to add interest and beauty to China’s ecological footprint has our lives. Professor Raven estimat- quadrupled in the last 40 years. It ed there are more than 12 million has become the world leader in species of organisms, not count- the production of waste and ing bacteria. Only 1.9 million of greenhouse gases. Sixteen of the them have been given names, of 20 world cities with the worst air which perhaps 150,000 are pollution are in China. Air known about to any degree. pollution is now the country’s China possesses about 1 million chief cause of human health species, half of which are found problems, resulting in 400,000 nowhere else. Some are familiar to premature deaths each year. us, such as primulas, roses, China’s manufacturing economy is pandas and rhododendrons. also highly polluting. It has been About 5,000 plant species in estimated that environmental China are used as medicines. damage costs China 8–13 per Professor Raven described them as cent of its gross domestic product. a unique resource for China and Professor Raven observed that for the world that should be while basic environmental preserved. However, species are programmes are strong, the disappearing rapidly as habitat uniform application of laws across destruction, climate change, the country is difficult. invasive alien species, pests, China has a great deal to lose. pathogens and over-gathering Professor Raven described the take their toll. Professor Raven country as incredibly rich in said one think tank (www:// biodiversity. This is in part due to globalfootprint.org) has conclud- the way China’s mountain ranges ed that humankind is using about link the temperate north with the 160 per cent of what the world tropical south, providing organ- can produce on an ongoing basis. isms with a relatively easy Even as China has outlawed the migration route in the face of extraction of timber from native climate change. Furthermore, the forests, it has accelerated the many separate ranges have destruction of forests elsewhere provided places for the evolution to meet its requirements. of distinct species. In Europe, Global warming and climate where the Alps and the Mediterra- change make the situation more nean present barriers to urgent. The speed with which the migration, there are about 12,000

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Earth’s temperature is rising balance between poor and threatens the survival of many affluent people has to be found. species. Rising sea levels could Professor Raven argued: “We have take 30,000 sq km from China’s to give things up individually – the three major industrial areas by the change has to come from us.” He end of the century. Glaciers and explained that moral, religious the snow pack on the Tibetan and philosophical systems will Plateau that feed the major rivers have much to contribute to will be mostly gone by the end of finding solutions. To conserve the century. Professor Raven said biodiversity, information has to be the Intergovernmental Panel on gathered and disseminated Climate Change has estimated rapidly, while reserves in which 20–30 per cent of the world’s species can move in elevation species may be lost to the effects need to be built up with the of global warming this century. He involvement of local people. concluded that this challenge Plants and animals could be requires new ways to conserve brought into cultivation or plants and animals if we want to domestication if they are likely to keep them around. The increasing become extinct otherwise. Plants rate of extinction could wipe out have to be replanted and reintro- as many as two thirds of species duced even as the climate by 2100, the majority before they changes. have even been recognised by In China, it is essential to continue science. studying existing eco-systems to Rich biodiversity could only be establish baselines against which preserved in a sustainable world. progress can be measured. The Professor Raven said this requires principles of restoration biology finding sustainable levels of have to be adopted to set up consumption per individual and biological communities where the promotion of equal opportu- they’ve been destroyed. Ways to nity for every person, especially preserve species and make eco- women and children. He said that tourism sustainable are needed. new technologies are important, Professor Raven remarked that the but they cannot save the world midge is an effective way to without addressing the need for a control eco-tourism in Scotland. sustainable level of population He added that education is also and a moral standard of con- vital to make sure children are sumption. With 50 per cent of the interested in the nature around world’s population living on them from an early age. under US$2 a day, he said the Professor Raven concluded that ingredients for sustainability are the quality of the future of China simply absent at present. A better

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and the world depend on attain- when we can come to our senses. ing sustainability. Otherwise, the This will in turn depend on a level world will be less diverse, beauti- of national determination and ful and interesting than it is now. international co-ordination far He said: “It is up to us how and beyond what we have now.”

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Diabetes & Obesity: Getting to the Heart of the Matter A Joint conference with The Academy of Medical Sciences Supported by The Caledonian Research Fund of the RSE Scotland Foundation 26 May 2010 Full report ISBN No: 978-1-903401-30-9

The symposium featured experts the Royal Society of Edinburgh from within Scotland and across hosted a joint symposium, to the UK and was chaired by discuss the changing trends, Professor Jonathan Seckl FRSE consider contemporary findings in FMedSci. Speakers’ presentations diabetes and obesity research, and subsequent discussions identify the wider implications for began by considering the current future research directions in the trends in obesity and the role of field and explore future opportu- genetics, epigenetics and other nities to develop better factors in predisposing individuals preventative strategies. This report to these. The focus then moved to summarises the themes and issues management strategies, including raised during the event. the role of exercise and emerging Key points include: therapies. Finally, speakers • Obesity and diabetes will be considered how policy interven- responsible for a growing tions might help tackle the obesity burden of disease in the next 20 epidemic and the role of informat- years, with the highest increases ics in enhancing the translation of in developing countries. The rise research into healthcare benefits. in obesity and diabetes already The meeting was attended by seen in the UK and other around 170 delegates, including developed countries represents researchers, research funders, and a heavy burden for healthcare representatives from industry, the systems. However, the preva- NHS, Government and profession- lence of these diseases is now al bodies. rising in developing countries Rates of obesity and diabetes are and the circumstances are increasing globally. The UK has complex; for example, increas- experienced a particularly large ingly cases of both over- and rise in obesity prevalence and an under- nutrition exist within the associated increase in Type 2 same household. diabetes incidence. A similar trend • Research on genetics and other is now emerging in developing biological mechanisms is countries. On 26 May 2010, The providing new insights, which Academy of Medical Sciences and are expected to lead to better

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treatments. Research into • Novel technologies, including genetics, epigenetics and imaging, offer promise for metabolic pathways is begin- understanding the mechanisms ning to reveal the biological of the complications of diabetes differences between individuals and obesity in humans and to who become obese and those speed drug discovery. Progress who stay lean in the face of an is currently being made in ‘obesogenic’ environment. This molecular imaging techniques, research offers the opportunity which may in future allow real- to identify individual risk factors time patient monitoring at the and stratify treatments, increas- bedside and potentially improve ing efficacy and reducing diagnostics and drug delivery, toxicity. guide intervention choices, help • Foetal development is important to identify new therapeutic in establishing a predisposition targets and enhance drug trials. to disease in later life, and there • There is growing evidence to may be critical periods for support particular policy positive intervention during interventions that may be development. Identifying the helpful in preventing obesity, factors that predispose people but better quality evidence is to obesity and diabetes will be needed. National strategies helpful in determining how we should seek to prevent individu- might identify individuals who als from developing diabetes are at risk and develop effective and obesity, as well as treating interventions. patients already diagnosed. • Determining the most effective Government policy interven- management strategies will be tions can be made within the central to reducing the inci- physical, economic, political and dence of obesity and diabetes. socio-cultural environments, Academia and industry are and can be directed at entire seeking new, creative approach- populations or individuals. es to treatment. For Type 2 Scientific evidence and robust diabetes patients, current drugs evaluation can help to assess do not consistently offer tight which interventions are most enough control of blood likely to be effective and reach glucose. Developing new drugs the largest proportion of with a more durable and people, and thus which are accurate effect on blood worthy of further consideration glucose control will improve the by policy makers. quality of care for these pa- • Comprehensive patient informa- tients. tion systems can help improve care and increase participation

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in clinical trials. As management • Develop evidence-based prag- strategies improve, translating matic policy interventions to them into patient benefits reduce population risk. should be a central focus for Obesity is a medical condition health policy. Using informatics characterised by an individual to improve patient monitoring having excess body fat caused by a and to increase the availability higher energy intake than expend- of data and volunteers for iture. The excess energy must be research studies will help to stored and this is done in the improve the management of form of adipose tissue, leading to risk factors. It will also provide a an increase in body mass. The useful mechanism for assessing health implications of obesity are the quality and safety of newly significant, as it is associated with introduced management a number of other conditions, strategies. including Type 2 diabetes, The discussions clearly highlight- cardiovascular diseases, cerebrov- ed some important areas for ascular diseases, and certain types future research, which should of cancer. Obesity is conventional- seek to: ly measured through calculating • Refine understanding of the an individual’s body mass index contributions of genetic and (BMI) . Diabetes mellitus is a epigenetic, early life and adult disease that affects the individu- factors to the development of al’s ability to control their blood the obesity–-diabetes–metabolic sugar levels. disease continuum and to • Type 1 diabetes is usually individual risk in humans. present in children and is • Examine mechanisms of patho- characterised by the body’s genesis, in particular exploiting failure to produce insulin, the known and novel pathways hormone that causes a fall in revealed by genetic and epige- blood glucose levels. Insulin is netic data. produced and released by the beta cells in the pancreas, but • Consider how findings can be auto-immune destruction of applied to develop effective these cells means that they do validated biomarkers of such not function properly in Type 1 risk, particularly to define those diabetes patients, thus patients most likely to develop complica- must inject the hormone to tions. control their blood sugar. • Provide a comprehensive • Type 2 diabetes is more com- evidence base to define effective mon, approximately 90% of interventions for patients diabetes is Type 2 and it more affected or at risk.

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often affects adults. Patients spreading across the globe and gradually become resistant to the burden of these conditions the effects of insulin, despite and the associated chronic health maintaining the ability to implications has received atten- produce it. They must control tion internationally from their blood sugar through governments. The World Health lifestyle changes and possibly Organisation (WHO) has deemed drugs. however, as the disease the rise in obesity to be a global progresses, pancreatic beta cell epidemic, estimating that over function diminishes and one billion adults worldwide are patients may need to supple- overweight and that at least 300 ment existing treatments with million of these people are obese. insulin. Obesity is associated Obesity prevalence in the UK is with insulin resistance and the amongst the highest in the world subsequent risk of Type 2 and in 2007, the UK Government diabetes, thus the main risk Office for Science commissioned factor for Type 2 diabetes is Foresight to produce a report on obesity, with 90% of people the topic, ‘Tackling Obesities: with Type 2 diabetes having a Future Choices’. It estimated that BMI of more than 23 kg/m2. by 2050, 60% of men and 50% Type 2 diabetes is a more of women in the UK could be heterogeneous entity, in terms obese. Such high figures have of its pathogenesis, than Type 1. been challenged, for example, Further types of diabetes also data from the US Centers for exist, relating to specific genetic Disease Control and Prevention mutations affecting beta cells or (CDC) suggest that obesity may insulin action. asymptote at around 30-35% in Both types of diabetes are the West. However, even figures of associated with a substantial risk 30% represent obesity levels that of serious complications, notably will be accompanied by significant accelerated atherosclerotic heart economic impacts. The Foresight disease, eye disease, kidney report predicted that the cost to disease, peripheral vascular the NHS of dealing with over- disease and nerve damage. The weight and obese people could incidence of these complications reach almost £10 billion per year is significantly reduced with by 2050 and the wider costs to successful treatment of the society and business of obesity underlying diabetes and obesity. and associated conditions could reach £49.9 billion per year. The western world has seen a significant rise in the incidence of Scotland has a particularly high obesity and diabetes over the last rate of obesity and is home to an few decades. This trend is now active diabetes and obesity

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research community. The Scottish volunteers for research into the Government has paid particular condition. Scotland therefore attention to the topic as a nation- provided an appropriate location al health problem, supporting for a one-day symposium to research and looking for opportu- discuss the latest findings of nities to utilise promising research in this area and its initiatives in this area. For exam- implications, and also provided ple, the Government is funding a an opportunity for the Academy national database of diabetes of Medical Sciences and the Royal patients with the aim of improv- Society of Edinburgh to collabo- ing the quality of patient care and rate on their first joint symposium the availability of data and on a topic of mutual concern.

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Dr Deirdre Heddon Department of Theatre, Film and Television Studies, University of Glasgow The Art of (Women) Walking: an Embodied Practice BP Prize Lecture 7 June 2010

Delivering the BP Prize Lecture, who has based several works which celebrates excellence in the round walks he has taken, arts, Dr Deirdre Heddon took the perhaps most memorably his RSE audience on a journey – a 1967 A Line Made Walking. journey of many walks. Sharing In her previous work, Autobiogra- some of her emerging research, phy and Performance (2008), Dr she described how women are Heddon wrote about performance using walking in art and perform- and walking, but was struck by ance, an area which traditionally women’s relative invisibility. has been considered the realm of Together with Dr Cathy Turner (a men. woman artist who walks), she has A specialist in theatre studies and set out to redress that balance by contemporary performance, seeking out instances of women Deirdre Heddon’s latest research is using walking in their art. The nevertheless taking her into the idea was not so much to explore worlds of art history, literature and women walking, or, indeed, geography. She is exploring female artists who happen to women walking, when it is art or walk. Instead, it was specifically to performance. look at women who use walking In a fascinating talk, she described in their art, or walking as artistic how women are making art practice – as defined by the through walking, whether it be in women themselves. the heart of the city or the beauty If the history of walking and art is of the countryside. She described almost exclusively male, it has how women use what they find been popular through several while walking to make art – ‘movements’, albeit for different whether it be taking photographs reasons. The naturalists and of found objects, seeking out romantics – for example, Rous- nature in unexpected places or seau and Thoreau – enjoy the even using knitting as a means wildness of the landscape; for towards artistic discourse. them, walking is about getting “Think of walking and art and back to nature and leaving the male names come to mind”, she civilised world behind. The avant- says. For example, Richard Long, gardists, on the other hand, seek

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adventure in the day-to-day boards and street names, passers- surroundings of the city. by, roofs, kiosks, or bars must She quoted Rousseau saying that speak to the wanderer like a he only meditates while walking. cracking twig under his feet, like “When I stop, I cease to think; my the startling call of a bittern in the mind only works with my legs.” distance, like the sudden stillness Henry Thoreau took that further, of a clearing with a lily standing saying: “If you are ready to leave erect at its centre.” father and mother, and brother Situationist International member and sister, and wife and child and Guy Debord agrees, talking of friends, and never see them again; “slipping by night into houses if you have paid your debts, and undergoing demolition, hitching made your will, and settled all non-stop and without destination your affairs, and are a free man; through Paris during a transporta- then you are ready for a walk.” tion workers strike in the name of Walking, then, was seen by these adding to the confusion, wander- men as a throwing off of society ing in subterranean catacombs and its obligations – and a forbidden to the public.” moving away from the world, the Women who might want to walk world inhabited by women. in the night-time city, like the Woman is, in one sense, left Surrealists, however, risked being behind in the home by these ‘free read as streetwalkers – something men’ who go walking, but in which has inspired some to take another sense, she also represents matters into their own hands. nature (for it is her ‘nature’ that There are well-known women ties her to the realm of the walkers, such as Dorothy Words- domestic). Where there is a worth, but they tend to be in the reversal of the traditional roles – margins as ‘exceptions’ and to be such as in Ibsen’s A Doll’s House – excluded from histories of these it seems ‘shocking’, Heddon movements, said Dr Heddon. claims. Recognising a gap in knowledge The ‘bad boys’ of the avant-garde, about women artists using on the other hand, favour the walking, Heddon and Turner urban environment; yet they advertised on mailing lists, and follow a similar path, turning were impressed with the replies. ‘culture’ into ‘nature’. They look Some 150 women responded and for the new in the path well- Heddon and Turner have met up trodden. As Walter Benjamin has with some of them, walking and it, to lose oneself in a city – as one talking to them about their art. loses oneself in a forest – “takes Heddon described some of these some schooling”: “Then sign- encounters. Rachel Gomme, for

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example, has focused on ‘found’ displayed ‘outrage’ at such a flowers, which she picks up as she ‘pathetically limited life’, using it walks the streets. ‘Drifting is how as an example to prove the she walks, so we drift through necessity of developing derives (or Peckham in a response to the drifts). The group Walk Walk urban landscape.’ Gomme also Walk, Heddon says, respond to made a performance, Under- Debord by creating an ‘anti- growth, which drew attention to derive’, walking only familiar weeds growing in unexpected paths, recognising a splendour places, usually unnoticed; and and value in everyday walks. performed Ravel – walking while The women artists that Heddon knitting, incorporating items and Turner catch up with walk found en route into her knitting everywhere, town and country, and hearing stories shared by home and abroad. Sometimes the others intrigued to see a woman walk itself makes the art. Tamara walking and knitting. Another Ashley and Simone Kenyon, in The walking artist, Linda Cracknell, Pennine Way: The Legs that Make challenges herself with long walks Us (2007), walk as dancers, paying – as a woman walking alone, she close attention to how their tends to attract notice, unlike a bodies feel at every stage of the man in the same circumstances. 270 mile journey. The whole Misha Myers’ 2007 work, Yodel process takes on a certain simplici- Rodeo, involved bringing together ty, however, because whatever a group of line dancers to walk happens, their focus is getting up around the old city walls of Exeter. the next day and getting on the Other projects described pairing trail. walkers in different places, both One cannot easily essentialise the across Britain and over the women Heddon and Turner have Atlantic; while yet another walked with – each has her own involves looking for the unexpect- agenda and motivation; there is ed – a perfect ‘allotment’ style no single practice of walking for garden in front of a block of flats, women or for men. But there is for example. much to explore – such as scale of Many of these women challenge walking, cultural values, motiva- Debord’s notion that somehow tions and sociological issues, as there is something limiting about well as those directly related to a life lived in a particular locale. gender. We need to rethink what Debord tells of a female student we see as ‘adventure’ says Dr who basically walks in a triangle Heddon – we might even have to that encompasses the school of scale it down – but that doesn’t political science, her home and mean it is not adventure. that of her piano teacher. Debord

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Professor Valerie Beral Head of Cancer Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford An Epidemiological Perspective on the Causes and Prevention of Breast Cancer 15 June 2010

Professor Valerie Beral, Head of disease of nuns. Professor Beral the Cancer Epidemiology Unit, at said this observation was given Oxford University, argued that strength by Rigoni-Stern in 1842, there is compelling evidence for a who reported that it caused 2.7% close link between breast cancer of deaths among nuns in Verona rates, number of children and compared to 0.4% for other breast-feeding. She believes that women – seven times higher, and in the past there has been an over- a similar magnitude to the emphasis on the importance of a differences between developed woman’s age when she has a first and developing societies today. child. In fact, she claimed, some- A League of Nations study in thing happens to women in the 1925 showed that single women later stages of pregnancy which in England and Wales had higher has a protective effect. She called rates of breast cancer than those for this to be studied with the aim who were married. In 1926 Lane- of producing a breast cancer Claypon’s epidemiological study vaccine. Professor Beral was demonstrated that married welcomed by RSE President Lord women with an average 5.3 Wilson of Tillyorn and the event children were less likely to have was supported by the Cruden breast cancer than those with Foundation and Scottish Cancer fewer (3.5). She also found that Foundation. rates were higher among those Women in the West have a 6.3% who did not breast-feed. “For chance of developing breast centuries it was thought that cancer by the age of 70, compared women got breast cancer because to 1% in areas of rural Asia and they didn’t use their breasts for Africa. Understanding why, could their natural purpose, breast- provide the key for a successful feeding – and actually that’s right approach to prevention. and that is the reason why there Breast cancer has been known for was the difference in rates a long time; surviving evidence between nuns and other women, shows that it was present in and between developing coun- Ancient Egypt. In 1743, Ramazzini tries and the West,” said Professor described it as an occupational Beral.

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The Professor argued that our were on it then reducing between understanding of the causes of two and five years afterwards. breast cancer took a wrong turn in This, said the Professor, seems 1970, following a large scale strange to many people, as they study by MacMahon et al. This do not tend to think of cancer- claimed that births after the first, causing factors being reversible. even at an early age, give little or But the fall in breast cancer rates no protection against breast after women stop using HRT has cancer. The idea that age at first now been observed in around a birth is the key to breast cancer dozen countries, including rates became the dominant Scotland. theory. However, Professor Beral Turning to childbearing, Professor pointed out that Western and Beral asserted that age at first rural Asian and African women all birth does matter but is not the tend to have their first child at only factor. “You can also look at around 25, yet there is a six- to how many children someone has seven-fold difference in rates. She had and you can see that the added that if the average age of more they have had, the more the first childbirth was 19, there risk goes down, and down, and would only be a slight reduction down.” It takes around a decade in the occurrence of breast cancer. for the protective effect of ”If it’s just age at first birth then childbirth to show; indeed breast why do we have this big gap cancer risks increase immediately between developing and devel- after a birth. oped countries?” One reason the Professor became More recently, questions have interested in the Pill and breast been raised about whether the cancer was that she hoped that difference in rates may be due to the oral contraceptive provided environmental, lifestyle, chemical protection – but it doesn’t. Also, or genetic factors. In 1991, The the natural protection is not Collaborative Group on Hormonal simply related to pregnancy, as it Factors in Breast Cancer was set does not occur in women who up and has looked at the effects have been induced or had of the pill and hormone replace- spontaneous abortions. But the ment therapy (HRT). The Professor final factor in childbearing, which said the group found that “when does have an effect, is breast- people are on the Pill they have an feeding; the more time spent increased risk of breast cancer and breast-feeding the higher the when they stop taking the Pill the protection. risk goes away”. The findings Pulling all the evidence together, it were similar for HRT, with the is possible to estimate what the breast cancer risk rising while they

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impact on breast cancer rates Current trends suggest that the would be if Western women had number of new cases a year more children and breast-fed for worldwide will double from two longer. A shift to five or six million in 2000 to four million by children, rather than two or three, 2040. “The question is what we and to breast-feeding for two are going to do about it. It’s not years would more than halve the going to go away; it’s going to get levels in developed countries. “I’m worse,” said Professor Beral. not saying that’s what women Returning to having very high should do; I’m saying it does numbers of children is not an account for a very large part of the option, nor is concentrating high rates of breast cancer in the simply on cures; thus a preventa- West.” tive approach is essential. Of the When nutritional factors, includ- 50,000 annual cases in the UK, ing alcohol consumption and around a fifth could be avoided if post-menopausal obesity, are all women stopped drinking, taken into account, Western rates using HRT and avoided obesity – would drop to around 1.8%, still leaving the bulk of the closer to those of rural Asia and problem untouched. Africa. The Professor added that Emphasising that that she was genetic predisposition does make now straying into an area of a difference, but only for individu- speculation, the Professor said: als (and not as much as many “Shouldn’t we be thinking of imagine) and is not significant some kind of intervention that between populations. A woman mimics the positive effects of in the West with the lowest childbearing? We know that genetic predisposition to breast something happens in the later cancer is still at greater risk than a stages of pregnancy that gives typical woman in the developing life-long protection against breast world. cancer, and it appears to be linked Ethnicity is not an important to hormonal changes. What is factor, as black and white Ameri- needed”, she argued, “is a cans have similar breast cancer concerted drive to identify the rates, while rural Africans do not. source of this protection so it can Similarly, the incidence used to be be used to create a hormonal low in Japan, but has accelerated vaccine. “We know where we as social changes take place. should be looking but we are just Rapid increases in breast cancer not doing it,” she concluded. numbers are currently being reported in China.

365 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Professor John Brown FRSE Regius Professor of Astronomy, University of Glasgow 10th Astronomer Royal for Scotland Black Holes, Black Magic and Interstellar Travel 18 June 2010 SFTA, Port Arthur, Scalloway, Shetland

What are gravitation and relativity? What are black holes; how do they form; and what do they do to space and time? What do all these have to do with our existence and the possibilities of interstellar travel? Professor Brown discussed these near magical cosmic questions using demonstrations from his repertoire as a semi-professional magician.

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Professor John Haslett Trinity College, Dublin Professor Gabriele Hegerl University of Edinburgh Professor Heinz Wanner University of Bern Climate Change During the Last 10,000 Years: Reconstructions and Uncertainties in association with the International Centre for Mathematical Sciences 14 July 2010

As part of the 11th International land ice cores. The warming trend Meeting on Statistical Climatology shown was not smooth however, (11 IMSC), in partnership with the and after an initial strong warm- Royal Society of Edinburgh, ing, the temperature fell rapidly Professor Heinz Wanner and again back to ice age conditions Professor John Haslett explained for a short period of 600–700 to a packed audience details years, known as the Younger about climate change during the Dryas, caused by melt-water fluxes last 10,000 years. The speakers from the Laurentide ice sheet addressed both the factors influencing the Gulf Stream. After affecting the climate and the another period of warming during problem of uncertainties in our the Holocene, the climate became knowledge, as well as the difficul- comparatively stable, albeit with ties facing scientists in observable temperature fluctua- communicating the nature of this tions in the mid-latitudes and uncertainty to others. polar areas, and precipitation The first speaker was Professor fluctuations in the equatorial Heinz Wanner, an expert in areas. Professor Wanner men- palaeoclimate reconstructions, tioned that it has been proposed who discussed the key factors that this relative stability could affecting past climate. He showed have played a crucial role in the how the climate has changed over development of humankind. the past 20,000 years, warming A strong factor in the Holocene from an initially cold ice age climate has been the slow melting period until the present intergla- of the ice sheets, in particular the cial period, called the Holocene, gradual melting of the Laurentide by showing a graph of tempera- ice sheet over northern North ture reconstructed from America. This melting resulted in a observations made from Green- strongly rising sea level until

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about 7000 years ago. Also shows a gradual cooling due to a important is the melting of sea drop in Northern Hemisphere ice. Sea ice reflects light, as can be solar insolation. Finally, over the clearly seen from satellites in last 100–150 years, this tempera- space, as opposed to the sea ture trend has been reversed, with which absorbs and therefore the temperature showing a appears black; consequently the warming. This change in the quantity of sea ice is hugely energy input has other effects, influential for our climate. Since most notably a change in the we have no precise information position of the Intertropical about its quantity, this represents Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which is one of the greatest uncertainties an area of high convection near in our understanding of the the Equator. The solar insolation Holocene climate. change has caused the ITCZ to One of the key drivers of climate move southward which, in turn, during the Holocene is the change has caused a weakening of the in solar radiation due to variations monsoons over the last 6,000 in the Earth’s orbit round the Sun. years. Also important is the effect Over the last 10,000 years, the of the change in energy input on summer solar insolation in the glacier dynamics. Observations of Northern Hemisphere has de- tree-rings, moraines and sedi- clined by approximately 40Wm-2, ments show that over the last a significantly large amount. 6,000 years glaciers have been Conversely, the summer insolation advancing in the Northern in the Southern Hemisphere has Hemisphere while they possibly been gradually increasing. These retreated in the Southern Hemi- changes have had a large influ- sphere. ence on the climate of the As well as these long-term trends, Holocene, which can be roughly the observational record also divided into four periods. The shows periods of rapid climate first, ‘temperate’ period is charac- change where the temperature terised by the Northern rapidly cools, referred to as ‘Bond Hemisphere ice sheet melt, and a cycles’, identified by looking at successive warming due to the sediments in the Atlantic Ocean. It stronger solar insolation. The is thought that some of the early middle, ‘warm’, period, also events may be due to changes in referred to as the ‘optimal’ period, the thermohaline circulation; has the warmest temperature, also however the cause of the later attributable to warming from the events is still highly uncertain. ocean, which integrated the high Looking at the last 1,000 years, Northern Hemisphere summer temperature reconstructions show insolation. The third ‘cool’ period that, on average, temperature was

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higher during the Medieval Warm Professor Wanner concluded his Period (MWP) and lower during talk by discussing the impact of the Little Ice Age (LIA). However, if recent climate change on man- we look at maps showing temper- kind. People in the richer ature anomalies for these periods, developed countries in the north the situation is more complex. It such as Scotland and Switzerland can be clearly seen that while (his own country), might be able many areas were warmer during to afford to adapt to the changes, the MWP, there were also areas but people in the developing which were actually colder; equally world, particularly in the areas during the LIA, although many predicted to get drier around Asia, areas were colder, there were also Africa and Latin America, will face areas showing increased tempera- real problems. ture. The second speaker was Professor Studies show that over the last John Haslett, a statistician from 1,000 years, volcanoes have been Trinity College, Dublin. He strongly influential on the climate, primarily addressed the issue of having a cooling effect; in addi- uncertainty and how this can be tion, changes in solar activity have communicated. “How much do also had some influence. Over the we know these things? How much last couple of centuries, the of them do we know?” human (anthropogenic) influence Professor Haslett showed how it is has been rapidly growing due to possible for scientists to commu- the burning of fossil fuels. Models nicate uncertainty to other including these forcings have scientists by the use of error bars. been developed and the effect of But how does the media ‘do’ these forcings, both in the model uncertainty? He demonstrated this results and in observations, can be by use of an example. Data from seen. These models show us that Glendalough, a glacial valley in the anthropogenic forcings Ireland, indicated a period of outweigh the natural forcings rapid climate change in the past. over the most recent period, with About 10,000 years ago, there a high degree of certainty. It is a was a period of rapid warming, still an open question as to what when the climate went from an the climate would have been like extremely severe cold climate to now if the anthropogenic influ- one not unlike today’s climate. No ence had been removed, although one knows for sure over how it is thought that it would have short a period this warming took been similar to either the LIA or to place; however the scientists are conditions experienced around reasonably certain that it probably 1900. happened over a period of less

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than 30 years, and maybe even as photos, thus illustrating the short as seven. A national news- problems in communicating paper took up this story and scientific ideas and uncertainty to illustrated it with a large picture the public. showing, on one side, a current Professor Haslett explained that photo of Glendalough and, on although mathematicians can do the other, a photo of the same proofs, statisticians, scientists and location with glaciers and ice even the law struggle with them, superimposed, with a title “How (although in many cases it is Wicklow went from Arctic to mild possible to disprove an idea by in seven years ...”. proposing a single counter Scientists have investigated this example). This then means episode by collecting many uncertainty is involved. It is different types of data, called possible to study our uncertainty – ‘proxies’, from around Glen- statisticians make a living out of it, dalough; for example pollen – but it is much harder to commu- found in mud cores. It is then nicate it. The website possible for scientists to calculate Understanding Uncertainty, set up many different scenarios that are by David Spiegelhalter, the Winton consistent with the data. This then Professor of the Public Under- allows for plots which show standing of Risk, does a good job statistical uncertainty, and make of this. possible statements such as The talk concluded by discussing “ninety five percent of models the large discrepancy between the which fit the data lie within a scientific view on climate change certain range”. Rapid climate and the public. The scientific change such as this has been community, almost to a man, is found to occur frequently in the united in believing one thing, but past, and is an important, signifi- public opinion instead is divided. cant and interesting Communicating the science to the phenomenon. When the audience public is an important and were asked whether the photos difficult task and one in which from the newspaper were more what the press say is probably memorable than the scientific more important than what the plots, the majority picked the scientists say.

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Lord Nicholas Stern Kt FBA IG Patel Professor of Economics and Government, London School of Economics Global Action on Climate Change: the Road to Cancun Facing up to Climate Change Lecture 24 August 2010

Despite the gloomy outcome of problem. Global warming is being the Copenhagen Summit, Nicho- caused by the increasing concen- las Stern is optimistic that an tration of greenhouse gases in the international agreement to tackle atmosphere, currently 435ppm climate change could emerge (parts per million) of carbon within the next two years. The dioxide equivalent. These gases man whose team produced the are being emitted faster than the Stern Review on the Economics of planet can absorb them and so Climate Change in 2006 argues more energy is being trapped, that the existence and effective- driving up temperatures. These ness of such an agreement will be higher temperatures lead, in a determined by political will. fairly complicated way, to climate Lord Stern argued that there are change. two defining challenges of the Each year about 2.5ppm carbon 21st Century – managing climate dioxide equivalent is being added change and overcoming poverty; to the atmosphere, and that rate failure to tackle one spells failure is increasing. Given that the tackling the other. If climate current level of concentrations is change is not addressed, the around 435ppm, over a century, environment will become too concentrations will rise to around hostile for development. But if 750ppm or more if no action is addressing climate change taken to curb greenhouse gas requires strong constraints on emissions. This will result in living standards in developing perhaps a 50 per cent chance of a countries in the next two or three temperature rise of 5°C above decades, it will be impossible to pre-industrial levels, a mean create the necessary international temperature not known on the coalition. This interrelation planet for some 30 million years. underpinned Lord Stern’s argu- The climate change that will ment. follow might lead to southern Lord Stern outlined the basic Europe becoming like the Sahara climate change argument, as he Desert, to many low-lying parts of recognised that not everyone has the world being inundated by the understood the magnitude of the sea, and to the collapse of the

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Amazon rainforest. We cannot 2050, taking projected global predict the temperature increase population increases into consid- or its consequence with certainty; eration. this is about risk management. The good news is that ways to But we should recognise that the achieve these goals are being risks are potentially immense. developed rapidly. Lord Stern said Lord Stern warned that perhaps the reductions could be produced billions of people will need to by energy efficiency, low carbon move. “We’re talking about technology and by stopping prolonged, severe global con- deforestation. This amounts to flict,” he said. “These are the what he described as a new kinds of stakes we’re playing for.” energy-industrial revolution. The Stern Review of 2006 under- Lord Stern said that previous estimated many of those risks, he industrial revolutions had involved argued. Greenhouse gas concen- an initial surge of investment trations are building faster than lasting two or three decades. He the economists had expected, the predicted that the transition to a ability of the planet to absorb low-carbon economy that an them is deteriorating more rapidly energy industrial revolution will than had previously been under- entail could be a very dynamic stood, and some of the impacts of period. Whilst this is motivated by climate change are manifesting a necessity to cut climate risk, the themselves earlier than anticipat- result could be a dynamic growth ed. Lord Stern said the magnitude surge for 30 years or more. That of the response to this challenge could be particularly attractive to has to correspond to the magni- developing countries, where the tude of the risk. challenge of overcoming poverty Currently, around 47 billion is so important. “If we don’t get tonnes of carbon dioxide equiva- growth, we won’t get a coalition,” lent are emitted per year. Lord Lord Stern said. And when we Stern argued that to give humani- achieve low-carbon growth, it will ty a 50:50 chance of limiting the be more energy-secure, cleaner, temperature rise to 2°C above quieter, safer and more bio- that of the mid 19th Century, this diverse; in other words much total would have to be reduced to more attractive than current well below 35 billion tonnes per forms. And any attempt at high- annum by 2030, and well below carbon growth will kill itself from 20 billion tonnes by 2050. Per the very destructive environment it capita, this means cutting today’s would create. level of seven tonnes to four by The signs are encouraging. Lord 2030, and to around two by Stern observed that the flow of

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low-carbon ideas in the last few see the full consequences of our years in fields such as transport, ways, it will be too late. architecture, power generation On a national level, helping and agriculture has been extraor- people understand the magnitude dinary. of the risks they face is of funda- The focus of the economic policy mental importance. Lord Stern side of climate change manage- said it is also vital that they ment is on market failure. Lord understand that actions to reduce Stern said that markets failed the risks can have attractive when they did not reflect the costs aspects. He said that the price of of actions and that there is a big some things will go up and that cost to the emissions of green- electricity, for example, might cost house gases. He argued that 15 to 20 per cent more. But there emissions are being systematically will also be the many economic subsidised because they are not and social benefits described, as being priced. To get the markets well as the redirection of climate to work well, Lord Stern said there risk. has to be some kind of price for Lord Stern said that many coun- carbon. tries are increasingly recognising The matter is not just about the new industrial revolution carrots and sticks, but also about carries big advantages for responsibility. Reducing risk by whoever gets there first. For changing behaviour is a responsi- instance, there has been a ble response to the challenge of remarkable shift in the debate climate change. We, as John over tackling climate change in Stuart Mill argued, form our views China. of what it right and responsible by On an international level, climate careful discussion of the issues. change has become a major In summary, we know the magni- political issue over the last five tude of what we have to do, we years in a way that was not true know the areas in which we have five years ago. Lord Stern argued to act, we can see the technolo- that there have been some gies to deliver this, we can see the positive aspects to the United economic policies that can Nations Climate Change Confer- support this and we know ence in Copenhagen last year, not enough to get started. What is least the fact that more than 100 missing, Lord Stern said, is the presidents and prime ministers political will. “This subject tests attended. But that should not our rationality as human beings to obscure the fact that the meeting think through the consequences,” was “cold, chaotic, quarrelsome Lord Stern said. If we wait, as in and disappointing”. the narrow evolutionary model, to 373 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Lord Stern said the Copenhagen The next United Nations Climate Accord was much less than many Change Conference, to be held in had hoped for and much less than Cancun, Mexico, later this year, could have been achieved. He said should aim for a political agree- there had been serious misunder- ment, Lord Stern argued. The standings, bad listening and, following conference, in Durban, what he described as “crazy”, an South Africa, in 2011, might aim attempt by rich countries to tell for a treaty. The animosity and the poor countries what to do. acrimony that was evident at But he said that Brazil, South Copenhagen is still there, fuelled Africa, China and India are no by a sense of injustice amongst longer just looking for the rich developing countries. But Lord countries to act but are instead Stern said there has been, at least asking what they might or should the beginnings of, a political shift do themselves, considering that in those countries to take the they are among those who will future of the planet into their own probably be hit first and hardest hands. by the impact of climate change. Lord Stern said that individual Whilst Lord Stern said the Copen- responsibility has an important hagen Accord was fragile, it seems role to play, not least in building to be less fragile than many had and influencing the political will feared at the time. “If you look at to tackle the issue. This is a the detail of the commitments, of challenge for academics, journal- the ideas and the groups that ists and politicians, amongst have been convened, we are others. moving forwards,” he said. When “If we all decide it’s too difficult, we left Copenhagen in December that people cheat, that the US we did not know that the “emis- won’t give up its cars or China sions intentions for 2020” give up its coal, then we will be envisaged in the Accord and to be absolutely right,” Lord Stern said. submitted by the end of January “The only way forward is to 2010 would in fact be submitted. describe analytically and carefully In fact, all major countries have what we can do and why it’s presented their intentions and 85 attractive.” He recognised that we per cent of emissions are covered. cannot know with confidence whether sufficient political will can be generated, but argued it is vital to try.

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Tariq Ramadan The Future of Islam for Muslims in the West Edinburgh International Book Festival 28 August 2010

“More listening, less judgement. seeks “intellectual empathy” and More sensitivity, less aggression.” reconciliation. He started his talk Billed in advance as “a lightning by explaining why he wrote his rod for controversy,” the Swiss- recent book, What I believe – an born academic Tariq Ramadan attempt to talk about the “contro- said everybody living in the West – versial topic” of Islam in such a Muslims as well as non-Muslims – way that it would be accessible to should engage in open dialogue Muslims as well as non-Muslims. and listen to each other, exploring Without seeking to avoid com- what we have in common rather plexity, he wanted to go beyond than focusing on the problems the “problems” of Islam to talk that drive us apart... about citizenship and identity, as well as the essence of Islam. He Introduced by Chairman Stuart also wanted to discuss the socio- Kelly (Literary Editor of Scotland economic problems faced by us all on Sunday) as the “Muslim Martin rather than reduce all problems to Luther,” Ramadan stressed religion, and go beyond blame to throughout the one-hour event talk about our shared responsibili- that all of us have multiple ties and the need for more identities but share the same constructive debate. future. Ramadan himself is a self- styled reformist, comfortable in Many Westerners are ignorant or many roles, including European, “frightened” of Islam, and even universalist and Muslim. “Can the talk about the “silent colonisa- Muslim community be fully tion” of the West by Islam. These Western and fully Muslim at the issues can’t be ignored, but same time?” he asked at the start. Ramadan also suggested that “Indigenous citizens are simply many politicians and journalists earlier immigrants,” he said near stir up controversy for personal the end, “but some have to prove gain. “We can’t be spiritual and they are citizens more than colonised by fear,” he said, since others.” religion is all about coming to terms with our fears. Ramadan has also been accused by his critics as “a Trojan horse for Even though Ramadan seeks radical Islam,” but ultimately he dialogue and understanding,

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several “controversial” problems guage was part of the problem, would not go away, including the including now common words infamous Danish cartoons, Islamic such as jihad. Ramadan explained extremists, terrorism and attempts that jihad has nothing to do with to ban the burqa in several ‘holy war’ but actually means countries – topics raised by ‘road to peace’ and improvement. members of the audience. In He then turned his attention to Switzerland, said Ramadan, there the European concept of “toler- have even been attempts to ance,” saying that tolerance is not outlaw minarets, despite constitu- enough. “I want to be respected tional backing for freedom of not accepted or tolerated,” conscience and freedom of Ramadan said. “I can tolerate you worship. and ignore you but I cannot Ramadan also talked about the ignore you if I respect you.” recent proposal to build an Islamic Sometimes we use the same community centre near the site of words but not the same meaning, ‘Ground Zero’, saying that he added. although most Westerners are Ramadan also said that to “avoid ignorant of Islam and see it as a any kind of doubletalk,” he threat, the Muslim community wanted to get to the essence of should also be more sensitive to the religious message and stop people’s feelings – and be aware talking about Islam as a problem of other factors, not just their but as a religion. Intellectual rights. The proposal is a “bad empathy is critical to Ramadan’s good idea,” he added, and it approach to religion and philoso- could be perceived as “an insult phy: “I may not agree with you to memory” in certain quarters. but I am trying to understand. We need wisdom as well as the Now is the time to love more and law, he suggested, but even open the door.” though a lot of people talk about In the quest for meaning, Ram- the need for open dialogue, what adan continued, “let us talk about they actually engage in is an our West” and what we have in “interactive monologue.” Later common. As part of this new on, he also said that freedom narrative, we need to recognise must have limits. Just because we our “common history of diverse have the right to do something memories.” Ramadan is also “full does not mean we should do it. of hope” that a new generation “More sensitivity, less aggres- of scholars and citizens is trying to sion,” he added. understand and “build bridges,” Ignorance and misrepresentation recognising “we are from the of Islam can also lead to division, same society.” and Kelly suggested that lan-

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Ramadan also highlighted some “based on lies,” he continued, of the contradictions which get in but we should talk about it as the way of more open debate. Europeans, not according to Muslims used to be criticised for religious or political beliefs. not knowing enough about Asked what he thought about the European civilisation, but today “new atheism” in Europe, they are mistrusted for knowing Ramadan said that these “mili- too much. He also suggested that tant” atheists are responding to the much higher profile of the fact that religion is on the Muslims today in the West is agenda again. ironically because they are more “God is back,” he added, but if integrated – not less. Instead of atheists want to engage in hiding in the background, they debate, they should be “more are more confident about display- serious and less reductive” and ing their identity and thus more not treat people with religious visible. They want to be wel- beliefs as “dreamers and simplis- comed. tic minds.” Similarly, religious Asked about the UK Government’s people should face up to the attitudes to Islam and support for complex challenges of modern Turkey’s entry into the EU, Ram- life. “Ethics must be applied in adan pointed out that according everyday life,” he continued. to surveys, 73 per cent of all “Don’t just pray for change in the Europeans supported Israel in world but pray while changing the 1967 but that today the situation world.” is reversed, with 67 per cent When it comes to understanding supporting Palestine. The critical Islam, Ramadan said it was question is consistency, said important to listen to Muslims as Ramadan. There is hypocrisy well as read the primary sources, regarding Turkey’s entry, he including the Quran. There are added, as if it is regarded as a many different kinds of Muslims, Muslim state, not really European. he continued, the same as with Europe also has no single policy Christians. “Don’t be a judge,” on Palestine. Ramadan con- he said, “but an active participant demned violent extremism, but in the dialogue. Read the books said that even though some and listen to what people say politicians, such as ex-PM Tony about them – more listening, less Blair, say there is no relationship judgement.” between the UK’s foreign policy and acts of terrorism, the simple In response to an audience fact is that the extremists do make question about the reaction of the connection. The Iraq war was “the whole Muslim world” to the “blasphemous” Danish cartoons,

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Ramadan explained that it was sion or polygamy, but Ramadan three months after publication believes this is a dangerous idea before there were any significant that would only be protests, and also many voices of counter-productive, “not only dissent among Muslims. There changing the law but the spirit of was also a difference between the the law” by creating different reaction of media and politicians, levels of citizenship. while many of the protests should On a more scriptural note, be seen in the context of the Ramadan explained that there are frustration felt by many Muslims primary and secondary sources in in countries where they have no Islamic law, and a lot of ignorance political freedoms and “a negative about the main sources. As a perception of the West.” It is reformist, he believes that we easier, he added, for some must understand the context of governments to allow demonstra- the primary sources and how they tions against the West rather than apply to ethics today. Muslims against their own regimes, should engage in dialogue with because it diverts people from Christians, Jews, Buddhists and reality. We must condemn exces- atheists, but “let’s look at our sive reactions, he said, but we principles and values, not just the should also understand why texts,” he said. The models in the feelings do run so high, in face of scriptures are historical, he added, Western dominance and arro- but the principles are universal. gance. Similarly, we should not avoid Ramadan also said he was discussing extremists but see opposed to any new laws for the them in context. George W. Bush protection of religious minorities may have said that the terrorists (e.g. blasphemy laws), saying that hated Western civilisation, but it is we have enough already, includ- not a battle of good versus bad. ing anti-racist legislation. In Muslims range across the spec- France, there are proposals to take trum of humanity, like everyone away citizenship from anyone who else. “Political Islam is as complex advocates “unconstitutional” as Islam itself,” he added. practices such as female circumci-

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Dr Martin Hendry Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow Probing the Dark Side of Einstein's Universe Orkney International Science Festival Lecture 7 September 2010

Gravitational waves, the ripples in spacetime predicted by Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, are produced by some of the most violent and energetic phenomena in the universe, including black holes, neutron stars and supernovae. Dr Martin Hendry of Glasgow University introduced the new field of gravitational astronomy and explained what discovery of gravitational waves could mean for attempts to understand the mysteries of dark matter and dark energy.

Spitalfields Day : Geometry and Algebra 17 September 2010

This Spitalfields Day was organised in connection with the election in May 2010 of Professor Hirzebruch to Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. These lectures were aimed at a general mathematical audience, accessible to graduate students. Talks were given by Sir Michael Atiyah, Friedrich Hirzebruch and Andrew Ranicki.

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The Lord Krebs Kt FRS FMedSci Principal, Jesus College, University of Oxford Facing up to Climate Change 21 September 2010

At a political turning point, with a and extent of change is uncertain. new Coalition government in If we accept that, then what are power at Westminster with its we going to do about it?” he own own policy objectives to asked. There are two broad pursue, Professor Krebs opened responses: either cut emissions by saying he was not going to talk and try to alter the pattern of about the science of climate global warming, or sit it out and change. Rather, his main focus adapt once changes are evident. would be on asking if what we are In his view, it makes economic doing as a nation at present to sense to try to mitigate the impact reduce the impact of carbon of rising emissions now. Nicholas emissions is working and, if not, Stern, in his 2006 report (The can we begin to behave different- Economics of Climate Change), ly? Are individuals willing to said modest investments now change; is there political will for would save huge costs later on. change, and, indeed, can we end There are other reasons too to what is known as the culture of take action. Climate change will “virtuous consumption?” affect food and water supplies, First, though, a brief recap of the fish stocks and forestry around evidence for global warming and the world. Although the worst climate change. Data from official effects might not appear in the sources, including the Met Office lifetime of those in the room – “I and the University of East Anglia, will be dead and buried” – what show clearly that the 2000s were risks are our generation prepared the hottest decade on record. Sea to take with the future of its levels are rising, the oceans are grandchildren? becoming more acidic and there is There are compelling arguments more rainfall – all signs of climate for mitigating now, Krebs insisted, change as has been modelled. not least a consensus that Climate change is happening and temperature will rise by up to two the evidence points to it being degrees centigrade, whatever man made. “We know the general actions we take now. There is direction of travel”, Professor activity at international level, Krebs declared, “only the pace despite the failure to reach

380 Events 09/10

agreement at the Copenhagen targets we are trying to achieve environment summit last year. But and how our actions fit in with making global change is like global actions. “turning a supertanker”, in that So what actions should be taken? altering course is very slow. Decarbonising power generation Globally, we need to reduce is a priority, with at least 20 carbon emissions by 50% by gigawatts of generation to be 2050 to have a 50% chance of provided by wind by 2020. There keeping rises below two degrees. should be a role for nuclear power Individually, we are all emitting and development of carbon ten tonnes annually and we need capture and storage at coal and to get that down to two tonnes. gas powered plants. Government Some countries are making big has a role in guaranteeing price improvements, but there are stability to producers, as an others, where emissions are rising unregulated energy market would rapidly, who say that we have to not be effective. Improving energy cut faster to make up for the efficiency is also a key area, as is greater share of emissions we making major change in the use produced in the past. In the UK, of transport, particularly on the we emit 680 million tonnes a year roads. and we need to get that figure It’s an ambitious programme, down to 159 by 2050. “It is a Krebs said. But although emis- huge mountain to climb down,” sions are reducing by 0.5% a year, Krebs said. Even then, another there needs to be step change up problem remains to be addressed. to 2–3%. Although the UK’s As we have exported a great deal carbon footprint went down in of our carbon emissions to 2008/9, it was a ‘blip’ most likely countries which manufacture caused by the recession. The pace goods that we consume, the of change at present, returning to emissions from consumption the ‘mountain’ metaphor, is that should also be added on top, we are not even heading towards even though that would increase base camp at the moment. our footprint. The new Environment Secretary, “That’s the challenge”, Krebs said. Chris Huhne, has asked whether “How to meet it?” The job of the we can go further than our target climate change committee is to lay of increasing electricity generated out a ‘road map,’ taking into by renewables from the present account what is technically 3% to 15% by 2020. But we will feasible, the cost per tonne of be stretched to get to 15%. We carbon saved by any measures need a step change in investment that might be taken, the policies and the removal of barriers to that should be pursued, the

381 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

investment. But we have to avoid 4. Authority – leading experts say mistakes along the way, such as “this is good.” the production of ethanol in the 5. Liking – my friends have got it US, which caused problems of its and like it. own. 6. Scarcity – I have something Aviation emissions are another others don’t have and can’t area we need to tackle. Govern- necessarily afford. ment wants to keep expansion Some of these techniques will down but the bottom line is that have to be employed if we are we have to curb air travel if we are going to change our behaviour, serious, and cap it at 60%. become green warriors, not fly, Unconstrained growth will bring wear jumpers, and do what the 150% expansion by 2050. government would like us to do. There are ambitious targets to cut There are behavioural change emissions by more than 40% by success stories that we can refer 2020. To reach those targets, to, including drink driving, however, we need new policies seatbelts and smoking. All and a step change in attitudes. involved a combination of Otherwise, it will be very tough education, legislation and (in the indeed. The things that need to case of tobacco) taxation. With be done are radical and we need drink driving, in the late 1970s, to change lifestyles. Will we do 1500 people were killed as a this voluntarily, or do we need to result. That figure in 2008 was be coerced into doing it by 430. Legislation made a differ- government? People don’t like ence, even though there was a that, so are there pointers in the 71% increase in traffic over that new science of behavioural period. change as to how we move forward? Individuals won’t make changes in big enough numbers on their US author Robert Cialdini has own. Take green consumerism. written about the ‘six weapons of Although 30% of consumers say influence’ that persuade individu- they are concerned about the als to follow a course of action. environment, only 5% buy green They are: products. That is less than 1% of 1. Reciprocity – getting some- household expenditure. Education thing back. has a role too. We know which 2. Commitment – I want it. devices will make most impact on 3. Social validation – everyone carbon emissions, but most else has it. consumers do not. Changing the temperature setting on a washing

382 Events 09/10

machine will make a huge But what’s the alternative? Tim difference, but changing a light Jackson’s book, Prosperity With- bulb won’t. The problem for out Growth, suggests moving politicians is that changing away from consumerism. Stop behaviour is not a vote winner. In measuring progress through GDP opposition, Chris Huhne argued and invest in green technologies. for more regulation and subsidies. The current methods of measur- What will he say in power? ing growth are flawed. If you spill It’s said we don’t need to worry oil in the Gulf of Mexico and about climate change because spend a lot of money cleaning it technology will solve the problem. up, it adds positively to GDP at the But Professor Krebs argued that moment. It’s the same with technology is not keeping pace cutting down forests, as that with the growth of consumption generates wealth. But what’s and cannot reduce emissions fast good for GDP is not necessarily enough. So we have to question good for you as an individual. So the whole culture of virtuous we should not measure progress consumption. Do we want this to by GDP but by something else. end or do we just want to get As a conclusion, Professor Krebs richer through more economic posed two questions. Would we growth? But above a relatively elect a government that would be modest level of wealth, the coercive on climate change? Are evidence is that getting richer we prepared to stop getting doesn’t make you healthier or richer? If the answer is no to happier. It tails off, as does life coercion, then we will not beat expectancy So why go on creating climate change. wealth? We don’t consume because of need, it’s to ”keep up with the Joneses.”

383

PUBLICATIONS 2008 – 2009 Proceedings A: Mathematics RSE Annual Review 2009 (April Six issues were published: Parts 2008-March 2009) 138.5 & 138.6 (2008) and 139.1, Science Scotland: 139.2, 139.3, 139.4 (2009) One issue was published: No. 7 Earth and Environmental Electronics Science Transactions Two issues were published: Parts 99.1, 99.2 ReSourcE – the RSE’s Newsletter: Issues 22, 23, 24, 25 RSE Directory

2009 – 2010

Proceedings A: Mathematics RSE Directory Six issues were published: Parts RSE Annual Review 2009 (April 139.5 & 139.6 (2009) and 140.1, 2008-March 2009) 140.2, 140.3, 140.4 (2010) Science Scotland: Earth and Environmental One issue was published: No. 8 Science Transactions Life Sciences: SULSA under the Five issues were published: Parts Microscope, 99.3/4, 100.1-2 and 100.3 Policy Advice including a special issue 100.1/2 The Sixth Hutton Symposium on Digital Scotland - RSE Committee The Origin of Granites and of Inquiry Report (Oct 2010). ISBN: Related Rocks. 9780902198364 ReSourcE – the RSE’s Newsletter: Issues 26, 27, 28

385

POLICY ADVICE 2008 – 2009

INQUIRIES AP 09-05. Supplementary evi- During the Session the Inquiry dence for Science and Engineering team carried out a series of at the Heart of Government Policy dissemination events, across Scotland, related to the Inquiry AP 09-06. Criminal Justice and The Future of Scotland’s Hill and Licensing (Scotland) Bill: The Islands (2008) Provisions in regard to the SUBMISSIONS purposes and principles of sentencing and the Scottish During the Session, the Society Sentencing Council. A response to submitted comments on the the Scottish Parliament’s Justice following reports: Committee. Advice Papers (AP) and Briefing May 2009 Papers (BP) LetterThe Marine (Scotland) Bill. January 2009 Letter to Rural Affairs and Environ- AP 09-01. Putting Science and ment Committee Engineering at the Heart of BP 09-02. Debate in the Scottish Government Policy Parliament on Influenza A (H1N1) February 2009 June 2009 AP 09-02. Commission on AP 09-07. Implementation of the Scottish Devolution Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) AP 09-03. The Climate Change Health Check in Scotland. A (Scotland) Bill: A response to the response to the Scottish Govern- Scottish Parliament’s Transport, ment Infrastructure, and Climate AP 09-08. Preparing for a Chang- Change Committee ing Climate, Second Consultation March 2009 to Inform Scotland’s Climate Change Adaptation Framework: a AP 09-04. A Coordinated Agenda response to the Scottish Govern- for Marine, Environment and ment Rural Affairs Science AP 09-09. Supplementary Advice April 2009 Relating to the 3rd Stage Debate Request for Strategic Advice on in the Scottish Parliament on the Business Schools in Scottish Climate Change (Scotland) Bill Universities: a response to the Scottish Funding Council

387 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

BP 09-03. The H1N1 Outbreak AP 09-12a. Reform of the Europe- and the Threat of Pandemic an Union Budget Influenza: Further Comments AP 09-12b. Reform of the Europe- August 2009 an Union Budget - building on a AP 09-10. The public Services response to the Scottish Parlia- Reform (Scotland) Bill. The ment Establishment of Creative Scot- AP 09-13. Setting Science and land Technology Research Funding September 2009 Priorities AP 09-11a. A Framework for the BP 09-04. Debate in the Scottish Development of Clean Coal Parliament on Scotland’s Energy Future AP 09-11b. The Development and Deployment of Carbon Capture and Storage in Scotland

388 Policy Advice

2009 – 2010

INQUIRIES · Scotland has unique demo- During the 2009/10 Session, the graphic and social challenges Society published the Report of its · any effective plan will require inquiry Digital Scotland. The local action from local commu- report sets out why Scotland’s nities. digital future is a crucial issue and what needs to be done. It sug- This report sets out an effective gests how the enterprise could strategy for making Next Genera- develop as a distinctively Scottish tion Broadband (NGB) accessible community effort, bringing to the whole of Scotland by 2015. benefit to the whole of Scotland, The strategy is largely self- without the need for major financing. It involves investment in Government funding at a time long-term infrastructure that will when public expenditure is under enable access for all individuals, great pressure. businesses and public institutions (schools, libraries, hospitals) in the The Imperative country. Communication is the life-blood Key recommendations: of commerce and society. Digital technologies enable new forms of · Establish a Digital Scotland communication. Broadband Trust, to raise finance, procure, infrastructure has become a key operate and maintain the fitness factor for talent, invest- required core infrastructure in ment and prosperity in today’s the national interest. global economy, essential to · Create an optic fibre backbone, public service delivery, cultural analogous to the trunk roads of vitality and economic efficiency. our transport network that Scotland must aim for universal brings next-generation speeds digital inclusion and avoid the to a nationwide network of threat of a widening digital divide. digital hubs where community Scotland has to take the lead in networks and service providers creating this infrastructure can connect to a trunk connec- because: tion to the global internet. Any circle drawn on the map of · it has both the authority and Scotland to include a settled resources to do so population of at least 2,000 · there is currently no adequate people, should also include a UK or European plan hub.

389 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

· Provide social hubs, where March 2010 internet access and support is AP 10-03. Future Support for available to all, in libraries and Agriculture in Scotland other community centres. AP 10-04. The efficient delivery of Digital Scotland - RSE Committee public services within a period of of Inquiry Report (Oct 2010). tightening public expenditure ISBN: 9780902198364 April 2010 SUBMISSIONS AP 10-05. Scotland’s Higher During the session, the Society Activity Radioactive Waste Policy submitted comments on the following reports: May 2010 Advice Papers AP 10-06. End of Life Assistance (Scotland) Bill November 2009 June 2010 AP 09-14. Scotland and the UK: cooperation and communication AP 10-07. Graham Donaldson’s between governments Review of Teacher Education in Scotland December 2009 AP 10-08. Reform of Double AP 09-15. Inquiry into Bioengi- Jeopardy neering AP 10-09. Towards a Low Carbon AP 09-16. The Research Excellence Economy for Scotland Framework AP 10-10. Scotland’s International AP 09-17. Sustainable fisheries: Engagement reform of the Common Fisheries Policy August 2010 BP 09-05. Climate Change and AP 10-11. Preventative Spending the U.N Copenhagen Summit September 2010 January 2010 AP 10-12. Scotland’s Enterprise AP 10-01. Impact of the Lisbon Treaty on Scotland AP 10-02. Alcohol etc, (Scotland) Bill - including proposals for minimum pricing

390 SCOTTISH BIOINFORMATICS FORUM The Scottish Bioinformatics Forum (SBF) was set up in 2001under the stewardship of Scottish Enterprise to establish Scotland as a globally recognised and leading location for conducting cutting-edge bioinformatics research and sustainable commercial activity. SBF began operating under the auspices of The RSE Scotland Foundation from 1 January 2008. SBF aims to enhance knowledge and understanding of bioinformatics technology in both the academic research base and commercial organisations in the informatics and life sciences communities. SBF actively promotes training and knowledge transfer of bioinformatics skills, including facilitating multi-centre collaborations, industry and academic joint ventures, partnering, knowledge transfer, and bioinformatics training.

391

EVENTS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE

2008 – 2009

RSE@Arbroath RSE@Schools The Arbroath 2008 programme RSE@Schools talks are available was launched on 25 February at for P6/P7 and all secondary school Angus College. years. They aim to enthuse and excite students about a wide The Arbroath project developed programme, keen to share their activities with and for young enthusiasm for their subjects with people, and the wider public, and students. included the art and humanities as well as science and technology Talk (S3/4) - The Bellrock Light- based subjects. house and the Stevenson Family ‘The Engineer and the Author’ Classes and workshops or both primary and secondary school Christmas Lecture students were held in various The 2008 Christmas Lecture venues and a series of both school entitled Science and Arbroath in and public lectures on interdisci- the 21st Century was presented by plinary topics were also delivered. Prof. Anne Glover FRSE, Chief The themes for the year were: Scientific Advisor for Scotland. - Identity and the people of This lecture touched on how Arbroath (January to March 2008) science informs us of climate - Wealth creation in Arbroath change, and how climate change (March to June 2008) will impact on communities such - The Arts in Arbroath (June to as Arbroath, what we can do August 2008) about it and how scientists can - Places in Arbroath (August to make a difference. December 2008) Public Lecture RSE Roadshows 10 Nov 2008. Seven Wonders of The Autumn Roadshow took the Industrial World – The Bell place as part of RSE@Arbroath. Rock Lighthouse. Bob McIntosh Three workshops and activities for BSc.CEng MICE, Northern Light- primary year students took place: house Board The Cliffs: Wildlife/Geology; The Coastline and The Harbour and Local Geology and The Cliffs: Legends and Myths.

393 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

2009 – 2010

RSE Roadshows Rocket Science. Stromness Academy The Spring Roadshow took place in Largs and took a nautical Apollo Moon Landings. theme. Dr Sabrina Malpede Stromness Academy shared her knowledge about how Gravity. Kirkwall Grammar School sailboats sail by delivering a series of workshops to P6 pupils from Gravity, Extra Solar Planets and several local Primary schools and Cosmology. Wick High School the Roadshow concluded with a The Runaway Universe. Public lecture How does a sail boat sail? Audience Dr. Sabrina Malpede is the co- Black holes, black magic and founder and Managing Director interstellar travel. Prof Alan of SMAR Azure Ltd. She was Heavens FRSE. Public Audience, awarded an Enterprise Fellowship Mid Yell Junior School in 2003 by the Royal Society of Big Bangs, Black holes and White Edinburgh and Scottish Enter- Rabbits. Prof. John Brown FRSE. prise. Baltasound Junior School RSE @ Schools A Career in Science. Various RSE@Schools talks are available The Suffering Gene, and Science for P6/P7 and all secondary school meets Art, Art meets Science. Dr years. They aim to enthuse and James Close. St John's School, excite students about a wide Dundee. range of topics. A wide variety of Bacteria live in communities. Dr speakers contribute to the Nicola Stanley-Wall. Coatbridge programme, keen to share their High enthusiasm for their subjects with Christmas Lecture students. The 2009 RSE Christmas Lecture The Man Who Planted Trees. entitled Facing up to Climate Various Schools Change was presented by Solar System. Burray Primary Professor Paul Jowitt FRSE Exploring the Dark Side of Einstein's Universe. Public Audi- ence

394 RESEARCH AND ENTERPRISE AWARDS The following awards were made in Sessions 2008/2009 and 2009/10

RESEARCH FELLOWSHIPS

BP Trust Personal Research Professor A Torre, Faculty of Law, Fellowship 2009 University of Bari, Italy - Scottish Dr J Klett, Department of Pure and Government and Constitution Applied Chemistry, University of from the 1707 Union to Devolu- Strathclyde - Application of tion Synergic Synthesis to Metal- Ms E A Kirk, School of Law, Organic Supramolecules and University of Dundee - Arctic Nanomolecules Governance BP Trust Personal Research Dr P La Porte, Department of Fellowship 2010 Language & Intercultural Studies, Dr J Thijssen, School of Physics Heriot-Watt University - Percep- and Astronomy, The University of tion and Misperception in Edinburgh - Novel soft materials International Politics: Britain, for enhanced energy storage and France, Spain and the Rif War conversion (1921 – 1926) CRF European 2009 Dr P Travlou, Open Space, Edin- burgh College of Art – Examining Dr I A Biliarsky, Institute of History, New Approaches in Youth Specific Bulgarian Academy of Sciences - Research Methodologies The Old Testament in the Political Ideas of Iro-Scottish and Slavic- Dr Z Varga, Centre for Russian, Orthodox Tradition. East & Central European Studies, University of Glasgow - National Dr M Cappuccio, Centro di Ricerca identity and language in 19th Sulla Complessità, Universita’ century travel writing. Degli Studi Di Bergamo - Anti- representationalism and CRF European 2010 mirror-neurons-based action Dr M Gurova, National Institute of recognition models: ideomotor Archaeology and Museum, schemata, motor intentionality Bulgarian Academy of Sciences - and smooth coping. Comparative functional analysis of Professor K Dixon, British & North flint tools from Mesolithic and American Research & Studies Early Neolithic sites in Scotland Centre, Université Lumiére de Lyon and SE Europe – Influences in contemporary British politics

395 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Dr A Kovacs, Deprecen Reformed ters: Single Trapped Atoms for University, Hungary - The Impact Quantum Simulation of British Evangelicalism on the Dr E Huitema, College of Life formation of New Orthodox Sciences Plant Science, University Calvinism of Debrecen 1864 – of Dundee - Mechanisms of 1914. virulence acquisition during Dr K Milek, Department of Phytophthora-host associations Archaeology, School of Geoscienc- Dr A J McGowan, Department of es, University of Aberdeen - . Geographical and Earth Science, Social Spaces and Social Structures University of Glasgow - Disentan- in Viking Age Iceland. gling signals of regional CRF Personal 2009 biodiversity change from geologi- Dr K Zeng, Institute of Evolution- cal and sampling biases.. ary Biology, University of Dr M Naylor, School of Geoscienc- Edinburgh - Modelling Genome es, University of Edinburgh Evolution in Bacteria. -Managing Uncertainty in Earth CRF Personal 2010 Systems Dr S Wang, Centre for Cognitive & Dr I M Overton, Medical Research Neural Systems, University of Council. Institute of Genetics and Edinburgh - The neuropsychology Molecular Medicine -Integrative of memory persistence Computational Studies of Epitheli- al-Mesenchymal - Transition in Lloyds TSB Personal 2009 Development, Stem Cells and Dr M Dewar, Human Cognitive Cancer. Neuroscience, University of Scottish Government Personal Edinburgh - Improving memory in Research Fellowships 2010 amnestic MCI via minimal interfer- ence Dr J I B Bos, Scottish Crop Re- search Institute - Manipulation of Scottish Government Personal plant host cell processes by aphid Research Fellowships 2009 saliva proteins Dr S Coulthurst, MMB Division, Dr E Kay, School of Chemistry, University of Dundee - Investiga- University of St Andrews - Meta- tion into the role of a new protein materials Through Self-Assembly secretion system in the virulence Across Multiple Size Scales of the opportunistic pathogen, Serratia marcescens. Dr R Macleod, Division of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University Dr P Griffin, Department of Physics of Glasgow - Can we predict SUPA, University of Strathclyde - impacts of environmental change Microphotonic Quantum Regis-

396 Research and Enterprise Awards

on biodiversity from knowledge of Dr A White, Department of behavioural decisions? Mathematics, Heriot-Watt Univer- sity - Mathematical Models of Dr C Moiras, Department of Ecological Systems in a Changing Chemistry, University of Glasgow - World Non Equilibrium Engineering, Methods of Functional Metal Scottish Government Support Oxides Research Fellowships 2010 Dr J Stevenson, School of Geo- Professor D Heald, Business sciences, University of Edinburgh - School, University of Aberdeen - Explosive silicic eruptions in Improving the Quality of Public Iceland: from vents to peat bogs Expenditure Scottish Government Support Professor R Ocone FRSE, School of Research Fellowships 2009 Engineering & Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University - Model- Professor I G Main FRSE, School of ling Chemical Looping Technology Geosciences, University of Edin- for Clean Energy Production burgh - Identifying reservoir compartments Dr I Trendafilova, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universi- Professor J M Reese FRSE, Depart- ty of Strathclyde -Modelling the ment of Mechanical Engineering, vibration of structures made of University of Strathclyde - Engi- composite materials neering Micro and Nano Flow Systems

RESEARCH GRANTS, WORKSHOPS AND NETWORKS

Arts and Humanities Networks Arts & Humanities Small Grants 2010 2009 Dr R Jones Philosophy, School of Dr K Anipa, Department of Humanities, University of Dundee. Spanish, University of St Andrews Engendering Dialogue: feminist - A Probe into the Early History of thought and contemporary Juan de Valdes’s Dialogo de la debates in art, science and lengua education Professor A Boyle, Scottish Centre Ms E Ogilvie Art, Space, Nature, for International Law, University of School of Landscape Architecture Edinburgh - The United Nations Edinburgh College of Art and Ms and International Law-making A Bevan, School of Sculpture, Edinburgh College of Art - . Creative Research into the Envi- ronment 397 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Dr M Chrisman, Department of musique d’Orlande de Lassus, & Philosophy, University of Glasgow autres excellens musiciens de - Why Knowledge is better nostre temps. Professor R Evans, Department of Ms A Thomas, Department of English Studies, University of Archaeology, Orkney College - Stirling - What can a fourteenth- Monumental Visions: Art and century manuscript held in a Archaeology in the Heart of Scottish library tell us about Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Lollardy, the textual transmission Site. of English vernacular devotional Arts & Humanities Small Grants books and the medieval under- 2010 standing of a ‘text’? Dr S Alves, OPENspace Research Dr C Gair, Department of English Centre, Edinburgh College of Art Literature/ Andrew Hook Centre - Outdoor Environments and their for American Studies, University of impact on the quality of life of Glasgow - Writing Americans: The urban residents: Psychological and White City and the Invention of environmental aspects. National Culture 1893 – 1917 Dr S Dickson, Department of Professor T Ingold FBA FRSE, Modern Languages, University of Department of Anthropology, Glasgow - Digital Edition of the University of Aberdeen -Recon- Magazin zur Erfahrungssee- necting the cultural and the lenkunde (Journal of Empirical natural: engaging art and anthro- Psychology).. pology in northwest Greenland. Dr A Dimitrakaki, Department of Dr R McAllister, Department of History of Art, The University of Research, Royal Scottish Academy Edinburgh - Gender, Art/Work of Music and Drama- Celtic – and the Global Imperative... Cossack Connections Dr R McMaster, Department of Professor A Murphy, School of Management, University of English, University of St Andrews - Glasgow - Conceptualising Care, Ireland’s English: Edward Dowden Dignity and Generosity in an and the Politics of Victorian Institutional Economics Approach Literary Studies to Health Care Professor J Porter, Department of Dr K Pena, School of Modern Music, University of Aberdeen - Languages & Cultures, University Critical performing edition of of Glasgow - The Scottish Transla- Premier [Second] Livre du mes- tor at Work: Alastair Reid on lange des pseaumes et cantiques Borges. a trois parties, recueillis de la

398 Research and Enterprise Awards

Dr C Rossignoli, Italian Depart- Scottish Collections to their ment, University of St Andrews - Indigenous Owners Castelvetro’s Dante: Reformation Arts & Humanities Workshops and Exegesis 2010 Dr W Tuladhar-Douglas, School of Professor L Abrams, Department Divinity, History and Philosophy, of History,University of Glasgow, University of Aberdeen - Scot- and land’s devolved administration and the nationalist government: Dr A Shepard, Department of immigrant Buddhist perspectives... History,University of Glasgow - Scottish masculinity in historical Dr J Vergunst. Department of perspective Anthropology, University of Aberdeen - Exploring Environmen- Dr T Ahnert, School of History and tal Change Through New Classics, University of Edinburgh, Connections in Arts and Anthro- and pology... Professor C Kidd FRSE, Depart- Arts & Humanities Workshops ment of Scottish History, University 2009 of Glasgow – Ancients and Moderns in the Scottish Enlight- Dr C Deliss, Future Academy, enment Edinburgh College of Art - Future Collections: Imagining Study Dr S Bayne, Moray House School Collections in the 21st Century of Education, University of Edinburgh, and Professor S Frith, Department of Music, University of Edinburgh - Ms R Bailey, The Royal Commis- Music Research and Music Policy sion on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland - The Mr R A Jamieson, Department of digital futures of cultural heritage English Literature, University of education: a social media research Edinburgh - Between Leith and agenda for the Scottish national Lerwick. collections Professor S Newman, Department Dr K Brophy, Department of of History, University of Glasgow - Archaeology, University of Glas- The Transatlantic Slave Trade and gow; and Plantation Slavery in the Americas: Exploring Scottish Connections Dr C Dalglish, Department of Archaeology, University of Glas- Dr K Whitby-Last, School of Law, gow; and University of Aberdeen - Obstacles and Solutions to the Repatriation Dr A Leslie, GUARD, University of of Sacred-ceremonial Objects from Glasgow; and

399 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Dr G MacGregor, GUARD, Dr A MacKinnon, Department of University of Glasgow - Tran- Adult & Continuing Education, forming practice: inter-disciplinary University of Glasgow - Astrono- research into the philosophies, my Project for able schoolchildren methods and impacts of the ways during the 2010 National Astron- in which we value landscape omy Meeting Professor J J Smith FRSE, Depart- Mr A Morrison, Sir E Scott Second- ment of English Language, ary School, Isle of Harris - Promote University of Glasgow - Textual Astronomy in the Western Isles Afterlives Workshop Programme Dr G Russell, Cosmic Sky - Moon- Cormack Small Astronomy Watching For All: the Science and Research Grants 2009 Beauty of the Moon. Mr R Hussey, Shetland Astronomi- cal Society - International Year of Astronomy 2009

RESEARCH SCHOLARSHIPS AND PRIZES

Carnegie Caledonian Scholar- Cormack Undergraduate Prize ship 2010 2009 Mr G Mackenzie, School of Miss J McCormick, School of English, University of St Andrews Mathematics and Statistics, - Landscape as Identity in Twenti- University of St Andrews - The 3D eth-Century Poetry Structure of Emerging Magnetic Cormack Postgraduate Prize Flux on the Sun 2009 Cormack Undergraduate Prize Ms H Bain, Department of 2010 Astronomy and Physics, University Mr J Simpson, Department of of Glasgow - Hard X-ray emission Physics and Astronomy, University from a flare-related jet of St Andrews - Alternative Cormack Postgraduate Prize techniques for reverberation 2010 mapping Mr M Campbell, Institute for Cormack Vacation Scholarships Astronomy, University of Edin- 2009 burgh - VLT-MAD Observations of Mr J Henderson, Department of the core of 30 Doradus Physics, University of Strathclyde - Understanding the nature and formation of water ice in the interstellar medium

400 Research and Enterprise Awards

Miss J McCormick, School of Henry Dryerre Scholarship Mathematics and Statistics, 2010 University of St Andrews - The 3D Mr R Morrison, Division of Structure of Emerging Magnetic Developmental Medicine, Univer- Flux on the Sun sity of Glasgow - Novel Mr M Uhrin, Department of Intervention Techniques to Physics, University of Strathclyde - Improve Child Physical Activity, Initial stages of planetary forma- Energy Expenditure and Body tion: Simulation of dust cluster Composition growth and collision Lessells Scholarships 2009 Cormack Vacation Scholarships Dr S Ivekovic, School of Comput- 2010 ing, University of Dundee - Swarm Ms S Brown, Institute for Astrono- Intelligence and Projective my, University of Edinburgh - Geometry for Computer Vision. Measuring weak gravitational Mr Y Liu, School of Engineering lensing and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt Mr N Gordon, Department of University - Micromechanical Physics and Astronomy, University Cantilever Biosensors for Rapid of Glasgow - . A study of solar Disease Diagnosis. flare ribbons with the Hinode Ms M Mari, Centre for Biomedical Solar Optical Telescope. Engineering, University of Edin- Mr R D Hall, School of Mathemat- burgh - Unravelling Alzheimer’s ics & Statistics, University of St disease. Andrews - MHD Simulations of Ms R Raheem, Centre for Biomed- Magnetic Flux Emergence ical Engineering, University of Ms S Platten, Department of Edinburgh - Techniques to Mathematics & Statistics, Universi- Identify Live Cell DNA Damage. ty of St Andrews – Aspects of Mr A J Sadowski, School of Three-dimensional Reconnection Engineering and Electronics, Mr C Thomson, Department of University of Edinburgh - Explora- Physics & Astronomy, University of tion of the elastic and plastic Glasgow - Imaging spectroscopy buckling of shells under unsym- with RHESSI metrical loads. Mr A Wilson, Department of Mr D Tyndall, School of Engineer- Physics & Astronomy, University of ing, University of Edinburgh - Glasgow - Plasma flow around Parallel Fluorescence Correlation deformable structures: space Spectroscopy (FCS). tether dynamics in the solar wind

401 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Lessells Scolarships 2010 Mr N P Macdonald, Bioelectronics Mr Douglas S Brodie, Department Research Centre, University of of Mechanical Engineering, Glasgow - Development of Heriot-Watt University - ZnO microfluidic biochips for Absorp- Based Surface Acoustic Wave tion, Distribution, Metabolism Devices for Bio-sensing and Fluid and Excretion Toxicology studies Transportation. (ADME-Tox) for Foods and HPC products. Mr J Franklin, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Dundee Mr A Pujari, School of Engineer- - Breaking of internal solitary ing, University of Aberdeen - Use waves in shallow, stratified waters. of appropriate advanced signal processing techniques on surface Ms A Furber, Institute for Infra- Electromyographic Signals (sEMG) structure & Environment, to analyse muscle response to University of Edinburgh -. Effective different vibration levels. Engagement with Stakeholders for Water and Sanitation Projects Piazzi Smyth Bequest 2009 in Rural Africa - an Engineering Mr D Lawson, Department of Perspective. Physics & Astronomy, University of Mr S Grindrod, School of Engi- Glasgow – The analysis of a Ca II neering, University of Edinburgh - (854.2 nm) line of a solar flare Project METRO - Medium-scale Piazzi Smyth Bequest 2010 experiments in a section of a Mr J Simpson, Department of tunnel. Physics & Astronomy, University of St Andrews – Reverberation Mapping of Active Galactic Nuclei

ENTERPRISE FELLOWSHIPS Scottish Enterprise Enterprise Dr Dan Arnold, Institute of Fellowships 2009 Petroleum Engineering, Heriot- Paul Adderley, School of Informat- Watt University – A method for ics, University of Edinburgh – adding geological knowledge to Sustainable Opportunity Solu- quantify the true uncertainty in tions’ FUSITRAM®: Sustainable petroleum reservoirs Decision Support Tool for Busi- Dr Antoine Assal, Department of ness Travel Civil Engineering, University of Dr Norman Alm, School of Strathclyde – Environmental Computing, University of Dundee Forensics as a Tool to Cut the Cost – A Communication Support of Brown-field Development System for Older People with Dementia 402 Research and Enterprise Awards

Gordon Dobie, Department of Dr Nicholas Psaila, School of Electronic and Electrical Engineer- Engineering and Physical Sciences, ing, University of Strathclyde – Heriot-Watt University – Custom Miniature Robotic Vehicles for 3D Laser micro-fabrication of Structural Inspection integrated optical devices Dr Michael Gilroy, Department of BBSRC Enterprise Fellowships Electronic and Electrical Engineer- 2009 ing, University of Strathclyde – Dr Burcak Alp, Institute of Ortho- Condition Based Monitoring paedics and Musculoskeletal Brian O’Reilly, Institute for Energy Sciences, University College and Environment, University of London – Use of Novel Collagen Strathclyde – The Energy Egg for Clinical and Industrial Transla- Professor M Babs Oyeneyin, tion School of Engineering, The Robert Dr Simon Baker, Jack Birch Unit for Gordon University, Aberdeen – Molecular Carcinogenesis, Integrated Flow Assurance Department of Biology, University Solutions for the Energy Industry of York – The Bioimetic Urotheli- Dr Andy Spence, School of um Mathematical and Computer Dr Jorge Garcia-Lara, Department Sciences, Heriot-Watt University – of Molecular Biology and Biotech- t3D: the Software Suite for Web- nology, University of Sheffield – based Product Presentation Novel vaccine and antibody Scottish Enterprise Enterprise therapy against Staphylococcus Fellowships 2010 aureus (MRSA) infections Ann Attridge, The Business Nir Grossman, Institute of Bio- School, University of Strathclyde – medical Engineering & Division of Interactive Online Learning Neurosciences, Imperial College London – Patterned Excitation of Tom Larkworthy, School of Light-Sensitive Biological Com- Informatics, University of Edin- pounds burgh – Commercialising Self-Reconfiguring Robotic Angela J Murray, School of Systems Biosciences, University of Birming- ham – Biorecovery of Precious Dr Michael Lincoln, Centre for Metals from Secondary Sources Speech Technology Research, and Biorefining into New Catalysts University of Edinburgh – MICAR – Multiparty Interaction Capture, Professor Stefan Przyborski, Analysis and Replay School of Biological Science, Durham University – Platform Technology for Routine Three- Dimensional Cell Culture

403 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Dr Liisa Van Vliet, Department of Dr Timothy Knowles, School of Biochemistry, University of Cancer Sciences, University of Cambridge – Cell-type tuning for Birmingham – The SMALP system, transfection reagents a generic tool for the preparation Matthew Wilcox, Institute of Cell of high-value membrane protein and Molecular Bioscience, drug targets enabling high Newcastle University – Alginates throughput drug screening are a Natural Product to Aid in STFC Enterprise Fellowship Weight Management 2009 BBSRC Enterprise Fellowships Dr Anke Lohmann, Micro and 2010 Nano Technology, Science and Dr Leigh Cassidy, School of Technology Facilities Council, Biological Sciences, University of Rutherford Appleton Laboratory – Aberdeen – DRAM – A Device for Industrial scale-up of electrospin- Remediation and Attenuation of ning of nanofibres Multiple-pollutants STFC Enterprise Fellowships Dr Timothy Dafforn, School of 2010 Biosciences, University of Birming- Joanna Davies, Science & Technol- ham – Phage-based detection of ogy Facilities Council Space pathogens Science Department, Rutherford Dr Neil Dixon, School of Chemis- Appleton Laboratory – The Micro- try, based in the Manchester FTS – a miniature Fourier Interdisciplinary Biocentre, transform spectrometer University of Manchester – RNA Dr Alexandre Pechev, Surrey Space Switch Technology – Gene Centre, University of Surrey – From Expression Control Spacecraft control to Computer Animation

SCOTTISH CRUCIBLE

Scottish Crucible 2009 Dr S Bordas, Department of Civil Dr T Ball, School of Social and Engineering, University of Glas- Environmental Sciences, University gow of Dundee Dr I Burns, Department of Chemi- Dr G Baxter, School of Computer cal Engineering, University of Science, University of St Andrews Strathclyde Dr R A Blythe, Department of Mr R By, School of Business, Physics and Astronomy, University Queen Margaret University of Edinburgh

404 Research and Enterprise Awards

Dr W Chrzanowski, Mechanical Dr S Rhodes, Department of Engineering, University of Glas- Psychology, University of Strath- gow clyde Dr A S F Dawson, Department of Dr M Shearer, School of Biology, Applied Social Science, University University of St Andrews of Stirling Dr S Smith, Scottish Microelec- Dr M Delibegovic, School of tronics Centre, University of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh Aberdeen Dr C Switzer, Department of Civil Dr A Elliott, Foresterhill Health Engineering, University of Strath- Centre, University of Aberdeen clyde Dr A Fletcher, Department of Dr C Torres-Sanchez, DMEM, Chemical Engineering, Strathclyde University of Strathclyde University Dr Jano van Hemert, School of Dr M Fletcher, CIER Department of Informatics, University of Edin- Management, University of burgh Glasgow Dr F Van Wijk, School of Health Dr T George,SCRI Sciences, Queen Margaret Dr W Gidman, Institute of Phar- University macy and Biological Sciences, Dr J Vergunst, School of Social University of Strathclyde Science, University of Aberdeen Dr J Illian, School of Mathematics Dr R Wade, Urban Water Technol- and Statistics, University of St ogy Centre, University of Abertay Andrews Dr N Wheate. Institute of Pharma- Dr L Lee, Institute for the Study of cy and Biomedical Sciences, Science, Technology and Innova- Strathclyde University tion, University of Edinburgh Scottish Crucible 2010 Dr S Louchart, School of Mathe- Dr J Bos, School of EPS – Chemis- matic and Computer Sciences, try, Heriot-Watt University Heriot-Watt University Dr C Bradbury-Jones, School of Dr D Lusseau, Institute of Biologi- Nursing and Midwifery, University cal and Environmental Sciences, of Dundee University of Aberdeen Dr K Chiang, Department of Dr S Lynagh. Biopta Ltd. Higher and Community Educa- Dr M Naylor, School of Geoscienc- tion, University of Edinburgh es, University of Edinburgh

405 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Dr T Drysdale, Department of Dr S Neale, Department of Electronics & Electrical Engineer- Electronics & Electrical Engineer- ing, University of Glasgow ing, University of Glasgow Dr E Duncan, NWAHP Research Dr M Noguchi. Mackintosh School Unit, University of Stirling of Architecture, Glasgow School Dr L Han, School of Informatics, of Art University of Edinburgh Dr P Ohberg. Department of Dr H Hastie, School of Maths & Physics, Heriot-Watt University Computer Sciences, Heriot-Watt Dr I M Overton, MRC Human University. Genetics Unit. Dr A Ioris. Department of Geogra- Dr N Robertson, School of phy and Environment, University Engineering and Physical Sciences, of Aberdeen Heriot-Watt University Mr M Kumar, School of Manage- Dr B Seitz, Department of Physics ment and Law, Edinburgh Napier and Astronomy, University of University Glasgow Dr J G A Leach, Department of Dr C Selman, Institute of Biologi- Physics and Astronomy, University cal and Environmental Sciences, of Glasgow University of Aberdeen Dr X Luo, School of Engineering & Dr K Spencer, Division of Ecology Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt and Evolutionary Biology, University University of Glasgow Dr I Mackenzie. Medicines Dr C Taylor, School of Life Scienc- Monitoring Unit (MEMO), Univer- es, Edinburgh Napier University sity of Dundee. Dr S Taylor, Biomedical Research Dr E C Macknight, School of Centre, University of Glasgow Divinity, History & Philosophy, Miss G Teal, Design Office, University of Aberdeen Glasgow School of Art Dr D MacLaren, Department of Dr M Watson, Centre of Academic Physics & Astronomy, University of Primary Care, University of Glasgow Aberdeen Mr N Mody, Institute of Biological Dr T Wood, Institute of Con- & Environmental Sciences, densed Matter and Complex University of Aberdeen Systems, University of Edinburgh Dr D Moran, Department of Dr S Wright, Centre for Transport Electronics & Electrical Engineer- Research, University of Aberdeen ing, University of Glasgow

406 MEDALS, PRIZES AND PRIZE LECTURESHIPS Royal Medals

Royal Medals were presented by HRH The Duke of Edinburgh on 11 August 2009 and 9 August 2010. 2009 2010 Professor Sir James Mirrlees FBA Dr J L MacMillan CBE FRSE HonFRSE Sir Fraser Stoddart FRS HonFRSE Professor W Sibbett CBE FRS FRSE Professor K H Vousden CBE FRS FRSE

IEEE/RSE/Wolfson, James Clerk Maxwell Award

2009 2010 Professor A Sangiovanni-Vincen- Mr A G Bose, Chairman, Bose telli, Edgar L and Harold H Buttner Corporation, Framingham, MA, Professor of Electrical Engineering, USA University of California at Berkeley, For outstanding contributions to Berkeley, CA, USA. consumer electronics in sound For pioneering innovation and reproduction, industrial leader- leadership in Electronic Design ship, and engineering education. Automation that has enabled the design of modern, complex, electronics and communications systems and their industrial implementation.

407

GRANTS COMMITTEE In Session 2008/2009, the Grants Committee considered 50 applications and a sum of £22,767 was awarded. Approximately 60% of this sum was awarded as travel assistance.

Travel Assistance Professor J Pickering. For travel to Professor P Bishop. For travel to China. £700 Australia. £950 Professor M Rennie. For travel to Professor G Brown (Corr FRSE). For Japan. £750 travel to Australia. £950 Professor A Robertson. For travel Professor E Clarkson. For travel to to Austria. £300 Canada. £500 Professor T C Smout. For travel to Professor J Connelly. For travel to Denmark. £500 Democratic Republic of Congo. Professor J Sprent. For travel to the £950 USA. £800 Professor S Crampin. For travel to Professor D Titterington. For travel South Africa. £950 to South Africa. £500 Professor B Crawford. For travel to Professor B Webber. For travel to Iceland. £500 India. £400 Professor J Dickson. For travel to Support for Meetings Italy. £500 Professor D Campbell. Interna- Professor D Dritschel. For travel to tional Symposium on Wind Australia. £500 Instrument Acoustics. £500 Professor S Harley. For travel to Professor A Carbery. Operators Czech Republic. £500 and Operator Algebras. £500 Professor A Hawkins. For travel to Professor Ian Deary. Advancing Ireland. £500 Years: current research in cognitive Professor D Jasper. For travel to ageing and dementia – a multi- the USA. £300 disciplinary approach. £250 Professor J McGeough. For travel Professor G Gadd. The Fungal to China. £500 Cell. £500 Professor S McKee. For travel to Professor S Harley. MAPT: MicroA- Brazil. £400 nalysis, Process and Time. £750 Professor R Logie. For travel to Professor D Heggie. NBODY6 and Japan. £900 GPU. £300 Professor R Morris. For travel to Professor T Ingold. Redrawing the USA. £867 Anthropology: Materials, Move- ments, Lines. £750

409 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Professor J Jones. SUSSP66 Research Visitors to Scotland. International Summer School. Professor J C Brown. To enable £500 Professor D B Melrose, of the Professor P Maitland. 6th Interna- University of Sydney, to travel to tional Charr Symposium. £750 Scotland in April 2010 to visit the Professor S Ralston. New Develop- Department of Physics and ments in Clinical Trials In Astronomy at the University of Neuroscience and Psychiatry. £300 Glasgow, make short visits to the Universities of St Andrews and Professor N Rapport. A Cosmopol- Strathclyde and to participate in itan Anthropology? £500 the UK National Astronomy, Solar Professor C Warlow. Cell Death and MIST Meetings being held at Signalling. £500 the University of Glasgow to mark 250 years of the Glasgow Astron- Professor A Welch. 43rd Annual omy Chair. £600 Universities of Scotland Inorganic Conference (USIC). £500 Professor X Mao. To enable Professor Mufa Chen of the Professor C Withers. Correspond- Department of Mathematics, ence: Travel, Writing and Beijing Normal University in Literatures of Exploration, c1750- China, to visit the University of c1850. £500 Strathclyde in October. £300 Professor C Wright. Contemporary Professor M Pickering. To enable Perspectives on Scepticism. £750 Dr Tanya Kraljic, University of Pennsylvania, USA, to visit the Department of Psychology at the University of Edinburgh in September 2009. £300

410 Grants Committee

In Session 2009/2010 the Grants Committee considered 33 applications and a sum of £16,319 was awarded. Approximately 63.5% of this sum was awarded as travel assistance.

Travel Assistance Professor D Szechi. For travel to Professor J Speakman. For travel to the USA. £500 India. £500 Support for Meetings Professor J C Brown. For travel to Professor R Jarrett. Glasgow the USA. £500 Virology Workshop. £250 Professor D Davidson. For travel to Professor C Trevarthen. The Young Austria. £300 Child’s Curriculum: the Value of Professor B Harte. For travel to Pre-school Education and Care. Austria. £500 £300 Professor K Oparka. For travel to Professor D Porteous. DISC1 2010. the USA. £819. 52 £750 Professor T Palmer. For travel to Professor I Gordon. New Develop- the USA. £950 ments in Noncommutative Algebra and its Applications. Professor I Parsons. For travel to £750 the USA. £950 Research Visitors to Scotland. Professor M Scott. For travel to Chile. £950 Professor A Magurran. To enable Dr Kimberley Hughes, Associate Professor R W Byrne. For travel to Professor of Biological Science at Japan. £700 Florida State University, to visit the Professor R Knops. For travel to Scottish Oceans Institute, School Germany. £400 of Biology at the University of St Professor X Mao. For travel to Andrews in June. £650 China. £500 Professor J McGeough. To enable Professor J McGeough. For travel Professor Hassan A El-Hofy, to Australia. £500 Chairman and Professor of the Production Engineering Depart- Professor H Scott. For travel to the ment of the University of USA. £400 Alexandria, to visit the University Professor R Mackie. For travel to of Edinburgh in summer 2010. Australia. £950 £600 Professor S Salter. For travel to Professor M Siddiqui. To enable South Africa. £950 Professor Miroslav Volf, Henry B Wright Professor of Theology at

411 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Yale University, to visit the Univer- Utah to visit the Department of sity of Glasgow for the first Physics and Astronomy at the colloquium of its kind “Love and University of Glasgow. £500 Law in Islam and Christianity” in Research Liaison within Scot- October. £500 land. Professor M Sinclair. To enable Professor A Sorace. For her Professor Roger R Smith of Texas forthcoming project with Dr A&M University, USA, to visit the Gareth Davies of the Health & School of Mathematics at the Wellbeing Research Unit, Lews University of Edinburgh in Castle College, UHI Millennium summer 2010. £450 Institute. £400 Professor T Bedford. To enable Professor A Sorace. For her Professor Berenguer of the forthcoming project with Dr Universite de Technologie de Thomas Bak of the School of Troyes to travel to Scotland to visit Philosophy, Psychology and the Strathclyde University Risk and Language Sciences at the Reliability Group. £400 University of Edinburgh. £400 Professor C Davies. To enable Dr Justin Foley of the University of

412 INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME Activities 2008–2009 The RSE supported a joint sympo- A Memorandum of Understand- sium on Internal Waves held with ing was signed with the Royal the Norwegian Academy of Society of New Zealand in Spring Science and Letters in Oslo in 2009. October 2008. This promoted increased collaboration between Exchange visits totalling 100 our academies, reviewed research person-weeks took place through activity in both countries and the Bilateral Programme, run with explored the initiation of new sister academies in India, Pakistan, collaborative research. The Slovenia, the Czech Republic, symposium was the first of two. Hungary, Poland, Taiwan and The second will take place in Malaysia. Scotland during 2010. The International Committee The Society hosted a joint work- agreed this year to prioritise the shop in Edinburgh with the RSE’s existing bilateral links and, National Science Council of specifically, the RSE’s Joint Projects Taiwan (NSC) on Tidal Current with the National Natural Science Energy in February during a week- Foundation of China (NSFC). As a long visit to Scotland. The result, it was not possible to run Workshop was an opportunity for the Open Exchange Programme the participants from the UK and this year. Taiwan, representing academia Six RSE–NSFC Joint Project awards and industry, to present their were made and the RSE continues current research, policy and to support five projects awarded practice, and to discuss possible in 2007 (which commenced in areas for future collaborations. Spring 2008 and continue for two The delegation also participated years). in the SuperGen Marine Research Seminar, hosted by the University A joint workshop with the NSFC of Edinburgh, and undertook a took place in Beijing in October site visit to SeaGen, Portaferry, 2008, and brought together Northern Ireland, to see an experts in the areas of manage- example of tidal energy tech- ment science, engineering and nology in use. The workshop has public policy. Researchers from already resulted in further visits of both countries came together to academics between Scotland and progress potential collaboration Taiwan to take forward the and develop proposals for Joint collaborations. Projects. The workshop participants also had an opportunity to A high-level delegation from the visit Tsinghua University, Beijing, Chinese Academy of Sciences one of the top universities in (CAS), led by its President, Profes- China. sor Lu Yongxiang, visited the RSE 413 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

in December 2008. The RSE and is a series of events in the UK CAS discussed the scope for even organised to celebrate 150 years closer research cooperation of a Treaty of Amity friendship between Scotland and China, between Japan and the UK. mediated through the MoU Activities during this year are between RSE and CAS, signed in designed to encourage exchange 2002. Topics such as clean energy in such fields as culture, the arts, technology and sustainable sport, education and science. environment were identified as Activities 2009–2010 being of mutual interest. 82 exchange visits totalling more The first annual MacCormick than 220 person-weeks took European Lecture was held at the place through the Bilateral Society in May. This lecture series Programme, run with sister (formerly the Annual European academies in India, Slovenia, Lecture) was re-named in honour Slovakia, the Czech Republic, of the late Professor Sir Neil Hungary, New Zealand, Poland, MacCormick FBA FRSE, in recogni- Taiwan and Malaysia; and through tion of his contribution to Scottish our Open Exchange Programme. and European politics and his international work for the Society. The Society’s joint projects with Lord Kerr of Kinlochard GCMG the National Natural Science HonFRSE gave the lecture, which Foundation of China (NSFC) explored today’s European Union continued to be a priority focus. and whether or not all the passion Six new Joint Project awards were is spent. In his vote of thanks, the made and we continued to Society’s International Convener, support 11 projects awarded in Sir David Edward, said “we could previous years. not have had a better first Mac- The Society also supported a Cormick European Lecture”, Scotland–China Higher Education singling out Lord Kerr’s hard Research Partnership for PhD practicality, deep and wide Studies collaboration between the experience, rich sense of humour, University of Stirling and the rare wisdom and much needed Chinese Academy of Science’s passion, as qualities Sir Neil would Institute of Automation, on the have wished for in the lecture subject of Telecommunications named in his honour. and Information Technologies. The RSE was pleased to participate In October 2009, in partnership in the Japan–UK 150 celebrations with the United States Consulate, by organising a Discussion Forum we hosted a lecture given to an “Engineering Scotland and Japan: invited audience by the US Past, Present and Future” in Ambassador to the UK. September 2009. Japan–UK 150 414 International

Exchanges and Awards

The following exchange awards Dr A Konovalov. University of St were made during the Sessions. Andrews. Czech Republic–Incoming Professor N B Metcalfe. University Dr V Arrighi. Heriot-Watt of Glasgow. University. Hungary–Outgoing Dr A Christev. Heriot-Watt Dr S Molloy. University of Edin- University. burgh. Dr J Culik. University of Glasgow. India–Incoming Dr P Favaro. Heriot-Watt University. Professor M E Cates. University of Dr J J Hughes. University of the Edinburgh. West of Scotland. Professor J C Eilbeck. Heriot-Watt Dr K Kalna. Swansea University. University Professor P Kocovsky. University of Professor S L Harley. University of Glasgow. Edinburgh. Dr K Milek. University of Aber- Dr D Harris. Royal Botanic Garden deen. Edinburgh. Professor R Ó Maolalaigh. Dr A Kar. Heriot-Watt University. University of Glasgow. Professor M McCoustra. Heriot- Professor M G H Pittock. University Watt University. of Glasgow. India–Outgoing Dr T Proschold. Scottish Associa- Mr S Cross. University of Dundee. tion for Marine Science. Professor P Das. University of Czech Republic–Outgoing Strathclyde. Dr E Grist. University of the Professor P Taylor. University of Highlands and Islands. Strathclyde. Dr R Hector. Glasgow Caledonian Malaysia–Outgoing University. Dr J O Mason. University of Dr J J Hughes. University of the Edinburgh. West of Scotland. Dr P Wilkie. Royal Botanic Garden Dr K Milek. University of Aber- Edinburgh. deen. New Zealand–Incoming. Hungary–Incoming Dr A Lees. University of Dundee. Dr P Frisco. Heriot-Watt University.

415 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

New Zealand–Outgoing. Dr M Watson. Royal Botanic Dr G Bewick. University of Aber- Garden Edinburgh. JAPAN deen. Professor S Welburn. University of Dr D Burslem. University of Edinburgh. NIGERIA Aberdeen. Open–Outgoing Dr G Grelet. University of Aber- Dr M J Bain. University of Aber- deen. deen. RUSSIA Dr M-A Harper. University of Dr J Farkas. University of Stirling. Aberdeen. USA Dr S Hoppler. University of Professor C Fyfe. University of the Aberdeen. West of Scotland. SPAIN Professor G Jordan. University of Dr S Gratz. University of Aberdeen. Aberdeen. AUSTRALIA Dr J Porter. Heriot-Watt University. Dr Y Guo. University of Aberdeen. Open–Incoming CHINA Professor A Almaini. Edinburgh Dr H Hall. Edinburgh Napier Napier University. PALESTINE University. USA Dr L Bussiere. University of Stirling. Dr J Leach. University of Aberdeen. CANADA AUSTRALIA Dr S A F Coupaud. University of Dr M Lewitt. University of the West Glasgow. JAPAN of Scotland. SWEDEN Professor I Guz. University of Dr C Liu. Newcastle University. Aberdeen. UKRAINE AUSTRALIA Professor R Logie. University of Dr I Mackie. University of Aber- Edinburgh. JAPAN deen. THAILAND Dr G Maluf Medero. Heriot-Watt Dr P McCaffery. University of University. BRAZIL Aberdeen. HONG KONG Dr K Read. University of Dundee. Professor L McKee. University of USA Aberdeen. SWEDEN Dr J Smith. University of Glasgow. Dr R McMaster. University of JAPAN Glasgow. NETHERLANDS Dr L Torrance. The James Hutton Dr J Monios. Edinburgh Napier Institute. SWEDEN University. USA Dr I Trendafilova. University of Dr C Morelli. University of Dun- Strathclyde. BULGARIA dee. GERMANY Professor A P Waters. University of Dr G Morozov. University of the Glasgow. GERMANY West of Scotland. CANADA

416 International

Dr C Morrison. University of the Professor R Ó Maolalaigh. West of Scotland. USA University of Glasgow. Dr M S Plumb. Oxford Brookes Dr I Stancheva. University of University. AUSTRALIA Edinburgh. Dr T Rathcke. University of Dr K Williamson. University of Glasgow. GERMANY Edinburgh. Dr V Relf. Moredun Research Poland–Outgoing Institute. AUSTRALIA Mrs A Atkinson. Scottish National Dr V Rinterknecht. University of St Blood Transfusion Service. Andrews. SPAIN Dr A Heinrich. University of Dr M Singer. University of St Glasgow. Andrews. FRANCE Dr D Kilpatrick. Scottish National Dr K D Smith. Edinburgh Napier Blood Transfusion Service. University. CANADA Dr S MacDonald. Scottish National Mr A Tesfai. University of St Blood Transfusion Service. Andrews. THAILAND Dr M Nijnik. The James Hutton Dr S Theriault. University of Institute Aberdeen. JAPAN Dr N Robertson. University of Dr I Tsalavoutas. University of Edinburgh. Stirling. FRANCE Dr S Wallis. Heriot-Watt University. Dr Y Veld-Merkoulova. University Slovakia–Incoming of Stirling. AUSTRALIA Professor A Clark. University of Pakistan–Incoming Edinburgh. Professor P Clift. University of Dr S Woodin. University of Aberdeen Aberdeen. Dr J McGrady. University of Slovenia–Incoming Glasgow. Dr K Campbell. University of Poland–Incoming Edinburgh Dr B Cohen. University of Glas- Slovenia–Outgoing gow. Dr D McArdle. University of Professor H Jones. University of Stirling Dundee. Taiwan–Incoming Dr D McKee. University of Strath- Dr K Boyd. University of the clyde Highlands and Islands. Dr D McKee. University of Strath- Professor J Corbett. University of clyde Macau.

417 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Dr L Del Debbio. University of Dr R Fu. University of the West of Edinburgh. Scotland. Dr R Fu. University of the West of Dr C Liu. Newcastle University Scotland. Professor G Markx. Heriot-Watt Professor N D Hastie. MRC Human University. Genetics Unit, Western General Professor A R Wallace. University Hospital. of Edinburgh Professor J Haywood. University of Professor E Wilkinson. University Edinburgh. of Glasgow. Professor P W Macfarlane. NSFC Joint Projects University of Glasgow. Dr M Baptista. University of Professor J Ooi. University of Aberdeen. Fundamentals for a Edinburgh. chaos-based wireless underwater Dr H Pinto. University of Strath- communication system. clyde. Professor U Bititci . University of Professor M Stack. University of Strathclyde. Support models for Strathclyde. collaborative innovation in global Professor R Stalley. University of environments. Glasgow. Professor Wenfei Fan. University of Dr J Zou. University of Aberdeen. Edinburgh. Object Identification for Complex Data. Taiwan - Outgoing Dr F Habib. University of Edin- Professor J Bradshaw. University of burgh. Specific gene therapy of Edinburgh. oncolytic adenovirus inserted by Dr Y Y Chang. University of E1A gene with Uroplakin promot- Abertay Dundee. er in bladder cancer. Dr Y Chau. University of Edin- Professor D M J Lilley. University of burgh. Dundee. Mechanism of ribosomal Dr J Chen-Burger. University of antibiotic resistance and identifi- Edinburgh. cation of new antibiotic targets. Professor M G Dunlop. University Dr X Liu. Edinburgh Napier of Edinburgh. University. An approach to Dr B Dutia. University of Edin- modelling and evolution of service burgh. architecture and its reliability in clouds. Dr J Ellis. Northumbria University. Dr D Fitzpatrick. University of Edinburgh.

418 International

Dr H Liu . University of St Andrews. Dr M Vallejo-Marin . University of Identification and structural Stirling. Reproductive biology of analysis of tobacco vein banding an alien weed (Solanum rostra- mosaic virus HC-Pro, VPg patho- tum, Solanaceae) and its potential genicity complex. for evolutionary modification Professor X Mao. University of Dr X Wang. Heriot-Watt University. Strathclyde. Analysis and synthesis Research on modulation and of stochastic hybrid systems and coding for EWB over fibre signals. their applications to freeway Dr W Wang. University of Dundee. traffic control. Analysis of musculoskeletal Professor D Song. Robert Gordon models of the upper-limb and University. Towards a context- stability of the frame-walking- sensitive high-order language assistant during gait. model for information retrieval via Dr L Xiong. Robert Gordon information geometry. University. Financing female Professor J R Speakman. University entrepreneurship: Do social of Aberdeen. Reproductive networks matter? performance of the Mongolian Dr J Yamagishi. University of gerbil (Meriones ungulatus) under Edinburgh. Unified articulartory- variable environmental conditions acoustic modelling for flexible and controllable speech synthesis.

419

FELLOWS’ SOCIAL EVENTS 2008/09 3 February 2009. Tackling New Fellows’ Induction Day Scotland's Health Inequalities - a major challenge for the next The Induction Day for new Fellows decade. Professor John Coggins was held on Monday 11 May 2009. The Induction Day is an 3 March 2009. Reconstructing opportunity for new Fellows to Historical Sites; Fact or Fiction? Dr meet RSE staff and Officers and Barbara E Crawford familiarise themselves with the The Royal Society Dining Club work of the Society. Thirty-two The Club was established on 3 new Fellows, comprising three January 1820, with the view of Corresponding and 29 Ordinary promoting the objectives of the Fellows, attended. Royal Society of Edinburgh. In Summer Reception Session 2008/2009 meetings This annual reception for Fellows were held as follows: and their spouses/guests was held 846th Dinner - 13 October 2008 at the RSE on 12 August 2009 at Praeses: Professor Ian Sword 7 pm. Croupier: Professor David Ingram Fellows Coffee Meetings 847th Dinner - 8 December 2008 In conjunction with the weekly Praeses: Professor Jan McDonald Coffee Meetings, talks were Croupier: Ms Eileen Mackay presented once a month during 848th Dinner - 6 April 2009 the Winter and Spring as follows: Praeses: Sir John Shaw 14 October 2008. Telford at the Croupier: Professor Gavin Frontiers of Technology. Professor McCrone Roland Paxton 849th Dinner - 8 June 2009 4 November 2008. The Role of Praeses: Professor John S Richard- the Banker in Society Today. Ewan son Brown Croupier: Lord Ross 2 December 2008. Democracy Fellows’ Golf Ancient and Modern. Professor Stewart Cup 2009 at Kilmacolm. John Richardson Winner : Professor Sean McKee 6 January 2009. Forgotten Sectors 2009 - The Golf House pioneers, the case of Robert Club, Elie. 14 May 2009 Chambers. Professor Bruce The winners - from the Life Proudfoot Sciences Group - were Professors Nick Wade and Bill Stimson.

421 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

2009/10 2 February 2010. Events, adapta- New Fellows Induction Day bility and survival, the case of the European Union. Sir David Edward The 2010 Induction Day took place on Monday 3 May 2010. 9 March 2010. Are we destroying Thirty-seven new Fellows, compris- Edinburgh? Professor Charles ing four Corresponding and 33 McKean Ordinary Fellows, attended and The Royal Society Dining Club were given an overview of the In Session 2009/2010, meetings Society, and more details about were held as follows: the role of the Fellowship 850th Dinner - 12 October 2009 Summer Reception - 12 June Praeses: Professor Geoffrey 2010. City Chambers Glasgow. Boulton The Rt Hon Lord Provost of Croupier: Professor Gordon Craig Glasgow, Councillor Bob Winter, 851st Dinner - 7 December 2009 co-hosted the reception with Lord Praeses: Sir David Edward Wilson in the magnificent setting Croupier: Professor Carol Duffus of Glasgow City Chambers. During the evening, there was an 852nd Dinner - 12 April 2010 opportunity to view displays from Praeses: Professor Robin Knops organisations connected with the Croupier: Professor Gordon Craig recently-launched Glasgow City of 853rd Dinner - 14 June 2010 Science initiative. Praeses: Lady Balfour of Burleigh Fellows Coffee Meetings Croupier: Professor Bruce Proud- foot Weekly Coffee Meetings were held through the Winter and Fellows’ Golf Spring months, as follows: Stewart Cup 2010 - at Rose- 13 October 2009. Recognising a mount, Blairgowrie. Masterpiece. Michael Clarke Winner : Professor Wilson Sibbett 3 November 2009. Synchotrons Sectors 2010 - The Golf House and Free Electron Lasers, what Club, Elie. 20 May 2010. The Earthly use are they? Professor overall team winner was Sector B - Robert Donovan the individual winner was David Bell. 8 December 2009. The President, Lord Wilson of Tillyorn 12 January 2010. Runs on homozygosity, population history and disease. Dr James Wilson

422 GRANTS, SPONSORSHIP AND DONATIONS The Society is grateful to the following organisations for their continuing support during the Financial years 2008–09 and 2009–10.

BBSRC Gannochy Trust BP Research Fellowship Trust Scottish Enterprise Caledonian Research Foundation Scottish Government Lessells Trust STFC Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland and also to the following for their support for specific events and activities:

Airborne Initiative RBS Group PLC Anonymous Royal Academy of Engineering Alcohol Education and Research Royal Society of Chemistry Council RSPB Scotland Angus Council Education Depart- Scottish Aquaculture Research ment Forum Binks Trust Scottish Arts Council BP Exploration Scottish Enterprise Borders British Council Scotland Scottish Environmental Protection Council for Industry and Higher Agency Education Scottish Estates Business Group Darwin Trust Scottish Forestry Trust Ewan & Christine Brown Charita- Scottish Health Action on Alcohol ble Trust Problems Glaxo SmithKline plc Scottish Power plc Highland Council Scottish Universities Physics Highlands and Islands Enterprise Alliance Institute of Physics Shell UK Lifescan Scotland Limited Standard Life plc Marks & Spencer plc UHI Millennium Institute Microsoft Research Limited University of Edinburgh National Museums of Scotland Royal Bank of Scotland plc

423

SCHEDULE OF INVESTMENTS

------82,470 28,000 42,750 25,019 84,720 216,547 277,456 292,889 636,763 295,766 196,000 105,140 101,387 172,800 Value Market Closing

- - 4,728 1,213 13,756 13,279 24,030 32,568 22,818 (8,213) (21,526) (43,358) (28,849) (40,886) (23,531) (59,280)

------460 889 (327) (9,485) ------(22,402) (109,713) (130,000) ------68,102 58,626 33,299 Cost Proceeds Sale on Year for - 906,292 (311,583) - 100,412 - 100,174 886 625 68, 70, 50,963 130,889 110,173 Market - - 0 0 00 00 137,730 135,218 00 0 0 60, 80,000168,350 36,000 70, 12,50 47,000125,828 45,000 24,000144,000 No. 100,000 200,000 134,689 255,000 260,000 135,650 135,616 128,527 133,243 200,000 158,900 600, 2 Closing Opening Purchase Sales Gain/(Loss) Revaluation Value ££££ £ £ Investment Current Holdings Current deen Asian Income Fund er b Investment & Unit Trusts Unit & Investment A Tesco 5.5% Nts 13/12/19 Nts 5.5% Tesco Henderson East Far IncomeTrust Treasury 5.5% 2012 5.5% Treasury Treasury 2.5% 2016 Index-Linked Interest Fixed Other R B of Scotland 7.387% 2010/49 BankEuropean Inv't 4.75% 2018 Aberforth Smaller Co Trust IncomeDunedin Growth Inv Trust Gilts Treasury 5% 2012 2015 4.75% Treasury Royal Society of Edinburgh Schedule of Investments- movements at valuation. Year Ended 31 March 2009 March 31 Ended Year valuation. at movements Investments- of Schedule Edinburgh of Society Royal 2009 5.75% Treasury Aberforth Aberforth Geared Cap & Inc Trust Treasury 4.25% 2011 4.25% Treasury Scottish Mortgage & Trust Treasury 5% 2014

425 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10 ------9,898 8,415 21,716 45,880 49,853 11,667 84,052 25,798 29,240 16,796 21,625 88,481 53,176 26,750 112,201 106,194 111,703 Value Market Closing

- 5,024 2,099 4,990 11,132 (34,767) (24,043) (84,466) (63,233) (56,712) (53,242) (16,373) (89,556) (31,473) (20,300) (13,679) (74,038) (27,996)

------8,204 (6,225) (1,591) (3,113) ------(4,837) (6,225) (1,591) (38,444) ------53,917 66,384 92,379 53,098 59,084 66,531 77,218 47,383 34,748 44,863 Cost Proceeds Sale on Year for - -

- 952 993 16,692 54,589 13,041 30, 35,710 33,169 58,851 91,300 85, 63,140 50,588 54,864 89,031 60,830 104,095

Market - - 0 0 0 - - 00 50 886 9,765 8,513 7,883 4,984 5,900 1,445 10,00 10,000 91,000 21,279 68, 14,000 34,348 11,250 15, 68,000 No. Closing Opening Purchase Sales Gain/(Loss) Revaluation Value ££££ £ £ Investment Current Holdings Current a v i Glaxo Smith Kline Ord 25p Pharmaceuticals Astrazeneca Unilever Ord 1.4p Northgate Ord 5p Prudential Consumer Av Services £0.50 Ord Firstgroup Royal Society of Edinburgh Schedule of Investments- movements at valuation. Year Ended 31 March 2009 March 31 Ended Year valuation. at movements Investments- of Schedule Edinburgh of Society Royal Financials Barclays Teleommunications 0.50 £ Ord Group BT $ Ord Group Vodafone HSBC Holdings Ord US$ 0.50 US$ Ord Holdings HSBC Land SecuritiesGroup 2.5p Ord Group General Legal & group Banking Lloyds Royal Bank ofScotland Diageo 25p Ord Spences & Marks Greggs Ord £0.20 Ord Greggs

426 Schedule of Investments ------40,015 33,329 38,186 72,085 51,489 85,200 96,116 34,719 97,329 173,985 111,183 4,214,788 -

Value Market Closing -

- - - - (364) (7,887) 10,360 (7,198) (25,693) (28,776) (81,892) (15,891) (837,223)

------3,102 14,289 0 ------(15,519) - - - 66,962 72,449 79,471 27,612 74,840 18,530 41,917 Cost Proceeds Sale on Year for - - - 6115,211

- 79 29,808 38,095 51,489 62, 97,329 102,400 185,170 (792,154) 640,313 Market - 0 - 090 3,800 7,446 9,300 6,500 4, 7,500108,544 2,500 2,600 10,00 36,900 No. Closing Opening Purchase Sales Gain/(Loss) Revaluation 2,662,889 3,090,776 1,964,336 Value ££££ £ £ Investment Current Holdings Current trials s h s Redrow Ord £0.10 Ord Redrow £0.05 Ord Rotork TOTALS Transco Grid National Royal Society of Edinburgh Schedule of Investments- movements at valuation. Year Ended 31 March 2009 March 31 Ended Year valuation. at movements Investments- of Schedule Edinburgh of Society Royal Resources US$0.25 OrdBP Rio Tinto Ord £0.10 Johnson Mathey Ord £1 Indu Utilities Royal Dutch Shell Ord 25p National OrdGrid 11p Scottish & Southern Energy £ 0.5 Royal Dutch Shell 'B' Ord •.07 Ord Shell 'B' Dutch Royal Total SA Ca

427 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10 6,967 230,035 66,348 5,242,639 - Value Market Closing

19049,685 6,66756,800 36,36692,598 862,785 - -

0 124,265 (39,717)10,749 - - 7,991 147,349 40,801 Cost Proceeds Sale on Year for 4,214,785 Market

No. Closing Opening Purchase Sales Gain/(Loss) Revaluation 2,212,406 3,850 90,131 49,227 11,400 153,100 25,024 - - 28,843 20 19,000 6,600 - 85,200 49,495 - - - - 33,329 (1,645,673) 1,650,015 - - 37,671 3,800 40,014 - - - 26,334 36,900 173,984 - - - 56,051 5,000 - 50,133 - - - 96,115 - (122,359)26,244 - Value ££££ £ £ Investment Current Holdings Current Royal Dutch Shell Ord 25p Shell Ord Dutch Royal •.07 Ord Shell 'B' Dutch Royal SA Total Cash TOTALS Rio Tinto Ord £0.10OrdTinto Rio Resources US$0.25 OrdBP £1 Ord Mathey Johnson Royal Society of Edinburgh Schedule of Investments- movements at valuation. Year Ended 31 March 2009 March 31 Ended Year valuation. at movements Investments- of Schedule Edinburgh of Society Royal Industrials £0.10 Ord Redrow Rotork Ord £0.05 Ord Rotork

428 Schedule of Investments

- - 55,728 108,277 Value 291,500 Market Closing 99,942

60 271,035 146,160 - - 020 91,415 (544) (7,202) 285,687 41,221 69,221

0 5,748 2 010,975 257,337 0 414 - - (105) - (108) - (4,390) - - (6,303) - 0 - (3,528) (3,958) Cost ProceedsSale on Year for 636,763 - (632,373) 295,766 5,974 (295,437) Market No. Closing Opening Purchase Sales Gain/(Loss) Revaluation 84,800 101,387 144,975 - - - 8,775 (10,128) 1,353 12,500 47,094 - - - 20,469 67,563 100,000 105,140 - - - 3,137 200,000 196,000 - 85,500 - 5,500 172,800 - - 13,289 51,485 - 95,500 - - - 84,94 4,615 56,100 70,000 28,000 - - - 321,000 216,547 129,271 - - 2,108 347,926 260,000 292,889 - - 24,000 84,720 - - - 61,44 - - 277,456 - (277,870) - - - 3,633 - - 4,066 Value ££££ £ £ Investment Current Holdings Current Gilts Treasury 4.25% 2011 4.25% Treasury Royal Society of Edinburgh Schedule of Investments- movements at valuation. Year Ended 31 March 2010 31 March Year Ended valuation. at movements of Investments- Schedule Edinburgh of Society Royal

Aberforth Geared Cap & Inc TrustInc & Cap Geared Aberforth Trust Co Smaller Aberforth InvTrustIncomeGrowthDunedin Edinburgh Investment Trust 45,000 42,750 47,000 - 60,395 - - - - 7,200 - 49,950 31, Treasury 5% 2012 5% Treasury Tesco 5.5% Nts 13/12/19 Nts 5.5% Tesco European Inv't Bank 4.75%2018 European Bank Inv't 174.125%European Investment Bank Southern5.875% 22/9/22Scottish& 330,000 93,000 - Trusts Investment Unit & Fund Income Asian Aberdeen - 337,808 100,486 - - Trust Income East Far Henderson - Trust Investment Keystone - Trust ScottishMortgage & 6,212 344,020 Other Fixed Interest Fixed Other 2010/49ofScotland7.387% R B Treasury 5% 2014 5% Treasury 2015 Treasury 4.75% 2016Index-LinkedTreasury 2.5% 2020Index-LinkedTreasury 2.5% 2020 Treasury 4.75% 83,300 - 249,980 - Treasury 4.75% 2016 Treasury 4.75%

429 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10 0 90,582 27,287 21,625 - Value - Market Closing

92 142,144 - - 7,690 127,520 52,526 52,526

Cost ProceedsSale on Year for Market - No. Closing Opening Purchase Sales Gain/(Loss) Revaluation 21,279 84,052 - - - 58,0 5,900 25,798 - - - 14,204 40,002 13,383 11,667 14,902 - - 21,650 48,219 5,500 4,984 - 16,796 44,907 - - - - - 2,806 10,491 47,713 11,250 88,481 18,000 8,513 - - 112,201 (35,036) - 75,968 13,411 - (57,191) - 11,311 - 2,413 66,856 - 1 45,88 - 80,000 - 99,831 - - 2 - 29,240 - (52,234) 22,994 - 45,880 - - - 35,944 81,824 - 9,898 - (13,395) 3,497 - - 21,625 - - - - - 8,415 - (10,642) 2,227 - Value ££££ £ £ Investment Current Holdings Current Land Securities Group Securities Land OrdGeneralGroup 2.5p Legal&

Royal Society of Edinburgh Schedule of Investments- movements at valuation. Year Ended 31 March 2010 31 March Year Ended valuation. at movements of Investments- Schedule Edinburgh of Society Royal Financials Barclays 0.50 US$ Ord Holdings HSBC Lloyds BankinggroupLloyds Provident Financial Ord Financial Provident Prudential Tesco Ord 5pTesco Ord TR Property investment Trust TR BankofScotland Royal Consumer Aviva Diageo 25p Ord Spences & Marks 1.4p Ord Unilever

430 Schedule of Investments 04 ,064 46,311 52,550 70,299 138,320 - 171,665 Value 107,426 Market Closing 71,565 - -

(520)

Cost ProceedsSale on Year for Market - No. 12,900 26,750 10,094 - - 9,467 Closing Opening Purchase Sales Gain/(Loss) Revaluation 6,500 72,085 - - - 27,800 - 74,576 - - 7,128 81,7 10,000 - 48,777 - - 3,774 16,746 89,675 - - - 17,751 91,000 111,703 - - - 26,617 13,565 106,194 14,45049,934 49,853 - - - - 15,537 - 20,446 2,486 21,716 43,864 - - 7,484 73 - 53,176 - (96,146) 42,970 - Value ££££ £ £ Investment Current Holdings Current Reed Elsevier Reed Teleommunications 0.50 Group £ BT Ord Utilities Centrica 11p Ord Grid National Vodafone Group Ord $ Ord Group Vodafone 0.5 £ Energy Southern & Scottish Glaxo Smith Kline Ord 25p Ord Kline Smith Glaxo Services Firstgroup £0.50 Ord £0.20 Ord Greggs Royal Society of Edinburgh Schedule of Investments- movements at valuation. Year Ended 31 March 2010 31 March Year Ended valuation. at movements of Investments- Schedule Edinburgh of Society Royal Pharmaceuticals Astrazeneca

431 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10 00 5,242,639 66,348 Value Market Closing

190 49,685 6,667 56,8 36,366 92,598 862,785 - -

0 124,265 (39,717)10,749 - - 7,991 147,349 40,801 Cost ProceedsSale on Year for 4,214,785 Market

No. Closing Opening Purchase Sales Gain/(Loss) Revaluation 2,212,406 3,850 90,131 49,227 11,400 153,100 25,024 - - 28,843 206,967 19,000 6,600 - 85,200 49,495 - - - - 33,329 (1,645,673) 1,650,015 - - 37,671 36,900 173,984 - - - 56,051 230,035 3,800 40,014 - - - 26,334 5,000 - 50,133 - - - 96,115 - (122,359)26,244 - - Value ££££ £ £ Investment Current Holdings Current TOTALS Cash Total SA £0.10 Ord Tinto Rio 25p Shell OrdRoyal Dutch Royal Society of Edinburgh Schedule of Investments- movements at valuation. Year Ended 31 March 2010 31 March Year Ended valuation. at movements of Investments- Schedule Edinburgh of Society Royal Industrials 25p Ord G4S OrdRotork £0.05 GroupSmiths plc Resources OrdBP US$0.25 £1 MattheyJohnson Ord

432 FRIENDS OF THE SOCIETY In 2009, the RSE launched Friends of the Society, a corporate engagement scheme established with the purpose of developing the RSE’s relationship with Scotland’s business sector. The initiative provides an opportunity for the “Friends” to find out more about the RSE and the important work it carries out. It also presents the RSE and its corporate partners with a platform to explore areas of mutual interest and develop joint projects. Members of the scheme also receive a number of tangible benefits in return for a modest annual fee. Membership during the 2009/10 Session comprised: Aegon UK, BP, Lloyds Banking Group, RBS, Scottish Enterprise, Scottish Power, Shell UK and Wood Group.

433

CHANGES IN FELLOWSHIP DURING THE SESSION DEATHS REPORTED TO THE SOCIETY 2008/09

Fellows June Beatrice Mary Gordon, Walter Ledermann Marchioness of Aberdeen and Gething Morgan Lewis Temair Donald Neil MacCormick James Baddiley Colin Frederick Mills George Robert Bishop Walter Douglas Munn Jack Dainty Karl Howard Overton Charles Kemp Davidson Lewis Robertson Robert Arthur Eden John Alexander Simpson Peter Berners Fellgett George Morgan Thomson Norman Gash Ewart Kendall Walton Thomas Lothian Johnston Geoffrey Barratt Warburton Charles Goethe Kuper Hamish Christopher Swan Wood

Honorary Fellows

Norman Ernest Borlaug

435 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

DEATHS REPORTED TO THE SOCIETY 2009/10 Fellows George Warburton Ashcroft Hector Laing of Dunphail Margaret Barnes Peter Theodore Landsberg Geoffrey Herbert Beale Harold Lister Keith Boddy Douglas Maurice MacDowell Brian Capon Douglas Mack Peter Brian Denyer Iain Duncan Macphail Robert Balson Dingle Donald Bertram McIntyre Kenneth James Dover Alasdair Duncan McIntyre Geoffrey John Fraser Dutton James Francis McMillan Bernard Francis Fell Arthur John Robin Gorell Milner George Alan Garton Geoffrey Edwin Rickman John Spence Gillespie David John Robins Francis John Gillingham David Mitchell Shepherd Norman William Graham Ronald Henry Smith Richard Langton Gregory Douglas Walter Noble Stibbs Philip George Harper Charles James Taylor Alan Jeffrey Thomas Summers West Arthur Colville Kennedy

Honorary Fellows

James Whyte Black Edwin George Morgan John Wenman Crofton

436 Changes in Fellowship

ELECTIONS 2008/09 Fellows

Douglas Crombie Anderson Leonhardt Ulf Paul Reid Beaumont Ronald McCaffer Henry James Gerard Burns Ian Graham Main James Cassidy Jean Manson James Stephen Clark David Ernest Newby Leroy Cronin Oliver Michael Timothy Ian David Diamond O'Donovan Lynn Drummond Thomas Alexander Owen-Hughes Owen Dudley Edwards Massimo Palmarini Douglas Eaglesham Dunn Tracy Palmer John William Elvidge Nicholas Hugh Roe Tom Farmer Mark Edwin Schaffer Maria Fernanda Ferreira Padma Kant Shukla Robert William Furness Peter Smith Christopher Andrew Glasbey Agata Smoktunowicz Susan Jane Hart Tomoyuki Tanaka Anthony Bryan Hayward Michael David Tyers Alan Francis Heavens Richard JohnWarburton David Arthur Hume Marian Wiercigroch Jack Jackson Alison Willow Yarrington Irene May Leigh

Corresponding Fellows

Oral Buyukozturk Richard B Sher Marc Steven Mangel Sergios Theodoridis

437 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

ELECTIONS 2009/10 Fellows

James Iain Walker Anderson William Maclean Andrew Howard Baker Jonathan Edward Harland Mills Timothy John Bedford Stuart Monro Archibald A Bethel Jeremy Charles Mottram Gerald Stuart Buller Ian Paterson Geoffrey Allan Codd Jill Patricia Pell Patrick William Michael Corbett Edgar Peltenburg Victoria Elizabeth Crowe George William Penrose Richard Michael Dixon Louise Mary Richardson Julian Alexander Thomas Dow Jack Satsangi Robert Mark Ellam Paul Martin Sharp Philip Francis Esler Richard Michael Sharpe Michael Paul Fourman David Malcolm St Clair Iain Grant Gordon Kenneth Alexander Strain Neva Elizabeth Haites Allan David Struthers Christopher Hall David Tregear Ulph Jill Diana Harries Daniel Marinus Ferdinand Van Pavel Kocovsky Aalten David Michael Lane Andrew Paul Waters David Reginald Francis Leach Steven Yearley Janet Lowe

Corresponding Fellows

David Richard Armitage David Maxwell Scott Angus Stewart Deaton William George Stirling Peter John Hudson

Honorary Fellows

Friedrich Ernst Peter Hirzebruch Jonathan Adair Turner of Neil Robert MacGregor Echinswell

438 STAFF CHANGES DURING THE SESSION 2008/09 2009/10 Arrivals Arrivals Ms Sheryl Anderson, Finance Ms Martina Hlinkova, Front of Officer House Manager Ms Susan Bishop, Policy Officer Mr Conor Hull, Education Ms Rebecca Mann, Admin/ Outreach Officer Receptionist Mrs Kate Kennedy, Dumfries and Mrs Karen O’Neill, Admin/ Galloway Project Officer Receptionist Departures Ms Asa Seljestad, Events Officer Ms Asa Seljestad, Events Officer Departures Ms Claire Swatton, Conference Mr Stuart Brown, PR and Commu- centre Co-ordinator nications Manager Ms Koren Calder, Education Outreach Officer Mrs Sheila Stuart, Admin/Recep- tionist Mr Duncan Welsh, Events Officer Other Staff in post throughout the Sessions

Mr Gordon Adam, Director of Dr William Duncan, Chief Execu- Business Development tive Ms Christel Baudère, HR Officer Miss Kate Ellis, Director of Finance Mrs Róisín Calvert-Elliott, Events Mrs Anne Fraser, Research Awards Manager and International Manager Mrs Catriona Blair, Events/ Mrs Jean Geoghegan, Accounts Education Assistant Officer Ms Sandra Borthwick, Administra- Mrs Vicki Hammond, Journals and tor, Scottish Bioinformatics Forum Archive Officer Ms Jennifer Cameron, Office Mr William Hardie, Consultations Services and IT Support Manager Officer Dr Lesley Campbell, Fellowship, Mrs Isabel Hastie, Admin/Recep- Policy and Journals Manager tionist Ms Morven Chisholm, Interna- Mr Graeme Herbert, Director of tional Relations Officer Corporate Services and Deputy Mr Andy Curran, Property Services Chief Executive Officer

439 Review of Sessions 2008/09 and 2009/10

Mr Robert Hunter, Evening Mr George Pendleton, Conference Caretaker Centre Assistant Dr Chris Janssen, Director, Scottish Dr Marc Rands, Evidence and Bioinformatics Forum Advice Manager Mr Robert Lachlan, Accounts Ms Tracy Rickard, Research Awards Officer Co-ordinator Mrs Jenny Liddell, Communica- Mr Brian Scott, Technical Support tions Officer Assistant Mr Bristow Muldoon, Parliamen- Ms Susan Walker, Events Officer tary Liaison Officer Mrs Doreen Waterland, PA to Miss Angela Nicholson, Records Chief Executive and Officers Management Officer

440 EXTRACT FROM TRUSTEES’ REPORT TO 31 MARCH 2009 Structure, governance and normally meets quarterly and management reports to the Council. The RSE Council, chaired by the The Council members and the President, comprises thirteen office-bearers serving on the Trustees, including four Vice- Executive Board are all elected Presidents, the General Secretary, annually by the Fellowship in a the Treasurer, the Fellowship postal ballot. New members of the Secretary and five ordinary Council and the Executive Board members. At the Annual Statutory are given an extensive induction Meeting in October 2008, the through discussions with the Laws of the Society were changed Chief Executive and senior staff. to increase the number of Vice- Reporting to the Council through Presidents from three to four. This the Executive Board are operat- means that each of the four Sector ional committees, including the Groups now has a Vice-President. Education Committee, Interna- The Sector Groups are: Life tional Committee, various Sciences; Physical, Engineering Research Awards Committees, the and Informatic Sciences; Arts, Meetings Committee and the Humanities and Social Sciences; Young People’s Committee. These and Economics, Business and Committees largely, but not Industry. Subject to annual re- exclusively, comprise Fellows of election, Council members serve the RSE and are concerned with for three years, except for the the operational delivery of the General Secretary and Treasurer, RSE’s varied activities. All Fellows who may serve for up to four are actively encouraged to years. All are unpaid. participate in the RSE’s activities. The Council is responsible for the Two other charitable trusts strategic direction and policies of founded by and closely connected the RSE, and normally meets to the RSE, the BP Research quarterly. Fellowships Trust (the BP Trust) An Executive Board has delegated and the RSE Scotland Foundation responsibility from the Council for (the Foundation), are included in delivery of the RSE’s activities. It is the consolidated accounts. The chaired by the General Secretary, Foundation plays a leading role in and also has as its elected mem- the RSE’s public outreach activities bers, the Treasurer, the Convenors and manages the premises in of the main operational commit- George Street. Its Trustees are tees and the Curator, as well as appointed for three years by the the Chair of the RSE Scotland RSE Council. Foundation and senior executive staff. The Executive Board

441 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

In March 2009, The Caledonian the financial statements in Research Foundation (CRF) accordance with applicable Law merged with the Foundation to and United Kingdom Generally deliver a joint programme of Accepted Accounting Practice (UK activities in support of research in GAAP). Scotland. CRF transferred its In preparing accounts giving a activity portfolio and assets of true and fair view, the Council around £6.3m to the Foundation, should follow best practice and: which is now responsible for managing these within its wider • select suitable accounting programme of activities. CRF is policies and apply them expected to be wound up as an consistently; independent organisation from • make judgements and estimates the summer of 2009, but its that are reasonable and charitable objectives will continue prudent; to be met through the Founda- • state whether applicable tion. To ensure a smooth accounting standards and transition, three CRF Governors statements of recommended became Foundation Trustees. practice have been followed, The BP Trust was created follow- subject to any departures ing a donation of £2m in 1988 disclosed and explained in the from BP to support a scheme of accounts; three-year, post-doctoral research • prepare the accounts on a fellowships in specified subjects going concern basis unless it is and which are awarded at the sole inappropriate to presume that discretion of the RSE. The RSE the RSE will continue in opera- President, General Secretary and tion. Treasurer are the BP Trustees, ex The Council is responsible for officiis. keeping accounting records which Statement of Council’s responsi- disclose with reasonable accuracy bilities the financial position of the RSE Under charities legislation and which enable it to ensure that applicable in Scotland, the the accounts comply with the Council is required to prepare Charities and Trustee Investment accounts for each financial year (Scotland) Act 2005, the Charities that give a true and fair view of Accounts (Scotland) Regulations the RSE’s financial activities during 2006 and the RSE’s own Laws. It is the year and of its financial also responsible for safeguarding position at the end of the year. the assets of the RSE and hence The Council is responsible for for taking reasonable steps for the preparing the annual report and prevention and detection of fraud and other irregularities.

442 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009

Risk management • Completion of the James Clerk The Audit and Risk Committee, Maxwell Statue in George operating on a joint basis with the Street, Edinburgh in November Foundation and the BP Trust, 2008; reports directly to the Council, the • Joining with the Caledonian Foundation and the BP Trust. Its Research Foundation in March Chair, who cannot be a Trustee or 2009, with the transfer of its other office-bearer of the RSE, is portfolio and assets of around invited to attend Council meet- £6.3m to the RSE Scotland ings as an observer. Its remit Foundation; includes keeping under review the • Awarding an increased number effectiveness of internal control of Scottish Government and risk management systems of Research Fellowships, a total of the RSE and its connected chari- six new Personal Research ties. The Council believes that the Fellowships, each of up to five existing systems and the structure years in length, implementing of decision taking and reporting the recommendations of the through senior staff, the Executive Enderby Report; Board and the Council continues to provide assurance that risks are • Significant growth in the RSE’s properly assessed and carefully international activities, includ- managed. ing new agreements signed with the Academy of Sciences OVERVIEW Malaysia and the Royal Society This section describes the main of New Zealand, and an increase achievements of the RSE, the in the number of international Foundation and the BP Trust, exchanges; reflecting the fact that the • The first rounds of the Phase III Financial Statements are present- scheme of Enterprise Fellow- ed on a consolidated basis for this ships. Twenty-six applications Group of connected charities. The were received andeleven were highlights, in what was a success- awarded; ful year include: • RSE@Arbroath. A year-long • Independent Inquiry into the programme of wide-ranging Future of Scotland’s Hill public outreach activities and Island Areas was published concluding with the Christmas in September 2008 and was Lectures given by Professor widely welcomed; Anne Glover CBE FRSE, Chief Scientific Adviser for Scotland.

443 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

Results for the year Performance Monitoring The statement of financial The performance of the RSE and activities includes two major non- its connected charities, compared recurring receipts. These were the to the output targets set in the legacy from Dr Harold Thomas Operational Plan, is reported amounting to £2.1m and the quarterly to the Executive Board, transfer of assets from CRF of and thereafter to the RSE Council £6.3m. The underlying financial and to the Trustees of the other outcome for the year was a connected bodies. As in previous surplus of £39,000, an improve- years, the overwhelming majority ment on the budget expectation (>95%) of the targets were of a modest deficit. The majority reached or exceeded; those that of the improvement arose from were not arose either through higher-than-expected property external factors or not being able and investment income. to secure or apply the necessary resources.

£’000 Net incoming resources 2,107 Less:Major legacy (2,158) Appeal income (9) Add: Expenditure for James Clerk Maxwell statue for which income was received in 2007-08 99 Surplus on recurring activities 39

The balance sheet net assets increased from £11.8m to £18.6m, despite an unrealised loss on investments for the year of £1.3m.

444 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009

FINANCIAL REVIEW AND resources were £2.1m. The POLICIES underlying surplus, after adjusting Reserves policy and funds for the net effect of expenditure of income received last year for The RSE holds a number of the statue of James Clerk Maxwell restricted funds resulting from and appeal income, was bequests for particular purposes, £39,000.This pleasing result was details of which are set out in offset by realised losses of note 2 to the financial statements. £101,000 on investments, mainly The Council has created designat- arising from the sale of some of ed funds, from its unrestricted the holdings transferred as part of funds, the purposes of which are the Dr Thomas Legacy and by the also set out in note 2 to the unrealised losses on investments financial statements. of £1.34m. The General Fund represents the The transfer of assets from CRF, balance of unrestricted funds amounting to £6.29m, resulted in arising from past operations. a net movement on funds for the The Council has examined the year, after FRS 17 pension move- requirement to hold unrestricted ments, of £6.74m. funds, and concluded that, whilst Income and Expenditure the present level of reserves gives adequate working capital for core Total incoming resources costs, it would be desirable to Total incoming resources were have a General Fund reserve in the £6.76m, including the exceptional range of six months’ expenditure amount referred to above. On a on central costs or approximately like-for-like basis, excluding the £700,000. The current fund major legacy (£2.16m), total balance is £784,000. income increased by 31% to The Council has also reviewed the £4.60m. The increase arose mainly purposes and amounts of each of from increases in income received the designated funds and con- from charitable activities, of which cluded that in future the the increase in funding for the designated funds should com- Enterprise Fellowships and prise allocations for specific Scottish Government Research purposes of those sums that had Fellowships of £615,000 was the been donated, rather than largest contribution. generated from past surpluses, Voluntary income (note 4) of together with the Capital Asset £2.61m includes the legacy Reserve.Result for the year. income of £2.16m. and receipts As a result of a major legacy, the for the James Clerk Maxwell consolidated total net incoming statue. Following the change in

445 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

Scottish Government funding the major part of this increase, from grant–in-aid to grant, the rising from £1.76m to £2.67m. funding previously recognised as This reflected the increase in voluntary income is now shown Enterprise Fellowships, both those with other programme activities in funded by Scottish Enterprise and note 5. by the Research Councils, and the Incoming resources from charita- increased number of Scottish ble activities of £3.38m increased Government Research Fellows by 74% from the 2007– 08 level appointed. of £1.93m. As well as the Expenditure on informing and increases for research and innova- influencing public policy increased tion, it also includes income by £37,000, reflecting the work recognised on conclusion of the done to bring the Inquiry on Inquiry into Scotland’s Hills and Scotland’s Hills & Islands to its Islands and an increased contribu- conclusion and launch the Report. tion for the letting of the George Costs in the Foundation include a Street premises for charitable full year of the support of the purposes. Scottish Bioinformatics Forum and Resources expended the conclusion of the statue Total resources expended have project. Costs of journal publica- increased by 39% (£1.33m) from tions have risen in line with the last year. This includes the expend- numbers of issues iture on completion of the James published.Governance costs, Clerk Maxwell statue, as well as which have remained at a similar increased expenditure on charita- level to previous years, represent ble activities. around 3% of total recurring income. Cost of generating funds (note 6) includes the cost of the Fellowship Transfers between funds shown in office, the costs of building the Statement of Financial management in respect of income Activities comprise the recurring from letting of surplus space, as transfer from the Capital Asset well as fundraising costs, both Reserve of a total of £101,000 to direct and management time in match the depreciation of build- securing funding. It also includes ings and the capital repayment of the costs of the new Director of the loan to the Foundation; and a Business Development. Overall, transfer on consolidation from the expenditure on charitable activi- Foundation restricted fund ties has increased by £1.29m. balance to the General Fund, equivalent to the net inter-entity Grants payable in support of income received in the RSE. research and innovation made up

446 The remaining balance of restrict- from donations and legacies, such ed income for the statue has been as the very substantial legacy from transferred to restricted funds to Dr Harold Thomas received in form an endowment for the 2008, provides welcome support. maintenance of the statue. The Council’s aim is to continue to Balance sheet build relationships and work in Consolidated net assets have partnership with stakeholders and increased from £11.8m to funders in support of the RSE’s £18.61m; the main reasons being varied programmes with public the transfer from CRF and the benefit outcomes. Initial steps major legacy. These have been taken in 2008–09 in developing offset by the decrease in the relationships and links will in due investment portfolio reflecting course make their contribution. unrealised losses of £1.34m and a Plans for 2009–10 have been £212,000 decrease (2008 – developed in the context of the £217,000 increase) in the FRS17 RSE Strategic Framework covering pensions adjustment, decreasing 2007–2012. the previously reported asset to The RSE continues to aim to make £139,000.Net current assets a difference and all of its activities increased from £1.2m to £1.76m, are planned with a view to comprising mainly cash received in contributing to public benefit advance of expenditure, reflected outcomes. in an increase in the provision for liabilities, and an increase in The Operational Programmes for debtors arising from changes to 2009–10 will continue to be: Core the payment profile of a major Public Benefits, the Fellowship grant. and Support Services. Future plans Signed on behalf of the Council Against the background of the Ewan Brown CBE external financial climate, the Treasurer strategy of diversification of 7 September 2009 income sources is challenging. However, the flexibility derived

447 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

Independent auditors’ report to Respective responsibilities of the Council of the Royal Society Trustees and Auditors of Edinburgh The Trustees’ responsibilities for We have audited the financial preparing the Trustees’ Annual statements of The Royal Society of Report and the financial state- Edinburgh (RSE) for the year ments in accordance with ended 31 March 2009 which applicable law and United comprise the group statement of Kingdom Accounting Standards financial activities, the charity (United Kingdom Generally statement of financial activities, Accepted Accounting Practice) are the group balance sheet, the set out in the Statement of charity balance sheet, the cash- Trustees’ Responsibilities. flow statement and the related We have been appointed as notes. These financial statements auditors under section 44(1)(c) of have been prepared in accordance the Charities and Trustee Invest- with the accounting policies set ment (Scotland) Act 2005 and out therein. report in accordance with regula- This report is made solely to the tions made under that Act. Our charity’s trustees, as a body, in responsibility is to audit the accordance with section 44 (1)(c) financial statements in accordance of the Charities and Trustee with relevant legal and regulatory Investment (Scotland) Act 2005 requirements and International and regulation 10 of the Charities Standards on Auditing (UK and Accounts (Scotland) Regulations Ireland). 2006 and the Laws of the RSE. We report to you our opinion as Our audit work has been under- to whether the financial state- taken so that we might state to ments give a true and fair view the charity’s trustees those matters and are properly prepared in we are required to state to them accordance with the Charities and in an auditor’s report and for no Trustee Investment (Scotland) Act other purpose. To the fullest 2005 and regulation 8 of the extent permitted by law, we do Charities Accounts (Scotland) not accept or assume responsibili- Regulations 2006. ty to anyone other than the charity and its trustees as a body, for our We also report to you if, in our audit work, for this report, or for opinion, the information given in the opinions we have formed. the Trustees’ Annual Report is not consistent with the financial statements, if the charity has not kept proper accounting records, if the charity’s financial statements

448 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009

are not in agreement with these statements are free from material accounting records, or if we have mis-statement, whether caused by not received all the information fraud or other irregularity or error. and explanations we require for In forming our opinion we also our audit. evaluated the overall adequacy of We read the Trustees’ Annual the presentation of information in Report and consider the implica- the financial statements. tions for our report if we become Opinion aware of any apparent mis- In our opinion: statements within it. • the financial statements give a Basis of audit opinion true and fair view, in accordance We conducted our audit in with United Kingdom Generally accordance with International Accepted Accounting Practice, Standards on Auditing (UK and of the state of the group’s and Ireland) issued by the Auditing the charity’s affairs as at 31 Practices Board. An audit includes March 2009 and of the group’s examination, on a test basis, of and charity’s incoming resources evidence relevant to the amounts and application of resources for and disclosures in the financial the year then ended; and statements. It also includes an • the financial statements have assessment of the significant been properly prepared in estimates and judgments made by accordance with the Charities the Trustees in the preparation of and Trustee Investment (Scot- the financial statements and of land) Act 2005, regulation 8 of whether the accounting policies the Charities Accounts are appropriate to the charity’s (Scotland) Regulations 2006 circumstances, consistently and the Laws of the RSE. applied and adequately disclosed. Henderson Loggie We planned and performed our audit so as to obtain all the Registered auditors information and explanations (Eligible to act as an auditor in which we considered necessary in terms of section 25 of the Compa- order to provide us with sufficient nies Act 1989). evidence to give reasonable 7 September, 2009 assurance that the financial

449

ACCOUNTS 2008-2009

Group statement of ﬁnancial activities

(incorporating the income & expenditure account) for year ended 31 March 2009

Note General Fund Designated Funds Restricted income Restricted funds 2009 Total 2008 Total ££££££

Income Voluntary income 4 293,766 2,072,255 109,580 140,064 2,615,665 931,058 Activities for generating income 4 – – – 256,030 256,030 241,652 Investment income 4 69,890 152,398 – 281,538 503,826 393,661

Incoming resources from generated funds 363,656 2,224,653 109,580 677,632 3,375,521 1,566,371 Incoming resources from charitable activities 5 100,591 – 3,005,592 281,936 3,388,119 1,935,752

Total incoming resources 464,247 2,224,653 3,115,172 959,568 6,763,640 3,502,123

Expenditure Cost of generating funds 6 (184,904) (5,538) – (61,930) (252,372) (221,001) Charitable activities 6 (270,943) (45,717) (3,214,179) (714,673) (4,245,512) (2,948,406) Governance 6 (125,410) – – (32,536) (157,946) (158,368)

Total resources expended (581,257) (51,255) (3,214,179) (809,139) (4,655,830) (3,327,775)

Net incoming resources before transfers (117,010) 2,173,398 (99,007) 150,429 2,107,810 174,348

Transfers between funds 180,786 (101,818) (20,275) (58,693) ––

Other recognised gains/(losses) Gains/(losses) on investment assets Realised gains/(losses) (53) (100,927) – (196) (101,176) (4,523) Unrealised gains/(losses) (14,326) (563,319) – (767,419) (1,345,064) (331,561)

Actuarial gains on Lothian Pension Fund (212,000) – – – (212,000) 217,000

Net movement in funds (162,603) 1,407,334 (119,282) (675,879) 449,570 55,264

Transfer of assets from the CRF 4 – – – 6,290,710 6,290,710 –

Net movement in funds after transfer of assets (162,603) 1,407,334 (119,282) 5,614,831 6,740,280 55,264

Balance brought forward at 1 April 2008 1,086,155 5,504,310 119,282 5,160,055 11,869,802 11,814,538

Balance carried forward at 31 March 2009 923,552 6,911,644 – 10,774,886 18,610,082 11,869,802

451 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

Group balance sheet at 31 March 2009

Note 2009 2009 2008 2008 ££££

Fixed assets Tangible ﬁxed assets 14 3,984,587 4,067,558

Fixed asset investments Investments at market value 15 12,884,518 6,103,053

16,869,105 10,170,611

Current assets

Debtors 16 462,559 217,956 Cash at bank and in hand 372,913 353,670 Money Market deposits – Designated funds 95,388 – Money Market deposits – Restricted funds 1,167,068 700,163 Money Market deposits – General funds 687,790 941,516

2,785,718 2,213,305

Current liabilities Creditors: amounts falling due within one year 17 (553,513) (453,837)

Net current assets 2,232,205 1,759,468

Total assets less current liabilities 19,101,310 11,930,079

Provision for liabilities and charges 18 (630,228) (352,277)

Net assets excluding pension fund 18,471,082 11,577,802

Lothian Pension Fund deﬁned beneﬁt Scheme asset 23 139,000 292,000

Net assets after pension fund asset 18,610,082 11,869,802

Funds General Fund 784,552 794,155 Add: Pension reserve 139,000 292,000

19 923,552 1,086,155 Designated Funds 20 6,911,644 5,504,310 Restricted Funds 21 10,774,886 5,279,337

Total funds 18,610,082 11,869,802

The accounts were approved by the Council on 7 September 2009 and signed on its behalf by:

Ewan Brown, CBE Treasurer

452 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009

RSE balance sheet at 31 March 2009

Note 2009 2009 2008 2008 ££££

Fixed assets Tangible ﬁxed assets 14 2,228,585 2,264,526

Fixed asset investments Investments at market value 15(a) 4,214,788 3,090,776 Loan to RSE Scotland Foundation 15(b) 1,797,520 1,844,328

8,240,893 7,199,630

Current assets Debtors 16 348,946 101,029 Cash at bank and in hand 224,400 202,623 Money Market deposits – Designated funds 95,388 – Money Market deposits – Restricted funds 1,167,068 700,163 Money Market deposits – General funds 687,790 941,516

2,523,592 1,945,331

Current liabilities Creditors: amounts falling due within one year 17 (925,467) (727,043)

Net current assets 1,598,125 1,218,288

Total assets less current liabilities 9,839,018 8,417,918

Provision for liabilities and charges 18 (630,228) (352,277)

Net assets excluding pension fund 9,208,790 8,065,641

Lothian Pension Fund deﬁned beneﬁt scheme asset 23 139,000 292,000

Net assets after pension fund asset 9,347,790 8,357,641

Funds General Fund 784,552 794,155 Add: Pension reserve 139,000 292,000

19 923,552 1,086,155 Designated Funds 20 6,911,644 5,504,310 Restricted Funds 21 1,512,594 1,767,176

Total funds 9,347,790 8,357,641

The accounts were approved by the Council on 7 September 2009 and signed on its behalf by:

Ewan Brown, CBE Treasurer

453 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

RSE statement of ﬁnancial activities (incorporating the income & expenditure account) for year ended 31 March 2009

General Fund Designated Funds Restricted income Restricted funds 2009 Total 2008 Total ££££££

Income Voluntary income 293,766 2,072,255 109,580 12,160 2,487,761 904,537 Investment income 158,101 152,398 – 75,136 385,635 322,928

Incoming resources from generated funds 451,867 2,224,653 109,580 87,296 2,873,396 1,227,465 Incoming resources from charitable activities 100,591 – 3,298,613 – 3,399,204 1,841,363

Total incoming resources 552,458 2,224,653 3,408,193 87,296 6,272,600 3,068,828

Expenditure Cost of generating funds (184,904) (5,538) – – (190,442) (159,524) Charitable activities (280,186) (45,717) (3,408,193) (81,338) (3,815,434) (2,879,802) Governance (125,410) _ _ _ (125,410) (130,540)

–

Total resources expended (590,500) (51,255) (3,408,193) (81,338) (4,131,286) (3,169,866)

Net incoming resources before transfers (38,042) 2,173,398 – 5,958 2,141,314 (101,038)

Transfers between funds 101,818 (101,818) – – ––

Other recognised gains/(losses) Gains /(losses) on investment assets Realised gains/(losses) (53) (100,927) – (962) (101,942) (3,680) Unrealised gains/(losses) (14,326) (563,319) – (259,578) (837,223) (138,782)

Actuarial gains on Lothian Pension Fund (212,000) – – – (212,000) 217,000

Net movement in funds (162,603) 1,407,334 – (254,582) 990,149 (26,500)

Balance brought forward at 1 April 2008 1,086,155 5,504,310 – 1,767,176 8,357,641 8,384,141

Balance carried forward at 31 March 2009 923,552 6,911,644 – 1,512,594 9,347,790 8,357,641

454 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009

Group cash ﬂow statement for the year ended 31 March 2009

2009 2009 2008 2008 ££ ££

Cash flow statement Net cash inflow/(outflow) from operating activities (364,340) (42,177)

Returns on investments and servicing of ﬁnance: Interest received 73,228 90,727 Dividends received 430,598 302,934

503,826 393,661 Capital expenditure and ﬁnancial investment: Purchase of tangible ﬁxed assets (37,328) (32,880) Proceeds from sale of investments 2,816,886 747,387 Purchases of investments (2,790,704) (747,215) Capital receipt 190,560 21,796

179,414 (10,912)

Net cash ﬂow before ﬁnancing: 318,900 340,572 Appeal receipts 8,910 9,368

(Decrease) / Increase in cash in the year 327,810 349,940

Reconciliation of net cash ﬂow to movement in net funds

(Decrease) / Increase in cash in the year 327,810 349,940 Net funds at beginning of year 1,995,349 1,645,409

Net funds at end of year (note 28) 2,323,159 1,995,349

Reconciliation of net movement in funds to net cash outﬂow from operating activities

Net incoming resources before transfers 8,398,520 174,348 Retirement benefit scheme current service cost 61,000 101,000 Retirement benefit scheme contributions (94,000) (99,000) Retirement benefit scheme finance cost (26,000) (28,000) Appeal receipts (8,910) (9,368) Dividends receivable (430,598) (302,934) Interest receivable (73,228) (90,727) Depreciation 120,299 124,493 Capital receipt in cash (190,560) (21,796) Capital receipt in shares (8,253,887) – Loss on sale of fixed assets – 2,442 Increase in debtors (244,603) (40,491) Increase / (decrease) in creditors 99,676 99,492 Movement on provision for liabilities 277,951 48,364

Net cash outﬂow from operating activities (364,340) (42,177)

455 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

1 Accounting basis Designated Funds Fleck Bequest Fund – to promote interest, The accounts have been drawn up to Capital Asset Reserve Fund – representing knowledge and appreciation of science and its comply with the provisions of the Charities & the book cost of the buildings at applications throughout Scotland. Trustee Investment (Scotland) Act 2005 and 22-24 George Street and 26 George Street Piazzi Smyth Legacy Fund – to fund high the Charities Accounts (Scotland) Regulations together with the building project loan to the altitude astronomical research. 2006, and follow the recommendations of the RSE Scotland Foundation. Statement of Recommended Practice for Sillitto Fund – to promote interest in physics Development Appeal Fund – to provide charities (SORP) approved by the Accounting among young people. development finance to implement the RSE Standards Board in February 2005 and Strategic Framework. CASS Fund – to fund academic / industrial applicable accounting standards. The accounts liaison have been prepared under the historical cost Programme Fund – a fund created to act as accounting rules as modified a source of funding for meetings activities. Retailing Seminar Fund – to fund a programme to include the revaluation of investments. of seminars on retailing C H Kemball Fund – income from this fund is The accounts comprise five primary financial used to provide hospitality for distinguished Edinburgh Drug Absorption Foundation Fund – statements: the Group and RSE statement of visitors from other learned societies and to fund a series of conferences on the broad financial activities incorporating the income Academies. theme of ‘Drugs Futures’. and expenditure account, the Group and RSE balance sheet and the Group cash flow Dr James Heggie Fund – income from this fund RSE Scotland Foundation – a trust to advance statement. supports the RSE’s activities with the education of the public in Scotland in young people. science, engineering and technology, The consolidated financial statements include incorporating assets transferred from the CRF. the financial statements of the RSE and Grants Fund – a fund created by contributions of entities which are under its control: RSE and legacies from Fellows and used to provide BP Research Fellowships Trust – a trust Scotland Foundation and BP Research grants to support research activities to fund postdoctoral research fellowships Fellowship Trust. As the objectives of each of to Fellows. in Scotland. these entities are narrower than those of the Restricted Income Fund – income funds RSE, they have been treated as restricted funds. received for expenditure on current projects. Restricted Funds 2 Funds Robert Cormack Bequest – to promote The RSE’s funds are classified in accordance astronomical knowledge and research with the definitions in SORP into Restricted in Scotland Funds, where there are restrictions placed by a donor as to the use of income or capital, Lessells Trust – to fund scholarships abroad for Designated Funds where the Society has set engineers aside sums from its unrestricted funds for a Auber Bequest – to fund research in Scotland particular purpose and the General and England by naturalised British citizens over (unrestricted) Fund. The classifications made are 60 years of age as follows: Prizes Fund – to fund various prizes General Fund A discretionary Fund available to the Council to Dryerre Fund – to fund postgraduate meet the ordinary activities of the Society. scholarships in medical or veterinary physiology

456 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

3 Accounting policies Resources expended Tangible fixed assets, depreciation Incoming resources Expenditure and support costs and repairs Voluntary income All resources expended are included on The RSE’s principal assets are its buildings in Subscriptions are accounted for on the basis an accruals basis, having regard to any George Street, Edinburgh. Under FRS15 the of the subscription year to October 2009 constructive obligations created by Society depreciates the buildings assuming and include income tax recoverable on the multi-year grant commitments. a 50-year life. It is the policy of the Council to maintain the buildings to a high standard. Any subscriptions paid under Gift Aid. Where directly attributable, resources permanent diminutions in value are reflected in expended are allocated to the relevant Revenue grants are credited to income in the statement of financial activities. Costs of functional category. Overhead and support the period in which the RSE becomes entitled repairs and maintenance are charged against costs are allocated to functional category to the resources. revenue. on the basis of direct staff costs in each Donations of a recurring nature from other area of activity. Expenditure incurred by the RSE Scotland charitable foundations and one-off gifts and Foundation in the improvements to legacies included in other income are taken Cost of generating funds 26 George Street is being depreciated from the to revenue in the period to which they relate. The cost of generating funds includes date of completion of the refurbishment over expenditure incurred in supporting the the period of the lease to the RSE Scotland Investment income Foundation to 30 June 2047. Interest and dividends are accounted for Fellowship and incurred on fundraising in the year in which they are receivable. initiatives.

Incoming resources for charitable activities Minor equipment is charged against revenue Charitable activities Incoming resources for activities are accounted in the year of purchase. Computer and Grants payable are recognised as a liability for on an accruals basis. audio-visual is depreciated on a straight line when the RSE is under an actual or basis over 3–20 years. Publication income receivable in foreign constructive obligation to make a transfer to currencies is converted into sterling at rates a third party. Where grants are time related Investments of exchange ruling at the date of receipt. to future periods and are to be financed by Investments are stated at their market value Incoming resources for research fellowships specific grants receivable in those future at the balance sheet date. Gains and losses on are accounted for in the period in which the periods, they are treated as liabilities of those disposal and revaluation of investments RSE becomes entitled to the resources. periods and not as liabilities at balance sheet date. Such grants are disclosed as future are charged or credited in the statement of Income received for specific projects, and commitments. financial activities and allocated to funds in received in advance of the commencement accordance with their proportionate share of the project, is deferred. If the project were Governance costs of the investment portfolio. not to proceed as planned, the RSE would Governance costs are those incurred in not be entitled to retain the funds. For connection with the management of RSE Pensions performance related grants, where assets, organisational administration and The RSE participates in defined benefit entitlement to the incoming resource only compliance with constitutional and statutory pension schemes which are externally funded. arises with the performance of the specific requirements. The cost of providing pensions is allocated outputs agreed under the contracts, income is over employees working lives with the RSE deferred. and is included in staff costs.

457 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

4 Incoming resources Current year 2009 Voluntary income Activities for Investment Promotion of Other charitable Total 2009 generating income research activities ££££££

Fellows 196,615 – – – – 196,615 Individuals 45,495 – – – 47,746 93,241 Legacies 2,158,734 – – – – 2,158,734 Companies – – – – 30,894 30,894 Charitable trusts 86,918 – – 518,937 182,318 788,173 Scottish Government – – – 1,126,993 645,580 1,772,573 Public sector bodies – – – 471,822 81,893 553,715 Bank interest – – 73,228 – – 73,228 Dividends – – 224,197 – – 224,197

RSE 2,487,762 – 297,425 2,117,752 988,431 5,891,370 BP Research Fellowship Trust -dividends and interest – – 152,304 – – 152,304 RSE Scotland Foundation – grant re SBF 127,903 – – – – 127,903 – rental income – 256,030 – – – 256,030 – charitable activities – – – – 281,936 281,936 – dividends and interest – – 54,097 – – 54,097

2,615,665 256,030 503,826 2,117,752 1,270,367 6,763,640 Transfer of assets from the CRF 6,290,710 – – – – 6,290,710

8,906,375 256,030 503,826 2,117,752 1,270,367 13,054,350

Prior year 2008 Voluntary income Activities for Investment Promotion of Other charitable Total 2008 generating income research activities ££££££

Fellows 192,070 – – – – 192,070 Individuals and legacies 85,613 – – – 28,961 114,574 Companies 45,250 – – – 40,867 86,117 Charitable trusts 121,731 – – 318,405 150,360 590,496 Scottish Government 458,000 – – 671,653 170,000 1,299,653 Public sector bodies – – – 247,139 47,266 294,405 Bank interest – – 81,628 – – 81,628 Dividends – – 151,217 – – 151,217 Other 1,873 – – – – 1,873

RSE 904,537 – 232,845 1,237,197 437,454 2,812,033 RSE Scotland Foundation – grant re SBF 26,521 – – – – 26,521 – rental income – 241,652 – – – 241,652 – charitable activities – – – – 261,101 261,101 – interest – – 1,098 – – 1,098 BP Research Fellowships Trust – interest – – 8,001 – – 8,001 BP Research Fellowships Trust – dividends – – 151,717 – – 151,717

931,058 241,652 393,661 1,237,197 698,555 3,502,123

458 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

4 Incoming resources (continued) 4a Voluntary income 2009 2008 £ £ Contributions from RSE Fellows Admission fees 12,320 14,280 Annual subscriptions 160,576 152,913 Income tax recoverable under Gift Aid 23,719 24,877 196,615 192,070 Lessells Trust additional receipt 12,160 9,730 Appeal receipts 8,910 9,368 Legacies 2,158,735 – Scottish Government Grant -in-aid – General activities – 458,000 Receipts for James Clerk Maxwell Statue 109,580 211,700 Sillitto Fund – 21,796 Other income 1,762 1,873 2,487,762 904,537

In addition to the donations set out above, the RSE receives donations made speciﬁcally in support of activities which are included in activities income (see note 26(b)).

5 Incoming resources from charitable activities 2009 2008 £ £

Scottish Government Grant – research fellowships 1,050,130 671,653 Scottish Government Grant – arts & humanities awards 76,863 – Franco-Scottish PhD scholarships 12,000 24,000 Caledonian Research Foundation 21,237 18,405 Scottish Enterprise 228,148 84,763 BBSRC Enterprise Fellowships 201,812 138,376 STFC Enterprise Fellowships 29,862 – Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland 497,700 300,000

2,117,752 1,237,197

Scottish Government Grant – generating & communicating knowledge 372,161 – Scottish Government Grant – International activities 273,419 170,000 Gannochy Trust 105,000 105,000 Scottish Funding Council 37,316 32,536 Meetings 102,652 87,723 Inquiry income 73,577 19,073 IEEE / RSE / Wolfson James Clerk Maxwell Award 19,494 17,132 Educational activities 4,597 3,013 Sale of sundry publications 215 2,977

988,431 437,454

RSE Scotland Foundation – Journal publications 134,390 122,105 RSE Scotland Foundation – Conference facilities letting 147,546 138,996

281,936 261,101

3,388,119 1,935,752 Further information relating to grants, donations and receipts and their application is set out in note 26.

459 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

6 Resources expended

2009 2008

Direct costs Support costs Total 2009 Direct costs Support costs Total 2008 (Note 12) (Note 12) ££££££ Costs of generating funds Fundraising 49,863 34,199 84,062 16,186 39,197 55,383 Fellows’ subscriptions – 100,842 100,842 – 94,618 94,618 Appeal donations – 5,538 5,538 – 9,523 9,523

49,863 140,579 190,442 16,186 143,338 159,524 RSE Scotland Foundation Building management – 61,592 61,592 – 61,077 61,077 BP Research Fellowship Trust Investment fees 338 – 338 400 – 400

Total costs of generating funds 50,201 202,171 252,372 16,586 204,415 221,001

Charitable activities Increasing World-Class Researchers 1,914,665 276,830 2,191,495 1,181,481 295,636 1,477,117 Increasing International Research Connections 178,995 97,437 276,432 178,211 76,860 255,071 Increasing Connections Between Business and Academia 482,772 95,896 578,668 281,417 60,824 342,241 Increasing Numbers Taking Science as a Career 12,757 60,553 73,310 23,474 58,385 81,859 Enhancing Public Appreciation of Science and Culture 165,680 227,887 393,567 126,537 221,037 347,574 Inﬂuencing Public Policy 53,644 125,327 178,971 30,619 110,992 141,611

2,808,513 883,930 3,692,443 1,821,739 823,734 2,645,473

RSE Scotland Foundation Journal Publications 95,594 32,390 127,984 74,615 31,313 105,928 James Clerk Maxwell Statue 208,586 – 208,586 92,418 – 92,418 SBF 112,903 15,000 127,903 22,771 3,750 26,521 Conference facilities letting – 88,596 88,596 – 78,066 78,066

417,083 135,986 553,069 189,804 113,129 302,933

Total cost of charitable activities 3,225,596 1,019,916 4,245,512 2,011,543 936,863 2,948,406

Governance (note 10) RSE 6,612 118,798 125,410 6,562 123,978 130,540 RSE Scotland Foundation 3,250 28,041 31,291 1,856 24,719 26,575 BP Research Fellowships Trust 1,245 – 1,245 1,253 – 1,253

Total governance costs 11,107 146,839 157,946 9,671 148,697 158,368

Resources expended 3,286,904 1,368,926 4,655,830 2,037,800 1,289,975 3,327,775

Central support costs as set out in note 12 have been allocated to activities in proportion to the employment cost in each area of activity.

460 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

7 Grants payable

2009 2008 £ £

Promotion of research (note 8) 2,124,730 1,439,875 Prizes and grants 66,765 37,242 Promotion of Innovation (Note 9) 482,772 281,417

2,674,267 1,758,534

8 Increasing Numbers of World-Class Researchers 2009 2008 £ £

Scottish Government Fellowships 975,263 612,497 Marie Curie COFUND actions 1,240 – Arts & Humanities Workshop Grants 71,582 35,290 Franco-Scottish PhD scholarships 12,000 24,000 CRF European Fellowships 17,364 14,412 Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland Fellowships 476,925 280,150 Robert Cormack Bequest 4,610 6,161 John Moyes Lessells Scholarship 18,412 27,635 Auber Bequest Awards – 4,000 Henry Dryerre Scholarship 19,340 19,035

1,596,736 1,023,180

Library 200 848

RSE 1,596,936 1,024,028 BP Research Fellowships Trust 171,082 126,917 RSE Scotland Foundation – CRF 91,520 –

1,859,538 1,150,945

Support costs (note 6) 265,192 288,930

Promotion of Research 2,124,730 1,439,875 Prizes and Grants 66,765 37,242

2,191,495 1,477,117

An analysis of institutions and individual awards made under this expenditure heading is included in the Society’s Review 2008,

461 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

9 Increasing connections between business and academia

2009 2008 £ £

Scottish Enterprise Fellowships 187,695 78,134 STFC Enterprise Fellowships 23,625 – BRSRC Enterprise Fellowships 186,452 122,841 Gannochy Trust 85,000 80,442

482,772 281,417 Support costs (Note 6) 95,896 60,824

578,668 342,241

10 Enhancing public appreciation of science and culture Meetings 115,308 89,831 Publications 50,372 36,706 165,680 126,537 Support costs (Note 6) 227,887 221,037

393,567 347,574

The RSE Scotland Foundation became publisher of the RSE’s journals and year book with effect from the 1997 volumes. The RSE retains copyright and incurs editorial costs in respect of these publications. The RSE has made a donation to the RSE Scotland Foundation equivalent to its net deﬁcit on publications.

11 Governance 2009 2008 £ £

Management and secretariat 116,416 123,678 Audit fee 11,107 8,480 Other professional advice from auditors 2,382 1,491

129,905 133,649 RSE Scotland Foundation – Management and secretariat 28,041 24,719

157,946 158,368

462 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

12 Support costs

2009 2008 £ £

Salaries (note 13) 914,868 857,634 Staff training, agency and recruitment costs 38,918 34,166 Non-cash pension cost adjustments (FRS 17) (59,000) (26,000)

894,786 865,800 Other costs Establishment expenses 193,476 172,317 Computer and equipment costs 29,119 18,024 Communication, stationery and printing costs 59,957 56,288 Travel and subsistence, hospitality 21,831 19,627 Publicity 17,923 6,702 Miscellaneous 8,992 9,694 Professional fees 22,543 17,030 Depreciation 120,299 124,493

474,140 424,175

Total central costs 1,368,926 1,289,975

Support costs have been allocated to activities in proportion to the employment cost in each area of activity as set out in note 6. 13 Employees Total 2009 Funded Funded by RSE Total by Foundation 2009 2008 £ £££

Wages and salaries 741,632 96,211 645,421 694,307 Social security costs 55,701 6,199 49,502 52,397 Other pension costs 117,535 19,036 98,499 110,930

914,868 121,446 793,422 857,634

The average number of employees of the RSE including those employed under joint contracts with the RSE Scotland Foundation was 28 (2008:27). One member of staff earned over £60,000 per year and is a member of a deﬁned beneﬁt pension scheme.

463 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements 14 Tangible ﬁxed assets

Group 22 – 24 George Street 26 George Street Improvments Computer Total Purchase cost Purchase cost Purchase cost & equipment £££££ Cost At 1 April 2008 1,103,038 1,647,468 2,136,070 340,326 5,226,902 Additions – – – 37,328 37,328

At 31 March 2009 1,103,038 1,647,468 2,136,070 377,654 5,264,230

Depreciation At 1 April 2008 198,545 296,545 393,771 270,483 1,159,344 Charge for the year 22,063 32,949 44,467 20,820 120,299

At 31 March 2009 220,608 329,494 438,238 291,303 1,279,643

Net book value At 31 March 2009 882,430 1,317,974 1,697,832 86,351 3,984,587

At 31 March 2008 904,493 1,350,923 1,742,299 69,843 4,067,558

RSE Net book value At 31 March 2009 882,430 1,317,974 – 28,181 2,228,585

At 31 March 2008 904,493 1,350,923 – 9,110 2,264,526

15 Fixed asset investments Value at Investments Proceeds on sale Gain / loss Revaluation Market value at 1 April 2008 made at cost of investments 31 March 2009 ££ ££ ££ (a) Fixed asset investments RSE Managed Funds 718,670 91,924 (22,402) 327 (184,756) 603,763 Fixed interest 853,633 1,471,556 (551,296) 8,137 66,778 1,848,808 UK equities 1,333,303 3,093,746 (1,868,511) (110,405) (719,245) 1,728,888 Cash deposits 185,170 (2,594,050) 2,442,209 – – 33,329

3,090,776 2,063,176 – (101,941) (837,223) 4,214,788 BP Research Fellowships Trust Managed Funds 517,603 50,892 (25,323) 459 (129,072) 414,559 Fixed interest 880,597 200,754 (255,574) 3,969 (45,621) 784,125 UK equities 1,439,560 170,254 (85,909) (6,325) (551,283) 966,297 Cash deposits 174,517 (448,082) 366,806 – – 93,241

3,012,277 (26,182) – (1,897) (725,976) 2,258,222 RSESF Caledonian Research Fund Managed Funds – 844,189 – – 45,755 889,944 Fixed interest – 2,528,363 – – (26,147) 2,502,216 UK equities – 2,825,473 (7,871) 2,663 198,527 3,018,792 Cash deposits – (7,315) 7,871 – – 556

– 6,190,710 – 2,663 218,135 6,411,508

6,103,053 8,227,704 – (101,175) (1,345,064) 12,884,518 The loss on sale of investments measured against their historical cost was £105,750 (2008: Surplus (£323,097). The historical cost of investments was £13,792,748 (2008: £5,602,741). (RSE 2009: £4,794,342, 2008: £2,697,440).Investments comprising more than 5% of the market value of the portfolio were: Treasury 5% (2012), Treasury 5% (2014) and European Investment Bank 4.75% (2011).

464 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

15 Fixed asset investments (continued)

(b) Loan by RSE to RSE Scotland Foundation 2009 2008 £ £

Due within one year 46,808 46,808 Due after one year 1,750,712 1,797,520

1,797,520 1,844,328

The loan bears interest at 4% per annum, capped at the amount of rent received by the Foundation and is repayable over the period to 30 June 2047, the expiration of the lease of 26 George Street.

16 Debtors 2009 2008 £ £

General debtors 309,874 59,435 Prepayments and accrued income 14,795 11,048 Income tax recoverable 24,277 30,546

RSE 348,946 101,029 RSE Scotland Foundation - Debtors 82,909 102,112 RSE Scotland Foundation - Prepayments 21,879 7,518 BP Research Fellowships Trust 8,825 7,297

Group 462,559 217,956

17 Creditors: Amounts falling due within one year Group 2009 2008 £ £

General creditors 378,026 166,434 Accruals 69,535 64,522 VAT payable 18,098 30,929 University of Glasgow (note 22) 6,723 5,371 Deferred income 29,165 80,577 Symposia income deferred 30,000 22,400 Advance receipts – Publications 21,966 83,604

553,513 453,837

Deferred income and advance receipts analysis At 1 April 2008 Received in year Recognised in year At 31 March 2009 French PhD scholarships 12,000 – (12,000) – Hills & Island Inquiry 68,577 5,000 (73,577) – Climate Change Inquiry – 11,209 – 11,209 Chemistry Project – 18,000 (44) 17,956

80,577 34,209 (85,621) 29,165

Journal receipts 83,604 72,752 (134,390) 21,966

Symposia income 22,400 26,245 (18,645) 30,000

465 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

17 Creditors: Amounts falling due within one year (continued) RSE 2009 2008 £ £

General creditors 367,036 161,236 RSE Scotland Foundation current account 492,543 457,459 Deferred income 29,165 80,577 University of Glasgow (note 22) 6,723 5,371 Symposia income deferred 30,000 22,400

925,467 727,043

18 Provision for liabilities and charges £ Commitments for research fellowships At 1 April 2008 – Group & RSE 352,277 New commitments: Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland Research Fellowships 497,700 Grants paid in the year (219,749) At 31 March 2009 630,228

The provision represents amounts payable under a constructive obligation in respect of research fellowships due as follows: 2009-10 £239,849; 2010-11 £111,580; 2011-12 £37,301

19 General Fund £

At 1 April 2008 1,086,155

Net movement in funds for the year from statement of ﬁnancial activities (162,603)

At 31 March 2009 923,552

466 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

20 Designated Funds

At 1 April 2008 Investment Other income Expenditure Gains / (losses) Transfers At 31 March 2009 income

££ ££ ££ £

Capital Asset Reserve 4,099,744 – – – – (101,818) 3,997,926 Development Appeal Fund 478,013 111,680 2,072,255 (5,538) (513,182) – 2,143,228 Programme Fund 102,386 4,499 – – (16,693) – 90,192 CH Kemball Fund 24,787 1,089 – (1,535) (4,041) – 20,300 Grants Fund 581,721 25,564 – (34,066) (94,843) – 478,376 Dr James Heggie Fund 217,659 9,566 – (10,116) (35,487) – 181,622

5,504,310 152,398 2,072,255 (51,255) (664,246) (101,818) 6,911,644

The transfers represent the release from the Capital Asset Reserve of a total of £101,818 to match the depreciation of buildings and the amount of capital repayment of the loan to the Foundation.

21 Restricted Funds

At 1 April 2008 Investment Other income Expenditure Gains / (losses) Transfers At 31 March 2009 income

££ ££ ££ £

Robert Cormack Bequest 109,724 4,822 – (6,920) (17,889) – 89,737 Lessells Trust 429,460 18,873 12,160 (25,575) (70,019) – 364,899 Auber Bequest 399,615 17,561 – (6,666) (65,153) – 345,357 Prizes Fund 74,763 3,285 – (6,919) (12,189) – 58,940 Dryerre Fund 492,575 21,646 – (28,057) (80,309) – 405,855 Fleck 53,450 2,349 – (891) (8,715) – 46,193 Piazzi Smyth 14,396 633 – (960) (2,347) – 11,722 Sillitto 33,233 975 – (184) – – 34,024 Others 24,036 1,056 – (401) (3,919) – 20,772 Edinburgh Drug Absorption Foundation 135,924 3,936 – (4,765) – – 135,095 Restricted Income Fund – – 3,408,193 (3,408,193) – – –

RSE 1,767,176 75,136 3,420,353 (3,489,531) (260,540) – 1,512,594 RSE Scotland Foundation 430,678 54,097 6,663,559 (342,223) 220,798 (78,968) 6,947,941 BP Research Fellowships Trust 3,081,483 152,305 – (191,564) (727,873) – 2,314,351

Total 5,279,337 281,538 10,083,912 (4,023,318) (767,615) (78,968) 10,774,886

467 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

21 Restricted funds (continued) “Prizes Fund” comprises The Keith Fund, The Neill Fund, The Makdougall-Brisbane Fund, The Gunning-Victoria Fund, The James Scott Prize Fund, the Bruce-Preller Lecture Fund, The WS Bruce Memorial Fund, The Dr DA Berry Fund, The Henry Duncan Prize Lecture Fund and The BP Prize Lecture in the Humanities Fund. “Others” comprise the Retailing Seminars Fund and The CASS Fund. The Restricted Income Fund represents restricted income received and expended in the year. Under the terms of the Lessells Trust the University of Glasgow is entitled to 10% of additional amounts received by the RSE from the Trust. The balance included in creditors at 31 March 2009 represents the total sum apportioned but not yet paid over to the University (note 17). The funds of the RSE Scotland Foundation are treated as restricted in respect of the consolidated accounts and comprise funds received from the CRF £6,466,390, the endowment for the upkeep of the James Clerk Maxwell statue £27,277 and the balance of the Foundation general fund of £454,274.

22 Analysis of assets between funds

Group General Designated Funds Restricted Funds 2009 2008 ££££ £

Fund balances at 31 March 2009 are represented by: Tangible ﬁxed assets 28,181 2,200,404 1,756,002 3,984,587 4,067,558 Investments 52,992 2,818,332 10,013,194 12,884,518 6,103,053 Loan to RSE Scotland Foundation – 1,797,520 (1,797,520) – – Current assets 348,946 – 113,613 462,559 217,956 RSE Scotland Foundation current account (492,543) – 492,543 – – Deposits 687,790 95,388 1,167,068 1,950,246 1,641,679 Cash 224,400 – 148,513 372,913 353,670 Current liabilities (65,214) – (488,299) (553,513) (453,837) Provisions for liabilities and charges – – (630,228) (630,228) (352,277) Pension fund liability 139,000 – – 139,000 292,000

923,552 6,911,644 10,774,886 18,610,082 11,869,802

RSE General Designated Funds Restricted Funds 2009 2008 ££££ £

Fund balances at 31 March 2009 are represented by: Tangible ﬁxed assets 28,181 2,200,404 – 2,228,585 2,264,526 Investments 52,992 2,818,332 1,343,464 4,214,788 3,090,776 Loan to RSE Scotland Foundation – 1,797,520 – 1,797,520 1,844,328 Current assets 348,946 – – 348,946 101,029 RSE Scotland Foundation current account (492,543) – – (492,543) (457,459) Deposits 687,790 95,388 1,167,068 1,950,246 1,641,679 Cash 224,400 – – 224,400 202,623 Current liabilities (65,214) – (367,710) (432,924) (269,584) Provisions for liabilities and charges – – (630,228) (630,228) (352,277) Pension fund liability 139,000 – – 139,000 292,000

923,552 6,911,644 1,512,594 9,347,790 8,357,641

468 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

23 Pension costs (a) Universities Superannuation Scheme

The RSE participates in the Universities Superannuation Scheme, a defined benefit pension scheme which is externally funded and contracted out of the State Earnings-Related Pension Scheme. The assets of the scheme are held in a separate trustee=administered fund. The fund is valued every three years by a professionally qualified independent actuary using the projected unit method, the rates of contribution payable being determined by the trustee on the advice of the actuaries. In the intervening years the actuaries review the progress of the scheme.

It is not possible to identify each Institution’s share of the underlying assets and liabilities of the scheme and hence contributions to the scheme are accounted for as if it were a deﬁned contributions scheme. The cost recognised within the result for the year is equal to the contributions payable to the scheme for the year.

The latest actuarial valuation of the scheme was at 31 March 2008. The most signiﬁcant assumptions, those relating to the rate of return on investments and the increase in salary and pensions are as follows:

Past service Future service liabilities liabilities

Investment return 4.4% 6.1%

Salary increase 4.3% 4.3%

Pension increase 3.3% 3.3%

At the valuation date the market value of the scheme’s assets was £28,842.6 million and the value of past service liabilities was £40,619.2 million on the scheme’s historical funding basis. The value of the assets represented 71% of the beneﬁts that had accrued to members, after allowing for expected future increases in earnings. The contribution rate payable by the RSE in the year was 14.0% of pensionable salaries. The actuary has conﬁrmed that it is appropriate to take the pension charge to be equal to the actual contribution paid during the year. The contribution rate payable will increase to 16% of pensionable salaries with effect from 1 October 2009.

(b) Lothian Pension Fund

The RSE also participates in the Lothian Pension Fund, a deﬁned beneﬁt pension scheme established under Local Government Pension Fund Regulations. This scheme has determined that it is possible to ascertain the shares of assets and liabilities relating to individual admitted bodies. The assets of the scheme are held in a separate trustee-administered fund.

The fund is valued every three years by a professionally qualiﬁed independent actuary using the projected unit method, the rates of contribution payable being determined by the trustee on the advice of the actuaries. In the intervening years the actuaries review the progress of the scheme.

At the latest valuation date the market value of the scheme’s assets was £2,903 million and the value of past service liabilities was £3,427 million. The value of the assets represented 85% of the beneﬁts that had accrued to members, after allowing for expected future increases in earnings. The contribution rate payable by the RSE was 315% of employees’ contributions of 6% of pensionable salaries, amounting to 18.9%. The actuary has conﬁrmed that it is appropriate to take the pension charge to be equal to the actual contribution paid during the year.

469 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

23 Pension costs (continued)

Pension fund asset / (liability) The RSE pension fund asset at 31 March and the movements of its component parts comprise:

2009 2008 £,000 £,000

Present value of funded liabilities (deﬁned beneﬁt obligation) (1,128) (1,145) Fair value of employer assets 1,267 1,437

Net asset at 31 March 139 292

2009 2008 Movement in present value of deﬁned beneﬁt obligation £,000 £,000

At 1 April 1,145 1,298 Current service cost 61 101 Interest cost 82 74 Contribution by members 30 32 Actuarial gains (184) (358) Beneﬁts paid (6) (2)

At 31 March 1,128 1,145

2009 2008 Movement in fair value of employer assets £,000 £,000

At 1 April 1,437 1,347 Expected return on assets 108 102 Contributions by members 30 32 Contributions by the employer 94 99 Actuarial losses (396) (141) Beneﬁts paid (6) (2)

At 31 March 1,267 1,437

2009 2008 The net expense recognised in the statement of ﬁnancial activities after FRS17 adjustments was £,000 £,000

Current service cost 61 101 Interest cost 82 74 Expected return on employer assets (108) (102)

35 73

The total amount recognised in the statement of ﬁnancial activities in respect of actuarial gains and losses is a loss of £212,000 (2008: gain of £217,000).

470 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

23 Pension costs (continued)

The fair value of the employer assets at 31 March and the return on them in the year was: Value Return Value Return 2009 2009 2008 2008 £,000 % £,000 % Equities 1,001 7.0 1,091 7.7 Bonds 139 5.4 128 5.7 Property 127 4.9 171 5.7 Cash –4.047 4.8

1,267 1,437

Actual return on plan assets (257) (38)

The expected rates of return on plan assets are determined by reference to relevant indices. The overall expected rate of return is calculated by weighting the individual rates in accordance with the anticipated balance in the Plan’s investment portfolio. Principal actuarial assumptions (expressed as weighted averages) at the year end were as follows: 2009 2008 % % Inﬂation/pension increase rate 3.1 3.6 Salary increase rate 4.6 5.1 Expected return on assets 6.6 7.2 Discount rate 6.9 6.9 The assumptions relating to longevity underlying the pension liabilities at the balance sheet date as based on standard actuarial marketing tables and include an allowance for future improvements in longevity. The assumptions are equivalent to expecting a 65 year old to live for a number of years as follows: Males Females

Current pensioners 19.8 years 22.8 years Future pensioners 21.0 years 24.0 years

The history of the plan for the current and prior periods is as follows: 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 £,000 £,000 £,000 £,000 £,000 Present value of defined benefit obligation (1,128) (1,145) (1,298) (1,250) (561) Fair value of employer assets 1,267 1,437 1,347 1,130 485 Surplus/(deficit) 139 292 49 (120) (76) Experience gains and losses on assets and liabilities have been as follows: 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 £,000 £,000 £,000 £,000 £,000 Experience gains/(losses) on liabilities 28 – (1) (30) – Experience gains/(losses)on assets (396) (140) 8 171 13

The RSE expects to contribute approximately £110,000 to the Lothian Pension Fund defined benefit scheme in the next financial year.

471 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

24 Transactions with Council members No member of Council received any payments other than reimbursements of expenditure on travel and subsistence costs actually and necessarily incurred in carrying out their duties as Councillors and Ofﬁcers. The aggregate of such reimbursements to those Council members who charged expenses amounted to £2,750 (2008: £1,552).

25 Connected charitable trusts (a) RSE Scotland Foundation The RSE Scotland Foundation is a charitable trust, recognised in Scotland as Scottish charity number SCO24636. It was created in March 1996 with the object of advancing the education of the public in Scotland in science and engineering and in so doing to conserve the scientific and cultural heritage of Scotland. The President, General Secretary, Treasurer, Curator and a Vice-President of the RSE are ex officiis Trustees of the Foundation, which draws on the resources of the RSE in carrying out its objects. The Foundation also has five nominated Trustees. The Foundation became publisher of the RSE’s journals under a Publications Rights License effective from 1 January 1997 On 1 July 1997 the RSE granted to the Foundation a 50-year lease over 26 George Street carrying an obligation to refurbish the building within a three-year period. The Council of the RSE agreed to make a loan of up to £2.3 million available to the Foundation in support of the refurbishment. The agreed terms of the loan are as described in note 16. (b) BP Research Fellowships Trust The BP Research Fellowships Trust funds a scheme of three-year post doctoral fellowships administered by the RSE.

26 Supplementary information: grants, donations and receipts

(a) Scottish Government Grants Income 2009 2008 £ £

Promotion of research 1,050,130 671,653 Arts and Humanities Award 76,863 – Activities grant – 458,000 Generating & Communicating knowledge 372,161 – International activities 273,419 170,000 Joint Scottish French PhD studentships 12,000 12,000 1,784,573 1,311,653

In 2008 The Scottish Government provided grant-in-aid under the powers of S.23 National Heritage (Scotland) Act 1985 to meet the costs of Scottish Government-funded Research Fellows, the cost of maintaining the RSE’s premises and a share of the RSE’s staff and other costs. The funding for 2008–09 was a grant under S23 Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1985 in support of the four programmes of activity : Research Fellowships, Arts & Humanities Awards ; International grants & relations and Generating & Communicating knowledge. At 31 March 2009 the financial commitment in respect of Personal and Support Fellowships awarded subject to Scottish Government funding in the years, 2009 –10, 2010 – 11, 2011 – 12, 2012 –13 and amounted to £1,084,615, £657,070, £541,624, £557,239 and £49,528 respectively. These amounts are treated as obligation of future years to be financed by specific funding expected to be made available from the Scottish Government.

472 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2009 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

26 Supplementary information: grants, donations and receipts (continued)

(b) Recurring donations in support of activities

Caledonian Scottish Enterprise Lloyds TSB Foundation Gannochy Trust Research Foundation for Scotland ££ £ £

Income Promotion of research & innovation 21,237 228,147 497,700 105,000 Meetings 6,874 – – –

28,111 228,147 497,700 105,000

Costs Promotion of research & innovation 17,364 188,828 198,972 84,138 Provision for future costs – – 277,953 – Lectures 6,013 – – – Conferences – – – – RSE administration and staff costs recovery 4,734 39,319 20,775 20,862

28,111 228,147 497,700 105,000

The income and expenditure in relation to the CRF relates to the period prior to the transfer of assets to RSE Scotland Foundation on 11 March 2009.

473 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

26 Supplementary information: grants, donations and receipts (continued)

(b) Recurring donations in support of activities (continued)

The Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland supports postdoctoral fellowships, postgraduate studentships and lectures and conferences to fund and disseminate research aimed at improving the quality of life for an ageing population.

The RSE gratefully acknowledges all those who make donations in support of activities. The companies, trusts and other bodies which made donations of £1,000 or more in support of activities in the year ended 31 March 2009 were as follows:

Alcohol Education and Research Council Royal Society of Chemistry Angus Council Education Department Scottish Enterprise Borders Council for Industry and Higher Education Scottish Environmental Protection Agency Ewan & Christine Brown Charitable Trust Scottish Forestry Trust Highlands and Islands Enterprise Scottish Health Action on Alcohol Problems Institute of Physics Scottish Universities Physics Alliance Lifescan Scotland Limited The Binks Trust Microsoft Research Limited UHI Millennium Institute RBS Group PLC University of Edinburgh Royal Academy of Engineering

27 Analysis of net funds/(debt) At 31 March 2009 Cash ﬂows At 1 April 2008 £ ££

Cash at bank 312,913 19,243 353,670 Deposits – general 687,790 (253,726) 941,516 Deposits – designated funds 95,388 95,388 – Deposits – restricted funds 1,167,068 466,905 700,163

2,323,159 327,810 1,995,349

28 Financial Commitments At the balance sheet date the Foundation had an outstanding ﬁnancial commitment in relation to the production and installing of the James Clerk Maxwell statue of £ nil (2008: £164,950).

474 EXTRACT FROM TRUSTEES’ REPORT TO 31 MARCH 2010 Structure, governance and Reporting to the Council through management the Executive Board are operation- The RSE Council, chaired by the al committees, including the President, comprises thirteen Education Committee, Interna- Trustees, including four Vice- tional Committee, various Presidents, the General Secretary, Research Awards Committees, the the Treasurer, the Fellowship Meetings Committee and the Secretary and five ordinary Young People’s Committee. These members. Subject to annual re- Committees largely, but not election, Council members serve exclusively, comprise Fellows of for three years, except for the the RSE and are concerned with General Secretary and Treasurer, the operational delivery of the who may serve for up to four RSE’s varied activities. All Fellows years. All are unpaid. are actively encouraged to participate in the RSE’s activities. The Council is responsible for the strategic direction and policies of Two other charitable trusts the RSE, and normally meets founded by and closely connected quarterly. to the RSE, the BP Research Fellowship Trust (the BP Trust) and An Executive Board has delegated the RSE Scotland Foundation (the responsibility from the Council for Foundation), are included in the delivery of the RSE’s activities. It is consolidated accounts. The chaired by the General Secretary, Foundation plays a leading role in and has as its elected members, the RSE’s public outreach activities the Treasurer, the Convenors of and manages the premises in the main operational committees George Street. Its Trustees are and the Curator, as well as the appointed for three years by the Chair of the RSE Scotland Founda- RSE Council. tion and senior executive staff. Following a transfer of assets in The Executive Board normally 2009, the Foundation is also meets quarterly and reports to the responsible for managing the Council. programme of activities in support The Council members and the of research in Scotland, funded by office-bearers serving on the the Caledonian Research Fund. Executive Board are all elected The BP Trust was created follow- annually by the Fellowship in a ing a donation of £2m in 1988 postal ballot. New members of from BP to support a scheme of Council and the Executive Board post-doctoral research fellowships are given an extensive induction in specified subjects and which through discussions with the are awarded at the sole discretion Chief Executive and senior staff. of the RSE. The RSE President,

475 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

General Secretary and Treasurer the RSE will continue in opera- are the BP Trustees, ex officiis. tion. Statement of Council’s responsi- The Council is responsible for bilities keeping accounting records which Under charities legislation disclose with reasonable accuracy applicable in Scotland, the the financial position of the RSE Council is required to prepare and which enable it to ensure that accounts for each financial year the accounts comply with the that give a true and fair view of Charities and Trustee Investment the RSE’s financial activities during (Scotland) Act 2005, the Charities the year and of its financial Accounts (Scotland) Regulations position at the end of the year. 2006 and the RSE’s own Laws. It is The Council is responsible for also responsible for safeguarding preparing the annual report and the assets of the RSE and hence the financial statements in for taking reasonable steps for the accordance with applicable Law prevention and detection of fraud and United Kingdom Generally and other irregularities. Accepted Accounting Practice (UK Risk management GAAP). The Audit and Risk Committee, In preparing accounts giving a operating on a joint basis with the true and fair view, the Council Foundation and the BP Trust, should follow best practice and: reports directly to the Council, the • select suitable accounting Foundation and the BP Trust. Its policies and apply them Chair, who cannot be a Trustee or consistently; other Office Bearer of the RSE, is invited to attend Council meet- • make judgements and estimates ings as an observer. Its remit that are reasonable and includes keeping under review the prudent; effectiveness of internal control • state whether applicable and risk management systems of accounting standards and the RSE and its connected chari- statements of recommended ties. The Council believes that the practice have been followed, existing systems and the structure subject to any departures of decision taking and reporting disclosed and explained in the through senior staff, the Executive accounts; and Board and the Council continues • prepare the accounts on a to provide assurance that risks are going concern basis unless it is properly assessed and carefully inappropriate to presume that managed.

476 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010

OVERVIEW • Visit of HRH The Duke of This section describes the main Edinburgh in August 2009 achievements of RSE, the Founda- to present the 2009 Royal tion and the BP Trust, reflecting Medals and the IEEE/Wolfson/ the fact that the Financial State- James Clerk Maxwell Award; ments are presented on a • Significant growth in the RSE’s consolidated basis. The high- international activities, includ- lights of the successful year and ing a visit in October 2009 from which are detailed in the report the new US Ambassador to include: Britain as part of his first visit to • Award of a further six Scottish Scotland, and an increase in the Government Personal Research number of international Fellowships, each of up to five exchanges; years length, also eligible for • Launch of the Business Innova- the Marie Curie COFUND tion Forum in January 2010 in travel funding awarded in 2008. the presence of Cabinet There are now a total of 14 Secretary for Finance and Personal Research Fellows in Sustainable Growth, John post; Swinney; • The second year of the Phase III • Celtic–Cossack Connections scheme of Enterprise Fellow- project (supported ships resulting in 10 awards, through our arts and humani- including four to be held in ties programme) resulted in 2010–11, from twenty-eight public performances, in both applications received; Russia and Scotland, of the • Friends of the Society initiative – original version of Prokofiev’s initially with eight corporate opera War and Peace, attended partners of the RSE; by 7,000 people; • A series of 12 discussions and • A two-day programme of film, talks as part of the Edinburgh theatre and debate International Festival on the about nuclear weapons, centred theme of The Enlightenment; on Michael Frayn’s play Copenhagen. • Launch of the independent Inquiry entitled Facing Performance Monitoring up to Climate Change in The performance of the RSE and October 2009, commencing its connected charities, compared with the gathering of evidence to the output targets set in the throughout Scotland; Operational Plan,is reported quarterly to the Executive Board, and to Council and to the Trustees

477 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

of the other connected bodies. As for capital growth. The Council in previous years, the overwhelm- has delegated the detailed ing majority (>95%) of the targets monitoring of performance to an were reached or exceeded; those Investment Committee, which that were not, arose either includes at least one ordinary through external factors or not member of Council and two being able to secure or apply the investment advisers and which necessary resources. makes comparisons against a FINANCIAL REVIEW AND composite benchmark reflecting POLICIES the mix of assets held and the WM Charities Income Constrained Investment powers and policy Index.The performance of the The management of the invest- portfolios was as shown below. ment funds of the RSE, the The Investment Committee meets Foundation and the BP Research twice annually with the invest- Fellowship Trust is carried out by ment managers to discuss their Speirs & Jeffrey Ltd on a discre- compliance with the policies set tionary basis. The objectives set by by the Committee and the risk the Council are first to ensure a environment. In the year under sufficient level of income to meet review, no compliance issues arose the target set annually by the which required to be reported to Council, and thereafter to invest the Committee.

Income Actual Total Benchmark Target Income Return 3 years to 31 March 2010 £’000 £’000 % % RSE 211 196 4.0 1.7 BP Trust 125 131 2.4 1.7 Foundation 315 305 * 1.7 * figure for CRF not available

Operating policies – grant postdoctoral Research Fellow- making ships, Support Research The RSE makes grants to individu- Fellowships, Post-graduate als in higher education Studentships, undergraduate institutions in support of research Vacation Scholarships, Enterprise activities in the categories of Fellowships and international

478 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010

exchange grants. Each of these financial statements. The General categories is specifically funded Fund represents the balance of from various sources, including unrestricted funds arising from the RSE’s restricted funds. The past operations. The Council has basis of eligibility and selection examined the requirement to hold varies according to the detailed unrestricted funds, and concluded scheme regulations, which are that, whilst the present level of published on the RSE’s website reserves gives adequate working (www.royalsoced.org.uk). capital for core costs, it would be Grants are also made in support desirable to increase the General of research activities of Fellows of Fund reserve from six months the RSE, including support for expenditure on central costs travel connected with research or towards nine months expenditure, scholarship, small-scale specialist or approximately £1.12 million. meetings, to assist research The current fund balance is visitors to Scotland to undertake £762,000, before deduction of collaborative research work with a the FRS17 pension reserve. The Fellow, to assist a visiting lecturer Council has also reviewed the to come to Scotland, to assist purposes and amounts of each of research collaboration between the designated funds and agreed two institutions in Scotland or that in future the designated between universities and industry funds should comprise allocations and to assist in the publication of for specific purposes of those books written by Fellows. These sums that had been donated, grants are funded by the RSE’s rather than generated from past designated Grants Fund. The surpluses, together with the Grants Committee is responsible Capital Asset Reserve.Result for for making awards in accordance the year. with the detailed rules set out by The deficit of consolidated net the Council of the RSE for the incoming resources for the year disbursement of the Grants Fund. was £62,000, compared to the Reserves policy and funds £39,000 underlying surplus, The RSE holds a number of excluding non-recurring items, restricted funds resulting from achieved last year. The main bequests for particular purposes, reason was the use of capital to details of which are set out in support ongoing expenditure note 2 to the financial statements. previously committed in the CRF and planned expenditure on The Council has created designat- computer systems taken from the ed funds, from its unrestricted Development Fund. funds, the purposes of which are also set out in note 2 to the

479 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

Offsetting this were investment Resources expended gains, comprising £0.34m realised Total resources expended in- in the year and £2.87m unrealised creased by 15% (£0.70m). This at the year end. The net move- reflects the increased expenditure ment on funds for the year after on grant-giving charitable the FRS17 actuarial adjustment activities. Governance and costs of was £2.54m.Income and Expendi- generating funds were similar to tureTotal incoming resourcesTotal previous years. Cost of generating incoming resources were £5.29 m funds (note 6) includes the cost of (2009 – £6.76m). On a like-for-like the Fellowship office, the costs of basis, excluding the major legacy building management as well as in 2009 (£2.16m), total income fundraising costs, both direct and increased by 15%. management time in securing The increase arose mainly from funding. increases in income received from Overall, expenditure on charitable charitable activities, of which the activities has increased by £0.68m. increase in funding for the Grants payable in support of Enterprise Fellowships and research and innovation made up Scottish Government Research the major part of this increase, Fellowships was the largest rising from £2.67m to £3.64m. contribution.Voluntary income This reflected the increase in (note 4) of £0.43m includes a final Enterprise Fellowships, both those transfer to the Foundation’s CRF funded by Scottish Enterprise and fund from the winding up of the by the Research Councils, and the Caledonian Research Foundation increased number of Scottish and the first contributions from Government Research Fellows the ‘Friends of the Society’ – appointed. corporate partners of the RSE. Expenditure on international Incoming resources from charita- research connections and influ- ble activities of £3.94m increased encing public policy also by 16% from the 2008–09 level increased, the latter due to an of £3.38m. The increases for increase in staff resource. In 2009, research funded by the Scottish expenditure included £0.21m on Government and in all the the James Clerk Maxwell statue Enterprise Fellowship schemes and this, and a small decrease in were offset by decreases as a expenditure on public engage- result of the conclusion of a series ment, offset the other increases. of grants from Lloyds TSB Founda- Governance costs, which have tion for Scotland and the remained at a similar level to Gannochy Trust Innovation Award previous years, represent around not being awarded in 2009. 2.9% of total income.

480 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010

Transfers between funds shown in ing external financial uncertain- the Statement of Financial ties, the continuing strategy of Activities comprise the recurring diversification of income and tight transfer from the Capital Asset control of expenditure is essential. Reserve of a total of £101,000 to The Council’s aim of building match the depreciation of build- relationships with a view to ings and the capital repayment of working in partnership is pro- the loan to the Foundation; and a gressing in respect of the transfer on consolidation from the corporate sector through the Foundation restricted fund Friends of the Society, and good balance to the General Fund, to foundations have been laid in the reflect the actual RSE General initial year. To highlight the Fund balance. importance of individual giving, a Balance sheet legacy brochure is being prepared Consolidated net assets increased – not all can contribute as much from £18.61mto £21.15m; the as the legacy from Dr Harold main reason being the increase in Thomas received in 2009, but the investment portfolio from even the smallest amount is put to £12.89m to £16.08m, reflecting good use. unrealised surpluses of £2.87m. The future of public sector This is offset by a £607,000 funding is uncertain, but our decrease (2009 – £212,000 scenario planning for the next decrease) in the FRS17 pensions spending review period is well adjustment, converting the advanced. The delivery of the RSE’s previously reported asset of varied programme of activities £139,000 to a liability of with public benefit outcomes will £415,000.Net current assets be guided by the priorities set by decreased from £2.23m to Council to ensure continuing £1.99m, as cash previously financial stability. In challenging received in advance of expenditure times, the RSE continues to seek was paid out, reflected in an new opportunities and develop decrease in the provision for existing activities, to enhance its liabilities. contribution to Scottish Society. Total cash balances and creditors Signed on behalf of the Council are increased by £0.44m due to Ewan Brown CBE the pre-funding received from the Marie Curie COFUND scheme, Treasurer included in deferred income until conditions of grant are met by eligible Research Fellows.Future plansIn the context of the prevail-

481 The Royal Society of Edinburgh

Independent Auditor’s Report Respective responsibilities of to the Trustees of the Royal trustees and auditors Society of Edinburgh The Trustees’ responsibilities for We have audited the financial preparing the Trustees’ Annual statements of The Royal Society of Report and the financial state- Edinburgh (RSE) for the year ments in accordance with ended 31 March 2010 which applicable law and United comprise the group statement of Kingdom Accounting Standards financial activities, the charity (United Kingdom Generally statement of financial activities, Accepted Accounting Practice) are the group balance sheet, the set out in the Statement of charity balance sheet, the cash- Trustees’ Responsibilities. flow statement and the related We have been appointed as notes. These financial statements auditors under section 44(1)(c) of have been prepared in accordance the Charities and Trustee Invest- with the accounting policies set ment (Scotland) Act 2005 and out therein. report in accordance with regula- This report is made solely to the tions made under that Act. Our charity’s Trustees, as a body, in responsibility is to audit the accordance with section 44 (1)(c) financial statements in accordance of the Charities and Trustee with relevant legal and regulatory Investment (Scotland) Act 2005 requirements and International and regulation 10 of the Charities Standards on Auditing (UK and Accounts (Scotland) Regulations Ireland). 2006 and the Laws of the RSE. We report to you our opinion as Our audit work has been under- to whether the financial state- taken so that we might state to ments give a true and fair view the charity’s Trustees those and are properly prepared in matters we are required to state to accordance with the Charities and them in an auditor’s report and Trustee Investment (Scotland) Act for no other purpose. To the 2005 and regulation 8 of the fullest extent permitted by law, we Charities Accounts (Scotland) do not accept or assume responsi- Regulations 2006. bility to anyone other than the charity and its Trustees as a body, We also report to you if, in our for our audit work, for this report, opinion, the information given in or for the opinions we have the Trustees’ Annual Report is not formed. consistent with the financial statements, if the charity has not kept proper accounting records, if the charity’s financial statements

482 Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010

are not in agreement with these statements are free from material accounting records, or if we have misstatement, whether caused by not received all the information fraud or other irregularity or error. and explanations we require for In forming our opinion we also our audit. evaluated the overall adequacy of We read the Trustees’ Annual the presentation of information in Report and consider the implica- the financial statements. tions for our report if we become Opinion aware of any apparent misstate- In our opinion: ments within it. • the financial statements give a Basis of audit opinion true and fair view, in accordance We conducted our audit in with United Kingdom Generally accordance with International Accepted Accounting Practice, Standards on Auditing (UK and of the state of the group’s and Ireland) issued by the Auditing the charity’s affairs as at 31 Practices Board. An audit includes March 2010 and of the group’s examination, on a test basis, of and charity’s incoming resources evidence relevant to the amounts and application of resources for and disclosures in the financial the year then ended; and statements. It also includes an • the financial statements have assessment of the significant been properly prepared in estimates and judgments made by accordance with the Charities the Trustees in the preparation of and Trustee Investment (Scot- the financial statements and of land) Act 2005, regulation 8 of whether the accounting policies the Charities Accounts (Scot- are appropriate to the charity’s land) Regulations 2006 and the circumstances, consistently Laws of the RSE. applied and adequately disclosed. Henderson Loggie We planned and performed our audit so as to obtain all the Chartered Accountants and information and explanations Statutory Auditors which we considered necessary in (Eligible to act as an auditor in order to provide us with sufficient terms of section 1212 of the evidence to give reasonable Companies Act 2006). assurance that the financial

483

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH ACCOUNTS 2009-2010

Group statement of ﬁnancial activities (incorporating the income & expenditure account) for year ended 31 March 2010

Note General Fund Designated Funds Restricted income Restricted funds 2010 Total 2009 Total ££££££

Income Voluntary income 4 231,577 202,234 433,811 2,615,665 Activities for generating income 4 258,362 258,362 256,030 Investment income 4 32,568 131,439 499,681 663,688 503,826

Incoming resources from generated funds 264,145 131,439 960,277 1,355,861 3,375,521 Incoming resources from charitable activities 5 60,474 3,562,354 314,428 3,937,256 3,388,119

Total incoming resources 324,619 131,439 3,562,354 1,274,705 5,293,117 6,763,640

Expenditure Cost of generating funds 6 (188,083) (9,468) (70,387) (267,938) (252,372) Charitable activities 6 (201,057) (104,807) (3,562,354) (1,065,190) (4,933,408) (4,245,512) Governance 6 (114,751) (39,438) (154,189) (157,946)

Total resources expended (503,891) (114,275) (3,562,354) (1,175,015) (5,355,535) (4,655,830)

Net (outgoing)/incoming resources before transfers (179,272) 17,164 99,690 (62,418) 2,107,810

Transfers between funds 197,824 (101,818) (96,006) –

Other recognised gains/(losses) Gains/(losses) on investment assets Realised gains/(losses) 1,562 83,093 256,974 341,629 (101,176) Unrealised gains/(losses) 10,848 576,923 2,285,521 2,873,292 (1,345,064)

Actuarial losses on Lothian Pension Fund (607,000) (607,000) (212,000)

Net movement in funds (576,038) 575,362 2,546,179 2,545,503 449,570

Transfer of assets from the CRF 4 6,290,710

Net movement in funds after transfer of assets (576,038) 575,362 2,546,179 2,545,503 6,740,280

Balance brought forward at 1 April 2009 923,552 6,911,644 10,774,886 18,610,082 11,869,802

Balance carried forward at 31 March 2010 347,514 7,487,006 13,321,065 21,155,585 18,610,082

485 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH The Royal Society of Edinburgh

Group balance sheet at 31 March 2010 Note 2010 2010 2009 2009 ££££

Fixed assets Tangible ﬁxed assets 14 3,880,489 3,984,587

Fixed asset investments Investments at market value 15 16,083,212 12,884,518

19,963,701 16,869,105

Current assets

Debtors 16 770,792 462,559 Cash at bank and in hand 310,904 372,913 Money Market deposits – Designated funds 95,864 95,388 Money Market deposits – Restricted funds 1,499,620 1,167,068 Money Market deposits – General funds 636,180 687,790

3,313,360 2,785,718

Current liabilities Creditors: amounts falling due within one year 17 (1,316,484) (553,513)

Net current assets 1,996,876 2,232,205

Total assets less current liabilities 21,960,577 19,101,310

Provision for liabilities and charges 18 (389,992) (630,228)

Net assets excluding pension fund 21,570,585 18,471,082

Lothian Pension Fund deﬁned beneﬁt Scheme (liability)/asset 23 (415,000) 139,000

Net assets after pension fund (liability)/asset 21,155,585 18,610,082

Funds General Fund 762,514 784,552 Add: Pension reserve (415,000) 139,000

19 347,514 923,552 Designated Funds 20 7,487,006 6,911,644 Restricted Funds 21 13,321,065 10,774,886

Total funds 21,155,585 18,610,082

The accounts were approved by the Council on 6 September 2010 and signed on its behalf by:

Ewan Brown, CBE Treasurer

486 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010

RSE balance sheet at 31 March 2010 Note 2010 2010 2009 2009 ££££

Fixed assets Tangible ﬁxed assets 14 2,171,157 2,228,585

Fixed asset investments Investments at market value 15(a) 5,242,639 4,214,788 Loan to RSE Scotland Foundation 15(b) 1,750,712 1,797,520

9,164,508 8,240,893

Current assets Debtors 16 604,866 348,946 Cash at bank and in hand 195,667 224,400 Money Market deposits – Designated funds 95,864 95,388 Money Market deposits – Restricted funds 1,499,620 1,167,068 Money Market deposits – General funds 636,180 687,790

3,032,197 2,523,592

Current liabilities Creditors: amounts falling due within one year 17 (1,709,422) (925,467)

Net current assets 1,322,775 1,598,125

Total assets less current liabilities 10,487,283 9,839,018

Provision for liabilities and charges 18 (389,992) (630,228)

Net assets excluding pension fund 10,097,291 9,208,790

Lothian Pension Fund deﬁned beneﬁt scheme (liability)/asset 23 (415,000) 139,000

Net assets after pension fund (liability)/asset 9,682,291 9,347,790

Funds General Fund 762,514 784,552 Add: Pension reserve (415,000) 139,000

19 347,514 923,552 Designated Funds 20 7,487,006 6,911,644 Restricted Funds 21 1,847,771 1,512,594

Total funds 9,682,291 9,347,790

The accounts were approved by the Council on 6 September 2010 and signed on its behalf by:

Ewan Brown, CBE Treasurer

487 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH The Royal Society of Edinburgh

RSE statement of ﬁnancial activities (incorporating the income & expenditure account) for year ended 31 March 2010

General Fund Designated Funds Restricted income Restricted funds 2010 Total 2009 Total ££££££

Income Voluntary income 231,576 48,966 280,542 2,487,761 Investment income 118,907 131,439 63,274 313,620 385,635

Incoming resources from generated funds 350,483 131,439 _ 112,240 594,162 2,873,396 Incoming resources from charitable activities 70,142 4,052,633 4,122,775 3,399,204

Total incoming resources 420,625 131,439 4,052,633 112,240 4,716,937 6,272,600

Expenditure Cost of generating funds (188,083) (9,468) (197,551) (190,442) Charitable activities (201,057) (104,807) (4,052,633) (91,687) (4,450,184) (3,815,434) Governance (114,751) (114,751) (125,410)

Total resources expended (503,891) (114,275) (4,052,633) (91,687) (4,762,486) (4,131,286)

Net incoming/(outgoing) resources before transfers (83,266) 17,164 20,553 (45,549) 2,141,314

Transfers between funds 101,818 (101,818) –

Other recognised gains/(losses) Gains /(losses) on investment assets Realised gains/(losses) 1,562 83,093 39,610 124,265 (101,942) Unrealised gains/(losses) 10,848 576,923 275,014 862,785 (837,223)

Actuarial gains (losses) on Lothian Pension Fund (607,000) (607,000) (212,000)

Net movement in funds (576,038) 575,362 335,177 334,501 990,149

Balance brought forward at 1 April 2009 923,552 6,911,644 1,512,594 9,347,790 8,357,641

Balance carried forward at 31 March 2010 347,514 7,487,006 1,847,771 9,682,291 9,347,790

488 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010

Group cash ﬂow statement for the year ended 31 March 2010 2010 2010 2009 2009 ££ £ £

Cash ﬂow statement Net cash outﬂow from operating activities (490,497) (364,340)

Returns on investments and servicing of ﬁnance: Interest received 31,429 73,228 Dividends received 632,459 430,598

663,688 503,826 Capital expenditure and ﬁnancial investment: Purchase of tangible ﬁxed assets (18,110) (37,328) Proceeds from sale of investments 4,008,894 2,816,886 Purchases of investments (3,951,866) (2,790,704) Capital receipt 157 190,560

39,075 179,414

Net cash ﬂow before ﬁnancing: 212,266 318,900 Appeal receipts 7,143 8,910

Increase in cash in the year 219,409 327,810

Reconciliation of net cash ﬂow to movement in net funds

Increase in cash in the year 219,409 327,810 Net funds at beginning of year 2,323,159 1,995,349

Net funds at end of year (note 27) 2,542,568 2,323,159

Reconciliation of net movement in funds to net cash outﬂow from operating activities

Net (outgoing)/incoming resources before transfers (62,418) 8,398,520 Retirement benefit scheme current service cost 61,000 61,000 Retirement benefit scheme contributions (120,000) (94,000) Retirement benefit scheme finance cost 6,000 (26,000) Appeal receipts (7,143) (8,910) Dividends receivable (632,259) (430,598) Interest receivable (31,429) (73,228) Depreciation 122,208 120,299 Capital receipt in cash (157) (190,560) Capital receipt in shares (40,801) (8,253,887) Increase in debtors (308,233) (244,603) Increase in creditors 762,971 99,676 Movement on provision for liabilities (240,236) 277,951

Net cash outﬂow from operating activities (490,497) (364,340)

489 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH The Royal Society of Edinburgh notes to the ﬁnancial statements

1 Accounting basis CASS Fund – to fund academic / industrial The accounts have been drawn up to Designated Funds liaison. comply with the provisions of the Charities & Capital Asset Reserve Fund – representing Retailing Seminar Fund – to fund a Trustee Investment (Scotland) Act 2005 and the book cost of the buildings at programme of seminars on retailing. the Charities Accounts (Scotland) Regulations 22-24 George Street and 26 George Street 2006, and follow the recommendations of together with the building project loan to the Edinburgh Drug Absorption Foundation Fund the Statement of Recommended Practice for RSE Scotland Foundation. – to fund a series of conferences on the broad charities (SORP) approved by the Accounting theme of ‘Drugs Futures’. Development Appeal Fund to provide Standards Board in February 2005 and development finance to implement the RSE RSE Scotland Foundation – a trust to advance applicable accounting standards. The Strategic Framework. the education of the public in Scotland in accounts have been prepared under the science, engineering and technology, historical cost accounting rules as modified Programme Fund a fund created to act as incorporating assets transferred from the CRF. to include the revaluation of investments. a source of funding for meetings activities. The CRF funds remain restricted until pre- The accounts comprise five primary financial C H Kemball Fund – income from this fund is existing awards and appointments are statements: the Group and RSE statement of used to provide hospitality for distinguished concluded. financial activities incorporating the income visitors from other learned societies and and expenditure account, the Group and RSE BP Research Fellowship Trust – a trust Academies. balance sheet and the Group cash flow to fund postdoctoral research fellowships statement. Dr James Heggie Fund – income from this in Scotland. fund supports the RSE’s activities with The consolidated financial statements include young people. the financial statements of the RSE and 3 Accounting policies of entities which are under its control: RSE Grants Fund – a fund created by contributions Incoming resources Scotland Foundation and BP Research and legacies from Fellows and used to provide Voluntary income Fellowship Trust. As the objectives of each of grants to support research activities Subscriptions are accounted for on the basis these entities are narrower than those of the to Fellows. of the subscription year to October 2010 RSE, they have been treated as restricted Restricted Income Fund – income funds and include income tax recoverable on the funds. received for expenditure on current projects. subscriptions paid under Gift Aid. Restricted Funds Revenue grants are credited to income in 2 Funds the period in which the RSE becomes entitled Robert Cormack Bequest – to promote The RSE’s funds are classified in accordance to the resources. astronomical knowledge and research with the definitions in SORP into Restricted in Scotland. Donations of a recurring nature from other Funds, where there are restrictions placed by charitable foundations and one-off gifts and a donor as to the use of income or capital, Lessells Trust – to fund scholarships abroad for legacies included in other income are taken Designated Funds where the Society has set engineers. to revenue in the period to which they relate. aside sums from its unrestricted funds for a Auber Bequest – to fund research in Scotland particular purpose and the General Investment income and England by naturalised British citizens over (unrestricted) Fund. The classifications made Interest and dividends are accounted for 60 years of age. are as follows: in the year in which they are receivable. Prizes Fund – to fund various prizes. General Fund Incoming resources for charitable activities A discretionary Fund available to the Council Dryerre Fund – to fund postgraduate Incoming resources for activities are accounted to meet the ordinary activities of the Society. scholarships in medical or veterinary for on an accruals basis. physiology. Fleck Bequest Fund – to promote interest, knowledge and appreciation of science and its applications throughout Scotland. Piazzi Smyth Legacy Fund – to fund high altitude astronomical research. Sillitto Fund – to promote interest in physics among young people.

490 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

Publication income receivable in foreign currencies is converted into sterling at rates Charitable activities of exchange ruling at the date of receipt. Grants payable are recognised as a liability Minor equipment is charged against revenue when the RSE is under an actual or in the year of purchase. Computer and Incoming resources for research fellowships constructive obligation to make a transfer to audio-visual is depreciated on a straight line are accounted for in the period in which the a third party. Where grants are time related basis over 3–20 years. RSE becomes entitled to the resources. to future periods and are to be financed by Income received for specific projects, and specific grants receivable in those future Investments received in advance of the commencement periods, they are treated as liabilities of those Investments are stated at their market value of the project, is deferred. If the project were periods and not as liabilities at balance sheet at the balance sheet date. Gains and losses on not to proceed as planned, the RSE would date. Such grants are disclosed as future disposal and revaluation of investments not be entitled to retain the funds. For commitments. are charged or credited in the statement of performance-related grants, where financial activities and allocated to funds in entitlement to the incoming resource only Governance costs accordance with their proportionate share arises with the performance of the specific Governance costs are those incurred in of the investment portfolio. outputs agreed under the contracts, income is connection with the management of RSE deferred. assets, organisational administration and Pensions compliance with constitutional and statutory The RSE participates in defined benefit Resources expended requirements. pension schemes which are externally funded. Expenditure and support costs The cost of providing pensions is allocated Tangible fixed assets, depreciation All resources expended are included on over employees working lives with the RSE and repairs an accruals basis, having regard to any and is included in staff costs. constructive obligations created by The RSE’s principal assets are its buildings in multi-year grant commitments. George Street, Edinburgh. Under FRS15 the Society depreciates the buildings assuming Where directly attributable, resources a 50-year life. It is the policy of the Council to expended are allocated to the relevant maintain the buildings to a high standard. Any functional category. Overhead and support permanent diminutions in value are reflected in costs are allocated to functional category the statement of financial activities. Costs of on the basis of direct staff costs in each repairs and maintenance are charged against area of activity. revenue. Cost of generating funds Expenditure incurred by the RSE Scotland The cost of generating funds includes Foundation in the improvements to expenditure incurred in supporting the 26 George Street is being depreciated from the Fellowship and incurred on fundraising date of completion of the refurbishment over and development initiatives. the period of the lease to the RSE Scotland Foundation to 30 June 2047.

491 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements 4 Incoming resources Current year 2010 Voluntary income Activities for Investment Promotion of Other charitable Total 2010 generating income research and activities innovation ££££££

Fellows 206,940 _ 206,940 Individuals 8,386 8,747 17,133 Legacies Companies 16,250 33,262 49,512 Charitable trusts 48,966 22,383 52,315 123,664 Scottish Government 1,578,362 679,755 2,258,117 Public sector bodies 1,235,751 12,253 1,248,004 Bank interest 31,429 31,429 Dividends 195,853 195,853

RSE 280,542 227,282 2,836,496 786,332 4,130,652 BP Research Fellowship Trust -dividends and interest 131,224 131,224 RSE Scotland Foundation grant re SBF 120,620 120,620 rental income 258,362 258,362 charitable activities 314,428 314,428 dividends and interest 305,182 305,182

401,162 258,362 663,688 2,836,496 1,100,760 5,260,468 Transfer of assets from the CRF 32,649 32,649

433,811 258,362 663,688 2,836,496 1,100,760 5,293,117

Voluntary income Activities for Investment Promotion of Other charitable Total 2009 Prior year 2009 generating income research and activities innovation ££££££

Fellows 196,615 196,615 Individuals 45,495 47,746 93,241 Legacies 2,158,734 2,158,734 Companies 30,894 30,894 Charitable trusts 86,918 518,937 182,318 788,173 Scottish Government 1,126,993 645,580 1,772,573 Public sector bodies 471,822 81,893 553,715 Bank interest 73,228 73,228 Dividends 224,197 224,197

RSE 2,487,762 297,425 2,117,752 988,431 5,891,370 BP Research Fellowship Trust -dividends and interest 152,304 152,304 RSE Scotland Foundation grant re SBF 127,903 127,903 rental income 256,030 256,030 charitable activities 281,936 281,936 dividends and interest 54,097 54,097

2,615,665 256,030 503,826 2,117,752 1,270,367 6,763,640 Transfer of assets from the CRF 6,290,710 6,290,710

8,906,375 256,030 503,826 2,117,752 1,270,367 13,054,350

492 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010

notes to the ﬁnancial statements 4 Incoming resources (continued) 4a Voluntary income 2010 2009 ££ Contributions from RSE Fellows Admission fees 11,200 12,320 Annual subscriptions 167,280 160,576 Income tax recoverable under Gift Aid 28,460 23,719 206,940 196,615 Lessells Trust additional receipt 8,008 12,160 Appeal receipts 7,143 8,910 Legacies 2,158,735 Fleck Trust transfer 40,958 Receipts for James Clerk Maxwell Statue 109,580 Friends of the Society corporate partners 16,250 Other income 1,243 1,762 280,542 2,487,762

In addition to the donations set out above, the RSE receives donations made speciﬁcally in support of activities which are included in activities income (see note 26(b)).

5 Incoming resources from charitable activities 2010 2009 ££

Scottish Government Grant – research fellowships 1,456,169 1,050,130 Scottish Government Grant arts & humanities awards 122,193 76,863 Franco-Scottish PhD scholarships 12,000 Caledonian Research Foundation 21,237 Scottish Enterprise 719,598 228,148 BBSRC Enterprise Fellowships 449,060 201,812 STFC Enterprise Fellowships 65,593 29,862 Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland 22,383 497,700 Scottish Crucible 1,500

2,836,496 2,117,752 Scottish Government Grant generating & communicating knowledge 372,358 372,161 Scottish Government Grant – International activities 307,398 273,419 Gannochy Trust 2,607 105,000 Scottish Funding Council 37,316 Meetings 41,457 102,652 Policy and advice income 33,672 73,577 IEEE / RSE / Wolfson James Clerk Maxwell Award 20,776 19,494 Educational activities 7,803 4,597 Sale of sundry publications 261 215

786,332 988,431

RSE Scotland Foundation – Journal publications 148,165 134,390 RSE Scotland Foundation – Conference facilities letting 150,623 147,546 RSE Scotland Foundation Science and society 15,640 314,428 281,936

3,937,256 3,388,119 Further information relating to grants, donations and receipts and their application is set out in note 26.

493 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

6 Resources expended

2010 2009

Direct costs Support costs Total 2010 Direct costs Support costs Total 2009 (Note 12) (Note 12) ££££££ Costs of generating funds Fundraising 2,893 106,903 109,796 49,863 34,199 84,062 Fellows’ subscriptions 78,286 78,286 100,842 100,842 Appeal donations 9,468 9,468 5,538 5,538

2,893 194,657 197,550 49,863 140,579 190,442 RSE Scotland Foundation Building management 70,032 70,032 61,592 61,592 BP Research Fellowship Trust Investment fees 356 356 338 338

Total costs of generating funds 3,249 264,689 267,938 50,201 202,171 252,372

Charitable activities Enhancing World-Class Research 2,132,356 277,395 2,409,751 1,914,665 276,830 2,191,495 Increasing International Research Connections 193,765 114,980 308,745 178,995 97,437 276,432 Improving Connections Between Business and Academia 1,126,786 107,858 1,234,644 482,772 95,896 578,668 Increasing Numbers Taking Science as a Career 8,865 46,928 55,793 12,757 60,553 73,310 Enhancing Public Appreciation of Science and Culture 128,357 239,151 367,508 165,680 227,887 393,567 Informing and Inﬂuencing Public Policy 40,667 179,065 219,732 53,644 125,327 178,971

3,630,796 965,377 4,596,173 2,808,513 883,930 3,692,443

RSE Scotland Foundation Journal Publications 86,602 36,181 122,783 95,594 32,390 127,984 James Clerk Maxwell Statue 1,247 1,247 208,586 208,586 SBF 105,620 15,000 120,620 112,903 15,000 127,903 Conference facilities letting 92,585 92,585 88,596 88,596

193,469 143,766 337,235 417,083 135,986 553,069

Total cost of charitable activities 3,824,265 1,109,143 4,933,408 3,225,596 1,019,916 4,245,512

Governance (note 11) RSE 6,956 107,795 114,751 6,612 118,798 125,410 RSE Scotland Foundation 3,345 34,897 38,242 3,250 28,041 31,291 BP Research Fellowships Trust 1,196 1,196 1,245 1,245

Total governance costs 11,497 142,692 154,189 11,107 146,839 157,946

Resources expended 3,839,011 1,516,524 5,355,535 3,286,904 1,368,926 4,655,830

Central support costs as set out in note 12 have been allocated to activities in proportion to the employment cost in each area of activity.

494 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

7 Grants payable 2010 2009 ££

Promotion of research (note 8) 2,351,920 2,124,730 Prizes and grants 57,831 66,765 Promotion of Innovation (Note 9) 1,234,644 482,772

3,644,396 2,674,267

8 Increasing Numbers of World-Class Researchers 2010 2009 ££

Promotion of Research 2,351,920 2,124,730 Scottish Government Fellowships 1,347,903 975,263 Marie Curie COFUND actions 1,240 Arts & Humanities Workshop Grants 106,428 71,582 Franco-Scottish PhD scholarships 12,000 CRF European Fellowships 21,881 17,364 CRF Personal Fellowships 272,654 Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland Fellowships 476,925 Robert Cormack Bequest 4,901 4,610 John Moyes Lessells Scholarship 19,166 18,412 Auber Bequest Awards 3,000 Henry Dryerre Scholarship 19,543 19,340

1,795,476 1,596,736

Library 200

RSE 1,795,476 1,596,936 BP Research Fellowship Trust 198,728 171,082 RSE Scotland Foundation CRF 88,615 91,520

2,082,819 1,859,538

Support costs (note 6) 269,101 265,192

Prizes and Grants 49,537 55,127 Support costs (note 6) 8,294 11,638

57,831 66,638

2,409,751 2,191,495

An analysis of institutions and individual awards made under this expenditure heading is included in the Society’s Review 2009, obtainable from the address on the back cover.

495 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH The Royal Society of Edinburgh notes to the ﬁnancial statements

9 Increasing connections between business and academia

2010 2009 ££

Scottish Enterprise Fellowships 647,032 187,695 STFC Enterprise Fellowships 57,616 23,625 BRSRC Enterprise Fellowships 414,515 186,452 Gannochy Trust 7,623 85,000

1,126,786 482,772 Support costs (Note 6) 107,858 95,896

1,234,644 578,668

10 Enhancing public appreciation of science and culture Meetings 79,621 115,308 Publications 48,736 50,372 128,357 165,680 Support costs (Note 6) 239,151 227,887

367,508 393,567

11 Governance 2010 2009 ££

Management and secretariat 105,045 116,416 Audit fee 11,497 11,107 Other professional advice from auditors 2,750 2,382

119,292 129,905 RSE Scotland Foundation – Management and secretariat 34,897 28,041

154,189 157,946

496 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010

notes to the ﬁnancial statements 12 Support costs

2010 2009 ££

Salaries (note 13) 1,007,318 914,868 Staff training, agency and recruitment costs 37,522 38,918 Non-cash pension cost adjustments (FRS 17) (53,000) (59,000)

991,840 894,786 Other costs Establishment expenses 191,555 193,476 Computer and equipment costs 107,875 29,119 Communication, stationery and printing costs 40,833 59,957 Travel and subsistence, hospitality 28,531 21,831 Publicity 18,793 17,923 Miscellaneous 1,209 8,992 Professional fees 13,680 22,543 Depreciation 122,208 120,299

524,684 474,140

Total central costs 1,516,524 1,368,926

Support costs have been allocated to activities in proportion to the employment cost in each area of activity as set out in note 6. 13 Employees Total 2010 Funded Funded by RSE Total by Foundation 2010 2009 ££ £ £

Wages and salaries 806,728 102,954 703,774 741,632 Social security costs 60,591 6,690 53,901 55,701 Other pension costs 139,999 19,103 120,896 117,535

1,007,318 128,747 878,571 914,868

The average number of employees of the RSE including those employed under joint contracts with the RSE Scotland Foundation was 29 (2009:28). One member of staff earned over £60,000 per year and is a member of a deﬁned beneﬁt pension scheme.

497 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

The Royal Society of Edinburgh notes to the ﬁnancial statements 14 Tangible ﬁxed assets Group 22 24 George Street 26 George Street Improvments Computer Total Purchase cost Purchase cost Purchase cost & equipment £££££ Cost At 1 April 2009 1,103,038 1,647,468 2,136,070 377,654 5,264,230 Additions 18,110 18,110 Disposals (30,226) (30,226)

At 31 March 2010 1,103,038 1,647,468 2,136,070 365,538 5,252,114

Depreciation At 1 April 2009 220,608 329,494 438,238 291,303 1,279,643 On disposals (30,226) (30,226) Charge for the year 22,061 32,949 44,467 22,731 122,208

At 31 March 2010 242,669 362,443 482,705 283,808 1,371,625

Net book value At 31 March 2010 860,369 1,285,025 1,653,365 81,730 3,880,489

At 31 March 2009 882,430 1,317,974 1,697,832 86,351 3,984,587

RSE Net book value At 31 March 2010 860,369 1,285,025 25,763 2,171,157

At 31 March 2009 882,430 1,317,974 28,181 2,228,585

15 Fixed asset investments Value at Investments Proceeds on sale Gain / Loss Revaluation Market value at 1 April 2009 made at cost of investments 31 March 2010 ££ ££ ££ (a) Fixed asset investments RSE Managed Funds 603,763 73,549 (10,128) 1,353 305,190 973,727 Fixed interest 1,848,808 976,193 (1,213,166) (10,492) 61,655 1,662,998 UK equities 1,728,888 636,732 (426,721) 133,404 495,940 2,568,243 Cash deposits 33,329 (1,645,673) 1,650,015 37,671

4,214,788 40,801 124,265 862,785 5,242,639 BP Research Fellowships Trust Managed Funds 414,559 149,813 (45,529) 12,751 197,849 729,443 Fixed interest 784,125 348,624 (445,413) (9,687) 94,455 772,104 UK equities 966,297 275,644 (247,005) 80,362 274,232 1,349,530 Cash deposits 93,241 (794,984) 737,947 36,204

2,258,222 (20,903) 83,426 566,536 2,887,281 RSESF Caledonian Research Fund Managed Funds 889,944 45,321 405,939 1,341,204 Fixed interest 2,502,216 774,836 (1,187,868) (7,344) 48,530 2,130,370 UK equities 3,018,792 757,622 (433,064) 141,282 989,502 4,474,134 Cash deposits 556 (1,613,904) 1,620,932 7,584

6,411,508 (36,125) 133,938 1,443,971 7,953,292

12,884,518 (16,227) 341,629 2,873,292 16,083,212 The loss on sale of investments measured against their historical cost was £226,346 (2009: Surplus (£105,750) The historical cost of investments was £13,661,849 (2009: £13,899,213). (RSE 2010: £4,689,373, 2009: £4,827,672).Investments comprising more than 5% of the market value of the portfolio were: Treasury 5% (2012), Treasury 5% (2014) and European Investment Bank 4.75% (2011).

498 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

15 Fixed asset investments (continued)

(b) Loan by RSE to RSE Scotland Foundation 2010 2009 ££

Due within one year 46,808 46,808 Due after one year 1,703,904 1,750,712

1,750,712 1,797,520

The loan bears interest at 4% per annum, capped at the amount of rent received by the Foundation and is repayable over the period to 30 June 2047, the expiration of the lease of 26 George Street.

16 Debtors 2010 2009 ££

General debtors 563,664 309,874 Prepayments and accrued income 15,144 14,795 Income tax recoverable 26,058 24,277

RSE 604,866 348,946 RSE Scotland Foundation - Debtors 151,363 82,909 RSE Scotland Foundation - Prepayments 10,228 21,879 BP Research Fellowships Trust 4,335 8,825

Group 770,792 462,559

17 Creditors: Amounts falling due within one year Group 2010 2009 ££

General creditors 550,887 378,026 Accruals 61,713 69,535 VAT payable 34,131 18,098 University of Glasgow (note 22) 7,612 6,723 Deferred income 510,486 29,165 Event income deferred 47,130 30,000 Advance receipts – Publications 104,525 21,966

1,316,484 553,513

Deferred income and advance receipts analysis At 1 April 2009 Received in year Recognised in year At 31 March 2010 Marie Curie COFUND 444,518 444,518 Friends of the Society 24,250 (16,250) 8,000 Climate Change Inquiry 11,209 56,750 (12,485) 55,474 Chemistry Project 17,956 (15,462) 2,494

29,165 525,518 (44,197) 510,486

Journal receipts 21,966 230,724 (148,165) 104,525

Symposia income 30,000 30,744 (13,614) 47,130

499 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

17 Creditors: Amounts falling due within one year (continued) RSE 2010 2009 ££

General creditors 483,950 367,036 RSE Scotland Foundation current account 660,244 492,543 Deferred income 510,486 29,165 University of Glasgow (note 22) 7,612 6,723 Symposia income deferred 47,130 30,000

1,709,422 925,467

18 Provision for liabilities and charges £ Commitments for research fellowships At 1 April 2009 – Group & RSE 630,228 New commitments: Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland Research Fellowships Grants paid in the year (240,236) At 31 March 2010 389,992

The provision represents amounts payable under a constructive obligation in respect of research fellowships due as follows: 2010-11 £165,868; 2011-12 £111,370; 2012-13 £48,899

19 General Fund £

At 1 April 2009 923,552

Net movement in funds for the year from statement of ﬁnancial activities (576,038)

At 31 March 2010 347,514

500 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

20 Designated Funds

At 1 April 2009 Investment Other income Expenditure Gains /(Losses) Transfers At 31 March 2010 income

££ ££ ££ £

Capital Asset Reserve 3,997,926 (101,818) 3,896,108 Development Appeal Fund 2,143,228 95,160 477 (89,099) 479,578 2,629,344 Programme Fund 90,192 4,191 21,122 115,505 CH Kemball Fund 20,300 943 4,754 25,997 Grants Fund 478,376 22,229 (16,530) 112,030 596,105 Dr James Heggie Fund 181,622 8,439 (8,646) 42,532 _ 223,947

6,911,644 130,962 477 (114,275) 660,016 (101,818) 7,487,006

The transfers represent the release from the Capital Asset Reserve of a total of £101,818 to match the depreciation of buildings and the amount of capital repayment of the loan to the Foundation.

21 Restricted Funds

At 1 April 2009 Investment Other income Expenditure Gains /(Losses) Transfers At 31 March 2010 income

££ ££ ££ £

Robert Cormack Bequest 89,737 4,170 (5,882) 21,014 109,039 Lessells Trust 364,899 16,956 8,008 (26,087) 85,455 449,231 Auber Bequest 345,357 16,048 (9,550) 80,878 432,733 Prizes Fund 58,940 2,739 (5,568) 13,803 69,914 Dryerre Fund 405,855 18,859 (27,240) 95,046 492,520 Fleck 46,193 2,146 40,958 (876) 10,818 99,239 Piazzi Smyth 11,722 545 (941) 2,745 14,071 Sillitto 34,024 170 (148) 34,046 Others 20,772 965 (394) 4,865 26,208 Edinburgh Drug Absorption Foundation 135,095 675 (15,000) 120,770 Restricted Income Fund 4,052,633 (4,052,633)

RSE 1,512,594 63,273 4,101,599 (4,144,319) 314,624 _ 1,847,771 RSE Scotland Foundation 6,947,941 305,182 395,016 (538,005) 1,577,909 (96,006) 8,592,037 BP Research Fellowships Trust 2,314,351 131,224 (214,280) 649,962 2,881,257

Total 10,774,886 499,679 4,496,615 (4,896,604) 2,542,495 (96,006) 13,321,065

501 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

The Royal Society of Edinburgh notes to the ﬁnancial statements

21 Restricted funds (continued) “Prizes Fund” comprises The Keith Fund, The Neill Fund, The Makdougall-Brisbane Fund, The Gunning-Victoria Fund, The James Scott Prize Fund, the Bruce-Preller Lecture Fund, The WS Bruce Memorial Fund, The Dr DA Berry Fund, The Henry Duncan Prize Lecture Fund and The BP Prize Lecture in the Humanities Fund. “Others” comprise the Retailing Seminars Fund and The CASS Fund. The Restricted Income Fund represents restricted income received and expended in the year. Under the terms of the Lessells Trust the University of Glasgow is entitled to 10% of additional amounts received by the RSE from the Trust. The balance included in creditors at 31 March 2010 represents the total sum apportioned but not yet paid over to the University (note 17). The funds of the RSE Scotland Foundation are treated as restricted in respect of the consolidated accounts and comprise funds received from the CRF £7,958,588, the endowment for the upkeep of the James Clerk Maxwell statue £31,870 and the balance of the Foundation general fund of £601,579.

22 Analysis of assets between funds

Group General Designated Funds Restricted Funds 2010 2009 £££££

Fund balances at 31 March 2010 are represented by: Tangible ﬁxed assets 25,763 2,145,394 1,709,332 3,880,489 3,984,587 Investments 54,648 3,495,036 12,533,528 16,083,212 12,884,518 Loan to RSE Scotland Foundation 1,750,712 (1,750,712) – Current assets 604,866 165,926 770,792 462,559 RSE Scotland Foundation current account (660,244) 660,244 – Deposits 636,180 95,864 1,499,620 2,231,664 1,950,246 Cash 195,667 115,237 310,904 372,913 Current liabilities (94,366) (1,222,118) (1,316,484) (553,513) Provisions for liabilities and charges (389,992) (389,992) (630,228) Pension fund liability (415,000) (415,000) 139,000

347,514 7,487,006 13,321,065 21,155,585 18,610,082

RSE General Designated Funds Restricted Funds 2010 2009 £££££

Fund balances at 31 March 2010 are represented by: Tangible ﬁxed assets 25,763 2,145,394 2,171,157 2,228,585 Investments 54,650 3,495,036 1,692,953 5,242,639 4,214,788 Loan to RSE Scotland Foundation 1,750,712 1,750,712 1,797,520 Current assets 604,866 604,866 348,946 RSE Scotland Foundation current account (660,244) (660,244) (492,543) Deposits 636,180 95,864 1,499,620 2,231,664 1,950,246 Cash 195,667 195,667 224,400 Current liabilities (94,368) (954,810) (1,049,178) (432,924) Provisions for liabilities and charges (389,992) (389,992) (630,228) Pension fund liability (415,000) (415,000) 139,000

347,514 7,487,006 1,847,771 9,682,291 9,347,790

502 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010 notes to the ﬁnancial statements

23 Pension costs (a) Universities Superannuation Scheme

The RSE participates in the Universities Superannuation Scheme, a defined benefit pension scheme which is externally funded and contracted out of the State Earnings-Related Pension Scheme. The assets of the scheme are held in a separate trustee-administered fund. The fund is valued every three years by a professionally qualified independent actuary using the projected unit method, the rates of contribution payable being determined by the trustee on the advice of the actuaries. In the intervening years the actuaries review the progress of the scheme.

Past service Future service liabilities liabilities

Investment return 4.4% 6.1%

Salary increase 4.3% 4.3%

Pension increase 3.3% 3.3%

At the valuation date the market value of the scheme’s assets was £28,842.6 million and the value of past service liabilities was £40,619.2 million on the scheme’s historical funding basis. The value of the assets represented 71% of the beneﬁts that had accrued to members, after allowing for expected future increases in earnings. The contribution rate payable by the RSE in the year was 14.0% of pensionable salaries. The actuary has conﬁrmed that it is appropriate to take the pension charge to be equal to the actual contribution paid during the year. The contribution rate payable increased to 16% of pensionable salaries with effect from 1 October 2009. The total pension cost payable to USS in the year was £15,817.

(b) Lothian Pension Fund

At the latest valuation date the market value of the scheme’s assets was £2,903 million and the value of past service liabilities was £3,427 million. The value of the assets represented 85% of the beneﬁts that had accrued to members, after allowing for expected future increases in earnings. The contribution rate payable by the RSE was: 20.1%. The actuary has conﬁrmed that it is appropriate to take the pension charge to be equal to the actual contribution paid during the year.

503 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH The Royal Society of Edinburgh notes to the ﬁnancial statements 23 Pension costs (continued)

Pension fund asset / (liability) The RSE pension fund asset at 31 March and the movements of its component parts comprise:

2010 2009 £’000 £’000

Present value of funded liabilities (deﬁned beneﬁt obligation) (2,299) (1,128) Fair value of employer assets 1,884 1,267

Net asset at 31 March (415) 139

2010 2009 Movement in present value of deﬁned beneﬁt obligation £’000 £’000

At 1 April 1,128 1,145 Current service cost 61 61 Past service costs 13 Interest cost 82 82 Contribution by members 41 30 Actuarial losses/(gains) 981 (184) Beneﬁts paid (7) (6)

At 31 March 2,299 1,128

2010 2009 Movement in fair value of employer assets £’000 £’000

At 1 April 1,267 1,437 Expected return on assets 89 108 Contributions by members 41 30 Contributions by the employer 120 94 Actuarial gains/(losses) 374 (396) Beneﬁts paid (7) (6)

At 31 March 1,884 1,267

2010 2009 The net expense recognised in the statement of ﬁnancial activities after FRS17 adjustments was £’000 £’000

Current service cost 61 61 Interest cost 82 82 Expected return on employer assets (89) (108)

54 35

The total amount recognised in the statement of ﬁnancial activities in respect of actuarial gains and losses is a loss of £607,000 (2009: loss of £212,000).

504 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010 notes to the ﬁnancial statements 23 Pension costs (continued)

The fair value of the employer assets at 31 March and the return on them in the year was: Value Return Value Return 2010 2010 2009 2009 £’000 % £’000 % Equities 1,488 7.8 1,001 7.0 Bonds 151 5.0 139 5.4 Property 170 5.8 127 4.9 Cash 75 4.8 4.0

1,884 1,267

Actual return on plan assets 463 (257)

The expected rates of return on plan assets are determined by reference to relevant indices. The overall expected rate of return is calculated by weighting the individual rates in accordance with the anticipated balance in the Plan’s investment portfolio. Principal actuarial assumptions (expressed as weighted averages) at the year end were as follows: 2010 2009 %% Inﬂation/pension increase rate 3.8 3.1 Salary increase rate 5.3 4.6 Expected return on assets 7.3 6.6 Discount rate 5.5 6.9 The assumptions relating to longevity underlying the pension liabilities at the balance sheet date as based on standard actuarial mortality tables and include an allowance for future improvements in longevity. The assumptions are equivalent to expecting a 65 year old to live for a number of years as follows: Males 2010 Females Males 2009 Females

Current pensioners 20.8 years 24.1 years 19.8 years 22.8 years Future pensioners 22.3 years 25.7 years 21.0 years 24.0 years

The history of the plan for the current and prior periods is as follows:

2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 Present value of defined benefit obligation (2,299) (1,128) (1,145) (1,298) (1,250) (561) Fair value of employer assets 1,884 1,267 1,437 1,347 1,130 485 Surplus/(deficit) (415) 139 292 49 (120) (76) Experience gains and losses on assets and liabilities have been as follows:

2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 £’000 Experience gains/(losses) on liabilities 28 (1) (30) Experience gains/(losses)on assets 374 (396) (140) 8 171 13

The projected amount to be charged in respect of the Lothian Pension Fund defined benefit scheme in the next financial year is £135,000.

505 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH The Royal Society of Edinburgh notes to the ﬁnancial statements

25 Connected charitable trusts (a) RSE Scotland Foundation The RSE Scotland Foundation is a charitable trust, recognised in Scotland as Scottish charity number SCO24636. It was created in March 1996 with the object of advancing the education of the public in Scotland in science and engineering and in so doing to conserve the scientific and cultural heritage of Scotland. The President, General Secretary, Treasurer, Curator and a Vice-President of the RSE are ex officiis Trustees of the Foundation, which draws on the resources of the RSE in carrying out its objects. The Foundation also has five nominated Trustees. The Foundation became publisher of the RSE’s journals under a Publications Rights License effective from 1 January 1997. On 1 July 1997 the RSE granted to the Foundation a 50-year lease over 26 George Street carrying an obligation to refurbish the building within a three-year period. The Council of the RSE agreed to make a loan of up to £2.3 million available to the Foundation in support of the refurbishment. The agreed terms of the loan are as described in note 16. (b) BP Research Fellowships Trust The BP Research Fellowships Trust funds a scheme of post doctoral research fellowships administered by the RSE.

26 Supplementary information: grants, donations and receipts

(a) Scottish Government Grants Income 2010 2009 ££

Promotion of research 1,456,169 1,050,130 Arts and Humanities Award 122,193 76,863 Activities grant Generating & Communicating knowledge 372,358 372,161 International activities 307,398 273,419 Joint Scottish French PhD studentships 12,000 2,258,118 1,784,573

The funding for 2009 10 was a grant under S23 Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1985 in support of the four programmes of activity : Research Fellowships, Arts & Humanities Awards; International grants & relations and Generating & Communicating knowledge. At 31 March 2010 the financial commitment in respect of Personal and Support Fellowships awarded subject to Scottish Government funding in the years, 2010 –11, 2011 12, 2012 13, 2013 14 and 2014 15 amounted to £1,766,736, £1,811,176, £1,777,961, £1,212,971 and £615,343 respectively. These amounts are treated as obligation of future years to be financed by specific funding expected to be made available from the Scottish Government.

506 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Trustees’ Report and Accounts to 31 March 2010

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

26 Supplementary information: grants, donations and receipts (continued)

(b) Recurring donations in support of activities

Scottish Enterprise Lloyds TSB Foundation Gannochy Trust for Scotland £££

Income Promotion of research & innovation 719,598 2,607

Costs Promotion of research & innovation 647,032 Provision for future costs (22,383) RSE administration and staff costs recovery 72,566 22,383 2,607

719,598 2,607

507 ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH The Royal Society of Edinburgh

notes to the ﬁnancial statements

26 Supplementary information: grants, donations and receipts (continued)

Airborne Initiative Anonymous Binks Trust BP Exploration British Council Scotland Darwin Trust Gannochy Trust Glaxo SmithKline plc Highland Council Marks & Spencer plc National Museums of Scotland Royal Bank of Scotland plc Royal Society of Chemistry RSPB Scotland Scottish Aquaculture Research Forum Scottish Arts Council Scottish Environmental Protection Agency Scottish Estates Business Group Scottish Power plc Shell UK Standard Life plc

27 Analysis of net funds At 31 March 2010 Cash ﬂows At 1 April 2009 £££

Cash at bank 310,904 (62,009) 372,913 Deposits – general 636,180 (51,610) 687,790 Deposits – designated funds 95,864 476 95,388 Deposits – restricted funds 1,499,620 332,552 1,167,068

2,542,568 219,409 2,323,159

508