The Public Eye, Winter/Spring 2020

Home , CasaPound, Chega (political party), George Soros, Golden Dawn (Greece), Marco Wanderwitz, National Radical Camp

WINTER/SPRING 2020 The Public Eye

Special Double International Issue:

The Golden Dawn Model: Once Emulated by U.S. White Nationalists, Greece’s Anti-Migrant Party Faces an Uncertain Future Enemy in the Making: The Language of “Anti-Sorosism” in the U.S. and Hungary Nothing Is Untouched: The Aftermath in Chemnitz End Times Antisemitism: Christian Zionism, Christian Nationalism, and the Threat to Democracy The Right in the Streets: The Past and Present of the Polish March of Independence Third Millennium Fascism: Highlights from Italy Right-Wing Populism Outside the Global North: Brazil and the Philippines

WINTER/SPRING 2020 THE PUBLIC EYE QUARTERLY

PUBLISHER Tarso Luís Ramos EDITOR Kathryn Joyce COVER ART Atelier Populaire PRINTING Hello from PRA. We hope you’re staying safe and well during these challenging Park Press Printers times. The Public Eye is published by Political Research Associates Our latest issue, nearly a year in the making, is a special internationally themed Tarso Luís Ramos edition of The Public Eye, drawing on contributions from 10 writers and covering Executive Director nine countries. Overall, the picture these pieces show is grim, with country after Frederick Clarkson country contending with a greatly emboldened Far Right, and many sliding away Senior Research Analyst from democracy and toward autocracy. Over the course of finalizing this issue, as Cloee Cooper Research Analyst much of the world shut down to fight the COVID-19 pandemic, some nations used Steven Gardiner the crisis as an opportunity to further entrench illiberal or authoritarian policies, as Assistant Research Director with Viktor Orbán’s seizure of emergency powers in Hungary. But all of these trends Heron Greenesmith have been years in the making, and many are deeply interrelated. Senior Research Analyst Marshall Hanig In our (appropriately) first piece of the issue,“The Golden Dawn Model” (pg. 4), Operations Support Patrick Strickland considers the rise of Greece’s Far Right. Nearly a decade ago, the Olivia Lawrence-Weilmann Program Coordinator world watched in shock as the fascist, neonazi party linked to rising anti-refugee vi- Isabelle H. Leighton olence began to also gain power in the Hellenic Parliament—a terrifying preview of Development Director things to come across Europe more broadly. Less well-understood was how Golden Ben Lorber Dawn had forged close ties with U.S. neonazis and White supremacists, helping the Research Analyst Far Right grow and adapt on both continents. Koki Mendis Communications Manager Next up, in , Anna Szilágyi and Kristóf Szom- Anne Murphy “Enemy in the Making” (pg. 7) Finance Director bati undertake an authoritative exploration of how liberal philanthropist George Charles Ocitti Soros became the preeminent bogeyman of the global Right, by studying how he Director of Operations is discussed in his native Hungary and his adopted home of the United States. In Greeley O’Connor both countries, age-old antisemitic stereotypes, baseless conspiracism, and sophis- Managing Director ticated propaganda techniques have been deployed by political leaders and ampli- Aidan Orly fied by right-wing media to legitimize illiberal rule and demonize pro-democracy Development Coordinator initiatives. Fellows Dan Atkinson • Zoé Samudzi • Tina Vasquez In “Nothing Is Untouched” (pg. 14), Hilary Moore reports on the aftermath of Interns Hanwen Hu • Julia Cameron the mob violence that shook Chemnitz, Germany, in 2018, when hordes of protesters attacked people of color perceived to be immigrants or refugees. That violence, Board of Directors which drew global condemnation, may have seemed spontaneous, but as Moore Jeyn Levison, Chair writes, it grew from a years-long process of neonazi and fascist mobilization, and Fatema Ahmad • Cathy Albisa • Saqib Bhatti before that, the untended traumas of Germany’s reunification, which left Chemnitz Ginna Green • Ellen Gurzinsky Orson Moon • Mandisa Moore-O’Neal in a “pre-pogrom” state. Mohan Sikka • Zeke Spier Carla Wallace • Susan Wefald

Founder Jean V. Hardisty, Ph.D.

2 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 editor’s letter

In “End Times Antisemitism” (pg. 19), PRA assistant research director Steven Gardiner takes a deep dive into understanding how Christian Zionism has forged a powerful and toxic bond between the U.S. and Israel. Long a simmering force on the Christian Right, in the Trump era, apocalyptic Christian Zionist beliefs are now national policy—the motivation behind destabilizing moves like the relocation of the U.S. Embassy, the recognition of Israeli claims to contested territory, and the defunding of agencies that provide support to Palestinian refugees—to the detri- ment of Jews, Muslims, and democracy itself. P. 19 “The Right in the Streets” (pg. 25), Piotr Kocyba and Małgorzata Łukianow’s historical study of Poland’s annual March of Independence, takes us on a tour of how the Polish Far Right has appropriated and converted a national holiday into an ethno-nationalist spectacle, marked by White supremacist slogans and violence. But despite those facts, Kocyba and Łukianow write, the march continues to draw tens of thousands each year, as well as the support of the ruling political regime.

In “Third Millennium Fascism” (pg. 29), Maddalena Gretel Cammelli plumbs the backstory of Italy’s idiosyncratic but influential neofascist group CasaPound Italia. Through a mix of cultural offerings, symbolic rituals, powerful political alliances, and street violence, CPI offers less a specific policy agenda than an all- encompassing community for young recruits to neofascism. And, thanks to a so- phisticated approach to media campaigning, they’ve gone almost completely un- challenged.

Finally, in “Right-Wing Populism Outside the Global North” (pg. 33), Ramon H. Royandoyan and Mario Braga explore how the same authoritarian trends sweeping Europe and the U.S. are also evolving in Brazil and the Philippines. While local political realities mean that certain staples from the authoritarian playbook— P. 25 like anti-immigrant scapegoating—are less effective there, other popular concerns, from drugs to crime, are easily tapped to take their place. And understanding the rise of figures like Brazil’s Jair Bolsonaro or the Philippines’ Rodrigo Duterte is paramount to understanding how developing nations fit into the global populism puzzle.

In between our print issues, PRA is publishing regularly online, including ongoing coverage on how the COVID-19 crisis and the Black Lives Matter movement protests are being affected or exploited by the Right, so be sure to visit us at politicalresearch.org.

Kathryn Joyce

P. 29

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 3 BY PATRICK STRICKLAND

The Golden Dawn Model Once Emulated by U.S. White Nationalists, Greece’s Anti-Migrant Party Faces an Uncertain Future

Golden Dawn members hold a party flag at a rally outside of the party headquarters in Athens in March 2015. Credit: DTRocks/ Wikimedia Commons.

ctober 24, 1998. Anyone ism conference required such stringent Greek neonazis, had organized the con- walking past the conference security2: it hadn’t been a tourism conference, dubbed the Fifth Pan-European in Thessaloniki, Greece’s ference at all. Rather, around 150 people Conference of Nationalist and Social second-largest city, would had gathered for two days of speeches Forces.3 The keynote speaker was Wil- haveO likely found the presence of guard about strengthening ties between White liam Luther Pierce III, founder of the dogs at the entrance odd, the Southern nationalist and neonazi groups across U.S.-based National Alliance and pseud- Poverty Law Center’s Intelligence Report national borders. Hailing from Austria onymous author of The Turner Diaries, a later pointed out. After all, the event sign to South Africa, Germany to Portugal, futuristic novel that envisions race war read: “Greek Coordination of Touring and the U.S. to Belgium, the participants consuming North America. Groups.”1 mingled, donned swastikas, and per- By the time Pierce touched down in Four days after the conference ended, formed fascist salutes. Greece, his 1978 novel was well known Greek newspapers learned why a tour- Golden Dawn, a then-obscure band of for inspiring hate crimes and terror at-

4 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 tacks.4 Among them, the 1984 murder of Golden Dawn’s rise to parliamentary ing a criminal organization.16 Jewish radio host Alan Berg by members prominence—a surge from command- Fyssas’s murder sent shockwaves of The Order, a White nationalist terror ing street gangs to occupying 18 seats throughout Greece, prompted mas- group; Timothy McVeigh’s 1995 bomb- in the Hellenic Parliament—provided a sive anti-fascist rallies, and left 69 party ing of the Oklahoma City federal build- model for likeminded White nationalists members on trial, but it initially did little ing, which killed 168 people; and the the world over. In effect, its electoral suc- to wither Golden Dawn’s support. Leg- 1998 lynching of James Byrd in Jasper, cess suggested that fascists didn’t have islative elections in January 2015 saw Texas. to choose between boots and suits; they Golden Dawn assume the rank of the par- That history of violence was no issue could simultaneously infiltrate main- liament’s third largest party. for Golden Dawn, which, since its found- stream democratic institutions while un- *** ing in the 1980s, has celebrated U.S. leashing mobs in the streets.9 With that, U.S. neonazis leaped to Golden neonazi groups, translated their texts, Golden Dawn shifted from importer to Dawn’s defense. Daily Stormer likened and emulated their tactics.5 In 1993, the exporter, and it soon inaugurated inter- the crackdown to the world’s condemna- group registered as a political party. And national chapters from Australia to the tion of Syrian dictator Bashar al-Assad in 2001, party chief Nikos Michalolia- U.S.10 for using chemical weapons, claiming: kos, writing under a pseudonym, pub- In the summer of 2013, neonazi writer “[T]here is zero evidence that the hierar- lished his own novel, Strike Team Lance, Andrew Anglin traveled to Athens and chy of the Golden Dawn had anything to launched Daily do with the stabbing of Killah P.”17 The Golden Dawn released a statement Stormer, the fas- White nationalist blog Occidental Ob- cist blog that bor- server described the arrests as “an assault praising the Charlottesville rally as a rows its name on all European peoples.”18 “dynamic demonstration against illegal from the Nazi-era But it was Matthew Heimbach, founder immigration,” during which “fully equipped German newspa- of the Traditionalist Worker Party (TWP), per Der Stürmer.11 who emerged as one of Golden Dawn’s anarcholeftists attacked the peaceful In Greece, Anglin loudest U.S. supporters.19 In recent demonstration of the American Patriots.” hobnobbed with years, he traveled to Athens several times Golden Dawn to meet and interview party members. setting themes from The Turner Diaries in members and attended their demonstra- Back in the U.S. Heimbach preached Greece.6 tions, and in between posts mocking Af- the necessity of coupling street-level Golden Dawn was still far from at- rican Americans and pushing antisemit- violence with social programs—drug ad- tracting the international headlines that ic conspiracy theories, he often defended diction treatment and canned food do- chronicled its violent ascent to parlia- the group and celebrated its success. nation drives—similar to those Golden mentary prominence more than a decade “There’s no way that a person who Dawn organized to garner support dur- later, but the group was already currying hasn’t witnessed it could really under- ing Greece’s crushing financial crisis.20 favor with U.S. fascists. Although Pierce stand the feeling you get when you see In August 2017, Heimbach was in- bemoaned that hundreds of years of Ot- all these…young men in black shirts, in volved in Unite the Right, when hundreds toman rule had “taken a racial toll” on very good shape, all standing in a line, of White nationalists rallied against the Greeks—he later wrote that he saw “tall, carrying flags, marching, and singing,” decision to remove a Confederate monu- light-eyed blondes” as well as people too Anglin said in an interview with Texas- ment in Charlottesville, Virginia. For “dark” for his tastes—he celebrated Gold- based Holocaust denier Carolyn Yeager.12 two days, the protesters marched and en Dawn as “an organization with a clear, But by September 2013, Golden Dawn’s attacked community members, counter- genetically based racial policy.”7 successes started to run thin when party demonstrators, and anti-fascist activists In 2012, amid attacks rippling out member Giorgos Roupakias stabbed to throughout the city. On the second day, around Greece, Golden Dawn surged in a death 34-year-old Pavlos Fyssas, an anti- James Alex Fields Jr., who’d been photo- pair of legislative elections that catapult- fascist rapper known by the stage name graphed marching with a neonazi group ed the once little-known neonazi group Killah P.13 For years, party members and earlier that morning, plowed his car into into Greece’s parliament for the first time supporters had enjoyed relative impunity a crowd, injured over a dozen, and killed in its history. That year, far-right violence when they attacked immigrants, includ- 32-year-old anti-racist marcher Heather fanned out around the nation, and the ing the murder, nine months earlier, Heyer. Athens-based Racist Violence Recording of a Pakistani migrant worker named In an interview about the movement’s Network documented 154 incidences of Shahzad Luqman.14 But killing a Greek organizing tactics during that rally, racial violence, all but three of which tar- proved something that even sympathetic Heimbach told Vice reporter Elle Reeve,21 geted refugees and migrants.8 Although police forces15 and right-wing politicians “[We’re] primarily following the Europe- not new, the violence was surging, and it couldn’t ignore. Golden Dawn’s leader- an example of Golden Dawn, the Nordic showed no sign of letting up. ship and dozens of high-profile members Resistance Movement, and other organi- *** were arrested and charged with operat- zations that really are at the vanguard of

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 5 nationalist organizing in the world.”22 Always quick to double down, Golden of violence.30 In the days that followed, Golden Dawn released a statement26 praising the Then a puzzling development oc- Dawn came under fire in Greece.23 Pho- Charlottesville rally as a “dynamic dem- curred. After more than four years of tos emerged online of Heimbach and Mi- onstration against illegal immigration,” court hearings, hundreds of witnesses chaloliakos posing and shaking hands.24 during which “fully equipped anarcho- delivering testimony of brutal attacks, Golden Dawn wasn’t the only culprit, but there was little doubt that the party tilled the soil for much of the bloodshed, while finding a comfortable place as an icon for far-right groups the world over.

And left-wing opponents pointed to a leftists attacked the peaceful demonstra- and thousands of documents implicating glowing profile of Heimbach published tion of the American Patriots.”27 Golden Dawn in organized violence, in in Golden Dawn’s newspaper less than Heimbach’s attempts to build an en- December the prosecutor recommended a week before Unite the Right, wherein tity at least partially modeled on Golden that the court drop charges against the Heimbach said, “Now the climate is be- Dawn collapsed in 2018, when he was ar- party’s high-ranking members, saying ing reversed. In Michaloliakos’s Greece, rested for domestic violence after a fight only Roupakias was responsible for kill- in Putin’s Russia and in Trump’s America, stemming from a romantic affair with his ing Pavlos Fyssas.31 people choose leaders who will give them father-in-law’s wife.28 As of this writing, the court’s response hope.”25 In the first six years of Golden Dawn’s is unclear.32 It isn’t obligated to accept the presence in Greece’s prosecutor’s recommendation, but it was parliament, from a worrying sign. Whether the party will 2012 to 2018, the Rac- run in elections again or see much of its ist Violence Recording leadership incarcerated is yet to be seen. Network documented If they are acquitted, it will set a danger- 988 incidents of rac- ous precedent in Greece and broadcast ist violence.29 Golden the message that Golden Dawn enjoys Dawn wasn’t the only institutional impunity. culprit, but there was In early September 2017, I interviewed little doubt that the Magda Fyssa, the mother of Pavlos Fys- party tilled the soil for sas, at her home in Piraeus, the chief sea much of the blood- port of Athens. Four years had passed shed, while finding a since her son’s murder, and I mentioned comfortable place as that some U.S. White nationalists had an icon for far-right hailed Golden Dawn as a model to be em- groups the world over. ulated. “Why would anyone want to be *** like them?” she asked in response. “They It wasn’t until snap are Nazis that murder people. They are elections in July 2019 dangerous. There is nothing else to say of that Greek voters the matter.”33 ousted Golden Dawn from parliament, with Patrick Strickland is a journalist and many of their votes si- author based in Athens, Greece. His first phoned off by Greek book, Alerta! Alerta! Snapshots of Eu- Solution, a new, pro- rope’s Anti-Fascist Struggle, was pub- Moscow Far-Right par- lished in November 2018. ty. Golden Dawn started shuttering offices around the country, its website briefly went dark in late summer, and everyone expected the ongoing criminal organization trial to Poster memorializing Pavlov “Killah P” Fyssas, anti-fascist rapper killed deliver a final blow to by Golden Dawn party member. Credit: Nagarjun Kandukuru/Wikimedia the party and its wave Commons.

6 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 BY ANNA SZILÁGYI AND KRISTÓF SZOMBATI

Enemy in the Making The Language of “Anti-Sorosism” in the U.S. and Hungary

Hungarian government ad campaign in a Budapest metro station, featuring a photo of George Soros with the caption “Let’s not allow Soros to have the last laugh,” taken July 12, 2017. Credit: Pablo Gorondi/AP Photo.

really feel that Soros, in a preeminent role in promoting liberal decade, attacks on Soros have become many ways, is the biggest democratic values the world over. While particularly vicious in the two countries danger to the entire Western supporters laud him for the role OSF and where he has sought to intervene in a sus- world.” So argued British its allies played in stabilizing liberal detained and strategic manner: his native right-wing“I populist Nigel Farage in 2018 mocracy in Eastern Europe after the fall Hungary (which he left in 1947) and the on the U.S. right-wing TV network Fox of state socialism, critics accuse him of United States (where he moved in 1956). News.1 Though talking in the singular, aggressively exporting democracy, pro- The dramatic escalation of attacks has Farage was certainly not alone in express- moting liberalism, and undermining the sparked inquiries into potential links ing such resentment against the 89-year- sovereignty of nation-states by using his between anti-Soros rhetoric in the two old Hungarian-American Jew, George So- economic power to influence local poli- countries, focusing on U.S. political ros, known as both a billionaire financier tics and policies around the globe. consultants with ties to both U.S. Repub- and investor and as the “open society” phi- In many corners of the world, Soros licans and Hungary’s ruling national- lanthropist and democracy proponent. has become a convenient scapegoat for populist Fidesz party. That speculation Soros’s business interests and political all kinds of maladies, both real and imag- seemed confirmed when U.S. political activities are indeed inseparable: he used ined, allowing nationalist politicians to consultant George Birnbaum claimed, in the money he made as an investor in the establish the fiction of a Soros-driven a Swiss article published in 2019, that he golden days of financialized capitalism to liberal-globalist conspiracy. Today, anti- and his colleague Arthur Finkelstein, a found a world-renowned university and Soros rhetoric is flourishing globally, in- Republican pollster and campaign strat- to build a global organization, the Open cluding in the Americas, Asia, Europe, egist, had invented the Soros-bogeyman Society Foundations (OSF), which plays and the Middle East. But over the past for Hungary’s strongman, Viktor Orbán,

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 7 for whom they began working in 2008.2 core part of his agenda, conspiracy theo- through the usual diplomatic channels, This article will take a somewhat dif- ries accusing Soros of sponsoring and it also sought to score domestic political ferent tack, by investigating the rhe- organizing migration to the U.S. also ex- points by portraying the opposition as torical strategies that have helped estab- ploded. Today, such allegations are made being in cahoots with anti-patriotic Eu- lish Soros as a public enemy in the U.S. not just by right-wing media outlets, but ropean elites. To achieve this, it solicited

To be truly effective, Orbán’s anti-colonial narrative required a flesh-and-blood figure to blame. Finkelstein...suggested Soros as a suitable scapegoat.

and Hungary. By exploring the frames by prominent Republican politicians, in- the help of the late Republican consul- through which Soros has been forged cluding the president himself.5 tant Arthur Finkelstein, whose approach into a folk devil, we can better under- In the lead-up to the U.S. 2018 mid- has come to be referred to as “rejection- stand the historical legacies of colonial- term elections, Central American mi- ist voting,” the “Finkelstein formula,” ism and antisemitism that energize and grants heading toward the U.S. border— or “Finkel-think.” Over several decades, give meaning to anti-Sorosism, as well described by mainstream U.S. media and Finkelstein developed a simple but effi- as its resonance in national-populist dis- politicians with the loaded term “mi- cient campaign strategy, urging his cli- course and with broader audiences. We grant caravan”—were said to be financed ents to demonize their rivals rather than focus on the iconic image of the “puppet by Soros. Florida Republican Rep. Matt promote their own programmatic vision. master,” which evokes themes of domi- Gaetz tweeted a video showing money Finkelstein strongly believed in the an- nation and conspiracy, and allows illiber- being distributed to a crowd in a Span- cient propaganda technique of repetition al politicians to harness popular support ish-speaking country, suggesting it was and used it to imprint emotionally reso- for nationalist projects. evidence of Soros funding the “caravan.”6 nant, iconic, and polarizing images and When a reporter asked Trump that Oc- messages in the public’s memory. This THE “PUPPET MASTER” IN THE U.S. tober whether he believed Soros was campaign strategy was a perfect fit for In the U.S., anti-Soros rhetoric is sponsoring the “caravan,” he replied, “I Orbán’s political strategy and persona. spread widely by Rupert Murdoch’s Fox wouldn’t be surprised. A lot of people say After his first prime ministerial term News. Although the outlet had already yes.”7 The same month, in a speech in ended with defeat in the 2002 parlia- targeted Soros through the 2000s, a wa- Missoula, Trump, who also described the mentary elections, Orbán’s rhetoric tershed moment came in 2010, when migrants as an “invasion,” declared, “a increasingly relied on a fundamentally then-Fox News host Glenn Beck ran a lot of money has been passing to people to Manichean, us-versus-them vision of three-piece series, “The Puppet Master,” come up and try and get to the border.”8 politics as a battle between patriotic and depicting Soros as a shadowy conspira- Trump also shared Gaetz’s video, though globalist forces. This worldview became tor who secretly rules the world. Tapping without a reference to Soros.9 especially pronounced after Fidesz’s land- age-old antisemitic imagery and stereo- slide victory in the 2010 parliamentary types, Beck argued that Soros aimed to THE BOGEYMAN IN HUNGARY elections, when Orbán set about trans- undermine the political and economic By the time mainstream U.S. politi- forming Hungary from a liberal democ- systems of the U.S. and other countries cians began portraying Soros as the mas- racy into a semi-authoritarian regime. through his Open Society Foundations, termind behind mass immigration, the His government’s moves to capture inde- one of the biggest private funders of same accusation had already been lev- pendent institutions and rewrite the con- pro-democracy and human-rights move- eled at Soros by leading representatives stitution, electoral, and media laws drew ments worldwide. The show’s audiovi- of Hungary’s Fidesz party. Soros had heavy criticism from the EU.11 Orbán re- sual elements reinforced the message been in Fidesz’s crosshairs since 2013 sponded by depicting the EU as a quasi- powerfully, with crime thriller music and but the campaign against him went full colonial bureaucracy seeking to under- puppeteers pulling strings. blast after the European migration cri- mine nations’ sovereignty. This charge, Although Beck’s program received sis in 2015, when Hungarian officials which evoked both Hungary’s historical substantial criticism,3 it catalyzed the suggested that Soros had authored the subjugation by the Soviet Union and the proliferation of anti-Soros discourses on European Commission’s plan to resettle material decline of its traditional indus- Fox, with hosts and pundits regularly refugees from the Southern European trial regions and rural heartlands after repeating the same allegations. Howev- frontier region to member states that joining the EU in 2004,12 resonated with er, it wasn’t until Donald Trump’s presi- had not received refugees.10 According to Fidesz’s base. However, to be truly effec- dency that the narrative truly gained this plan, Hungary should have accepted tive, Orbán’s anti-colonial narrative re- momentum. While Fox hosts and pun- 1,294 refugees who previously entered quired a flesh-and-blood figure to blame. dits had long argued that Soros wants the European Union through Greece Finkelstein, Birnbaum recalled, suggest- “open borders,”4 as Trump made the fight or Italy. While the Hungarian govern- ed Soros as a suitable scapegoat, despite against Central American immigration a ment vehemently contested the proposal the fact that in the 1980s, as a young and

8 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 originally liberal politician, Orbán had nificant similarities—particularly with cy frame is evoked mainly through com- himself received financial support from regards to framing. pound nouns—a rhetorical device often the philanthropist. According to linguist George Lakoff, used in political propaganda.24 In ev- The campaign latched on to an op-ed frames are mental constructs that can be eryday usage, compound nouns usually Soros published on the opinion website activated by words.17 The mechanism is arise naturally and out of necessity when Project Syndicate, urging reforms of the simple: when we hear a term, it evokes speakers have to name something new EU’s asylum system.13 This article became frames in our mind. The word “freedom,” (as with technological innovations like the key reference of the government’s for instance, activates the frames of lib- “typewriter,” “earphones,” or “headset”). vast, nationwide anti-Soros campaign— eration, autonomy, and independence. In political propaganda, however, com- estimated to have cost Hungarian taxpay- This is largely an automatic process. In pound nouns are invented and deployed ers more than 40 million euros in 2017 other words, it is very difficult—if not strategically in order to shape the public alone.14 According to the government’s impossible—to resist frames. discourse and thinking. But listeners are narrative, migration to Europe is being In our analysis of anti-Soros discourse unlikely to notice this maneuver, and financed and organized by Soros, who in the U.S. and Hungary,18 we found typically will accept that the new word, collaborates with a group of faceless EU that both evoke identical frames, which being a noun, is simply naming and bureaucrats to undermine the Christian are themselves interconnected. These identifying an existing thing. As a result, identity and sovereignty of European include the frames of: (1) clandestine compound words function as a powerful states by turning them into “immigrant conspiracy; (2) excessive power and world tool in propaganda, constructing reality countr[ies].”15 In recent years, Hungar- domination; (3) the puppet master; (4) far- in novel ways while grammatically hid- ian authorities have publicized this mes- left radicalism; and (5) victimization. ing how they can distort or misrepresent sage relentlessly through billboards, that which they describe.25 TV ads, political speeches, pamphlets, Clandestine Conspiracy In this way, the term “Soros-plan” be- surveys, feigned public consultations, Fox and Origo frequently utilize terms came the central plank of the Hungar- and the heavily biased coverage of the that attach the frame of clandestine con- ian government’s propaganda campaign. pro-government press that dominates spiracy to Soros. On Fox, for instance, the When, in 2015, Soros published his op- the national media market. At the cam- expression “under the radar”19 activates ed calling upon the EU “to accept at least paign’s peak, posters featuring Soros’s frames suggesting that Soros’s activity is a million asylum-seekers annually for the grinning face and the message “Don’t obscure, underground, and illegal. foreseeable future,” Hungary’s govern- let Soros have the last laugh” flooded The frame is also evoked and strength- ment used it to charge that Soros himself the country.16 And in 2018, Fidesz used ened through insinuation: “The re- aimed to bring millions of migrants into its two-thirds parliamentary majority to ally frightening thing,” one Fox host Europe. The term “Soros-plan” became pass its controversial “Stop Soros” law, declared, is that “most Americans have the government’s shorthand reference criminalizing NGO workers who assist never even heard of George Soros.”20 for this fabricated allegation, which sug- asylum-seekers. Fox speakers also referred to “the Soros gests that Soros has a carefully planned group” and “Soros and his operations,”21 agenda that he seeks to realize, step by THE DISCURSIVE ANATOMY OF ANTI-SOROS to invoke the frame of organized, subver- step, in a secretive manner. And because RHETORIC sive activity. the term is a compound noun, listeners Anti-Soros narratives in the U.S. and Phrases that represent Soros as master- can take the construct for granted. Hungary differ primarily in terms of minding a gigantic scheme can also acti- Origo articles also frequently refer to scope. While in the U.S., anti-Soros rhet- vate this frame. One pundit, for instance, the “Soros-network”26 and identify vari- oric is just one component of variegated described OSF’s work as “an incred- ous global or local actors who criticize right-wing discourses, in Hungary, it is ibly well oiled, brilliantly orchestrated the Hungarian government as “Soros- the dominant language of the govern- machine.”22 In some instances, the word agents.”27 Such terms also clearly evoke ment and its media. Yet the rhetoric in “conspiracy” is used explicitly, as when the global clandestine conspiracy frame both countries largely overlaps. Compar- another Fox guest said, “This is a George in connection with Soros’s name.

Trump himself tweeted that people protesting Brett Excessive Power and World Domination The anti-Soros frames activated in Kavanaugh’s nomination to the Supreme Court were “paid U.S. and Hungarian discourses often in- for by Soros and others.” tertwine, combining, for example, the frame of clandestine conspiracy with ing 17 Fox News depictions of Soros in Soros conspiracy, and it’s time we wake that of excessive power and world domi- the U.S. from the late 2000s onward with up, expose them, and stand up and fight nation. When Fox interviewed Nigel Far- 90 anti-Soros articles published since for our country because that is what is at age in 2018, he exemplified this, saying, 2016 by the Hungarian pro-government stake here.”23 “The Open Society organization that he propaganda website Origo.hu reveals sig- In Hungary, the clandestine conspira- funds has already spent $15 billion in

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 9 campaigning... This is an organized at- antisemitism.40) the “Soros-Sargentini report”58 or simply tempt, on a huge scale, to undermine The channel’s coverage also included the “Soros-report.”59 And ships carrying nation-states, to undermine democracy charges that politicians and civil soci- refugees and migrants across the Medi- and fundamentally change the makeup ety actors were “being held in the pock- terranean are called “Soros-ships,”60 just demographically of the whole of the Eu- et by a fabulously rich guy like George as Hungarian pro-government media de- ropean continent.”28 Soros”41 and “taking orders from the scribed Latin American refugees and asy- Beyond ignoring the fact that OSF is Soros group,”42 or that Soros “can de- lum seekers traveling to the U.S. as the not in fact run solely by Soros, the refer- mand that politicians running for office “Soros-express.”61 ence suggests that Soros wants to control do what he tells them to do.”43 Simi- These hyphenated compound words, Europe, the U.S., or perhaps the whole larly, Fox speakers accused mainstream relying on the logic of nominalization, al- world—a widespread frame in the U.S. U.S. media of “basically tak[ing] exactly low speakers to simultaneously discredit discourse. “Soros really does believe what Soros gives them and spit[ting] it Soros and critics of the Hungarian gov- wealth controls culture. And he wants out over the airwaves.”44 Finally, Trump ernment. By portraying Soros as a dan- to really control the political scene in himself tweeted that people protesting gerous world-conspirator and suggest- the United States and the media,”29 ar- Brett Kavanaugh’s nomination to the Su- ing that critics are puppets in his hands, gued one pundit. Glenn Beck doubled preme Court were “paid for by Soros and pro-governmental figures and media up on superlatives to highlight his claim others.”45 can avoid engaging their arguments. It’s that Soros basically rules the world, sug- In Hungary, words that evoke the enough to associate them with Soros and gesting Soros “controls most of the most puppet master frame also emerge: “The unleash the power of ad hominem argu- powerful.”30 Another Fox host argued Soros-network continues to pull the mentation. that Soros has the power to destroy any- strings at the European Parliament”;46 one and everyone: “So you can see how “The Soros-foundation has the Europe- Far-Left Radicalism powerful this guy Soros has become. He an Commission on a string”;47 “George Only one frame is limited primarily to can smear anyone he wants in a variety of Soros’s long arm reaches into the Dutch one country: the frame of far-left radical- ways.”31 public TV”;48 and “This is how George ism, which is widely used in the U.S., but This frame is widely used in Hungary as Soros traps Brussels [i.e. the EU] in a only sporadically—at least currently—in well. Sometimes it’s explicit, as when an mesh.”49 Hungary. expert stated on public radio “George So- Hungarian anti-Soros rhetoric fre- In the U.S. the frame of radicalism is ros wants to rule the world.”32 But more quently appends a reference to So- sometimes deployed without reference to often, the idea is conveyed indirectly ros against anyone it targets, thereby “Leftism.” On Fox News, Soros has been through framing, with references to the activating the puppet master frame. referred to as “an extremist who wants “Soros-empire,”33 “Soros-world,”34 the Independent and opposition media open borders,”62 a “wealthy radical,”63 “Soros-lobby,”35 and the “Soros-pact.”36 outlets become “Soros-blogs,”50 “Soros- a “genuinely radical billionaire,”64 and media,”51 and “Soros-propaganda.”52 Po- a “shadowy radical.”65 Occasionally, he The Puppet Master litical dissidents are portrayed as “Soros- has even been discussed in the frame of While Glenn Beck used the term “pup- activists.”53 “Soros-university”54 refers to terrorism, as when a Fox pundit declared pet master” directly, this construct is Central European University, a promi- that “he funds these things, as your chart more typically evoked as a frame in the nent graduate school that was founded points out, and open borders and even U.S. discourse. “He is the real Wizard by Soros and was forced to leave Hun- radical Islamic groups that defend sui- of Oz—the man behind the curtain,”37 gary in 2018. The term “Soros-money”55 cide bombers.”66 said one Fox guest, characterizing Soros stands for OSF grants, while NGOs that More often, he is specifically presented as a far-left radi- Ships carrying refugees and migrants across the Mediterranean cal, with descriptions on are called “Soros-ships,” just as Hungarian pro-government media Fox that include a “socialist activist,”67 a “far left described Latin American refugees and asylum seekers traveling to billionaire,”68 a “far-left the U.S. as the “Soros-express.” finance guy,”69 as well as “a man who wants to im- as a manipulator working behind the have received OSF funding and criti- pose a radical left agenda on America.”70 scenes. Similarly, Fox News references cize the Hungarian government are One host argued, “Soros wants a far-left to “the Soros-State Department unity called “Soros-organizations.”56 The term country and will do what he has to do effort”38 and the “Soros-occupied State “Soros-list”57 refers to Hungarian op- to financially get it.”71 Another claimed Department”39 imply that Soros has se- position parties. The report MEP Judith President Barack Obama “wasn’t socialist cretly taken charge of U.S. foreign af- Sargentini presented to the European enough for Soros.”72 fairs. (The blatancy of the latter example Parliament in 2018, which condemned This frame has also been employed in forced Fox to respond to accusations of Hungary’s anti-democratic turn, is now Hungary, but far less frequently. In 2018,

10 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 Origo described anti-government pro- cians, and policymakers who criticize ilar struggle ensued to unseat strongman tests as “The Soros-network’s far-left ac- (or are simply independent from) the Eduard Shevardnadze), established So- tivists rampag[ing] through Budapest.”73 Hungarian government. Within Origo, ros’s reputation as a democracy-exporter. A demonstrator taken into custody was such critics and rivals are called “Soros- This gave authoritarian leaders the am- identified “as an active member of the soldiers,”80 “mercenaries of Soros,”81 or munition to deflect attention from their Soros-network” who was “responsible for the “Soros-army.”82 governmental records and cast Soros as a the perpetration of far-left violence.”74 Sometimes unrelated local and inter- scapegoat for their countries’ problems. national political developments are as- The fact that Soros-the-investor and Victimization sociated with or attributed to Soros and Soros-the-democratizer can’t be her- All the preceding frames support and discussed as military exercises. In this metically separated is all the more con- reinforce another construction common- way Origo accused “the Soros-empire” venient, since it legitimizes rhetoric por- ly used in both countries: the portrayal of “occupying the Balkans,”83 described traying the “open society” as just another of Soros as a victimizer. A Fox quote dis- a court ruling concerning a Syrian refu- ploy to dispossess and subjugate vulner- cussed above—“This is a George Soros gee as a “Soros-defeat,”84 and depicted able populations. Soros, in other words, conspiracy, and it’s time we wake up, ex- opposition parties’ electoral campaign can easily be portrayed as a modern day pose them, and stand up and fight for our strategies as Soros “deploy[ing] his local colonizer, deploying modern mercenar- country because that is what is at stake allies.”85 ies to open new markets for exploitation. here”—set Soros against the entire popu- Such metaphors not only present Soros While in Eastern Europe anti-Soros dis- lation through the use of plural personal as an aggressor but suggest that he spe- course clearly draws on the historical leg- pronoun “we” and the possessive form cifically victimizes Hungarians, as evi- acy of foreign domination, it also feeds “our.” Importantly, the reference to “our denced by the Origo headlines: “George on antisemitism and, more particularly, country” doesn’t merely construct Soros Soros’s mercenary troops continuously the association of Jews with economic as a national enemy, but also excludes attack Hungary both at home and in power and political influence. At times, him, an American citizen, from the na- Brussels”;86 “Soros’s soldiers conspire the hatred directed at Soros is so intense tional community. against Hungary”;87 and “Soros is not that pundits and journalists have drawn Such personal pronouns and posses- giving it up: he again targets Hungary.”88 a parallel89 between him and Emmanuel sive forms frequently cast Soros as a Goldstein, the enemy of the totalitarian menace to the national community—and GLOBALISM AND ANTISEMITISM government in George Orwell’s Nineteen its key interests and values—in U.S. dis- Taken individually or together, this Eighty-Four. Reading Orwell’s description course. When one Fox host railed about suite of frames don’t merely cast Soros of the “Two Minutes Hate” against com- Soros and “open borders,” she noted, in a negative light, but portray him as a ments average Hungarians made about “Sovereignty is out the window—all powerful, shadowy, and ruthless con- Soros to journalists in 201790 and 201891 those principles we hold dear as Ameri- spirator who uses all the means at his suggests that the parallel isn’t exagger- cans, they are subverted in that world.”75 disposal to extend his influence and sub- ated: Another host charged, “He’s the extreme- due those who stand in his way. And the Nineteen Eighty-Four: ly wealthy liberal billionaire who wants iconic figure of the culturally rootless, “The Hate has started. As usual, the to take away your Second Amendment morally corrupt, and self-serving global face of Emmanuel Goldstein, the En- rights.”76 Here, the possessive “your” investor resonates powerfully at a mo- emy of the People, had flashed onto implies that Soros attacks and victimizes ment when national politics around the the screen. There were hisses here not only the community as a whole, but world are increasingly defined as a con- and there among the audience. The its individual members too. Fox charges test between globalists and nationalists. little sandy-haired woman gave a about Soros’s “anti-American agenda”77 Soros’s involvement in currency spec- squeak of mingled fear and disgust.”92 or how “he really hates [the U.S.]”78 are ulation (especially his infamous bets also commonplace. against the Thai baht and the British Vox Pops, Hungary, 2017 and 2018: In Hungary, this frame is activated pound) allowed politicians to blame him “I don’t consider him a human being, mainly through military metaphors. As not only for exploiting weak monetary let me just say this.” George Lakoff and Mark Johnson have policies but for ruining whole economies “He has such a toad face.” argued,79 human thinking is funda- and triggering cascading events such as mentally metaphorical in nature. Con- the Asian financial crisis of 1997. The Nineteen Eighty-Four: sequently, metaphors can powerfully same is true for his political interven- “…It was a lean Jewish face…”93 shape our ideas about a particular object, tions. Financial support from OSF to pro- in ways we may not consciously realize. democracy groups such as Otpor, a stu- Vox Pops, Hungary, 2017 and 2018: It’s therefore noteworthy that Origo dent organization that fought Slobodan “Dirty Jew.” metaphorically constructs Soros as an Milošević’s authoritarian rule in Serbia, “George Soros is a peddler.” army commander, directing a military and OSF’s support in transferring know- “Judisch.” force of scholars, NGO workers, politi- how from Serbia to Georgia (where a sim-

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 11 Nineteen Eighty-Four: we highlighted above also played a cen- interactions. “…the sight or even the thought of tral role in antisemitic propaganda be- Paranoia is certainly not unique to the Goldstein produced fear and anger tween the two World Wars and during U.S. and Hungary. Anthropologists have automatically.”94 World War II. This is also true in Hun- argued that popular suspicions of power gary, where the revival of antisemitism may be grounded in the nontransparent Vox Pops, Hungary, 2017 and 2018: after 1989, and its continued presence, ways in which top power brokers operate, “Cause I hate him.” energizes Fidesz’s revamped anti-Soro- and the general lack of accountability “I hope he kicks the bucket before the sism and lends it credibility on the Right. that characterizes contemporary techno- elections.” What’s especially interesting about cratic governments.101 Political theorists “‘Cause if Viktor Orbán authorized me Hungary’s current anti-Soros discourse have similarly described how strength- to shoot George Soros, I would go and is how its proponents have managed to ening states’ surveillance capabilities— just shoot him. That’s it.” tap into historically sedimented anti- rendering the ruled much more legible to semitic clichés while avoiding accusa- the rulers while the operations of power While these vignettes don’t necessarily tions of antisemitism. Their main rhe- become more opaque—generates para- reflect the views of the majority of Hun- torical strategy is to use Soros’s name as noid political cultures.102 garians, they highlight the power of the a metonymy—a figure of speech where a However, what we have in mind is anti-Soros discourse to evoke antisemitic specific word stands in for a larger idea— more specific, concerning how conspir- hatred and fear. allowing them to claim that they aren’t acy theories can become the dominant Soros, importantly, was not unknown talking about Jews in general but Soros means of legitimizing illiberal rule in prior to Fidesz’s propaganda campaign. in particular, even as their references highly polarized contexts. Polarization While his image in Hungary was far from clearly evoke antisemitic tropes about already became a key feature of U.S. homogeneous, he’d already been tar- rich and power-hungry Jews engaged in politics under George W. Bush’s War on geted by István Csurka, a leading right- clandestine conspiracies.98 Hungary’s Terror, and it has certainly not declined wing intellectual who, as the head of the government has also developed friendly since Trump’s election in 2016. In Hun- prominent Magyar Fórum weekly, played ties with its Israeli counterpart99 and gary, extreme polarization began after a a preeminent role in reviving antisemi- good relations with Hungary’s Orthodox major political crisis in 2006,103 when the tism in the post-socialist period. Jewish community, which it uses to parry socialist prime minister was caught in a Starting in the early 1990s, Csurka accusations of antisemitism.100 leaked speech admitting that his party portrayed Soros as helping lead a global- Though overt antisemitism may be less lied to win the elections,104 and has since ist conspiracy (which he referred to as widespread in mainstream U.S. political been exacerbated by Fidesz’s authoritar- the “New York-Tel-Aviv axis”95). In 1992, and media discourses, the antisemitic ian rule since 2010. Conspiracy theories Magyar Fórum published a piece that ac- dimension of U.S. anti-Soros campaigns like anti-Sorosism—positing that the cused Soros of seeking to colonize and is significant as well. In the U.S., anti-So- sovereignty, health, unity, or even sur- exploit Hungary.96 Although the party Csurka went on to found had relatively The never-ending conspiracy keeps core supporters little success, his antisemitic ideas cir- agitated, ready to defend their country and leader. culated widely, and were picked up by young intellectuals who would found ros rhetoric seems to reflect past purges vival of the nation is threatened by invis- the much more influential far-right Job- against “anti-American” traitors. Besides ible, powerful foreign actors—don’t just bik party. For Hungarians who bore the evoking antisemitic tropes of Judeo–Bol- evoke fear but establish a fundamental brunt of the transition to capitalism— shevism and the Communist conspirator distinction between the friends and en- and for whom Leftism was generally dis- Jew, the frame of far-left radicalism also emies of the people. credited—antisemitism offered another activates historically embedded enemy- This Manichean worldview calls for a idiom besides nationalism to express constructs, such as the memories of the politics of securitization (including the deep-seated grievances with capital- first and second Red Scare (which also deployment of emergency power, or ism.97 And for anti-liberal intellectuals played on antisemitic imagery) and the even states of exception) and authorizes and politicians, it offered an avenue for Red Menace narratives of the Cold War. the harassment of internal enemies, discrediting liberal opponents. Thus, as well as efforts to cripple or overtake although Fidesz shunned explicit anti- OPPORTUNITY IN POLARIZATION democratic institutions that stand in the semitism, it survived as a relatively in- There is another, more universal par- way of illiberal politicians. This is exactly fluential counter-discourse on the Right, allel between the two countries: how what happened in post-coup Turkey and one that has historically often been com- anti-Soros discourse functions especially post-refugee crisis Hungary. Turkish bined with ethno-nationalism at mo- well in highly polarized political contexts President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’s efforts ments when Rightist elites need popular where trust between rival political tribes to purge his opponents and his success- support. has all but disappeared and paranoia has ful bid to enhance presidential powers105 It’s no coincidence that the five frames become the dominant logic guiding their have received much publicity. In Hun-

12 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 gary, the anti-Soros discourse has also skeptical. Simultaneously, it profoundly resembles a vicious cycle. Once a certain been used to justify exceptionally harsh repulses the unaffiliated. Yet this - reac depth is reached, it becomes difficult to measures against asylum-seekers seek- tion may counterintuitively benefit -au avoid being drawn lower by the current. ing to enter the country, while the “Stop thoritarian leaders too, as independents Soros” legal package effectively criminal- retreat from electoral politics. Anna Szilágyi is a writer and educator. ized humanitarian support for refugees. Of course, authoritarian populist strat- Her research explores the discourse of propaganda and discrimination. Her writings However, such conspiracism is also egies that rely on the conspiratorial mode have appeared in top international journals effective in more routine electoral strug- of reasoning also have their weaknesses. and academic books. She has taught at gles. The figure of the foreign agent Supporters may grow tired of scape- City University of Hong Kong, the Savan- has anchored the electoral strategies of goating, and a strong opposition with a nah College of Art and Design and Central 106 Erdoğan and Putin, and more recently, persuasive program and sound strategy European University. Orbán. Their general strategy—to rely stands a chance of reawakening apathet- on an ideologically cohesive minority of ic voters. To avoid this prospect, authori- Kristóf Szombati is a research fellow at the core supporters, while keeping the oppo- tarian leaders actively seek to discredit Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropol- sition divided, and compelling indepen- and divide in order to safeguard their ogy in Halle, Germany, where he is con- dents to retreat into passivity—is served rule. They promote conspiracy theories, ducting research on illiberal statecraft in well by tales of a secretive enemy manip- creating situations in which opponents his native Hungary. In 2007 he co-founded ulating local puppets and always ready must compete instead of cooperating and the Politics Can Be Different (LMP) party, to strike. The never-ending conspiracy deliberately downgrading politics into which he left four years later to pursue a keeps core supporters agitated, ready to a mud-slinging contest. The dirtier the PhD at Central European University. He defend their country and leader. The at- game, the better, since it deters people is author of the 2018 book, The Revolt of the Provinces: Anti-Gypsyism and Right- mosphere of paranoia that settles over from entering the contest. Wing Politics in Hungary, which ana- the political community as a result of Opponents face the difficult tasks of -re lyzes the micro-foundations of Hungary’s the “constant campaigning”107 becomes covering their credibility, forming cred- anti-egalitarian and increasingly authori- contagious among supporters, but slow- ible and durable alliances, and reaching tarian turn and highlights the role of race ly infects even those who were initially disaffected audiences. The whole process and class in making right-wing hegemony.

Soros, COVID-19 and U.S. Protests

The arrival of COVID-19 to Hungary in the first days of March presented the Hungarian government with a formidable public relations challenge. In the early days of the pandemic, Fidesz representatives made an effort to blame the pandemic on illegal immigration.1 This communication campaign proved short-lived, as it quickly became clear that the main source of risk was instead Hungarians returning from work in Italy or holidays in Austria and because the public increasingly became concerned with addressing the pandemic instead of debating its origins. The government found itself in an un- comfortable position: having to prepare Hungary’s chronically underfinanced health system for the looming crisis, deal with the pandemic’s economic fallout, and convince an unsettled public that it knew what it was doing.

The adoption of the much-discussed, authoritarian “emergency” law in late March,2 allowing the government to rule by decree, marked a turning point in the political response to the crisis. However, another three weeks passed without any sign of a major shift in governmental communications. The grand narrative of a nation besieged by refugees and the unholy alliance of George Soros and the European Commission had lost its resonance and there was nothing to replace it. Then, after Soros published an op-ed arguing for the introduction of “perpetual bonds” to fund Europe’s economic recovery,3 Orbán happily revived the puppet master frame. On April 24, during his weekly public radio address, he argued that this “second Soros plan” was as dangerous as his earlier effort to bring millions of refugees into Europe, and that Soros’s goal was to force the EU to take on expensive loans.4 The same day, pro-government media outlets began pushing stories on Soros’s plan to profit from the crisis. Then, in early June, the government sent Hungarian citizens a questionnaire that mainly focused on the pandemic but also asked about Soros’s “old plan” to let “migrants” into Europe as well as his “new plans” that could push “nations into debt slavery.”5

Meanwhile, in the U.S., after nationwide protests broke out over the police killing of George Floyd, right-wing media tried to place the blame on Soros.6 A guest on Fox News utilized the frame of clandestine conspiracy to argue that the protests bore “Soros’ fingerprints.”7 Using familiar linguistic tools (such as the possessive form “our”), the speaker suggested that Soros “is the destruction to our civilization and a clear and present danger to our country,” and that he should be deported.

All this indicates that the language of anti-Sorosism won’t vanish anytime soon, either in the U.S. or in Hungary.

– Anna Szilágyi and Kristóf Szombati

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 13 BY HILARY MOORE

Nothing Is Untouched: The Aftermath in Chemnitz

Kraftclub, famous German band from Chemnitz, performs in the wake of 2018 right-wing demonstrations in front of a banner that reads “Stand Against Right-Wing Agitation – Solidarity Instead of Racism” on September 3, 2018. Credit: Stefan Müller/Flickr.

he sun was high and the air that had made Chemnitz an international cal and state governments that are shift- thick with a weighted August headline in the summer of 2018.1 ing ever rightward. heat as we sat down for lunch When a mob of 800 protestors took to Over lunch, Gersch and I talked about at Schmetterling, a Persian the streets on August 26, 2018, with the the likelihood that Germany’s far-right restaurantT in the heart of Chemnitz, declared mission to show “who has the party, Alternative for Deutschland (AfD), Germany. Anne Gersch, a staff mem- say in the city,” it made the news in Ger- would gain power in the upcoming Sep- ber of Courage, a project that facilitates many.2 Videos showed hordes of protes- tember elections. The AfD became the anti-discrimination trainings in schools tors chasing down and attacking people strongest party in Saxony in 2017.5 No- throughout the state of Saxony, recom- they perceived to be refugees or immi- tably, support for the AfD rose by two mended we meet there. She pointed to grants.3 When 6,000 protestors turned points after the racist riots in Chemnitz.6 an adjacent street that a far-right anti- out the following day, including mem- She was concerned, but determined immigration group, PRO Chemnitz, had bers of far-right parties and groups, it to stay. “It will be a really difficult five marched along during the regular dem- made news around the world, and many years, but I have no plans to leave,” she onstrations they held throughout the international media accounts falsely por- said. “There are many of us who are stay- previous fall, in 2018. During one dem- trayed Chemnitz as a city full of Nazis.4 A ing and [who will] keep on working to onstration that September, Schmetter- year later, people are watching Chemnitz discuss discrimination in our society.”7 ling’s windows were smashed in—minor and asking how the city became a hotbed damage compared to the three other im- of far-right organizing; what happened THE SPARK migrant-owned restaurants attacked that in the riots’ aftermath; and how anti-rac- Early in the morning hours of Sun- year, but all echoes of the violent riots ist organizing there is possible, amid lo- day, August 26, 2018, a fight broke out

14 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 between men from a city festival near a frei” (Keep Chemnitz Free of Nazis).15 As homes of refugees.21 popular kebab restaurant. Several were on Sunday, small groups broke out into In August 2015, this theme picked up injured and one man, who would be the cityscape, “with many masked men again in Heidenau, where sieges against identified as Daniel Hillig, died from hunting down foreigners,” as the UK immigrant communities continued over stab wounds later that day. Two men think tank Institute of Race Relations re- several days with minimal response from were also taken into police custody as ported.16 the police.22 Fekete believes the revival of suspects: Yousif A., who had come to Far-right protesters from all over Ger- these kinds of attacks are, in part, a con- Germany from Iraq, and Alaa S., who many, and neighboring countries, had sequence of U.S. war policies and milita- had come from Syria. (Yousif A. would traveled to Chemnitz to participate, ac- rism. She argued, “In Europe, the main ultimately be released due to a lack of cording to local reporters. Among those breeding ground for this [far-right vio- evidence, while Alaa S. was convicted in present were local and regional far-right lence]—is the Islamophobia that came August 2019.)8 hooligan soccer fan groups such as Ka- out of the War on Terror and the [result- Later that morning, false rumors otic; representatives from the city’s ing] ‘refugee crisis.’ It fed the Far Right.” began to circulate that the victim, of far-right political parties, such as PRO Increased migration from the Middle Cuban-German descent, had died while Chemnitz and AfD (according to a local East and Africa to Europe in 2015 only protecting a woman the killer had mo- reporter); and nationalist parties from exacerbated tensions, and the riots in lested and that a second victim had been across Germany, such as The Third Way Chemnitz became just one feature of ris- killed.9 A far-right hooligan soccer fan and the National Democratic Party of ing far-right mobilization in eastern Ger- club called Kaotic Chemnitz called for a Germany (NPD).17 State representatives many, enabled by growing anti-refugee demonstration that afternoon at the Karl from AfD traveled to Chemnitz, includ- sentiment nationwide. Marx Monument in the city center. They ing AfD’s women’s organization, FridA While the August 2018 riots were wanted to show, as their social media ac- (Frauen in der AfD), although they re- marked by the speed with which they counts noted, “who is in the driver’s seat frained from wearing party logos or sym- came together and spread—in part due in the city.”10 bols, according to an advisor with Kultur- to social media—other, longer-standing The message spread quickly online, büro Sachsen (Saxony), a Dresden-based far-right structures had already laid the with the slogans “Our city, our rules!” organization that supports democratic groundwork in Chemnitz.23 and “Let’s show who has the last word in education. Leaders within the far-right, Danilo Starosta, an advisor with Kul- this city.”11 Anti-refugee protestors be- anti-Islam PEGIDA movement, some of turbüro Sachsen, traced the foundation gan to convene. The 800 protestors vastly whom hold city council offices, were also of these structures to the traumas of na- outnumbered the police presence at the in attendance. These formal brigades tional reunification after the fall of Com- scene (estimated variously as just 50 or were also joined by everyday “angry citi- munism. He described how little atten- 80 officers), and soon they moved from zens” or Wutbürger—a term now com- tion was given to transitioning a whole the city center into surrounding streets.12 mon in Germany to describe a particular society from socialism to capitalism. This Small groups broke off and began chas- kind of racism, where German citizens transition process did not account for ing people they assumed were refugees become outraged, and at times violent, the tensions and conflicts present in the or immigrants,13 continuing for an hour in response to immigration issues.18 German Democratic Republic that might before dispersing. then be leveraged. And that, he said, PRO Chemnitz called for a demonstra- THE GAS BEFORE THE SPARK “enabled Nazi movements to grow and tion the following day, posting an invita- The riots in Chemnitz were neither become strong.”24 German reunification tion on Facebook to anyone discontent typical nor inevitable. Rather, argued Liz was also conducted on very nationalistic with the impacts of immigration to Ger- Fekete, director of the Institute of Race terms and at times privileged citizenship man society.14 By Monday morning, the Relations, they reflected a continuation status to mostly Germans.25 This seemed response to the post made it clear that of fascist mobilizations with a deep his- to affirm right-wing claims that -nation this demonstration would be larger than tory in Germany.19 “Chemnitz felt almost alism is worthy of investment, Starosta Sunday’s. When it began that afternoon, like a pre-pogrom, that if something explained. Martin Kohlmann, the founder of PRO didn’t happen very quickly [to stop it], it On a very concrete level, as the capi- Chemnitz, spoke about the degradation could have turned into another Rostock,” talist society of West Germany began of Germany society from the influx of she said, referring to the 1992 incident restructuring the East, the demolition in- refugees. He blamed the current gov- where petrol bombs burned an asylum dustry boomed with new work in tearing ernment, alluding to its demise, and the house for refugees while several thou- down East German buildings and infra- change that an anti-refugee movement sand bystanders looked on, or even ap- structure.26 Through this, large numbers could bring. Soon, around 6,000 people plauded.20 Similar incidents took place of German men were ushered into Chem- took to the streets, far outnumbering the in the German cities of Hoyerswerda in nitz as workers in the demolition indus- 591 deployed police officers and a small- 1991 and Mannheim-Schönau in 1992, try. They worked together during the day er band of 1,500 counter-protestors, as neonazis from around the country and lived together in shared houses at organized by the group “Chemnitz Nazi- joined local residents in attacking the night. This set-up, Starosta argues, was

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 15 an important part of developing neon- Correctness, No Thanks!), which went on role models.31 These politics reverber- azi structures in Chemnitz—self-orga- to become one of the most successful far- ate around and within sports culture. nized neonazi houses that could spread right music labels in Germany. Located The local soccer team, Chemnitzer FC,

An estimated 6,000 far-right protestors from around Germany descend on Chemnitz on August 27, 2018. Credit: De Havilland/Flickr. ideology through work and home life. in a quiet residential neighborhood, the recently sparked a controversy when, These early associations later gave rise recording and distribution company is before kick off, the stadium displayed a to more formal neonazi organizatons, closely connected to Backstreet Noise/ picture of Thomas Haller, the late found- such as Blood and Honour, which ex- Trend Conscious, a retail shop that sells er of HooNaRa and a known neonazi, panded into individuals’ social lives. For clothing synonymous with a neonazi aes- and some team officials, members, and instance, since the 1990s, a new genera- thetic. These images and brands are com- fans, observed a moment of silence and tion of völkisch settlers have moved to monly seen throughout Saxony. This a fireworks display to commemorate his eastern states like Mecklenburg-Western establishment has done so well that the death.32 This resulted in the team los- Pomerania, drawn by comparatively owner has been able to purchase other ing significant sponsorships. Later the cheap land and the opportunity to set buildings to start new neonazi projects, team captain, Daniel Frahn, was fired up nationalistic communities.27 This, such as an annual neonazi Mixed Martial for repeated, open support of neonazi coupled with ongoing demographic col- Arts event called Tiwaz. groups.33 lapse in rural regions of eastern Germa- PC Records came under sharp criti- Near the soccer stadium, in the neigh- ny, correlated with neonazi activity in cism when a song they recorded, “Döner borhood of Sonnenberg, interactions Germany’s environmental movement. Killer,” was featured in a video created with neonazis take on a different tone. And the rustic image of rural living by the National Socialist Underground Mostly a low-income and immigrant evokes the kind of lifestyle venerated by (NSU), a terrorist organization respon- neighborhood, families from different large strands of the Far Right today. But sible for killing 10 people—eight of them racial backgrounds share common space the neonazi lifestyle is not limited to the from Turkish backgrounds—between in the central park, called Lessingplatz. countryside. As Gersch explained, “As a 2000 and 2007.28 The NSU lived in hiding Disputes are common, said one local Nazi, you have always had a good life in for 13 years, often in Chemnitz.29 reporter, yet there seems to be a shared Chemnitz. You can go to concerts, have Another aspect of social life greatly agreement based on necessity. Syrian [public] discussions, work in Nazi-owned influenced by far-right politics today is families will play on the swings, while shops. There are economies for them.” hooligan soccer fan clubs.30 Groups such “table tennis neonazi families” enjoy the Within this culture, Gersch continued, as Kaotic Chemnitz and New Society, park tables. Still, this relative peace is de- different generations of Nazis work- to also known as “NS Boys,” are present in marcated by robust far-right infrastruc- gether. city life, and have been for a long time. ture. Across the street from Lessingplatz Many of those who helped lead the Some members of NS Boys have said—or is Power Games, a game store owned by a 2018 riots came out of this city-based lin- even stated publicly—that the disbanded suspected neonazi that was raided in Sax- eage. Among them was Hendrik Lasch, club “HooNaRa,” or violent Hooligan- ony-wide investigations for weapons and who in 2000 opened PC Records (Political Nazis-Racists, from the 1990s, are their evidence of supporting far-right terrorist

16 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 activity.34 Witnesses reported seeing ille- chat groups.36 PRO Chemnitz, PEGIDA, it could be a dangerous place to live.” For gal firearms, which later spurred a police the local AfD chapter, and Jan Timke, Leftists, LGBTQ, punk, and working class raid—the second raid in a year. The store a Bremen-based state councilor and people, especially those who attended

remains open today. prominent right-wing populist, circu- the counter-demonstrations, it was con- This level of far-right activism contin- lated the warrant, and with it, the idea of sidered unsafe to return home after the ues to be enabled by the willful ignorance Messermigranten or, “Knife Migrants”— riots.38 Meanwhile, those perceived to of mainstream political parties like the a right-wing narrative that equates mi- be refugees or immigrants experienced Christian Democratic Union (CDU), the grants with criminals. “When the state an increase in assaults. André Löscher, a governing party in Saxony, which has can’t protect its citizens anymore, the social worker with SUPPORT, which pro- consistently denied the existence of a citizens take to the street and protect vides counseling to victims of right-wing neonazi problem in the region.35 Mak- themselves,” wrote Markus Frohmaier, violence, recalled that “Many people felt ing matters worse, since the AfD gained an AfD politician, on Twitter. “Today it unsafe to go to the grocery store and chil- seats in the national parliament in 2017, is a citizen’s duty to stop the deadly ‘knife dren did not want to go to school.”39 the CDU has consistently shifted right- migration!’”37 (This narrative is often At the same time, others chose to push ward, attempting to recapture voters it coupled with the accusation that the Lü- back. Roughly a week after the violence, lost to the far-right party. genpresse, or lying press, often misleads a free concert was organized by the lo- the public about the rate of criminal ac- cal arts scene, with notable hip-hop and THE AFTERMATH tivity by migrants.) rock acts from across Germany banding After the 2018 riots, Chemnitz police “The police were derelict in their du- together under the slogan, “There are came under sharp criticism for failing ties,” said Liz Fekete. “When state insti- more of us.”40 “It was a hopeful moment to address far-right violence—whether tutions collude with violence, it doesn’t because the city felt so different. The due to incompetence or collusion. On the have to mean that police officers are city center was small shops and stages, morning of the first PRO Chemnitz dem- fascists directly. It could just mean that dancing on the streets, music playing, onstration, the Verfassungsschutz, Ger- they are from the same milieu...[they] all these big bands, all these democratic many’s secret service, sent notice to the sit in pubs, have breakfast with relations and antifascist people, antifascist slo- Chemnitz police department, suggesting from this mindset.” In this way, Fekete gans were shouted, people were hap- reinforcement, but the memo went ig- asserted, what happened in Chemnitz is py,” recalled Gersch. On stage, the lead nored. not limited to Chemnitz. singer of Kraftklub, a famous German Later that week, Saxony’s Justice Min- For people living and working in the band from Chemnitz, said, “We’re not istry confirmed that a prison guard had city, the riots had an immediate impact. naive. We’re not under the illusion that photographed the arrest warrant for Gersch recalled that throughout Chem- you hold a concert and then the world is Yousif A. and Alaa S. A local journal- nitz, “we had the impression that you saved, but sometimes it’s important to ist would report that an image of the don’t know what’s happening tomorrow show that you’re not alone.”41 same documents was sent to far-right [and that]… this region is changing and That message would prove to be true.

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 17 “The city had a different feeling,” said of a new terrorist cell, Revolution Chem- AfD and PRO Chemnitz form a coalition, Gersch. “But it didn’t stop the [far-right] nitz. Eight men were ultimately charged they’ll outweigh the ruling party. demonstrations.” For the next three with planning an attack on immigrants “We all thought that people would see months, PRO Chemnitz organized week- in Berlin, which was set to take place on now what kind of party the AfD is,” said ly demonstrations, with similar anti-im- October 3, the anniversary of German re- Gersch, that “they are getting worse and migrant messaging as the riots, in order unification.49 more extreme.” Instead, many people to build the far-right voting base ahead of On a more pedestrian level, there has believe that the riots actually increased an upcoming election. been a sharp rise in everyday harass- their popularity. Controversy also broke on the federal ment, assaults, and provocation by In this September’s elections, the AfD level after the riots. Although the Ver- people in far-right formations. In 2017, gained again in state elections, becoming fassungsschutz had warned Chemnitz SUPPORT recorded 229 attacks in Sax- the second-strongest party in both Bran- police about the seriousness of the dem- ony, many of which were race-related. In denburg and Saxony.52 With 37 seats in onstrations, Hans-Georg Maassen, head 2018, the number rose to 317, a 38 per- the Saxony parliament, the AfD has in- of Germany’s domestic security agency, cent increase.50 In Chemnitz alone, there creased access to state funding as well as downplayed the violence that occurred, were 20 incidents of far-right, violent, influence on every committee, including denying that far-right protestors had racist attacks in 2017; in 2018, there investigations. While every other party hunted refugees, despite credible video were 79. Notably, 64 of the 2018 attacks has agreed not to work with them, the evidence.42 Maassen was also criticized took place in the two months following prospect of a far-right alliance in local for giving information to AfD represen- the riots. and state governments seems likely.53 tatives before a federal investigation be- Many people, understandably, do not And longtime anti-racist organizations gan into the party’s involvement in the feel safe. “Some refugee and immigrant working within Saxony, like SUPPORT riots.43 Soon thereafter, he was forced families are trying to move away from and Courage, are bracing for new chal- to resign.44 But this seemed to confirm a Saxony,” said SUPPORT’s André Löscher, lenges, such as struggles around state common criticism that Germany’s secu- although he noted that current migra- funding as state committees may favor rity departments are “blind in the right tion laws restrict movement through organizations less critical of the Far Right eye.”45 Marco Wanderwitz, a former top residence requirements. While he said to do victim support or educational work- official in the Federal Interior Ministry, they’d been able to successfully get one shops in schools. admitted as much in Spiegel Online, not- family out of Chemnitz, more families In August 2019, a court convicted ing, “We as the CDU in Saxony didn’t are asking for help to leave. 24-year-old Alaa S. of manslaughter look closely at right wing extremism for While state-designated terrorist groups and bodily harm in the death of Daniel many years and didn’t do enough about like Revolution Chemnitz pose a signifi- Hillig—the initial spark that set off the it.”46 Some politicians in the Left party cant threat, many people in Chemnitz riots. The charge comes with a sentence Die Linke, like Martina Renner, took it a are equally concerned about the gains of of nine-and-a-half years. Defense law- step further to charge that the history of the AfD in the September 2019 state elec- yers have already appealed the verdict, the Verfassungsschutz has always shown tions. Kulturbüro Sachsen advisor Danilo citing a lack of evidence.54 But close to “sympathies for the extreme right, ha- Starosta believes that the riots illuminat- two years after the violence, the struggle tred against the left and disregard for the ed the Far Right’s battle for control of the over what Chemnitz means continues. rule of law.”47 government. In Chemnitz, for the first Who determines which people belong The media came under criticism too. time, he said, “the Alt Right outed itself… in Chemnitz or what Chemnitz should Before the 2018 riots, local press often The softest critics of asylum policy were stand for? Is Chemnitz, so hospitable to evoked right-wing narratives in covering unifying with the heavy, well-organized the Far Right, a lost cause, or worth fight- refugee issues, rarely reported on right- Nazi scene. They were together in public, ing for? The battle over these questions wing activity, or else did so uncritical- sharing a common language.” continues even as the international press ly—all factors that helped pave the way That language, along with far-right has moved on. For many Chemnitz resi- for far-right networks to flourish. After culture and ideology, has become rela- dents who have decided to stay, knowing Chemnitz, local activists saw a change in tively normalized in Chemnitz, even as what you’re fighting for is just as impor- how media began to cover both subjects. anti-racist and anti-fascist resistance tant as knowing who you’re up against. Others, such as Johannes Grunert, a local contest their reach at every step. The reporter in Chemnitz, have written about neonazi networks from the 1990s either Hilary Moore is an anti-racist political edu- the corresponding rise in anti-racist com- still exist, or have been replaced by new cation trainer and teaches with generative somatics. She is on the board of Showing munity building.48 clubs and culture groups. Up for Racial Justice and is the author of But the threat remains. The riots and In the local elections in May 2019, AfD Burning Earth, Changing Europe: How following weekly anti-refugee demon- won three more seats on the city council, the Racist Right Exploits the Climate strations created space for new neonazi bringing the total to 11; PRO Chemnitz Crisis—and What We Can Do About It organizations. In October 2018, police also gained a seat, for a current total of (Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung, 2020). raided the homes of far-right activists in five.51 These gains put them on par with Chemnitz suspected of being members the conservative CDU, meaning that if

18 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 BY STEVEN GARDINER

End Times Antisemitism: Christian Zionism, Christian Nationalism, and the Threat to Democracy

Western Wall and Dome of the Rock. Credit: Sander Crombach/Unsplash.

first encountered Christian- Zi inclusion of “sexual orientation” in any same-sex marriage law was still almost a onism—political support for the civil rights protections. It also sought decade away.5 But it was also only a small modern State of Israel grounded to define homosexuality as “abnormal, part of the threat posed by the Christian in beliefs about its prophetic sig- wrong, unnatural and perverse.”1 This Right, not just to LGBTQ or reproduc- nificanceI in End Times scenarios—in ballot measure, in all of its obvious big- tive rights, but to the basic institutions 1992, while working as a fight-the-Right otry, was eventually rejected by Oregon of democracy. It was my job to help lead researcher in Portland, Oregon. A big voters, who shot it down in a 56 to 44 public education about the broader dan- part of my job was explaining the im- percent result.2 But that outcome wasn’t gers of the Christian Right, and in that plications of Christian Right ideas and a given in the year-long campaign pre- context, I often spoke at public meetings drawing out the connections between ceding the vote—a period saturated with in partnership with rural LGBTQ and al- the Oregon Citizens Alliance (OCA), a lo- both anti-LGBTQ violence and vitriolic lied groups—to churches, civic organiza- cal group best known for its anti-LGBTQ culture war rhetoric.3 tions, anyone who would listen. politics, and the broader program of the The “No on 9” campaign focused on is- One such meeting was held at the national movement. One critical element sues of fairness and legal equality, both Mittleman Jewish Community Center on of that work was opposing a particularly of which were under attack by the Ballot Portland’s West Side. For the most part anti-democratic OCA-sponsored initia- Measure. And it was an urgent message the audience responded enthusiastically tive, Ballot Measure 9, which sought to in the final year of the Reagan-Bush era, to the fairness message. They could also amend Oregon’s constitution to require when bigoted policies resulted in AIDS see that the OCA was trying to impose a “all levels of government” to “discour- becoming the leading cause of death narrow version of a particular variety of age homosexuality” and prohibit the in U.S. men aged 25–44,4 and the first Christian morality on the legal system.

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 19 But understanding how the Christian elections.7 Of that number only a slim fection of both Jews and Christians down Right could be the enemy of democracy majority, about 53 percent, unequivocal- through history and the touchstone of was more complicated. ly supported his recognition, in 2019, of prophecy. But most importantly, God “I understand the fairness issue,” said Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, but it would gave Jerusalem—and the rest of the Holy one man in the audience, “but how much never be a make-or-break issue for doubt- Land—to the Jewish people.”10 do we as Jews have to be worried about ers.8 For full-throttle Christian Zionists, Jeffress’s “touchstone of prophecy” the Christian Right? I mean, they are however, the embassy move prompted comment is shorthand for the Christian strong supporters of Israel.” comparisons of Trump to Cyrus the Zionist belief that the establishment of The question hung in the air. Then as Great, the Persian king celebrated as a Israel is a sign that prophecies are be- now, the Israel/Palestine issue is an im- friend of the Jewish people for his deci- ing fulfilled. It’s a common belief among portant one for many American Jews. sion to allow those in exile to return to U.S. evangelicals, some 63 to 80 percent As the resident expert on the Christian Right, the panel’s moderator nodded at Untempered support for Israel’s most reactionary poli- me to respond. Almost three decades cies is no bulwark against antisemitism, just as criticism later I remember the gist of my answer: Yes, the Christian Right supports Is- of Israeli policy is no indication of such. rael. They see the establishment of the modern State of Israel as fulfillment of Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple.9 of whom profess that the establishment prophecies they believe to be necessary All this may be good for mobilizing of Israel in 1948 was the fulfillment of to the Second Coming of Jesus. They the President’s base, but it is deeply cor- prophecy and an indication that the want to see the Temple rebuilt and for rosive to any prospect for peace and re- Second Coming is drawing near.11 How Israel to expand to control all of the terri- gional stability in the Middle East. Nor, near? According to one 2010 poll by tory described in Scripture. They believe ultimately, are Christian Zionists sepa- the Pew Research Center, 58 percent of a tiny minority of living Jews will, in the rable from the broader Christian Right White evangelicals, and 41 percent of all End Times, convert to Christianity and with its now decades-old plan to realign Americans, believe that Jesus will “prob- the rest will be damned to hell for their U.S. society with their particular version ably” or “definitely” return by 2050.12 disbelief. They are, on those grounds, no of Christian virtue, whatever the cost to Recent scholarly work on Christian Zi- friends of Jews. democratic inclusion. onism has sought to complicate contem- I was making a point that is increas- porary understandings of the movement, ingly relevant in the Trump era: that WHAT IS CHRISTIAN ZIONISM? offering a more sympathetic and - revi untempered support for Israel’s most re- For the purposes of this article, Chris- sionist interpretation than the sugges- actionary policies is no bulwark against tian Zionism refers to a movement among tion that Christian Zionism is exclusively antisemitism, just as criticism of Israeli Christians, mostly Charismatic and evan- driven by apocalypticism.13 Especially policy is no indication of such. Many gelical, whose interpretation of the Bible as presented in the popular press, this in the room nodded their agreement. mandates their political support not just new scholarship denies the movement’s Even the man who’d asked the question for the modern state of Israel, but an ex- underlying antisemitism and minimizes seemed, if not exactly satisfied, to have pansionist version thereof. The move- the influence of End Times prophecies something to think about. ment believes that the entirety of Jeru- and quid-pro-quo support for divine But even then, I recognized that it was salem—particularly the Temple Mount, blessings, casting the movement as pri- a partial response, because Christian Zi- where they expect to see the Temple re- marily about “mutual and covenantal onism is much more than a set of beliefs built—the Gaza Strip, the West Bank of solidarity.”14 While this scholarship may about the role of Israel and the Jews in the Jordan River, and the Golan Heights be a necessary corrective to some easy the Second Coming, beliefs that are all all rightfully belong to Israel: a biblical generalizations, it focuses little on the too easy to trivialize for those who don’t land-grant that doesn’t merely fulfill a most politically active Christian Zionist share them. Rather, Christian Zionism is scriptural promise to the Jewish people, organizations today, especially Chris- part of a set of interlocking, theologically but stands as the cornerstone of Chris- tians United for Israel, or its rapidly grounded beliefs about how Christians tian prophecies and as a sign that the End growing support among Charismatics.15 should engage with the political world. Times are close upon us. In other words, Today, President Trump’s administra- they claim the authority of religion in STRANDS OF CHRISTIAN ZIONISM tion is staffed by Christian Zionists at the formulating a no-compromise position Politicized Christian Zionists fall highest levels, including Vice President with respect to sharing land with the Pal- into two broad theological camps: (1) Mike Pence and Secretary of State Mike estinian people. Pastor Robert Jeffress, premillennial dispensationalists and Pompeo.6 And adherents of the belief the Trump-aligned Baptist minister who (2) Dominionist-influenced Charismat- system form a key component of Trump’s blessed the relocation of the U.S. Embas- ics, particularly those involved with the electoral base. Up to 81 percent of White sy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, put it like New Apostolic Reformation (NAR) move- evangelicals voted for him in the 2016 this: “Jerusalem has been the object of af- ment.16 While the contemporary move-

20 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 ment that finds so much prophetic- sig proactive character of Reconstruction- It’s unlikely that the majority of that nificance in the founding of the modern ist, or more broadly “Dominionist,” ideas number are well-versed in the nuances of state of Israel has its origins in the for- about the responsibilities of Christians in End Times theology, either in the dispen- mer, it is increasingly dominated by the society. As PRA Senior Research Analyst sationalist or the NAR version. Theologi- latter. Megachurch pastor and televange- Frederick Clarkson has argued, while Re- cal consistency is largely the domain of list John Hagee acts as a bridge between constructionism was itself a tiny move- thought leaders and religious profession- these two factions. Hagee, as head of the ment, its influence in the broader evan- als. But the opinions of thought leaders largest and most visible Christian Zion- gelical world is hard to overestimate.22 in this milieu, endlessly broadcast via ist group in the United States, Christians The second strand of support for con- Christian media networks and in the pul- United for Israel (CUFI), does not claim temporary Christian Zionism comes pits of megachurches, are in and of them- NAR theology, but it’s clear that many from the New Apostolic Reformation selves significant. CUFI insiders have been NAR allies or (NAR). The NAR is difficult to summarize part of that movement.17 in a few sentences. It is a diffuse move- WHY IT MATTERS: ANTISEMITISM Dispensationalism refers to belief in a ment within Charismatic and Pentecos- Christian Zionism is both like and un- progression of ages of the world in which tal churches that typically includes vehe- like more familiar Christian Right cul- the calendar of salvation is moved for- ment anti-denominationalism coupled ture war targets. As with LGBTQ rights ward by pre-ordained events. In most with strict hierarchical discipline of or reproductive choice, the interpretive dispensationalist accounts, we are currently living in the “Church Age,” during Christian Zionism bridges foreign and domestic politics which gentiles find salvation through ac- cepting Jesus as their savior.18 Premillen- in some unique ways that exacerbate both antisemitism nial dispensationalists believe that Jesus and anti-Muslim bigotry. must return before the establishment of his thousand-year reign on earth. Many individuals and whole churches to au- contortions of movement leaders regard- premillennialists also believe that before thoritarian “apostles.” Many NAR beliefs ing Scripture are not the only reasons the millennium, there will be a Rapture and practices—including exorcism, “spi- many Christian Zionists support Israel. of the Christian faithful, whom God will ritual mapping” (coordinating prayer and Christian Rightists who use Bible vers- transport, body and all, to heaven be- ritual to expel demonic influences from a es to justify anti-LGBTQ policies may also fore a period of seven years called the geographic region), and faith healing— be motivated by homophobic bigotry; Great Tribulation.19 The Tribulation, as invite mockery rather than analysis.23 similarly, Christian Zionists who support described in Revelations, will include But far from being laughable, the Israeli state policies because of End Times violent death that sweeps “over a fourth NAR’s “spiritual warfare” is deeply in- prophecies might also be driven by anti- of the earth, to kill with sword, with hun- fluenced by Dominionist thinking and Muslim views. But Christian Zionism ger, with death, and by the beasts of the actualized around a network of authori- bridges foreign and domestic politics in earth.”20 As Journalist Michelle Goldberg tarian leaders styled as “apostles” and some unique ways that exacerbate both writes, premillennial dispensationalists “prophets” who, in many instances, in- antisemitism and anti-Muslim bigotry. also tend to “believe that God has a spe- sist on micromanaging the lives of their Often, the sort of antisemitism in cial plan for the nation of Israel, which followers in ways reminiscent of and ge- Christian Zionism circles is obscured by will play a key role in the end of days and nealogically related to the defunct “shep- the surface philosemitism of many in the the return of Christ.”21 herding” movement.24 The potential for movement and by the fallacy that what In the first half of the 20th Century, interpersonal abuse inherent in rela- is nominally good for Israel is good for premillennial dispensationalism and tionships that combine extreme hierar- Jews. Since not all Jews are Israeli, and its associated beliefs often led to a kind chy with unaccountable leadership was Jews have a wide range of political opin- of political quiescence—standing aside on display in that earlier movement.25 ions about Israeli policies, the presump- from worldly events and letting proph- These “apostolic” authorities, and the tion that all U.S. Jews do, or should, sup- ecy unfold. But beginning in the 1970s, a Dominionist imperative to Christianize port the current Israeli government is new leadership—largely drawn from the otherwise secular institutions, combine at base antisemitic. It follows the same Charismatic movement or influenced by to form a potent threat to democratic plu- political logic that led to the internment a radical theology known as Christian Re- ralism, as represented in the NAR-linked of Japanese Americans during World constructionism—led to the formation Seven Mountains campaign—a holistic War II, flowing from fear of their prior of the panoply of new public education model for the faithful to follow in taking or higher ethnic loyalty to Japan than the and lobbying organizations, including control of not just state institutions, but U.S. It is also, of course, the contempo- the Moral Majority, Christian Coalition, media, education, business, and enter- rary form of a long-standing antisemitic Traditional Values Coalition and others. tainment—all in service of forming an trope, that by a more-or-less immutable Premillennialists, like many attracted to unabashed “Christian nation.”26 nature, Jews are incapable of loyalty to a the Christian Right, were drawn by the CUFI claims eight million members.27 non-Jewish state.

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 21 For most of the years between the de- VI civil rights enforcement agencies in The importance of such a blessing looms feat of the Third Reich in 1945 and the the federal bureaucracy to consider “the much larger in New Apostolic Reforma- election of Donald Trump in 2016, the non-legally binding working definition tion circles, which believe these bless- “dual loyalty” slander about Jews has of anti Semitism adopted on May 26, ings can manifest as increased supernat- been confined to an explicitly antisemitic 2016, by the International Holocaust Re- ural spiritual potency—leading to highly periphery of White nationalists. With membrance Alliance (IHRA)” including performative displays of support for Is- Trump’s election, however, this is no “the ‘Contemporary Examples of Anti- rael. In the words of Christian anti-NAR longer the case. President Trump has re- Semitism’ identified by the IHRA.”35 The activist Holly Pivec, “NAR people often peatedly called into question the loyalty “Contemporary Examples” include the wear the Star of David on necklaces. They of U.S. Jews who fail to support his poli- controversial item “Denying the Jewish participate in Jewish religious feasts. cies toward Israel, claiming they “don’t people their right to self-determination, They take pilgrimages to Israel, where love Israel enough.”28 Going further, in e.g., by claiming that the existence of a they hold large prayer gatherings and speaking to the Republican Jewish Coali- State of Israel is a racist endeavor.”36 Ken blow shofars (a Jewish trumpet made of a tion in April 2019, Trump referred to Ne- Stern, one of the authors of the IHRA ram’s horn). Some even move to Israel.”43 tanyahu as “your Prime Minister.”29 definition, has suggested that the Trump Even among the NAR, however, some In an otherwise benign context, such executive order turns their words to a of the most popular preachers remain statements might be taken as the parti- purpose they never intended—the regu- committed to prophetic apocalypticism. san hyperbole of a President not known lation of campus speech. Stern writes, For example, Mike Bickle, one of the for his rhetorical constraint. Even when “This order is an attack on academic most prominent Christian Zionists linked an average of 71 percent of U.S. Jews freedom and free speech, and will harm directly to the movement,44 is known for have voted for Democratic presidential not only pro-Palestinian advocates, but his assertion that, as a prelude to the End candidates since 1968, if the only conse- also Jewish students and faculty, and Times, a great many Jews will be round- quences were rhetorical, Trump’s state- the academy itself.”37 Civil liberties ad- ed up and placed in “prison camps” and ments could possibly be seen as mere vocates fear this definition will suppress “death camps”—not in reference to the excess.30 But both U.S. policy in Israel/ any speech critical of Israel on campuses, Holocaust, but to future actions that will We see explicitly Christian Zionist organizations and megachurch pastors working with high administration officials such as Mike Pompeo, to justify expanding support for a right-wing, authoritarian Israeli government as the fulfillment of prophecy.

Palestine and on-the-ground violence forcing university administrations to act be taken by followers of the Anti-Christ.45 against U.S. Jews suggest that Trump’s as censors of students and faculty.38 As horrific as Bickle’s prediction sounds, statements are both more than rhetoric These breaks with previous policy have he takes an activist stance concerning the and that his rhetoric is not only callous, been interpreted by prominent Chris- End Times, asserting, “The Tribulation is but reckless. tian Zionists as part of a divine plan to not something that happens to us. The Many of the most consequential Trump hasten the End Times, as when Robert Tribulation is something that happens policies relating to Palestine/Israel are Jeffress declared of the embassy move, through us.”46 a continuation of long-standing, bi- “We’re seeing prophecy unfold. I don’t Similarly, in an infamous 2005 ser- partisan U.S. support for Israel, which know when the Lord is coming back, but mon, Hagee declared that Hitler and the amounts to around $3 billion in mili- I know today it got a little bit closer.”39 Holocaust were predicted in Scripture tary and economic aid per year.31 There Or when John Hagee, in October 2017, and part of the divine plan to coerce Jews are, however, several Trump initiatives predicted that Trump’s campaign prom- into moving to Israel.47 While video of that have marked a significant depar- ise to relocate the embassy would likely the sermon has since been scrubbed from ture from previous administrations. Key happen that year “because God’s clock is the internet, in a transcript made by re- among these is the recognition of Jerusa- ticking.”40 searcher-activist Bruce Wilson, Hagee lem as the capital of Israel and the reloca- In addition to discussing prophe- preaches the distinction between “fish- tion of the U.S. embassy there,32 as well cies, Christian Zionists also understand ers,” who lure their prey, and “hunters,” as recognition of Israel’s claim to the Go- U.S.-Israel through a transactional lens. who kill them outright. In this parable, lan Heights.33 Then there is the adminis- Many point to Genesis 12:3, wherein Hagee suggested that diasporic Jews in- tration’s decision to end U.S. contribu- God promises Abram, “I will bless those sufficiently enthusiastic about moving to tions to the United Nations Relief and who bless you/And I will curse him who Israel led directly to the Holocaust. That Works Agency (UNRWA), the UN agency curses you.”41 For example, Hagee claims is, their failure to respond to the fisher, tasked with supporting Palestinian refu- he told Trump that, “the moment that he Hagee said, meant that, “Then God sent a gees.34 On the domestic front, Trump really began to bless Israel, God would hunter. A hunter is someone who comes issued an executive order charging Title bless him in a very, very special way.”42 with a gun and he forces you. Hitler was

22 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 a hunter.”48 references to satanic and demonic influ- blessing are an obstacle to God’s plan. This quote, which Hagee has protested ence in Islam were commonplace in the Christian Zionists like Lt. Col. (Ret.) was “intentionally mischaracterized,” post-9/11 era.55 Robert Maginnis, a former senior fel- is often seen as the smoking gun for As with antisemitism, anti-Islamic low of the Family Research Council, and Christian Zionist antisemitism.49 Like bigotry is a fluid construct, adaptable as Stephen Strang, the leading publisher the Bickle discussion of hastening the a technique of power. During the Obama of Charismatic and Pentacostal media, Tribulation and Jews in death camps, administration—alongside aspersions echo the language of White nationalists, these quotations help highlight just how about the president’s citizenship and giving it their own twist. Like their more bigoted Christian Zionist beliefs can be. Christian faith—anti-Muslim groups like secular colleagues, they paint Soros as But they also draw us so much into the ACT for America focused on the threat of the wellspring of all manner of “global- trees that we miss the forest of antise- terrorism and on the supposed spread of ist” and “cultural Marxis[t]” attacks on mitic power, often presented in the guise Sharia law in the United States.56 Accord- the nation. At the same time, their un- of supposedly philosemitic policy—such ing to Steven Fink, University of Wiscon- wavering support for right-wing Israeli as the embassy move or recognition of sin-Eau Claire professor of philosophy policies serves to shield them from accu- Golan Heights as part of Israel. Here we and religious studies, “American Chris- sations of antisemitism. As S. Jonathan see explicitly Christian Zionist organi- tian Zionist leaders connect Islam cat- O’Donnell, a postdoc in American Stud- zations such as CUFI, and megachurch egorically with violence.”57 For example, ies at University College Dublin, has ar- pastors like Bickle and Jeffress, working John Hagee has written that “Islam not gued, “Christian Zionist anti-globalism with high administration officials such only condones violence; it commands it.”58 cannot be classified as straightforwardly as Mike Pompeo, to justify expanding It is usually White Nationalists and antisemitic, nor fully divorced from it.”61 support for a right-wing, authoritarian their ideologically adjacent friends in the That shield, however, is something they Israeli government as the fulfillment of Trump administration who are associat- wield against the political preferences of prophecy.50 The closeness of this rela- ed with conspiracy-tainted claims about a majority of U.S. Jews. tionship should give us pause, leading as invading foreigners and the hidden The Christian Zionist stance toward it has to condemning the majority of U.S. forces that egg them on.59 These claims Muslims is not nearly so nuanced. Mus- Jews as disloyal, allying our country with are usually grounded in antisemitism. lims are constructed largely as an undif- the most authoritarian and reactionary Sometimes this is explicit, as for the ferentiated enemy, not just through the elements in Israeli politics, and justify- Pittsburgh and Poway synagogue shoot- blurring of right-wing Israeli interests ing further escalation of tensions in the ers. More often, flowing from the admin- with those of all Jews and all Americans, wider Middle East. WHY IT MATTERS: ANTI-MUSLIM BIGOTRY Christian Zionist organizations are thus in a feedback The Christian Zionist logic that calls loop relationship with the Trump administration, on the U.S. to unconditionally support watching their allies get appointed as insiders who are Israeli policies simultaneously reinforces the adversarial stance toward the Mus- then validated by constituent activism. lim world that has been on display since 9/11. Some Christian Zionist leaders istration staff or Fox News, the antisemi- but as cultural invaders bent on under- have long supported war with Iran and tism is ever-so-slightly veiled, taking mining U.S. culture and society. This is general belligerence toward the Islamic the form of accusations against Jewish largely in line with positions taken by the world. Here the language is often much philanthropist George Soros or unnamed U.S. Right more generally, including the less guarded, with Hagee referring to Iran “globalists.”60 In the case of Christian anti-Muslim group ACT for America.62 as the “head of the snake” with “a theolo- Zionism, antisemitism and anti-Muslim Christian Zionists add their signature gy based on suicide and mass murder,”51 bigotry go hand-in-hand. American apocalyptic voice. In an article titled “The and NAR “prophet” Chuck Pierce declar- Jews who criticize Israeli policy or see Coming Fourth Reich,” Hagee writes: ing that Islam “is controlled by satanic themselves primarily as U.S. citizens America has been invaded by an invis- principalities and powers.”52 Within the are accused of disloyalty. According to ible army of millions who intend to de- NAR, such claims aren’t rhetorical de- Christian Zionist thought, they promote stroy this nation. They aren’t coming vices, but accusations of actual demonic the cosmopolitan, anti-nationalist ideas to America; they’re already here. This possession.53 And Christian Right leader of Soros, supporting the mass entry of army of radical Islamic extremists have Pat Robertson, also a Christian Zionist, culture-destroying immigrants, includ- poured across our open borders and has made similar accusations, holding ing Muslim immigrants intent on under- are waiting patiently for the hour of that “Militant Islam is motivated by the mining White Christian civilization. their unified attack, designed to bring devil.”54 In fact, journalism professor For Christian Zionists, U.S. Jews who chaos and governmental collapse.63 Eric Gormly found in an analysis of Rob- refuse to participate in their prophetic ertson’s flagship 700 Club program that fantasies and economy of curses and

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 23 will lead to the most dev- engage in peace-making not just in Isra- astating war Israel has el/Palestine, but more broadly. ever known. After that At a deeper level, the influence of the war, the longed-for Mes- Christian Zionist movement on both for- siah will come.”64 eign and domestic policy poses a chal- By 2016, of course, it lenge to the democratic process itself. wasn’t an imminent war Democracy, in the best sense, is not that was signaling the merely the will of the majority, or com- close arrival of the Mes- petition between constituencies, but the siah, but rather Trump’s temperance of such competition by fun- relocation of the U.S. damental rights. These include religious embassy from Tel Aviv to freedom, but not the freedom to impose Jerusalem.65 Such conve- religious belief or practice on others. The nient interpretive moves apocalyptic rhetoric of Christian Zionists must not be reduced to a and their exaggerated claims of prophet- Secretary of State Mike Pompeo visits Israel during the COVID-19 pandemic. penchant for charlatan- ic certainty—recall Hagee’s claim about Pictured here standing six feet from Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin ism. Between Rabin’s “millions” of Muslim invaders bent on Netanyahu on May 13, 2020. Credit: U.S. Embassy Jerusalem/Flickr. assassination and the destroying the United States—demon- embassy move, Hagee strate how they hide behind democratic built CUFI into a jug- claims (like freedom of speech or reli- gernaut with millions of gion) even as they shamelessly attack the members and staunch rights of others. They wield the demo- allies in the Trump ad- cratic process of constituent mobiliza- ministration, including tion in causes shot through with bigotry. Vice President Pence and Moreover, democracy only functions Secretary of State Pom- inclusively when decision-making cri- peo. So, when CUFI takes teria are transparent. Practices of pro- credit for the embassy phetic interpretation, orientation to the relocation, it’s more than End Times, and the transactional chasing boasting. Through one- after supernatural blessings are anything on-one meetings with but clear to the vast majority of people both Trump and Pence, in the United States. With Trump in the Hagee stressed the move White House and Christian Zionists as was important to his con- core members of his policy team, this is stituency—a claim backed an ignorance the rest of us can no longer Vice President Mike Pence visits the Western Wall in Jerusalem on January up by 137,000 supportive afford to sustain. 23, 2018. Credit: U.S. Embassy Jerusalem/Flickr. emails from CUFI mem- 66 Assistant Research Director at Political Re- CORROSIVE TO DEMOCRACY bers to the White House. Christian Zionist organizations are search Associates, Steven Gardiner started researching and writing in opposition to Christian Zionism is politically oppor- thus in a feedback loop relationship the politics of bigotry, violence, and au- tunistic, mobilizing both antisemitism with the Trump administration, watch- thoritarianism in the early 1990s. In 2004 and anti-Muslim bigotry in ways calcu- ing their allies get appointed as insiders Gardiner received a PhD in cultural anthro- lated to capitalize on the fears of the mo- who are then validated by constituent pology from Cornell University for his work ment. This opportunism is wedded to activism. Pence has not only spoken at on military masculinity and conscientious shifting interpretations of prophecy. In CUFI events, his public statements put objection in the German military. He has his book Beginning of the End: The Assas- him firmly in the camp of Christian- Zi taught more than 20 different courses at sination of Yitzhak Rabin and the Coming onism.67 Pompeo is similarly committed eight universities in the United States, Pak- Antichrist (1996), Hagee interprets the to Christian Zionist principles and has istan, and the UAE. Selected publications prophetic significance of the 1995 assas- aligned himself with CUFI.68 While there include “In the Shadow of Service: Veteran sination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak is no religious test for holding high office Masculinity and Civil-Military Disjuncture Rabin. Rabin’s role in the Oslo Accords, in the United States, such public support in the United States” (North American in Hagee’s interpretation, led to the pos- for a cause so openly biased, by the very Dialogue, 2013), “Behold the Man: Hero- sibility of his assassination being used as people responsible for guiding U.S. for- ic Masochism, Militant Christianity, and an excuse to double-down on peace. He eign policy, is cause for the gravest con- Mel Gibson’s Passion” (Cultural Analysis, wrote, “based on the words of the proph- cern. At the very least, such positioning 2013), and “White Nationalism Revisited: ets of Israel, I believe this peace process undermines the capacity for the U.S. to Demographic Dystopia and White Identity Politics” (Journal of Hate Studies, 2006).

24 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 BY PIOTR KOCYBA & MAŁGORZATA ŁUKIANOW

The Right in the Streets: The Past and Present of the Polish March of Independence

The red glow of marchers’ flares during the annual Polish March of Independence in Warsaw on November 11, 2019. Credit: Piotr Kocyba.

n the early afternoon on Novem- was a sea of flags and banners in Poland’s public campaign in Poland—run by or- ber 11, 2019, in central Warsaw, national colors—white and red—flown ganizers of the march—called STOP 447, tens of thousands of people came by a wide spectrum of participants, rang- aimed at a U.S. law requiring reporting together at the Roman Dmowski ing from openly right-wing radicals and on the restitution of Jewish property that roundabout,I for an event known as one masked hooligans, to families with tod- was “wrongfully seized or transferred”4 of the biggest right-wing gatherings in dlers, to senior citizens, most generally during the Holocaust (and sanctioned the world. The location itself was telling: representing the middle or even upper- by the subsequent Communist rule).5 named for an influential Polish thinker middle classes. Consequently, alongside Polish flags and who espoused ethno-nationalistic and The demonstration had a notably mar- banners, marchers carried promotional openly antisemitic ideas.1 From 2012 on, tial atmosphere, as marchers’ flares cast material for STOP 447, and many partici- this is where the March of Independence a red glow across the city; loud firecrack- pants chanted the baldly antisemitic slo- has begun. After the national anthem ers echoed off building walls; and- par gan, “Here is the real Poland, not Polin and speeches, the crowd slowly started ticipants belted classic stadium chants [Hebrew for Poland].”6 the roughly two-mile march, which, due popular with football fans and hooligans: This is what a street event organized by to the sheer number of participants, can “First with a sickle, then with a hammer, the Far Right but attended mostly by the take up to four hours, as marchers cross hit the red rabble”;2 “From trees, instead middle-class looks like in Poland today. the Vistula River and make their way to of leaves, communists will be hanging”;3 a large open space behind the Polish na- or “Not red, not rainbow, but national A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MARCH tional stadium, where a final rally and Poland.” Other chants were more aggres- Poland gained its Independence in closing concert take place. The spectacle sive yet. The 2019 march landed amid a 1918, after the end of World War I. Col-

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 25 lapsing empires and the rise of nation- NATO. So, while the new government pendence Day. states enabled a long awaited indepen- sanctioned official Independence - com In 2011, the March of Independence dence, previously lost in 1795 due to memorations, the far-right alternative Association was formed as the result Poland’s partition between Prussia, Rus- marches suggested that Poland’s sover- of a union17 between two important sia, and Habsburg. Under Communism, eignty was threatened by its aspirations far-right organizations: the All-Polish Independence Day was revoked as an to join international organizations. In Youth [Młodzież Wszechpolska] and the official national Polish holiday because 1996, Warsaw saw its first such march, National-Radical Camp [Obóz Narodo- it was linked with the pre-World War II organized mainly by the small, far-right wo-Radykalny], both of which trace their government, which the post-war Com- organization National Rebirth of Poland roots back to the inter-war period and munist regime derided as “bourgeois.” (Narodowe Odrodzenie Polski).10 (In share a nationalistic, anti-Communist, Democratic opposition activists orga- 2013, this group gained international anti-EU agenda.18 nized illegal celebrations anyway, most publicity for disturbing a lecture given by Other right-wing groups supported the often under the protection of the Catho- one of Europe’s most influential sociolo- new, unified march, including Solidarni lic Church with commemorative mass- gists, Zygmunt Bauman, at the Univer- 2010, a grassroots movement fighting es.7 But in 1978, participants of the holy sity of Wrocław.11) for the “truth” about the plane crash that masses took to the streets and joined il- For years, the marches continued to killed Polish President Lech Kaczyński legal marches in Warsaw and other Pol- attract few participants and little me- (among other representatives of the Pol- ish cities. In 1981, when the anti-Com- dia coverage. But this began to change ish state), and Kluby Gazety Polskiej, a munist Solidarity movement was briefly in 2008, when a group of around 150 group associated with a Polish weekly legalized, around 100,000 participants counter-demonstrators protested the magazine known for its homophobic, were counted across Poland. (Techni- Warsaw march, forcing it to change its Islamophobic, and anti-EU agenda. Both cally, those marches were still illegal but route.12 The controversy stoked passion are closely linked to Law and Justice’s were condoned by the state due to the and interest, leading to a growing num- conservative agenda. Other prominent large numbers participating.) Although ber of participants in subsequent years, right-wing figures also supported the Solidarity was again banned by the end as well as increasing coverage by main- new march, including Janusz Korwin- of 1981, the marches took place through- stream media, which condemned march Mikke, a former deputy of the European out the 1980s, regularly causing fights organizers as radicals and fascists.13 State Parliament famous for his sexist and rac- These alternate marches focused on ultra-nationalist messages, promoting anti- European Union, antisemitic, or anti-NATO views, at a time when post-Communists controlled the government, and were advocating for Poland to join the EU and NATO.

between the participants and Commu- authorities began to heavily police march ist statements,19 and the journalist Rafał nist security forces.8 After the collapse organizers and activists,14 inadvertently Ziemkiewicz, who in 2018 was blocked of Communism in 1989, the Third Pol- helping the event grow further. As Jan from speaking in the UK over protests ish Republic reintroduced Independence Bodakowski, a right-wing blogger and that accused him of hate speech.20 (For Day as a national holiday, with commem- activist who participated in the 2010 instance, Ziemkiewicz recently stated, orations that usually included a Catholic march recalled: “We have to shoot LGBT! Not literally, of mass and speeches from officials, and On a grim day on November 11th, na- course—but we have to fight it.”21) With which were observed mainly by the state tionalists gathered on Castle Square the participation of more moderate right- authorities and the political elite. in Warsaw. Those who wanted to take wing groups and activists, the event grew At the same time, in cities across part had to pass through a tight police dramatically and soon began to attract Poland, right-wing (often skinhead) cordon surrounding the demonstra- tens of thousands of participants. groups, such as the now sidelined Pol- tors. For many days, the left-wing me- As the march grew, so did attempts to ish National Community (Polska Wspól- dia, mostly Gazeta Wyborcza,15 were block it, sometimes leading to violence. nota Narodowa), began holding their calling for the March to be blocked. In 2011, fights broke out between march own, competing events, with local-level The effect was different from that- ex participants on one side and counter- Marches of Independence that drew pected. Instead of being another small demonstrators and anti-fascist activ- modest numbers of participants.9 These nationalistic event, ignored by every- ists (many from Germany) on the other. alternate marches focused on ultra-na- one, it has become a widely-discussed Marchers set fire to a news van belong- tionalist messages, promoting anti-Eu- matter of state.16 ing to liberal television station TVN24,22 ropean Union, antisemitic, or anti-NATO Starting in 2010, a single, large march and members of both sides attacked the views, at a time when post-Communists in Warsaw replaced the smaller regional police, leaving 40 police officers injured, controlled the government, and were events, and this joint march became the 14 police cars damaged, and 210 people advocating for Poland to join the EU and primary issue of debate over Polish Inde- arrested.23

26 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 The violence continued in subsequent 2016 and 2017 marches, for example, nationalist groups. years. In 2012, a masked group of march- President Andrzej Duda addressed par- President Duda proposed having a ers again attacked the police. In 2013, ticipants in an official letter, read aloud joint march, in which he and some gov- violent marchers burned down an art in- on his behalf at the start of the event: ernment officials would participate stallation in central Warsaw representing In the mutual respect and dignity of along with the far-right organizers. This sparked massive criticism from liberal Seeking to capitalize on the demonstration’s popularity, and Left mainstream media, politicians, 34 Law and Justice party leaders defended the event against and organizations, which accused the government and PiS of making common accusations that it was a fascist rally, and party members cause with right-wing radicals. regularly joined the march. Efforts to organize this joint march failed after Duda insisted that marchers LGBTQ-rights,24 attacked an illegal anar- this holiday, we gather under white should only carry Polish flags—a clear chist squat,25 and burned a sentry booth and red flags and images of the White effort to ensure that racist and White su- in front of the Russian embassy. In 2014, Eagle. Together and each in their own premacist banners would not be visible at during clashes with marchers, 51 police way, we make use of the most precious an event led by the president. On October officers were injured and over 270 people good—our freedom. I really want—and 29, two weeks before the event, a spokes- were detained.26 Yet the number of par- I know that this expectation is shared person for the President and the Speaker ticipants seemed to steadily increase. by many Poles—that these good feel- of the Parliament announced separately Although estimates vary depending on ings and the message of today’s holiday that neither the President nor any PiS who’s doing the counting, between 2013 will accompany us all every day. 30 politicians would take part in the March and 2015, more than 50,000 people were With this official welcome, the March of Independence.35 said to have taken part each year. of Independence crossed over into the On November 7, four days before This impressive mobilization was rec- political mainstream, even as some par- the event, Warsaw then-Mayor Hanna ognized by far-right organizations and ticipants still broadcast White national- Gronkiewicz-Waltz intervened to try to political parties, but also by Jarosław ist messages, including banners in 2017 stop the March, claiming that there was Kaczyński’s ruling right-wing Law and that read, “Pure blood, clear mind,” or a serious threat of public disorder and Justice party (PiS). Seeking to capitalize “White Europe of Brotherly Nations.”31 violence during the event.36 The mayor’s on the demonstration’s popularity, PiS This reality prompted Guy Verhof- decision went before the courts, and leaders defended the event against accu- stadt, the liberal former prime minister Duda invited Prime Minister Mateusz sations that it was a fascist rally (while si- of Belgium, to condemn the event as Morawiecki to discuss the matter to find multaneously attempting to marginalize “60,000 fascists march[ing] in the streets a way to save the event commemorating the organizers and distance themselves of Warsaw—neo-Nazis [and] white Poland’s 100th Independence Day. from antisemitic messages), and PiS supremacists.”32 In response to Verhof- The same day, without waiting for the members regularly joined the march. stadt’s criticism, Bawer Aondo-Akaa, a court’s decision, Duda announced that In 2015, after PiS won the presidential Polish anti-abortion activist, sued him.33 the March of Independence would be re- and parliamentary elections, opportuni- Aondo-Akaa, who had participated in placed by an alternative “White and Red” ties for the party to support the march the March, was born to a Nigerian father, March, which, as an official state event, increased. March organizers had long and uses a wheelchair—facts he would was beyond the power of Warsaw’s mayor blamed counter-protestors and the po- argue in his lawsuit to “prove” the march to prevent. Organizers of the March of lice for disturbances in previous years.27 was not racist, and therefore couldn’t be Independence interpreted the announce- After PiS took power, the police presence described as neonazi. The case remains ment as an attempt to take over their at the march became virtually invisible, open as of this writing. event and decided to march anyway, re- as officers concealed themselves on side gardless of the president’s plans. streets, behind buildings, and under THE CENTENNIAL MARCH ENTERS THE The next day, November 8, the district bridges. As a consequence, violence has POLISH MAINSTREAM court overruled the mayor’s decision, cit- decreased significantly,28 even though In 2018, march organizers promoted ing insufficient justification for her -can marginal acts of vandalism still occurred, that year’s event with the slogan “March celing the march and the public’s right to like the burning of the European Union of the Million on the Centenary,” reflect- freedom of assembly.37 flag.29 ing their hopes to attract one million This rapid sequence of events, which Although the media acknowledged the marchers on the 100th anniversary of the happened almost overnight, led to decrease in violence, they also criticized nation’s independence. However, that heightened public emotions and fears of the government’s involvement as a thinly year the celebrations came amid a politi- disorder. In the end, there were two In- disguised romance between the ruling cal atmosphere even tenser than usual, dependence Day marches in Warsaw on party and the Far Right, whose support due to steps taken by the president, the November 11: the so-called presidential PiS seemed to be courting. At both the mayor of Warsaw, the government, and or White and Red March, which had the

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 27 status of a state celebration, and the na- two large radical organizations, the All- ment in October 2019 with 11 deputies tionalists’ annual event. Polish Youth and the National-Radical (representing 6.81 percent of votes), PiS The result was the largest event in the Camp—broke apart, with the latter criti- has started to fight back against its new history of the march, as approximately cizing march organizers for indulging competitor. And since that competing 250,000 participants took to the streets PiS demands, cooperating with security party is closely tied to the organizers of of Warsaw, according to the Polish Po- forces to prohibit radicals from entering the march, the marchers whom PiS once welcomed into the mainstream have since become its political enemies. The outcome at the march in Novem- ber 2019 included complaints that march organizers and activists were harassed by police intelligence officials,41 despite the fact that policing of the march has remained low-key and official state media continues to cover the event enthusiastically, highlighting marchers’ patriotism and minimizing allegations of radicalism. On the other hand, the visual appearance of the 2019 March bore a greater resemblance to the mainstreamed centennial march than those that had come earlier: Polish colors dominated, there were fewer visible fascist symbols, and the march was hailed as the least vio- An estimated 250,000 people participated in the two near-simultaneous marches, resulting in one of the lent to date. (However, its martial atmo- world’s largest right-wing gatherings. Credit: Konrad Lembcke/Flickr. sphere—of flares, firecrackers, and- ag gressive chants—remained unchanged.) lice.38 Both marches followed a nearly the march, and generally being too main- Only the future will show whether the identical route, and took place at near- stream.40 March of Independence—now compet- ly the same time, meaning that even Second, PiS began distancing itself ing both against a more moderate PiS and though the presidential march started from the march and its organizers, sens- the farther-right activists of the National- first, many participants weren’t sure ing that the potential for mobilizing Radical Camp—will continue to be one of which event they were taking part in. In march supporters into PiS voters was out- Poland’s biggest street events and one of the end, because the presidential event weighed by the risk that another party the world’s largest right-wing gatherings. had heavy security, only around 3,000 might recruit them instead. Indeed, this people were able to take part in the offi- is exactly what happened shortly after Piotr Kocyba works on illiberal social activ- cial, state-organized march.39 Most peo- the 2018 march, when two right-wing ism. His research interest began with a survey and participatory observation during a ple, intentionally or not, participated in parties, the National Movement (Ruch PEGIDA demonstration in Dresden. PEGI- the nationalists’ March of Independence. Narodowy) and KORWiN (established by DA (Patriotic Europeans against the Islam- ization of Europe) is the most successful The visual appearance of the 2019 March bore a greater right-wing protest movement in post-war resemblance to the mainstreamed centennial march than Germany. Piotr is now leading a research project that surveys protestors in Poland, those that had come earlier: Polish colors dominated, focusing mainly on the little-studied right- there were fewer visible fascist symbols, and the march wing demonstrations. was hailed as the least violent to date. Małgorzata Łukianow is a PhD candidate the aforementioned Janusz Korwin-Mik- at the Institute of Philosophy and Sociol- DEVELOPMENTS AFTER THE CENTENNIAL ogy of the Polish Academy of Sciences and MARCH OF INDEPENDENCE ke, a politician closely tied to the march), fused into a new radical-right party called a social researcher in collective memory Despite the confusion surrounding the Confederation Liberty and Independence and collective action. As a research assistant within the project surveying protestors centennial march, the event was a huge (Konfederacja Wolność i Niepodległość). in Poland, she studies demonstrations in success in terms of mobilization, me- This new party, called Confederation for Warsaw using the methodology of protest dia coverage, and further mainstream- short, quickly grew into a serious threat surveys, with special attention to far-right ing. But this triumph came at a price. to PiS’s absolute majority. Recently, after and conservative movements and demon- First, the coalition of organizers—led by Confederation entered the new parlia- strations.

28 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 BY MADDALENA GRETEL CAMMELLI

Third Millennium Fascism: Highlights from Italy

CasaPound official band ZetaZeroAlfa on May 26, 2012. Credit: grigioscuro/Flickr.

he annual spring Salone Inter- the event: Altaforte Edizioni, a recently at the time, Italy’s Minister of Interior. nazionale del Libro in Turin established publishing house directly With the book’s publication, an alliance is not just a book fair, but one associated with CasaPound Italia (CPI), emerged at the public level linking Sal- of Italy’s most important cul- the political movement whose activ- vini’s League with CPI. turalT events: five days of debates, book ists define themselves as “fascists of the This episode wasn’t the first of its kind, presentations, and discussions with third millennium”—a modern continu- but it unquestionably changed the level writers from Italy and around the world, ation of Italy’s fascist history. Italian an- of institutionalization and general accep- featuring countless publishers’ stands tifascists, intellectuals, and writers pro- tance that neofascism has been able to spread across the Lingotto exhibition tested the inclusion of Altaforte1 and the secure in modern Italy. And that main- hall. But in May 2019, the fair instead Auschwitz-Birkenau museum of Poland streaming was largely thanks to CPI, a offered a barometer of the tensions Italy threatened to withdraw its participa- movement and political party born in was facing surrounding the resurgence, tion.2 Rome in 2003. or continued presence, of fascism in the Altaforte’s books mainly revolve third millennium. For days, news head- around a revisionist history of Italian THE HISTORY OF CASAPOUND ITALIA lines focused on the book fair, but not, fascism, and the publishing house in- The CasaPound movement emerged this time, because of its programming tended to use the fair to launch a book in 2003, when a group of young activ- or talks. Rather, the media’s attention profiling far-right politician Matteo- Sal ists occupied a seven-story building in stemmed from the fact that a new pub- vini, federal secretary of the League (for- downtown Rome with the declared in- lisher had been allowed to exhibit at merly the Northern League party) and, tent of opposing what they defined as

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 29 the “usury” of the Roman rental market.3 This word, “usury,” was an explicit reference to the term used by American poet Ezra Pound in his Cantos, denouncing the banking system. The movement saw Ezra Pound—perhaps the most prominent U.S. literary figure to embrace fascism, via a critique of the banking system based in antisemitic conspiracism4—as its mentor, and their name reflected a dual reference: on one side, their attention to the housing (“Casa”) crisis in Italy, and, on the other, their adoption of Pound’s name to denounce the banking system. CasaPound was an integral part of the Fiamma Tricolore political party, one among the galaxy of right-wing parties founded after an Italian political crisis in 1994.5 The building they occupied was located near Rome’s Termini railway station, CasaPound headquarters, originally occupied by activists in 2003 and still in use by the movement today. in an ethnically diverse neighborhood Credit: b. n./Flickr. populated mainly by Chinese and Ben- gali immigrants—a fact that led them independent political party in 2012).7 In banks, justified by the charge that bank- to declare the building the “Italian Em- the Lazio regional elections in February ers and their families—allegedly always bassy.” It wasn’t the only building they (the region of which Rome is the capi- tied to foreign multinational corpora- occupied; several years later, members tal), it obtained 0.8 percent of the vote.8 tions—constitute the core cause of social of the group also occupied an abandoned In local elections in Rome that May, the injustice in Italy. CPI’s political platform former train station, which they called same Casa Pound candidate received 0.6 is clearly inspired by Benito Mussolini’s “Area 19, Postazione Nemica” (“Area 19, percent.9 In 2016 these numbers almost 1943 “Manifesto of Verona.”17 While doubled, to 1.14 percent of the they have eliminated explicit references The innovation CPI seeks to inject vote in Rome,10 and as high as to the racist policies of the epoch,18 their into the world of neofascism isn’t a 6 percent in other cities such original written agenda contained an en- as Bolzano,11 and as high as 8 tire paragraph copied verbatim from the specific policy program so much as percent in Lucca in 2017,12 en- Manifesto (although they don’t present it a new way of doing politics. abling the party to place several as a quote).19 delegates on municipal coun- In terms of its political style, CPI has Enemy Position”) and used for concerts cils. But in the administrative election succeeded in modernizing many of the and other public events. The activists of 2018, CPI got just 0.95 percent of the proposals already present in the legacy of were eventually evicted from Area 19 in vote,13 and in 2019, the party disbanded, Italian neofascism. Most striking is the 2015, but the group held on to its “Ital- reverting to an independent movement attention it grants to communication20 ian Embassy,” which is still occupied by with a focus on influencing far-right through multiple channels, including movement activists and today serves as youth culture, via publications, clothing social networks;21 its construction of an both the group’s organizational head- brands, and music.14 original and novel language; and its use quarters and its symbolic home. of provocative media campaigns, such as In 2006, CasaPound activists estab- A POLITICAL AND CULTURAL PROGRAM squadrismo mediatico or “media squad- lished Blocco Studentesco, a branch CPI’s political agenda incorporates rism” (discussed more later). The inno- devoted to forming collectives in high many points central to the fascist vation CPI seeks to inject into the world schools and universities and present- tradition,15 including a focus on housing of neofascism isn’t a specific policy pro- ing candidates for student government and the group’s proposed Mutuo Sociale gram so much as a new way of doing poli- elections. In 2008 the group broke with legislation, which would grant Italian tics. As their neofascist guru Gabriele Fiamma Tricolore and CPI became an families who have resided in their region Adinolfi has said: “push away everything independent association with offices in for at least five years the right to home that is far right, and take back everything many major Italian cities.6 Five years lat- ownership by building new housing.16 that is fascist.”22 er, in 2013, CPI participated for the first The proposed legislation also features Alongside its political platform and time in local elections (after becoming an a provision to nationalize the country’s presence, CPI also grew as a cultural

30 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 movement largely based around the Oi! scend yourself,” and a matter of destiny he led a group of around 20 CPI activists punk rock band ZetaZeroAlfa, whose in which “preserving that community is in attacking young protestors with iron members were among the first to occupy like preserving your own life.”27 bars while wearing motorcycle helmets, CasaPound’s “Italian Embassy.” ZetaZ- The process of becoming involved in injuring many.35 Polacchi spoke to po- While in the past fascist rituals consisted of militaristic parades and marches, among third millennium fascists, music, concerts, and even a shared fashion assume that role. eroAlfa’s frontman, Gianluca Iannone, the CPI community unfolds through lice on CPI’s behalf, and YouTube videos leads both the musical group and the po- the same kind of dynamics described by of the incident reveal officers’ seeming litical movement, and CPI as a movement George Mosse28 in relation to the “new familiarity with him, as they called him largely developed around the band.23 If politics” of the Third Reich, wherein by his first name.36 At the time, Polac- the “Italian Embassy” is where the move- rites and rituals help generate and grant chi headed CPI’s school-based branch, ment started, CPI’s second occupation in structure to the political agenda.29 While Blocco Studentesco. And the year before Rome, “Area 19, Enemy Position”—what in the past such rites consisted of milita- the demonstration, in 2007, Polacchi Albanese calls the “temple” of ZetaZero- ristic parades and marches, among third had been accused of attempted murder Alfa24—became the site where the com- millennium fascists, music, concerts, as a result of a violent clash in Sardinia.37 munity has been able to meet, take shape and even a shared fashion30 assume the (Ultimately, the statute of limitations for and grow. While the station was occu- primary role of rituals that spread the the crime expired in 2017.38) But despite pied, it played a central role in the third leader’s authority through song lyrics. that history of violence, Polacchi was millennium fascist movement, hosting among the CPI leaders present at the din- meetings and concerts alike. INTERACTION WITH THE LEAGUE ner with Salvini and owns and manages Within the movement, there’s a fo- The electoral success of the League the Pivert clothing brand through which cus on hierarchy and obedience, virtues since Matteo Salvini became federal sec- Salvini signaled his enduring support.39 that activists interpret as absolute trust retary in 2013, and Salvini’s later appoint- in the rightness of their leader. There’s ment as Minister of the Interior (a posi- CONCRETE VIOLENCE AND “MEDIA also an element of ritualized violence— tion he held from March 2018 to August SQUADRISM” something very much in keeping with 2019), is only the latest development to When controversy erupted over CPI’s fascism’s sacralization of violence and attest to the speed with which fascist cul- presence at the Turin book fair, Polac- emphasis on militarized masculinism. ture is spreading and constructing a new chi declared that the journalist who’d During ZetaZeroAlfa concerts, an in- consensus.31 Salvini had repeatedly dem- first condemned their participation was teresting phenomenon called Cinghia- onstrated his friendship with CPI, both “a moral instigator” whom he’d hold re- mattanza occurs. The term derives from through a formal alliance (called Sovra- sponsible for “any aggression against Al- one of the band’s songs, which describes nità) the League made with CPI in 2015, taforte Edizioni at the Salone.”40 Polacchi’s fighting with belts, and when it’s- per as well as through less-institutional pub- thinly veiled threat was published in ma- formed, CPI activists remove their belts lic displays of kinship.32 In 2015 for ex- jor Italian press outlets, enabling CPI to and hit each other with them,25 as the ample, Salvini was photographed having use the media to intimidate its critics.41 lyrics encourage them to do: “Cinghia- dinner with CPI leaders;33 after the spring The same was true of a declaration Polac- mattanza! First, I take off my belt;/ Two, 2018 elections, he attended a football chi made outside the fair after protests the dance begins /Three: I aim well;/ four cinghiamattanza.”26 Violence, in this perspective, is not only a tool for This expression of “symbolic vio- building group identity and a sense of belonging, but also lence,” as one CPI sympathizer termed it, is perhaps best understood as an expres- a tool for gaining visibility, appearing on newspapers’ sion of activists’ deep commitment to the front pages, and seizing a space of power. movement. Far from just filling out a ballot in a voting booth, their participation match wearing a jacket made by Pivert, a led to his being banned from entrance. has powerful existential value. For them, clothing brand created by prominent CPI “I’m fascist. Antifascism is the real prob- CPI is experienced first and foremost as a supporters.34 lem of this country,”42 he said in a state- community of struggle, and belonging to Francesco Polacchi, the founder and ment that was quoted uncritically by the it is a matter of lived experience in which chief editor of Altaforte Edizioni who press.43 sacrificing one’s life for the community sought to participate in the Turin book Declarations and threats like these are is naturalized. As one CPI activist ex- fair, is among CPI’s leading members. He central to CPI’s longstanding strategy of plained to me, “It’s a way of experiencing first gained notoriety in 2008 when, dur- what they call “media squadrism.” In things that naturally leads you to tran- ing a student demonstration in Rome, Italian, “squadrismo” has a specific his-

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 31 torical connotation, referring to the vio- latest institutional figure to lend CPI his the movement had misappropriated her lence the Fascist “blackshirts” committed explicit support. In 2009, Paola Concia, father’s name to advocate violence. The in the early 1920s to suppress their politi- a well-known Partito Democratico parlia- judge in Rome who heard the case, how- cal opponents and gain power.44 CPI third ment member, took part in a CPI-orga- ever, declared that CPI’s name was suf- millennium fascists have not hesitated to nized debate on LGBTQ issues, helping ficiently distinct from Pound’s, and that claim this legacy as a source of political grant the group legitimacy.46 Addition- “it did not legitimate the use of violence identity and historical legitimization, ally, after CPI first occupied its so-called under the poet’s name.”52 That verdict giving direction and meaning to its acts “Italian Embassy” in 2003, no Roman was supported by a 2015 letter from the of violence.45 mayor, from either the Center-Left or the Ministry of the Interior and Office of the Just as in the 20th Century, the con- Right, attempted to reclaim the building Prefect of Police, which described CPI temporary diffusion of fascist culture and for 16 years. (In 2019, finally, the city’s activists as motivated by “a manifest and political mobilization is closely linked new mayor, Virginia Raggi of the Five declared wish to support a reappraisal of Star Movement, made a tepid suggestion fascism’s most innovative aspects” and to take the building back, but it wasn’t a “primary engagement for protecting acted upon. To date, the building is still the poor.”53 The letter acknowledged the occupied by third millennium fascist episodic violence that surrounds CPI but activists.) Likewise, CPI as an organiza- blamed it on “so-called militant anti-fas- tion has suffered no consequences for its cism,” which refused to recognize CPI’s members’ repeated acts of violence,47 in- “right to engage in political activity.” It cluding a 2011 massacre in Florence, in was the same argument, delivered from which a CPI sympathizer killed two Sene- on high, that Francesco Polacchi would galese migrant workers and injured three make in Turin in 2019: casting CPI vio- more before killing himself.48 Although lence as strictly defensive, and blaming the episode drew public outrage, journal- anti-fascists for any conflicts that arose ists and politicians—notably including from his movement. Mayor of Florence Matteo Renzi—parrot- What happened in Turin last year is ed CPI’s defense that the killer was men- just one example of how Italy’s fascist tally ill.49 Press outlets only denounced past is resurging in the present moment, the massacre as a racist act, never point- granting meaning and identity to neofas- ing out its ties to fascist thought—par- cist activists, and taking up concrete po- ticularly fascist idealization of violence litical space across Italian society. These as sacrifice by a movement martyr—and developments go far beyond individual failed to denounce the killer’s connec- debates about the existence of a move- tions with CPI ideology and organizing. ment, group, party, or publishing house. In recent years, CPI’s continued focus What’s at stake is the way in which Italy on fierce anti-immigrant and anti-ref- confronts—or fails to confront—its own ugee sentiment, as the movement has past, and how that past is now permeat- Anti-fascist protest art featuring Matteo Salvini, organized countless demonstrations in ing deeply into Italian society, shaping it taken on December 14, 2019. Credit: duncan c/Flickr. front of refugee centers, has led to fur- according to its own image. ther acts of violence. In 2016, a Nigerian to two distinct but parallel elements. refugee was beaten to death by a CPI sym- Maddalena Gretel Cammelli received her On one side lies violence as a practice, pathizer in Fermo, a small town in cen- PhD in Social Anthropology from the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales connected to a concrete past that’s been tral Italy, who’d insulted the victim’s wife (EHESS), Paris; and the University of Ber- transformed into a foundational mythol- by calling her an “African monkey.”50 In gamo, with a thesis about the neofascist ogy. Violence, in this perspective, is not 2018, a massacre almost broke out in CasaPound movement in Italy. She has only a tool for building group identity nearby Macerata when a neofascist ac- published books and articles on the subject and a sense of belonging, but also a tool tivist from the League shot all the Black in English, French and Italian. She was a for gaining visibility, appearing on news- people he encountered on the street, in- research fellow and is currently teaching 51 papers’ front pages, and seizing a space juring six. anthropology at the University of Bologna. of power. It is a strategy for provoking Despite these incidents, CPI has con- www.maddalenagretelcammelli.net/ fear and taking concrete steps in the pur- tinually evaded repercussions for its ac- suit of power. tivists’ actions. On the other hand, there are concrete In 2016, the group escaped conse- links to institutional power through the quences in the civil court system as well, political support CPI has received since when a lawsuit was brought against CPI its inception. Matteo Salvini is only the by Ezra Pound’s daughter, charging that

32 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 BY RAMON H. ROYANDOYAN AND MARIO BRAGA

Right-Wing Populism Outside the Global North: Brazil and the Philippines

President Rodrigo Duterte of the Philippines and President Jair Bolsonaro of Brazil Credit: Ace R Morandante/Wikimedia Commons and Alan Santos/Flickr.

ver the last several years, that were propelled by national popu- and what sets them apart. And far from countries including the list movements: the election of Donald being limited to countries like the U.S. or U.S., UK, Turkey, Hungary, Trump in the United States and the Unit- UK, these historic shifts are also found in Poland, and Spain have wit- ed Kingdom’s “Brexit” referendum about contemporary Brazil and the Philippines. nessedO the rise of authoritarian lead- leaving the European Union. The authors The way Brazilian President Jair Bolson- ers and the return of politicians posing lay out four elements—the “four Ds”—in- aro and his Filipino counterpart Rodrigo as defenders of the “will of the people.” trinsic to the emergence of national pop- Duterte operate bears many similarities Right-wing populism is back in fashion ulism that were evident in both episodes: to right-wing populists in the Global worldwide, but the reasons for its ascen- the electorate’s distrust of politicians and North. However, the distinct socio-eco- sion aren’t the same everywhere. In the institutions; fears about the potential nomic backdrop they are embedded in Global South, Brazil and the Philippines destruction of national identity and ways necessitates adaptations to the populist have elected national populist presidents of life; a sense of economic deprivation playbook. and offer an opportunity to understand relative to other societal groups; and the The fact that immigration—which fu- the development of such trends in differ- dealignment between voters and main- els much populist anger in the U.S. and ent social and economic backdrops. stream parties. Western Europe—is not a major concern In their 2018 book, National Populism: These trends set the stage for rising in Brazil or the Philippines, for instance, The Revolt Against Liberal Democracy, populism and having them as param- means that Bolsonaro and Duterte must Roger Eatwell and Matthew Goodwin eters helps identify what populist move- tap other concerns to amass popular analyze two political episodes in 2016 ments across the globe have in common support. And as two young democracies

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 33 that emerged from dictatorships in the ing stipends for housing, clothing, trips, quested information from 61 countries 1980s, with comparatively weaker insti- and staffing, that difference increases and has so far traced trillions of dollars in tutions, these two populist leaders have eightfold,3 making Brazil’s Congress the transactions related to bribery schemes.5 implemented policies with more sinister second-most expensive globally—trail- It’s little wonder that, according to a re- results, from the arrest of journalists to ing only the U.S.—with each federal cent World Economic Forum survey of the political persecution of members of legislator costing U.S. $7.4 million an- 137 countries, Brazilian citizens trust the judiciary to mass police killings. nually.4 Despite this, the quality of pub- their politicians the least.6 To understand the phenomena that lic services lags far behind those in de- Similarly, the Philippines consistently Like populists elsewhere, Duterte’s and Bolsonaro’s firebrand discourse have helped shape their image as unorthodox candidates who can overhaul corrupt, oligarchic regimes and give voice to the public’s aspirations.

boosted Duterte and Bolsonaro to pow- veloped economies, fueling the public’s ranks poorly in global corruption percep- er—and which may elevate other right- reproach of the political establishment. tion surveys.7 The nation has one of the wing populists in developing countries— Endemic corruption, which is also highest income tax rates in Asia8 but its it’s paramount to analyze how they fit more acute in the Global South, has also social services and healthcare system into the global populism puzzle. nurtured popular distrust toward main- leave much to be desired. In recent years, stream politics. Although individual traffic in the capital city of Manila has so EXPLOITING DISTRUST malfeasance has been a perennial prob- deteriorated that it became a focus of the There are many reasons for the global lem in Brazil, an onslaught of scandals 2016 presidential election, mirroring the disconnect between nations’ political involving prominent businessmen, bu- public’s clamor for improvements in pub- establishments and their electorates. reaucrats, and politicians has outraged lic transportation and infrastructure. Against the backdrop of unpopular political elites, populists can find their way to power by posing as outsiders in their rhetoric. Like populists elsewhere, Duterte’s and Bolsonaro’s firebrand discourse have helped shape their image as unorthodox candidates who can overhaul corrupt, oligarchic regimes and give voice to the public’s aspirations. In Brazil, Bolsonaro won the presidency in 2018 by running as an outsider, despite having served seven terms as a congressman.9 Over his 28 years in office and in the lead-up to his campaign, he praised the military dictatorship that ruled the country from 1964 to 1985, ex- pressed support for torture,10 and argued that police officers should not always be prosecuted for civilian deaths during law enforcement operations.11 Among his most controversial statements,12 the retired army captain simulated machine-gunning his op- Bolsonaro styles himself as the “average Brazilian,” appealing to middle class Brazilian voters. Photo taken November 1, 2015. Credit: Família Bolsonaro/Flickr. ponents; suggested that a community of Black Brazilians, who are descended Among them, Eatwell and Goodwin note, the public for the past six years. What from enslaved people, were livestock; are the higher levels of education and started as a money-laundering probe in said that Indigenous people have no cul- income that separate politicians from 2014 involving petrol stations and car ture and are “increasingly becoming hu- their voters.1 Those disparities are ex- washes morphed into one of the biggest man beings”;13 told a congresswoman she ponentially higher in the Global South. anti-corruption operations in the world. didn’t “deserve” to be raped; and declared In Brazil, a member of Congress earns The continuing Federal Police investi- himself a proud homophobe14 who would 32 times the minimum wage.2 Consider- gation, known as “Car Wash,” has re- rather any son of his be dead than gay.

34 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte’s power is with the president.”26 government subscriptions.35 He later re- leap into politics also came on the heels The president has the final say in bud- treated amid backlash from civil society of dictatorship in the mid-1980s, when getary matters, is capable of using bu- organizations and a lawsuit charging he was appointed vice-mayor of Davao reaucratic technicalities to oust chief jus- that the move was unconstitutional.36 City, and sought to clean the streets of tices—as Duterte27 and his predecessor Bolsonaro has since directly attacked the systemic corruption and criminals linked Benigno Aquino III28 both did—and has paper’s reporters and barred them from to the illegal drug trade.15 His campaign the means to go after dissidents within covering events he attended.37 In 2019, for the presidency 30 years later, on an government.29 Institutions forced to act the press was attacked 11,000 times per anti-crime and -corruption platform,16 as referees, like the Supreme Court, end day on Brazilian social media, according was similarly colored by curveball re- up in the crossfire of polarized political to a study on threats to freedom of ex- marks, with Duterte joking about raping battles, further undermining democratic pression by the Brazilian Association of a missionary and riding a jet-ski to the values. Radio and Television Broadcasters.38 South China Sea to defend sovereignty,17 “Lawfare,”30 or the use of the legal ap- In the Philippines, government-backed and boasting about riding a motorcycle paratus in political disputes, is also on tax violation and cyber-libel lawsuits against journalist Maria Ressa and Phil- Bolsonaro and Duterte, along with Donald Trump, ippine news website Rappler,39 as well France’s Marine Le Pen, and Hungary’s Viktor Orbán, as threats to not renew a Philippine TV network’s40 operating license, exemplify all use the free press as a punching bag and sow distrust Duterte’s repression of an independent toward journalism and other pillars of liberal democracies. press. The worst incident to date was the 2019 arrest of Ressa, Rappler’s Execu- tive Editor, for cyber-libel, among other and shooting criminal suspects dead.18 the rise in Brazil, as the number of chal- charges.41 In 2019, the Freedom for Me- In 2016, he was elected to a six-year term lenges to Bolsonaro’s decrees and deci- dia, Freedom for All Network found that with 39 percent,19 or 16 million20 votes, sions brought before the Supreme Court Filipino journalists faced at least 154 in- shocking the global political arena. has reached record levels.31 The increas- cidents of attacks and personal threats Duterte’s rhetoric resonated deeply ing involvement of the judiciary in politi- since Duterte’s election.42 among the country’s newly rising middle cal affairs, a trend that has been going on On top of these obvious attacks on the class,21 which saw in his braggadocio, for years,32 upsets the balance between free press, both Duterte and Bolsonaro sleazy jokes, and brutal frankness one the three branches of government. In resorted to well-structured social media of their own.22 “His populism is more one of his latest controversies, in March operations that spread misinformation street-type,” said political analyst Ramon 2020, Bolsonaro called on the public to and heightened public distrust of the me- Casiple, executive director of the Manila- attend street demonstrations against the dia by labeling factual journalism as fake based advocacy group Institute for Politi- Supreme Court and the Congress, and in news. cal and Electoral Reform. “He thinks like favor of his administration. (He eventu- Bolsonaro’s election bid was boosted the man on the street. That’s the mayor in ally backtracked due to concerns of mass by a Whatsapp social media campaign him…He can make a statement today and gatherings amid the COVID-19 outbreak wherein public relations agencies—il- the next day set it aside; he doesn’t want but later attended the demonstration and legally paid for by right-wing business- to be predictable.”23 took pictures with supporters.)33 men—spread misinformation to millions Political analysts in Brazil point out Such direct attacks on democratic in- of people online, as reporting by Folha de that Bolsonaro’s campaign had a similar stitutions connect Bolsonaro and Duterte S.Paulo revealed, and multiple subse- strategy. From seemingly improvised live to other world leaders among the global quent studies43 and analyses confirmed.44 broadcasts on social media to wearing ca- Right, including U.S. President Donald Duterte used Facebook in a similar sual attire to formal events, he strived to Trump, French far-right leader Marine Le fashion. According to a 2016 investi- appear like an average Brazilian, whom Pen, and Hungarian Prime Minister Vik- gation by Rappler, in the lead up to the voters could identify with.24 tor Orbán. All five use the free press as Philippines 2016 election,45 Duterte’s a punching bag and sow distrust toward campaign paid trolls to spread misinfor- TARGETING INSTITUTIONS journalism, another pillar of liberal de- mation and amplify their message. The Power in the Philippines has been con- mocracies. campaign later admitted the practice and centrated within the executive branch In September 2019, Bolsonaro mim- acknowledged they continued with the since the collapse of the Marcos dictator- icked Donald Trump in labeling main- operation months after Duterte’s elec- ship in 1986.25 “We’ve come to a situa- stream media “the enemy.”34 That tion, to influence public opinion and tion where every politician wants to be October, also following a move by his strengthen support for his agenda.46 the president. Nothing else. Not even American counterpart, Bolsonaro picked Cambridge Analytica, the now-defunct vice-president, not even senator,” Ca- a fight with national newspaper Folha de British political consulting firm impli- siple noted. “Because the money and the S.Paulo, announcing the cancellation of cated in both Russia’s meddling in the

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 35 U.S. 2016 election and for harvesting threatening the idealized national iden- they have fear of theft, robbery, being political data from millions of Facebook tity he pledges to protect. laid off.”63 Duterte’s presidential run users, has conceded that it used Duterte’s In both Brazil and the Philippines, ris- tapped into this wellspring of fear, eco- social media strategy as a blueprint for ing violence, crime, or drug use had in- nomic insecurity, and instability. Donald Trump’s 2016 U.S. presidential spired generally unsuccessful promises campaign.47 of change from previous federal and lo- DEPRIVATION cal governments, prior to Bolsonaro54 The economy also plays a role in the DESTRUCTION and Duterte.55 Some of the problems are populist agenda, which plays out in dis- In the Global North, populists have real. In 2017, for example, Brazil record- tinct ways in developed and develop- prospered by playing to people’s percep- ed 63,880 murders56—a rate of violent ing countries. Heydarian64 argues that tion that their way of living and national deaths six times higher that of the United the current political scenarios in Brazil identity are threatened by newcomers States. and the Philippines can be described as from abroad. Inciting anti-immigration Some of the problems, on the other “emerging market populism,” as they sentiment among portions of the middle hand, are exaggerated. Duterte’s cam- have different causes than more mature class hurt by globalization is leveraging paign leveraged Filipinos’ fears57 that democracies and operate in institutional what Eatwell and Goodwin describe as crime and drug use were rampant, and environments with comparatively fewer the sentiment of destruction among vot- exacerbated those concerns by inflating checks and balances.65 ers. data for drug addiction in the Philip- In societies where inequality prolifer- As immigration is not a major political pines—classifying people who admitted ates, the middle class grew frustrated

The failure of political elites to provide quality social services, safer streets, or to meet the demands of those lifted out of poverty led many to begin doubting the efficiency of the political system as a whole, and to consider trying something different.

issue in the Global South, populists there to using drugs just once as “addicts.”58 with policies favoring the poor over their have had to adapt this strategy. They Relying on inflated statistics, the -Phil interests.66 In Brazil, socioeconomic urge radical solutions to longstanding ippine Drug Enforcement Agency sug- improvements achieved in the 2000s social ills, like crime and drug dealing, to gested that 92 percent59 of Metro Manila’s stagnated in the following decade, then appeal to a public fatigued by traditional villages had a drug problem; Duterte plunged, between 2014 and 2016, as the politics that have failed to solve such promised that if he won, “change [was] country faced one of the worst recessions problems. Arguing that the population coming.”60 in its history,67 sending 4.5 million68 is currently worse off than in the past, In these ways, both politicians argued people back into poverty and fomenting Bolsonaro praises the military regime by that a safe and orderly way of life was un- social unrest. Approval ratings for sitting claiming that there was less corruption, der threat, in order to crystallize support politicians cratered,69 creating a void more economic prosperity, and safer nationwide. Filipino scholar and politi- ready to be filled. streets back then.48 These are all ques- cal analyst Richard Heydarian describes Bolsonaro spoke to a society hurt by tionable arguments, but by tailoring pop- Duterte’s base as Filipino workers from economic decline and spiking unemploy- ulist tactics to the local reality, he evokes the emerging middle class, including ment. The sense of relative economic de- a sense of destruction of an idealized past many in the business outsourcing sec- privation was disseminated in ways simi- among his voters. tor, who have worked in the Middle East lar to those in the U.S. and the UK, where Bolsonaro has also pledged to govern and Gulf regions to support families back neoliberal policies led to increasing in favor of a so-called traditionalist ma- home.61 As members of this new middle levels of income and wealth concentra- jority, in a reference to his mostly White, class reach better living standards, ar- tion, as Eatwell and Goodwin argue.70 In rich, socially conservative, Christian gues political science scholar Arjan Agu- Brazil, affirmative action developments support base.49 When he says that in Bra- irre, they place greater value on dispos- in the 2000s, both for Black students71 zil “minorities have to bend down to the able goods—a tangible proxy for their entering federal universities and in new majority,”50 he is pointing fingers at Left/ improved way of life—and become more income redistribution programs aimed liberal social movements in favor of gen- impulsive, paranoid, and fearful of petty at elevating the nation’s low-income der equality, LGBTQ rights, affirmative crimes. The prospect of criminals or drug population,72 generated resentment actions for Black communities, and the addicts looking for money appears as a among the middle class, which believed protection of Indigenous populations. threat to not just their property, but their it was being squeezed as the poor rose Instead of scapegoating immigrants, precarious new status.62 from misery but their own road to the up- Bolsonaro’s implicit argument is that “The mindset of the new middle class per class was not clear. feminists,51 human rights activists,52 and is different,” said Aguirre. “Because they In the economic downturn of the mid- non-governmental organizations53 are own disposable material goods [now], 2010s, many saw their living conditions

36 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 actually deteriorate. The share of Brazil- ago.83 Coalitions between political par- labels this facet of populist movements in ians living on less than US $1.9 per day ties are common in election season but the Global South as “penal populism,”85 increased from 4.5 percent in 201473 to either dissolve or become fixtures in the a topic he addresses alongside the role a record high of 6.5 percent in 2018, ac- political landscape.84 of human rights in the age of strongmen cording to the Brazilian Institute of Geog- “In the Philippines and also in Brazil, in a book edited by Harvard Law School’s raphy and Statistics.74 you don’t have party politics, like Demo- Gerald Neuman. Likewise, despite the Philippines be- crats versus Republicans,” Heydarian Duterte’s election has been described ing one the fastest-growing economies said. “There are times when a new leader as the end of post-Marcos Philippine in Asia,75 average Filipinos face shabby comes in, with fresh ideas—even pos- politics—a period marked by liberal living standards, widespread corruption, and bureaucratic red tape. The country consistently ranks poorly among nations in terms of starting businesses, acquiring credit and enforcing contracts, according to the World Bank Doing Business report.76 The failure of political elites to provide quality social services, safer streets, or to meet the demands of those lifted out of poverty led many to begin doubting the efficiency of the political system as a whole, and to consider trying something different, Heydarian notes.77 DEALIGNMENT The fourth element that has opened the doors of Western democracies to national populists is the weakening of bonds between the electorate and traditional parties. The notion of dealignment, however, does not follow suit in the Brazilian and Filipino cases. In contrast to the bipartisan model of the United States, or fairly defined -po Seized firearms on display during a visit by Duterte at the Police Regional Office in General Santos City on litical groups in Western Europe (such as September 23, 2016. Credit: Simeon Celi/Wikimedia Commons. conservatives, greens and social democrats), Brazil has 33 existing political sibly deadly [ideas]—and a majority of reforms prioritizing civil liberties and parties, with 77 others in the process of society is willing to give them a chance good governance. 86 “Dutertismo,”87 as being formed.78 Bolsonaro himself has and say, ‘Well, the problems are so com- the president’s leadership style and so- been a member of eight political parties plicated that his guy may need two, three cioeconomic policies are known, runs and has recently proposed a new one.79 years of carte blanche and then let’s see if in the opposite direction.88 His drug war The Philippines plays host to countless what he did was right or wrong.” is a critical example. In many speeches, political parties, party-lists, and turncoat “Bolsonaro, very similarly to Duterte,” Duterte labeled the illegal drug trade the politicians80 whenever elections draw he added, “kind of sees violence as a ca- source of the Philippines’ problems. His near. Duterte has switched political col- thartic solution.” crackdown employed the “Tokhang”89 ors when it benefited him, abandoning method, a portmanteau of the Filipino his predecessor’s party for a coalition SHOOT TO KILL words for “knock” and “plead.” Police composed of cronies and traditional poli- In both societies, polarizing rhetoric, would go around villages and urban-poor ticians.81 His new party’s name (Hugpong amplified by social media echo - cham communities, knocking on households ng Pagbabago) crudely translates as “Coa- bers, led to further divisions. It also and asking suspected users and pushers lition for Change,” signaling a supposed paved the way for the political leaders to to turn themselves in, leading to arrests, divergence from so-called dirty politics introduce unorthodox policies in the ab- surrenders, and village watch-lists.90 that often characterize the country’s sence of strong checks and balances. Po- Widespread killings resulted, horrify- elections.82 This move is nothing new for lice violence has escalated in Brazil while ing Filipinos as news reports described Filipinos, since this electioneering has Duterte’s bloody inquisition to curb the corpses littering the roadside, but ratio- been around since the country gained in- illegal drug trade has killed thousands of nalized the violence because the victims dependence from Spanish rule 121 years Filipinos, mostly urban poor. Heydarian were drug addicts. Police killed suspect-

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 37 ed drug dealers and users in firefights, of relaxing such rules99 and also reducing built a strong caucus in the Brazilian later claiming they had to fight back de- police liability for civilian deaths, pre- Congress over the past two decades,112 spite reports that many suspects did not senting both ideas as solutions to Brazil’s Bolsonaro pledged to defend “traditional own, and couldn’t afford, guns, as well as widespread public security issues.100 In family values,”113 fight so-called “gender allegations of crime scene tampering.91 2015, he declared that “armed citizens ideology,”114 and put an end to alleged Far more were killed in extrajudicial kill- are a country’s first line of defense.”101 left-wing indoctrination at the country’s ings—a term that became common in the His words turned into action in May schools.115 He has pledged, for instance, Philippines—committed by masked vigi- 2019, when he extended102 the right to to root out the influence of Brazil’s most lantes on motorcycles who left mutilated bear arms to members of 20 different famous educator, Paulo Freire.116 bodies behind in the streets.92 professions, including politicians, truck Brazil’s Minister of Foreign Affairs, The initial death toll—nearly 1,800 in drivers, lawyers, farmers while on their among the most ideological hard-liners the first seven weeks93—prompted global properties, and journalists covering the in Bolsonaro’s cabinet, has claimed glob- headlines and international condemna- police beat. Bolsonaro withdrew that deal warming is a Marxist plot,117 labeled tion. Human rights groups have since cree103 after pushback from Congress104 Nazism a left-wing movement,118 and tallied the number of extrajudicial kill- and the Supreme Court, but shortly is- “denounced the United Nations and oth- ings between 20,000 and 29,000 lives sued three new decrees that loosened the er so-called globalist forces for attempt- since 2016.94 Official government -num requirements for civilians to buy guns ing to supplant true nationalism.”119 bers are far lower, at around 5,000, ac- and keep them at home.105 Bolsonaro has similarly challenged sci- cording to the Philippine Drug Enforce- Bolsonaro has resorted to social media entific data about the Amazon 120 fires ment Agency.95 to incite his supporters to press legisla- and, without any evidence, claimed that NGOs121 and Hollywood actor In the Philippines, where institutions are vulnerable, the country Leonardo DiCaprio122 were re- could be flirting with a transition to an even more authoritarian sponsible for destroying the rainforest. dictatorship. In comparison, in the Phil- ippines, Duterte has some- Ironically, for a politician who pro- tors on the matter.106 In December 2019 times embraced progressive positions on fesses to be vehemently against drug he wrote that firearms registrations had LGBTQ rights, but has flip-flopped over addiction, Duterte has admitted to us- increased by 50 percent while the num- the years.123 At the start of his term, he ing fentanyl96 for pain management ber of deaths fell 22 percent, mocking appointed members of the Left124 to head and marijuana97 to stay awake. Less “experts’” warnings that the opposite the departments of social welfare, agrar- surprising is that the drug war’s brutal- would happen.107 At the time, the most ian reform, and the anti-poverty com- ity morphed into a campaign against the recent data compiled by G1’s Violence mission. Months later, Duterte’s allies in country’s urban poor. The controversial Monitor in partnership with the Brazil- Congress rejected the appointments,125 shoot-to-kill policy that millions of Fili- ian Forum of Public Safety and the Uni- but continued the government’s cash pinos voted for resulted in scores of their versity of São Paulo’s Center for the Study handouts to the neediest.126 Unlike his neighbors being gunned down, as most of Violence indicated a 22 percent yearly Brazilian counterpart, Duterte believes of the dead are users, street dealers, and reduction in violent deaths from January that more action127 is warranted against middlemen, not the bigwigs directing il- to September 2019.108 climate change since developing coun- legal operations. What Bolsonaro did not mention was tries bear the brunt of the devastation. Stronger institutions than those in that police killings are on the rise.109 The Additionally, Duterte enjoys popu- the Philippines may have prevented Bra- most recent data shows that police offi- lar support. His approval ratings have zil from going down a similar path, for cers committed more than 10 percent of soared between 70-85 percent in his now. Although violence is endemic and Brazil’s total homicides recorded in the first three years.128 Despite his veneer of heavily-armed drug dealers control large last year.110 In 2018, young Black boys progressivism on a limited range of is- slums in the country’s cities, Brazilian and men overwhelmingly represented sues, he has also shown that he is anti- gun laws are far stricter than those in the victims of police brutality in Brazil.111 abortion,129 supports the return of the the U.S. For a citizen to buy and have a death penalty for drug-related crimes,130 gun at home, an authorization from the SHADES OF POPULISM embraces crony capitalism,131 and is Federal Police is mandatory. Prospective Although Bolsonaro and Duterte bear deeply misogynistic.132 For Aguirre and gun owners must be over 25, have no many similarities, there are also stark Casiple, Duterte is neither Right nor Left, criminal record and demonstrate techni- differences in their policies, especially but rather “the product of the emergence cal and psychological conditions to use when it comes to social issues. of new conditions,” as Aguirre explains. a firearm. Such a license needs to be re- The Brazilian president campaigned “We produced him; the frustrations of newed every three years.98 on a conservative social agenda. Backed the people made him.”133 Bolsonaro campaigned on a platform by Christian evangelicals, who have This stands in sharp contrast to Bra-

38 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 zil, where Bolsonaro’s approval rat- populist in power, as long as the military a dictatorship, up from 13 percent a year ing dropped to 29 percent in Decem- is not against them, they’ll have an easy before.150 ber 2019,134 down from 35 percent in time railroading their way to consolida- In a broader sense, when emerging April.135 His disapproval rate increased tions of power,” he said.141 In the Philip- market countries leap to right-wing from 27 percent to 38 percent over the pines, where institutions are vulnerable, populism backed by social conservative same period. the country could be flirting with a tran- forces, they also help reshape the inter- sition to an even more national community. Brazilian delega- Even after he leaves the presidential authoritarian dictator- tions to the UN have campaigned to veto Palácio do Planalto, Bolsonaro’s populist ship. the use of the word “gender” in multiple Democratic rup- resolutions,151 shocking Western coun- agenda will remain ingrained in the ture142 is one of the tries but joining the likes of Russia, Saudi country’s political fabric, potentially most serious poten- Arabia, Pakistan, and Bahrain. threatening long-term prospects for tial consequences of Brazil also joined the U.S., Poland, populist movements and Lebanon at the 2nd International democracy. in the Global South. Conference on Christian Persecution,152 In mid-March 2020, Brazilians quaran- However, even if both leaders honor the hosted by Viktor Orbán in Budapest in tined amid the COVID-19 crisis banged law, and allow for a peaceful transition November 2019, marking a stark shift153 pots from windows and balconies on sev- of power, their policies will have long- from the country’s foreign policy154 tra- eral consecutive nights to protest Bolso- lasting effects on Brazilian and Filipino dition of multilateralism.155 And Bolso- naro’s downplaying the pandemic risks societies. naro’s son Eduardo, who chairs the Bra- and his refusal to implement social dis- The same base that elected Duterte zilian Senate’s Commission on Foreign tancing measures nationwide.136 In the has since brought Philippine politics to Affairs and National Defense, has been Philippines, citizens took to social media its knees by wiping out opposition can- named the South American ambassador to condemn preferential COVID-19 test- didates for the senate and congress.143 for Steve Bannon’s far-right group The ing for the political elite, the lack of mass The supermajority144 Duterte’s party now Movement.156 testing for the public, and the messy lo- commands means that even after his Operating similarly as populist leaders gistics of Duterte’s lockdown of the coun- term ends, his vice grip on the legisla- of the Global North and adapting the pop- try’s most populous island.137 tive branch and judiciary may remain in ulist playbook for their local contexts, place. Bolsonaro and Duterte have shown that BEYOND 2022 The normalization of polarizing rheto- radical policies are enactable, attacks on The most obvious reaction to the in- ric has not only affected public discourse institutions can be normalized, and de- creasingly challenging scenario Bolsona- but has contaminated local politics in mocracy enjoys no guarantees of protec- ro is likely to face, as rifts with Congress Brazil. State governors of Rio de Janeiro tion. Given that similar trends may affect multiply and the economy underper- and São Paulo elected in 2018 joined Bol- the other countries in the Global South, forms, came in early March 2020. Bol- sonaro’s radical law-and-order platform, recognizing developing world populism sonaro claimed to have evidence of fraud although they are not political allies145 has become a vital piece of understand- in the 2018 election and that he should and have plans to run for the presidency ing the populist Right’s global expan- have been elected in the first round in the next election themselves.146 Right- sion. vote.138 Again playing to public distrust wing social conservative candidates from of institutions, he challenged journal- police, military, and religious147 back- Ramon H. Royandoyan is a freelance jour- ists to find “one Brazilian who trusts the grounds also won seats in state148 and nalist and researcher from the Philippines who’s set to finish his MA degree from the electoral system.”139 He has not revealed federal legislative houses.149 That sug- Erasmus Mundus journalism program. proof of his claims since. gests that even after he leaves the presi- His reporting has appeared in the Philip- Political analysts warned that such an dential Palácio do Planalto, Bolsonaro’s pine Daily Inquirer, TIME Magazine, alarming statement indicates that by ques- populist agenda will remain ingrained in Buzzfeed News, and The Brazilian Re- tioning the legitimacy of the voting sys- the country’s political fabric, potentially port. tem, Bolsonaro is preemptively seeding threatening long-term prospects for de- doubts about the next election,140 in 2022, mocracy. Mario Braga holds a MA in Journalism, which suggests he might not willingly re- Support for democratic ideals fell dur- Media and Globalization from Aarhus Uni- linquish power if he is not reelected. ing Bolsonaro’s first year in office. The versity (Denmark) and City, University of Duterte is not eligible for reelection share of Brazilians who agreed that de- London (United Kingdom), where he did a after his six-year term ends in 2022. But mocracy is the best form of government year-long specialization in financial jour- the risk that he might also flout the rules declined from 69 percent in 2018 to 62 nalism. He was an Erasmus Mundus schol- concerns Heydarian. “In countries like percent in 2019, while 22 percent said ar and also earned a graduate diploma in the Philippines, Turkey, India, or Indo- they are indifferent to whether the gov- International Relations and Politics from nesia, once you have an authoritarian ernment remains democratic or becomes the São Paulo School of Sociology and Poli- tics Foundation (FESPSP).

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 39 endnotes

The Golden Dawn Model 2018, https://www.yahoo.com/news/neo- https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/is-the- Carlson Tonight April 5, 2018,” YouTube Video, nazi-no-clothes-search-matt-heimbachs-bogus- american-way-of-life-in-danger. April 6, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/ 1. Intelligence Report, “National Alliance lead- white-ethnostate-100027399.html. 5. Ben Lorber, “Taking Aim at Multiracial watch?time_continue=1317&v=zWQvpjYcOIA. er, William Pierce, looks to build far-right alli- 21. Reeve, Elle, “Charlottesville: Race Democracy. Antisemitism, White National- 22. “Factor Investigation: George Soros,” Fox ances,” Southern Poverty Law Center, March 15, and Terror,” Vice News (YouTube), Au- ism, and Anti-Immigrant Racism in the Era of News, April 24, 2007, https://www.foxnews. 1999, https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/ gust 14, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/ Trump,” Political Research Associates, Octo- com/story/factor-investigation-george-soros. intelligence-report/1999/national-alliance- watch?v=RIrcB1sAN8I&t=635s. ber 22, 2019, https://www.politicalresearch. 23. Penny Star, “Sen. David Perdue: Republicans leader-william-pierce-looks-build-far-right- 22. Ibid. org/2019/10/22/taking-aim-multiracial-de- Need to ‘Grow Up’ and Confront ‘Paid Activ- alliances. 23. Psarras, Dimitris, “Εξαγωγή ναζισμού στις mocracy. ists’,” Breitbart, October 4, 2018, https://www. 2. Ibid. ΗΠΑ από τη Χρυσή Αυγή [Export of Nazism to the 6. Dara Lind, “Trump just Tweeted out a Cryp- breitbart.com/politics/2018/10/04/david-per- 3. Psarras, Dimitris, “ΟιφαιοίθείοιαπότοΣικάγο US from the Golden Dawn],” Efsyn, August 19, tic Video of People Getting Money in Span- due-republicans-need-grow-up-confront-paid- [The Great Uncles from Chicago],” EfSyn, Au- 2017, https://www.efsyn.gr/politiki/120937_ ish,” Vox, October 18, 2018, https://www.vox. activists/. gust 28, 2017, https://www.efsyn.gr/politi- exagogi-nazismoy-stis-ipa-apo-ti-hrysi-aygi; com/2018/10/18/17996682/trump-tweet-vid- 24. See for example: Markus Rheindorf and ki/121802_oi-faioi-theioi-apo-sikago. Transla- Chondogiannos, Thodoris, “Οι Φασίστες της eo-spanish. Ruth Wodak, “Borders, Fences, and Limits—Pro- tion by the author. Αμερικής Μιμούνται τη Χρυσή Αυγή [America’s 7. Bess Levin, “Trump: ‘A Lot of People Say’ tecting Austria From Refugees: Metadiscursive 4. Berger, J.M. “Alt History,” The Atlantic, fascists mimic the Golden Dawn],” Vice Greece, George Soros is Funding the Migrant Caravan,” Negotiation of Meaning in the Current Refugee September 16, 2016, https://www.theatlantic. August 16, 2017, https://www.efsyn.gr/poli- Vanity Fair, October 31, 2018, https://www. Crisis,” Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, com/politics/archive/2016/09/how-the-turner- tiki/120937_exagogi-nazismoy-stis-ipa-apo-ti- vanityfair.com/news/2018/10/donald-trump- 2018: VOL. 16, NOS. 1–2, 15–38, https://doi.org diaries-changed-white-nationalism/500039/. hrysi-aygi. george-soros-caravan. /10.1080/15562948.2017.1302032. 5. Tipaldou, Sofia, “The dawning of Europe and 24. Zabrisky, Zabrina, Twitter Post, August 14, 8. Sam Wolfson, “Are Donald Trump’s Claims 25. On the power of nominalization see for Eurasia? The Greek Golden Dawn and its trans- 2017,https://twitter.com/ZarinaZabrisky/sta- about the Caravan of 7,000 Migrants Accurate?” instance: Roger Fowler, Language in the News. national links,” in Eurasianism and the European tus/964651502261317632. The Guardian, October 24, 2018, https://www. Discourse and Ideology in the Press (London: Rout- far right, ed. Marlene Laurelle (Washington, DC: 25. Keep Talking Greece, “Harrowing coalition: theguardian.com/us-news/2018/oct/22/fact- ledge, 1991). Lexington Books, 2017), 193-219. U,S, white supremacists ally with Greek neo-Na- check-trumps-claims-migrant-caravan. 26. MTI, “A Soros-hálózat csalásra, hazudozásra 6. Kostopoulos, Tasos. “Τοκρυφόπρόγραμματης- zis of Golden Dawn,” August 17, 2017, https:// 9. Dara Lind, “Trump just Tweeted out a Cryp- képezi ki a migránsokat” [The Soros-Network ΧρυσήςΑυγής [The secret program of Golden www.keeptalkinggreece.com/2017/08/17/ tic Video of People Getting Money in Span- Trains Migrants to Cheat and Lie], Origo, Dawn],” EfSyn, April 1, 2018, https://www.ef- us-white-supremacist-heimbach-golden-dawn/; ish,” Vox, October 18, 2018, https://www.vox. February 22, 2018, https://www.origo.hu/ syn.gr/stiles/arheio/o-ios/9865_kryfo-program- Golden Dawn, “Matthew Heimbach in Embros: com/2018/10/18/17996682/trump-tweet-vid- itthon/20180222-a-soros-halozat-hazudozasra- ma-tis-hrysis-aygis. The American South will rise again,” August 8, eo-spanish. csalasra-kepzi-ki-a-migransokat.html. 7. Pierce, William Luther. “The National Al- 2017, https://donotlink.it/BnQRk. 10. Prime Minister’s Office, “The Quota System 27. “Soros György Keze a Holland Állami liance in Europe,” The Legacy of Dr. William 26. “Golden Dawn praises White supremacist Has Failed,” website of the Hungarian govern- Televízióig is Elér” [George Soros’s Long Arm Luther Pierce (blog), March 27, 2012, http:// rally in Virginia,” Ekathimerini, August 14, ment, September 29, 2017, https://www.kor- Also Reaches into Dutch Public TV], Origo, williamlutherpierce.blogspot.com/2012/03/ 2017, http://www.ekathimerini.com/220880/ many.hu/en/prime-minister-s-office/news/the- November 10, 2018, https://www.origo.hu/ national-alliance-in-europe.html. article/ekathimerini/news/golden-dawn-prais- quota-system-has-failed. nagyvilag/20181109-holland-nos-soros-cen- 8. Racist Violence Recording Network, “2012 es-white-supremacist-rally-in-virginia; Golden 11. András Bozóki and Dániel Hegedűs, “An zura.html. Annual Report,” April 16, 2013, http://rvrn. Dawn, “Matthew Heimbach in Embros: The Externally Constrained Hybrid Regime: Hun- 28. Logan Smith, “11PM Fox News @ Night with org/2013/04/2012-annual-report/. American South will rise again,” August 8, 2017, gary in the European Union,” Democratization, Shannon Bream 20/06/18 | Fox news | June 20, 9. Tipaldou, Sofia and Katrin Uba, “Golden https://donotlink.it/BnQRk. April 13, 2017, https://www.tandfonline.com/ 2018,” YouTube Video, 21 June 2018, https:// Dawn: How the Greek far right wrote the play- 27. Golden Dawn, “Δυναμική πορεία Αμερικανών doi/full/10.1080/13510347.2018.1455664 www.youtube.com/watch?v=PzVHLRCBptw. book others now use to go mainstream,” The Πατριωτών ενάντια στη λαθρομετανάστευση ; Patrick Kingsley, “As West Fears the Rise of 29. “‘Factor Investigation’: George Soros,” Fox Conversation, August 17, 2018, https://thecon- - Διαλύθηκε η αντισυγκέντρωση των ορφανών Autocrats, Hungary Shows What’s Possible,” News, April 24, 2007, https://www.foxnews. versation.com/golden-dawn-how-the-greek-far- του Σόρος [Dynamic demonstration of Ameri- The New York Times, February 10, 2018, https:// com/story/factor-investigation-george-soros. right-wrote-the-playbook-others-now-use-to-go- can patriots against illegal immigration --the www.nytimes.com/2018/02/10/world/europe/ 30. “Glenn Beck: The Puppet Master,” Fox News, mainstream-100987. counterdemonstration held by Soros’s orphans hungary-orban-democracy-far-right.html; November 10, 2010, https://www.foxnews. 10. Smith, Helena, “Greece’s neo-Nazis go dissolved],” August 13, 2017, http://www. Zack Beauchamp, “It Happened There: How com/story/glenn-beck-the-puppet-master.amp. global with political ambitions,” The Guardian, xrisiavgi.com/enimerosi/view/dunamikh- Democracy Died in Hungary,” Vox, September 31. “Buying Political Power,” Fox News, April 24, April 1, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/ poreia-amerikanwn-patriwtwn-enantia-sth- 13, 2018, https://www.vox.com/policy-and- 2007, https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/ world/2013/apr/01/greece-golden-dawn-global- lathrometanasteush-dialuth; Ekathimerini, politics/2018/9/13/17823488/hungary-democ- buying-political-power. ambitions. “Golden Dawn praises white supremacist rally in racy-authoritarianism-trump. 32. MTI, “Ifj. Lomnici Zoltán: Soros György 11. O’Brien, Luke, “The making of an Ameri- Virginia,” August 14, 2017, http://www.ekathi- 12. Don Kalb, “Upscaling Illiberalism: Class, Világuralomra Tör” [Zoltán Lomnici, Jr.: can neo-Nazi,” The Atlantic, December 2017, merini.com/220880/article/ekathimerini/ Contradiction, and the Rise and Rise of the Popu- George Soros Wants to Rule the World], Origo, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/ar- news/golden-dawn-praises-white-supremacist- list Right in Post-socialist Central Europe,” Fudan October 29, 2017, https://www.origo.hu/ chive/2017/12/the-making-of-an-american- rally-in-virginia. Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 11: itthon/20171029-ifj-lomnici-zoltan-soros-gyor- nazi/544119/. 28. Contie, Allie, “White nationalist Matthew 303–321. gy-vilaguralomra-tor.html. 12. Yeager, Carolyn, “Saturday Afternoon: An- Heimbach is going to jail,” Vice, May 15, 2018, 13. George Soros, “Rebuilding the Asylum Sys- 33. “A Magyar Soros-birodalom most a Kultúra drew Anglin live from Athens, Greece,” Carolyn https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/mbkadb/ tem,” Project Syndicate, September 26, 2015, Elfoglalására Készül” [Now, the Hungarian Yeager (website), July 27, 2013, https://carolyn- matthew-heimbach-the-white-nationalist-in- https://www.project-syndicate.org/commen- Soros-empire is Preparing to Occupy Culture], yeager.net/saturday-afternoon-andrew-anglin- that-bizarre-love-triangle-is-going-to-jail. tary/rebuilding-refugee-asylum-system-by- Origo, July 7, 2019, https://www.origo.hu/ live-athens-greece. 29. Racist Violence Recording Network, “Re- george-soros-2015-09. itthon/20190706-soros-kultura-tamogatas. 13. Strickland, Patrick, “Greece mourns slain ports,” http://rvrn.org/category/reports/. 14. Katalin Erdélyi, “Hungarian Government html. anti-fascist rapper Pavlos Fyssas.” Al Jazeera 30. Smith, Helena, “After murder, defections Spent €40 Million on Anti-Soros Propaganda 34. Bálint Bordács, “A Soros-egyetem Elismerte: English, September 15, 2017, https://www. and poll defeat: the sun sets on Golden Dawn,” in 2017,” Átlátszó, February 4, 2018, https:// Senki Sem Üldözte el őket Magyarországról” [The aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/09/ The Guardian, September 21, 2019, https:// english.atlatszo.hu/2018/02/04/hungarian- Soros-University Admitted: Nobody is Forcing greece-mourns-slain-anti-fascist-rapper-pavlos- www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/21/ government-spent-e40-million-on-anti-soros- Them Out of Hungary], Origo, September 15, fyssas-170911080142110.html. greece-sun-has-set-on-far-right-golden-dawn- propaganda-in-2017/. 2019, https://www.origo.hu/itthon/20190915- 14. Strickland, Patrick, “What the fight against murder-defections. 15. MTI, “Soros has Announced Cooperation Be- soros-egyetem.html. far-right violence in Greece tells us,” OpenCan- 31. Ekathimerini, “Prosecutor in Golden Dawn tween the Pro-Immigration Forces,” Kormany. 35. Bálint Bordács, “Súlyos Vereséget Szenve- ada, June 12, 2019, https://www.opencanada. case says Fyssas murder ‘not premeditated,’” hu, February 13, 2019, https://www.kormany. dett a Hazai Soros-lobbi” [The Domestic Soros- org/features/what-fight-against-far-right-vio- December 18, 2019, http://www.ekathimerini. hu/en/government-spokesperson/news/soros- Lobby Suffered a Massive Defeat], Origo, July 4, lence-greece-tells-us/. com/247687/article/ekathimerini/news/prose- has-announced-cooperation-between-the-pro- 2019, https://www.origo.hu/itthon/20190704- 15. Ios Press, “ΣΥΝΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ ΜΑΤ - «ΧΡΥΣΗΣ cutor-in-golden-dawn-case-says-fyssas-murder- immigration-forces. elbukta-a-pert-az-aurora-uzemeltetoje.html. ΑΥΓΗΣ» [MAT Cooperation – Golden Dawn],” not-premeditated 16. Nick Thorpe, “Hungary Vilifies Financier 36. MTI, “Hivatalos: Csehország Sem Kér a October 10, 2008, http://www.iospress.gr/ 32. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2020/ Soros with Crude Poster Campaign,” BBC News, Soros-paktumból” [Official: The Czech- Re ios2008/ios20080210.htm. mar/03/golden-dawn-the-rise-and-fall-of- July 10, 2017, https://www.bbc.com/news/ public Also Says No to the Soros-Pact], Origo, 16. Strickland, Patrick, “Greek prosecu- greece-neo-nazi-trial. world-europe-40554844. November 14, 2018, https://www.origo.hu/ tors say Golden Dawn ‘stalling’ as trial drags 33. Fyssa, Magda, interviewed by Patrick Strick- 17. George Lakoff, Don’t Think of an Elephant! nagyvilag/20181114-soros-paktum-csehorszag- on,” Al Jazeera English, October 12, 2018, land, Athens, Greece, September 7, 2017. Know your Values and Frame the Debate: the Essen- elutasitas-migracio.html. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/10/ tial Guide for Progressives (White River Junction, 37. Fox News, “Will George Soros Buy the Presi- greek-prosecutors-golden-dawn-stalling-trial- Enemy in the Making Vt.: Chelsea Green, 2004). dential Election of 2008?” September 24, 2007, drags-181012123009018.html. 1. Logan Smith, “11PM Fox News @ Night with 18. All the Hungarian excerpts that are quoted https://www.foxnews.com/story/will-george- 17. Anglin, Andrew, “Of stabbed rappers and Shannon Bream 20/06/18 | Fox news | June 20, in this article were translated by the authors. soros-buy-the-presidential-election-of-2008. chemical weapons,” Daily Stormer, September 2018,” YouTube Video, 21 June 2018, https:// 19. “Buying Political Power,” Fox News, April 24, 38. Joe Crin, “Tucker Carlson Tonight April 20, 2013, https://donotlink.it/N7meG. youtu.be/PzVHLRCBptw?t=2228. 2007, https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/ 5, 2018,” YouTube Video, April 6, 2018, Dickson, Sam, “The assault on Golden Dawn 18. 2. Hannes Grassegger, “The Unbelievable Story buying-political-power; Fox News, “Factor Inves- https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_ is an assault on all European peoples,” Occiden- Of The Plot Against George Soros,” BuzzFeed tigation: George Soros,” April 24, 2007, https:// continue=1317&v=zWQvpjYcOIA. tal Observer, September 30, 2013, https://donot- News, January 20, 2019, https://www.buzzfeed- www.foxnews.com/story/factor-investigation- 39. USA Today, “Fox Bans Lou Dobbs’ Guest over link.it/27lL5. news.com/article/hnsgrassegger/george-soros- george-soros; Watchdog.org, “Taking a Look George Soros Conspiracy Theory,” October 29, 19. Hankes, Keegan, “A tale of two losers and conspiracy-finkelstein-birnbaum-orban-netan- Inside the Secret Leftist Billionaires Club,” Fox 2018, https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/ ties to Greece’s neo-Nazi Golden Dawn party,” yahu. News, May 3, 2014, https://www.foxnews.com/ nation-now/2018/10/29/lou-dobbs-controver- Hatewatch, Southern Poverty Law Center, No- 3. Brian Stelter, “Glenn Beck’s Attack on politics/taking-a-look-inside-the-secret-leftist- sy-fox-bans-george-soros-conspiracy-theory- vember 3, 2014, https://www.splcenter.org/ George Soros Draw Heat,” The New York Times, billionaires-club. guest/1804634002/. hatewatch/2014/11/03/tale-two-losers-and- November 11, 2010, https://www.nytimes. 20. “Buying Political Power,” Fox News, April 24, 40. Hayley Miller, “Fox Business Condemns Lou ties-greece%E2%80%99s-neo-nazi-golden- com/2010/11/12/us/12beck.html. 2007, https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/ Dobbs Guest Who Pushed Migrant Caravan Con- dawn. 4. Fox News, “Buying Political Power,” April buying-political-power. spiracy Theory,” HuffPost, October 28, 2018, 20. Dickson, Caitlin, “The neo-Nazi has no 24, 2007, https://www.foxnews.com/tran- 21. “Buying Political Power,” Fox News, April https://www.huffpost.com/entry/fox-business- clothes: In search of Matt Heimbach’s bogus script/buying-political-power; Fox News, “Is the 24, 2007, https://www.foxnews.com/tran- lou-dobbs-chris-farrell_n_5bd5ebc1e4b055bc9 ‘white ethnostate,’” Yahoo News, February 2, American Way of Life in Danger?” May 24, 2010, script/buying-political-power; Joe Crin, “Tucker 48d15b5.

40 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 endnotes

41. Fox News, “‘Factor Investigation’: George Soros-hajókból” [More and More Countries Have ják az Amerikai Főbíróválasztást” [George Soros’s 98. Pablo Gorondi, “Hungary: Jewish Group Soros,” April 24, 2007, https://www.foxnews. Enough of the Soros-Ships], Origo, 27 June, 2018, Mercenaries Want to Influence the American Asks Orban to Halt Anti-Soros Campaign,” AP com/story/factor-investigation-george-soros. https://www.origo.hu/nagyvilag/20180627- Supreme Court Vote], Origo, October 6, 2018, News, July 6, 2017, https://apnews.com/d8bde- 42. Fox News, “Buying Political Power,” April 24, lifeline-malta-soros-hajo-migransok.html. https://www.origo.hu/nagyvilag/20181006- f3ef2ac46de981a27ef42328eb7. 2007, https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/ 61. MTI, “Kitoloncolták Mexikóból a Határt fobiro-valaszttas.html. 99. Szabolcs Panyi, “How the Alliance with Is- buying-political-power. Ostromló Soros-expressz Migránsait” [Mi- 82. “A Soros-hadsereg Összevont Támadást rael has Reshaped the Politics of Viktor Orban,” 43. Fox News, “Buying Political Power,” April 24, grants of the Soros-Express Who Besieged the Indított Magyarországgal szemben” [The Soros- Direkt36, September 30, 2019, https://www. 2007, https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/ Border Were Deported from Mexico], Origo, Army Launched a Joint Attack on Hungary], direkt36.hu/en/az-izraeli-szovetseg-ami-atirta- buying-political-power. November 26, 2018, https://www.origo.hu/ Origo, October 3, 2018, https://www.origo.hu/ orban-politikajat/?fbclid=IwAR1QIEmUunBrCP 44. Fox News, “‘Factor Investigation’: George nagyvilag/20181126-kitoloncoltak-mexikobol- itthon/20181003-soroshadsereg-osszevont- 7bUVNNxtU4iQSEGMn3rawSXwpHpAVWGqX- Soros,” April 24, 2007, https://www.foxnews. a-migranskaravan-felbujtoit.html. tamadast-inditott-magyarorszaggal-szemben. EnCncuu-FiK8. com/story/factor-investigation-george-soros. 62. “Buying Political Power,” Fox News, April 24, html. 100. MTI, “Orbán Viktor: A Zsidó Közösség a 45. Jane Coaston, “Trump Repeats a George So- 2007, https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/ 83. “Így foglalja el a Soros-birodalom a Balkánt” Kormány Védelme Alatt Áll” [Viktor Orbán: The ros Conspiracy Theory Right Before Kavanaugh buying-political-power. [This is How the Soros-Empire is Occupying the Jewish Community is Protected by the Govern- Vote,” Vox, October 5, 2018, https://www.vox. 63. “Buying Political Power,” Fox News, April 24, Balkans”], Origo, November 30, 2018, https:// ment], Origo, 19 July 2018, https://www.origo. com/policy-and-politics/2018/10/5/17940706/ 2007, https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/ www.origo.hu/nagyvilag/20181128-alexander- hu/nagyvilag/20180719-orban-viktor-reuven- trump-soros-kavanaugh-twitter-vote. buying-political-power. soros-balkani-utazasai.html. rivlin-izrael.html. 46. “Továbbra is a Soros-hálózat Mozgatja a 64. “Democrat Forced to Resign Over Patriotic 84. “Súlyos Soros-vereség a Bíróságon: Elbukott 101. Janine Wedel, Unaccountable: How Elite Szálakat az Európai Parlamentben” [The Soros- Facebook Posts; Google Not Backing Away from a Siránkozó Szír Terrorista” [Massive Soros-De- Power Brokers Corrupt our Finances, Freedom, Network Continues to Pull the Strings at the Eu- China Project,” Fox News, October 18, 2018, feat at the Court: the Moaning Syrian Terrorist and Security (New York: Pegasus, 2014); Harry ropean Parliament], Origo, July 7, 2018, https:// https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/demo- Failed], Origo, February 2, 2019, https://www. G. West and Todd Sanders, Transparency and www.origo.hu/itthon/20180707-a-soroshalo- crat-forced-to-resign-over-patriotic-facebook- origo.hu/itthon/20190201-ahmed-h-szir-ter- Conspiracy: Ethnographies of Suspicion in the zat-mozgatja-a-szalakat-az-europai-parlament- posts-google-not-backing-away-from-china- rorista-migrans-soros-vereseg.html. New World Order (Durham, NC: Duke University ben.html. project. 85. Bálint Bordács, “Soros Hadrendbe Állította Press, 2003). 47. MTI, “A Soros-alapítvány Dróton Rángatja 65. “Bill O’Reilly: Who is Organizing the Racial Őket: Tárgyalnak az Ellenzéki Pártok a Közös 102. Erik Swyngedouw, “The Perverse Lure of az Európai Bizottságot” [The Soros-Foundation Protests Breaking Out Across America?” Fox Listáról” [Soros Deployed Them: Oppositional Autocratic Postdemocracy,” South Atlantic Quar- has the European Commission on a String], News, December 8, 2014. https://www.foxnews. Parties Are Negotiating about the Joint List], terly 112(2) December 2018: 267–286. Origo, June 22, 2018, https://www.origo.hu/ com/transcript/bill-oreilly-who-is-organizing- Origo, January 9, 2019, https://www.origo.hu/ 103. Zsolt Enyedi, “Populist Polarization and itthon/20180622-hollik-a-sorosalapitvany-dro- the-racial-protests-breaking-out-across-ameri- itthon/20190109-ellenzeki-kozos-forgatok- Party System Institutionalization, Problems of ton-rangatja-az-europai-bizottsagot-is.html. ca. onyv-a-kozos-ep-listara.html. Post-Communism,” Problems of Post-Communism 48. Origo, “Soros György Keze a Holland “Ál- 66. “Factor Investigation: George Soros,” Fox 86. MTI, “Soros Zsoldosseregei Folyamatosan 63(4) 2016: 210–220. lami Televízióig is Elér” [George Soros’s Long News, April 24, 2007, https://www.foxnews. Támadják Magyarországot” [Soros’s Merce- 104. “Hungary PM: We Lied to Win Election,” Arm Also Reaches into Dutch Public TV], com/story/factor-investigation-george-soros. nary Troops Continuously Attack Hungary], The Guardian, Sep 18, 2006, https://www.the- November 10, 2018, https://www.origo.hu/ 67. “Frank Luntz: Democrats Relaunching Their Origo, March 22, 2018, https://www.origo.hu/ guardian.com/world/2006/sep/18/1. nagyvilag/20181109-holland-nos-soros-cen- Campaigns is a Bad Move,” Fox News, May 14, itthon/20180322-fidesz-soros-zsoldosserege- 105. Orhan Gazi Ertekin, “The Rise of Caesa- zura.html. 2019, https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/ folyamatosan-tamadja-magyarorszagot.html. rism, or Erdoğan’s Way,” South Atlantic Quarterly 49. Origo, “Így hálózza be Brüsszelt Soros Györ- frank-luntz-democrats-relaunching-their-cam- 87. MTI, “Soros Katonái Áskálódnak Mag- 118(1) 2019: 61–80. gy” [This Is How George Soros Traps Brussels in paigns-is-a-bad-move. yarország Ellen” [Soros’s Soldiers Conspire 106. Katharina Bodirsky, “Making and Breaking a Mesh], October 21, 2017, https://www.origo. 68. “Will George Soros Buy the Presidential Elec- Against Hungary], Origo, November 9, 2017, Alliances: On Valuation in Hegemonic Projects,” hu/itthon/20171020-soros-gyorgy-befolyas- tion of 2008?” Fox News, September 24, 2007, https://www.origo.hu/itthon/20171109- Dialectical Anthropology, online first: https:// brusszelben.html. https://www.foxnews.com/story/will-george- halasz-soros-katonai-askalodnak-brusszel- doi.org/10.1007/s10624-020-09585-3; Regina 50. Bálint Bordács, “Már Megint Hazudott a soros-buy-the-presidential-election-of-2008. ben-magyarorszag-ellen.html. Smyth and Irina Soboleva, “Looking beyond the Soros-blog” [The Soros-Blog Lied Yet Again], 69. “Far Left Running Wild,” Fox News, July 28, 88. “Soros Nem Adja Fel: Ismét Célba Vette economy: Pussy Riot and the Kremlin’s voting co- Origo, April 11, 2019, https://www.origo.hu/ 2008, https://www.foxnews.com/story/far-left- Magyarországot” [Soros is Not Giving It Up: alition,” Post-Soviet Affairs30(4) 2014: 257–275. itthon/20190411-munkasszallo-hajlektalan- running-wild. Again, He Targets Hungary], Origo, July 18, 107. Andrea L. P. Pirro, “Ballots and Barricades szallo-444.html. 70. “Buying Political Power,” Fox News, April 24, 2018, https://www.origo.hu/itthon/20180718- Enhanced: Far-right ‘Movement Parties’ and 51. “Előre Tudták a Soros-médiumok, Kit Kell 2007, https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/ soros-gyorgy-europai-bizottsag-brusszel-el- Movement-electoral Interactions,” Nations and Filmezni, hol a Provokátor” [The Soros-Media buying-political-power. jaras-magyarorszag-tamadasa.html. Nationalism 25(3) 2019, 782–802. Knew Beforehand Whom They Should Film, 71. “Beck Exposes George Soros’ Puppet Show,” 89. Eva S. Balogh, “George Soros and George 1. “Orbán to EU Counterparts: Clear Link Where is the Provocateur], Origo, July 22, 2017, Fox News, November 12, 2010, https://www. Orwell’s Emmanuel Goldstein,” Hungarian Spec- between Coronavirus and Illegal Migration,” https://www.origo.hu/itthon/20170722-elore- foxnews.com/transcript/beck-exposes-george- trum, July 5, 2017, https://hungarianspectrum. Hungary Today, March 11, 2020, https://hunga- tudtak-a-soros-mediumok-hol-a-provokator. soros-puppet-show. org/2017/07/05/george-soros-and-george-or- rytoday.hu/orban-to-eu-counterparts-clear-link- html. 72. “Ingraham: Far-left Billionaires Uniting to wells-emmanuel-goldstein/. between-coronavirus-and-illegal-migration/. 52. “Így Hazudozik a Soros-propaganda” [This Remake America,” Fox News, August 29, 2018, 90. Ferenc Bakró-Nagy, Ádám Trencsányi, 2. Kristóf Szombati, “COVID-19 and Authori- Is How the Soros-Propaganda Is Telling Lies], https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/ingra- Magdi Göttinger, “Megjöttek az Álturisták, tarian Crisis Management in Hungary,” Political Origo, April 7, 2018, https://www.origo.hu/ ham-far-left-billionaires-uniting-to-remake- akik Kifaggatnak minket a Soros-tervről” [The Research Associates, April 15, 2020, https:// nagyvilag/20180405-igy-hazudik-soros-erdek- america. Fake-Tourists Are Here: They Want to Know Ev- www.politicalresearch.org/2020/04/15/covid- ben-a-washington-post.html. 73. Origo, “A Soros-hálózat Szélsőbaloldali erything About the Soros-Plan], Index, October 19-and-authoritarian-crisis-management-hun- 53. Bálint Bordács, “A Vesztes és Dühös Ellen- Aktivistái Őrjöngtek Budapesten” [The Soros- 12, 2017, https://index.hu/video/2017/10/12/ gary. zéki Szimpatizánsok Új Ellenzéket Követelnek” Network’s Far-Left Activists Rampaged Through turista_soros_terv_plakat_propaganda/. András 3. “The EU Should Issue Perpetual Bonds,” [Defeated and Angry Oppositional Sympathiz- Budapest], December 13, 2018, https://www. Földes, “Most Kiderül, Kicsoda Valójában Soros Project Syndicate, April 20, 2020, https://www. ers Demand a New Opposition], Origo, April 22, origo.hu/itthon/20181213-soros-hazai-al- György,” [Now It Will Be Revealed Who Is the project-syndicate.org/commentary/finance-eu- 2018, https://www.origo.hu/itthon/20180422- civiljeinek-mar-csak-az-eroszak-maradt.html. Real George Soros], Index, May 16, 2017, https:// ropean-union-recovery-with-perpetual-bonds- soros-gyorgy-gulyas-marton-lmp-uj-ellenzek. 74. Origo, “Őrizetben a Soros-egyetem Egyik index.hu/video/2017/05/16/soros_gyorgy_kic- by-george-soros-2020-04. html. Hallgatója, a Soros-hálózat Aktív Tagja” [Student soda_kampany_fidesz/. 4. “Kész a második Soros-terv” [The second 54. András Kovács, “Ismét Hazudott a Soros- of the Soros-University, an Active Member of the 91. Tamás Szilli and Ádám Trencsényi, “Nyilván Soros plan is ready], Magyar Nemzet, April 25, egyetem” [The Soros University Lied Again], Soros-Network, is in Custody], December 14, Indul a Választáson Soros, ha Meg Akarja Nyer- 2020, https://magyarnemzet.hu/belfold/meg- Origo, October 6, 2017, https://www.origo.hu/ 2018, https://www.origo.hu/itthon/20181214- ni” [Of Course Soros is Running, Once He Wants szuletett-az-uj-soros-fele-tervezet-8044127/. itthon/20171006-soros-gyorgy-ceu-akkredita- soros-allhat-az-ellenzeki-tuntetesek-mogott. to Win the Elections], Index, February 2, 2018, 5. “Hungarian Government Launches Coro- cio-new-york.html. html. https://index.hu/video/2018/02/02/nyilvan_ navirus Questionnaire,” The Associated Press, 55. “Soros-pénzek: Újabb Magyar Internetes 75. “Ingraham: Far-left Billionaires Uniting to indul_a_valasztason_soros_ha_meg_akarja_ny- June 9, 2020, https://abcnews.go.com/Health/ Oldal Támogatása Derült Ki” [Soros-Money: It Remake America,” Fox News, August 29, 2018, erni/. Tamás Német, Péter Lengyel-Szabó, and wireStory/hungarian-government-launches- Was Revealed that Another Website Received https://www.foxnews.com/transcript/ingra- Máté Szilágyi, “Fáj, a 99 Százalékban Fideszes coronavirus-questionnaire-71138321. Mari- Support], Origo, August 31, 2016, https://www. ham-far-left-billionaires-uniting-to-remake- Falu” [Fáj, the Village Where 99 Percent is Pro- anna Kovács-Angel, “Itt van a nemzeti konzul- origo.hu/itthon/20160831-soros-gyorgy-bevan- america. Fidesz], Index, April 10, 2018, https://index.hu/ táció 13 kérdése” [“Here are the 13 Questions drolas-internetes-portalok.html. 76. Sean Hannity, “Hannity,” Fox News, Oc- video/2018/04/20/faj_borsod_fidesz_99_sza- of the National Consultation,” translated by 56. “Szél Bernadett a Migráció és Soros György tober 2, 2018, https://archive.org/details/ zalek/. authors], 24.hu, June 8, 2020, https://24.hu/ Szolgálatában” [Bernadett Szél in the Service of FOXNEWSW_20181003_010000_Hannity/ 92. George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four (Lon- belfold/2020/06/08/nemzeti-konzultacio- Migration and George Soros], Origo, January 15, start/720/end/780. don: Secker & Warburg, 1949) 13-14. kerdesei/. 2018, https://www.origo.hu/itthon/20180115- 77. Tucker Carlson, “Tucker Carlson Tonight,” 93. George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four (Lon- 6. Emily Tamkin, “The Right is Trying to Link soros-gyorgy-es-a-bevandorlas-szolgalata- Fox News, April 5, 2018, https://archive.org/de- don: Secker & Warburg, 1949) 14. George Soros and George Floyd Protests. Don’t ban-szel-bernadett.html. tails/FOXNEWSW_20180406_000000_Tucker_ 94. George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four (Lon- let it,” NBC News, June 6, 2020, https://www. 57. “Kocsis Máté: Ez egy Soros-lista” [Máté Koc- Carlson_Tonight/start/1740/end/1800. don: Secker & Warburg, 1949) 15. nbcnews.com/think/opinion/right-trying-link- sis: This Is a Soros-List], Origo, January 6, 2019, 78. “Factor Investigation: George Soros,” Fox 95. Richard S. Levy ed., Antisemitism: A Histori- george-soros-george-floyd-protests-don-t-ncna https://www.origo.hu/itthon/20190106-kocsis- News, April 24, 2007, https://www.foxnews. cal Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution (Ox- 1225446?fbclid=IwAR04FxGxokSIwjzUdojSOh mate-az-origo-cikkerol.html. com/story/factor-investigation-george-soros. ford: ABC Clio, 2005) 335. PSavvrtvHB7uj9ReRZisB_PL3HQCLVeZvDRMQ 58. MTI, “A szlovák Parlament is Elítélheti a So- 79. Mark Johnson and George Lakoff, Metaphors 96. Gyula Zacsek, “Termeszek Rágják a 7. “Fox guest calls for American citizen George ros-Sargentini jelentést” [The Slovakian Parlia- We Live By (Chicago: The University of Chicago Nemzetet, avagy Gondolatok a Soros-kurzusról Soros to be deported because “he is the destruc- ment May Condemn the Soros-Sargentini-Report Press, 2003). és a Soros-birodalomról,” [Termites are Eating tion to our civilization and a clear and present As Well], Origo, October 17, 2018, https://www. 80. “Újabb Soros-katona Megy Brüsszelbe a the Nation, or Thoughts on the Soros-regime and danger to our country,” Media Matters, June origo.hu/nagyvilag/20181017-gghh.html. Magyarország-ellenes Meghallgatásra” [Another the Soros-empire], Magyar Fórum 1992: 4(36): 1, 2020, https://www.mediamatters.org/fox- 59. “Orbán Viktor: A Dokumentum Soros-jelen- Soros-Solider is Going to Brussels to Attend the 9–16. news/fox-guest-calls-american-citizen-george- tés” [Viktor Orbán: The Document is a Soros-Re- Anti-Hungary Hearing], Origo, December 5, 97. Agnes Gagyi, ‘“Coloniality of Power” in East soros-be-deported-because-he-destruction-our. port], Origo, 25 June 2018, https://www.origo. 2017, https://www.origo.hu/itthon/20171204- Central Europe: External Penetration as Inter- hu/itthon/20180625-orban-viktor-sargentini- polyak-gabor-a-mertek-mediaelemzo-muhely- nal Force in Post-Socialist Hungarian Politics,” Nothing Is Untouched jelentes.html. vezetoje-is-hivatalos-a-libe-ulesere.html. Journal of World-Systems Research, 22(2) 2016: 1. Schmetterling was one of four restaurants 60. MTI, “Egyre több országnak van elege a 81. “Soros György Zsoldosai Befolyásolni Akar- 349-372. attacked by far-right assailants in the months

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 41 endnotes

after the murder. The others included a Jewish Washington Post, August 30, 2018, https://www. 28. Hilary Moore, “Anti-fascists won’t let Ger- to AfD: report,” Deutsche Welle, September 13, restaurant called Schalom where, one day after washingtonpost.com/world/europe/in-germany return to normal after weak verdict in neo- 2018, https://www.dw.com/en/german-spy- the riots, assailants entered, destroyed property manys-chemnitz-extremists-exploit-a-killing- Nazi trial,” Waging Nonviolence, July 13, 2018, chief-passed-info-to-afd-report/a-45472180. and hit the owner with bottles (https://www. to-take-aim-at-refugees/2018/08/30/68e31aec- https://wagingnonviolence.org/2018/07/anti- 44. “Ex-spymaster Hans-Georg Maassen to be- dw.com/en/chemnitz-attack-on-jewish-restau- aacc-11e8-9a7d-cd30504ff902_story.html; fascists-germany-neo-nazi-nsu-trial/. come Seehofer adviser,” Deutsche Welle, Sep- rant-it-is-five-past-midnight/a-45421920). In Citizen’s Movement PRO Chemnitz, “Share 29. Antonia von der Behrens, “The NSU-Case in tember 23, 2018, https://www.dw.com/en/ October, an Iranian restaurant called Safran was and participate” Facebook, August 26, 2018, Germany,” NSU Watch, March 8, 2017, https:// ex-spymaster-hans-georg-maassen-to-become- attacked when three people wearing motorcycle https://www.facebook.com/prochemnitz/ www.nsu-watch.info/2017/03/the-nsu-case-in- seehofer-adviser/a-45610725. helmets beat up the owner (https://iranwire. posts/2213944928647818. germany/. 45. David Rising, “German leaders struggle to com/en/features/6296). Also in October, a 15. Ulli Jentsch, “Homegrown Terror Comes to 30. Hooligans and hooliganism is a nuanced counter rise in right-wing hate,” Associated Press, Turkish restaurant called Mangal was set on fire Chemnitz,” September 6, 2018, apabiz archive, phenomenon. As Gabriel Kuhn, author of Soc- February 22, 2020, https://eu.detroitnews.com/ (https://muslimnews.co.uk/news/islamopho- https://www.apabiz.de/2018/homegrown- cer vs. The State (PM Press, 2019), described story/news/world/2020/02/22/germany-far- bia/germany-turkish-restaurant-targeted-xeno- terror-comes-to-chemnitz/; Mattias Bartsch, the landscape, originally, hooligans were vio- right-hate-shooting-violence/111363372/. phobic-attack/). “Return of the Ugly German? The Riots in Chem- lent “troublemakers,” not at all tied to football. 46. Mattias Bartsch, “Return of the Ugly Ger- 2. “From the stands to the streets: What does nitz and Their Aftermath,” Spiegel International, There are violent football supporters who aren’t man? The Riots in Chemnitz and Their After- Chemnitz violence have to do with football?” August 18, 2018, https://www.spiegel.de/ “hooligans”; some Ultras are violent, but there math,” Spiegel International, August 18, 2018, Deutsche Welle, August 28, 2018, https://www. international/germany/the-riots-in-chemnitz- is a clear distinction between them and hooligan https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/ dw.com/en/from-the-stands-to-the-streets- and-their-aftermath-the-return-of-the-ugly-ger- culture. Some hooligans self-define as such, oth- the-riots-in-chemnitz-and-their-aftermath-the- what-does-chemnitz-violence-have-to-do-with- man-a-1225897.html . ers don’t, and certainly not everyone labeled a return-of-the-ugly-german-a-1225897.html . football/a-45258812. 16. Liz Fekete, “Urgent Alert - Solidarity With hooligan by the media is one. Lastly, while some 47. Sebastian Wehrahn and Martina Renner, 3. Melissa Eddy, “German Far Right and Coun- the Victims of Far Right Violence in Saxony,” hooligans are distinctly right-wing, many are ex- “The problem of the protection of the consti- ter Protestors Clash in Chemnitz,” The New York Institute for Race Relatlations, August 31, 2018, plicitly non-political, and there are also “Antifa tution has a long history,” Netzpolitik, March Times, April 28, 2018, https://www.nytimes. http://www.irr.org.uk/news/urgent-alert-sol- hooligans.” 18, 2019, https://netzpolitik.org/2019/das- com/2018/08/28/world/europe/chemnitz-pro- idarity-with-the-victims-of-far-right-violence- 31. Steffan Dobbert, “The East German Football problem-verfassungsschutz-hat-eine-lange- test-germany.html. in-saxony/; “Injured in right wing protests in Province and the Right: Only the swastika is geschichte/ (original Das Problem Verfassungss- 4. Ulli Jentsch, “Homegrown Terror Comes to Chemnitz,” Zeit, August 27, 2018, https://www. missing,” Jungle World, April 30, 2008, https:// chutz hat eine lange Geschichte). Chemnitz,” September 6, 2018, apabiz archive, zeit.de/gesellschaft/zeitgeschehen/2018-08/ jungle.world/artikel/2008/18/nur-das-haken- 48. Johannes Grunert, “The struggle of the https://www.apabiz.de/2018/homegrown- gegendemonstration-chemnitz-sachsen-die-lin- kreuz-fehlt (original Nur das Hakenkreuz fehlt). Chemnitz,” Zeit, August 26, 2019, https:// terror-comes-to-chemnitz/; Mattias Bartsch, ke-rechte-gewalt (original Verletzte bei rechten 32. Felix Tamsut, “Why was a Neo-Nazi hooli- blog.zeit.de/stoerungsmelder/2019/08/26/ “Return of the Ugly German? The Riots in Chem- Protesten in Chemnitz). gan mourned at a football game in Germany?” der-kampf-der-chemnitzer_28887 (original Der nitz and Their Aftermath,” Spiegel International, 17. Some representatives of the AfD made Deutsche Welle, March 14, 2019, https:// Kampf der Chemnitzer). August 18, 2018, https://www.spiegel.de/ public statements trying to distance the party www.dw.com/en/why-was-a-neo-nazi- 49. Ben Knight, “German far-right terror sus- international/germany/the-riots-in-chemnitz- away from the Monday rally (https://www. hooligan-mourned-at-a-football-game-in- pects detained in overnight raids,” Deutsche and-their-aftermath-the-return-of-the-ugly-ger- dw.com/en/violence-in-chemnitz-as-leftist-and- germany/a-47856332. Welle, October 1, 2018, https://www.dw.com/ man-a-1225897.html . far-right-protesters-clash/a-45250620), even 33. Emma Anderson, “German football club en/german-far-right-terror-suspects-detained- 5. Barbara Manthe, “Scenes from a ‘civil war’? though a number of AfD politicians showed up. captain sacked over ‘sympathy’ for neo-Nazis,” in-overnight-raids/a-45706340; “Neo-Nazi Radical right narratives on Chemnitz,” Open 18. Jochen Bittner, “What Do Trump and Politico, August 5, 2019, https://www.politico. ‘terrorist cell’ on trial over alleged Berlin at- Democracy, October 12, 2018, https://www. Marx Have in Common?” The New York Times, eu/article/german-football-club-captain-sacked- tack plot,” The Guardian, September 30, 2019, opendemocracy.net/en/can-europe-make-it/ October 25, 2016, https://www.nytimes. neo-nazis/. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/ scenes-of-civil-war-radical-right-narratives-on- com/2016/10/26/opinion/what-do-trump- 34. “Suspected terrorist again targeted by in- sep/30/neo-nazi-terrorist-cell-revolution-chem- chemnitz/. and-marx-have-in-common.html; Jefferson vestigations,” Freie Presse, October 17, 2013, nitz-trial-germany. 6. Kate Connolly, “Chemnitz riots spark calls Chase, “Lessons from Chemnitz: Eastern Ger- https://www.freiepresse.de/chemnitz/mutmas- 50. SUPPORT, “Right-wing motivated and rac- for AfD to be put under surveillance,” The many’s right-wing protestors awash in anxiety,” slicher-terror-helfer-erneut-im-visier-der-ermit- ist violence in 2018,” March 7, 2019, https:// Guardian, September 4, 2018, https://www. Deutsche Welle, September 2, 2018, https:// tler-artikel8570802; “Großrazzia! Waffen unter- www.raa-sachsen.de/support/statistik (original theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/04/chem- www.dw.com/en/lessons-from-chemnitz-east- PC-Spielen versteckt?” Morgenpost, October 17, Rechtsmotivierte und rassistische Gewalt in Sa- nitz-riots-spark-calls-for-afd-to-be-put-under- ern-germanys-right-wing-protesters-awash-in- 2013, https://www.kinderfreundliche-sachsen. chen 2018). surveillance-neo-nazi. anxiety/a-45326613. de/fileadmin/dokumente/Pressespiegel/ 51. A Leipzig-based researcher said the local re- 7. Original interviews with author, July 23 and 19. Original interview with author, July 9, 2019. Pressespiegel-Oskar-2013/Kinder-Oskar_fuer_ sults on the official homepage of Chemnitz City August 25, 2019. 20. Christoph Richter, “Lichtenhagen riots con- die_nette_Zahnaerztin_von_nebenan_-_Mopo_ Council are stated incorrectly, and that actually 8. Ben Knight, “Chemnitz: Syrian asylum- tinue to haunt many,” Deutsche Welle, August Chemnitz_17.10.13.pdf. the AfD has 18.3 percent, not 5 percent, of seats. seeker convicted of killing that sparked far-right 26, 2012, https://www.dw.com/en/lichtenha- 35. Oleg Burunov, “Social Democrats Ac- 52. Elizabeth Schumacher, “Germany: AfD set riots,” Deutsche Welle, August 22, 2019, https:// gen-riots-continue-to-haunt-many/a-16194604. cuse Merkel’s Party of Failing to Curtail for second spot in eastern elections,” Deutsche www.dw.com/en/chemnitz-syrian-asylum- 21. Stephen Kinzer, “A Wave of Attacks on For- Right-Wing Tendencies,” Sputnik News, De- Welle, September 1, 2019, https://www. seeker-convicted-of-killing-that-sparked-far- eigners Stirs Shock in Germany,” The New York cember 19, 2019, https://sputniknews.com/ dw.com/en/germany-afd-set-for-second-spot-in- right-riots/a-50120472. Times, October 1, 1991, https://www.nytimes. europe/201912191077624449-angela-merkel- eastern-elections/a-50249887. 9. Katrin Bennhold, “Chemnitz Protests Show com/1991/10/01/world/a-wave-of-attacks- cdu-right-wing-circles/. 53. Every party in federal parliament has writ- New Strength of Germany’s Far Right,” The New on-foreigners-stirs-shock-in-germany.html; 36. “Prison guard admits to leaking Chem- ten a Beschlüsse, or party agreement stating York Times, August 30, 2018, https://www.ny- Albrecht Kieser, “May 28, 1992: Citizens anger nitz arrest warrant,” Deutsche Welle, August that they will not work with the far-right party, times.com/2018/08/30/world/europe/germa- against asylum center,” Neue Rheinische Zeitung, 31, 2018, https://www.dw.com/en/prison- AfD. For example, the SPD wrote, “At our annual ny-neo-nazi-protests-chemnitz.html; J. Lester, March 23, 2006, http://www.nrhz.de/flyer/ guard-admits-to-leaking-chemnitz-arrest- kick-off meeting we therefore adopted the reso- Feder, “The Real Behind the Anti-Immigrant beitrag.php?id=1582 (original 28. Mai 1992: warrant/a-45300402. lution ‘Consensus of the Democrats.’ We make it Riots Rocking Germany,” Buzzfeed News, Au- Bürgerzorn vor Asylbewerberheim); Barbara 37. Katrin Bennhold, “Chemnitz Protests Show clear: Political majorities must not be achieved gust 31, 208, https://www.buzzfeednews.com/ Manthe, “Scenes from a ‘civil war’? Radical right New Strength of Germany’s Far Right,” The New by votes of the AfD. We invite you and your lo- article/lesterfeder/germany-chemnitz-far-right- narratives on Chemnitz,” Open Democracy, Oc- York Times, August 30, 2018, https://www.ny- cal associations, (sub)districts, district and na- neo-nazis . tober 12, 2018, https://www.opendemocracy. times.com/2018/08/30/world/europe/germa- tional associations to also discuss and adopt the 10. Liz Fekete, “Urgent Alert - Solidar- net/en/can-europe-make-it/scenes-of-civil-war- ny-neo-nazi-protests-chemnitz.html. resolution.” (https://www.spd.de/aktuelles/de- ity With the Victims of Far Right Violence in radical-right-narratives-on-chemnitz/. 38. “Three victims of the right-wing attacks tail/news/wir-sind-das-bollwerk-der-demokra- Saxony,” Institute for Race Relatlations, Au- 22. Hans-Edzard Busemann, „Merkel, heckled have filed a complaint,” Zeit, August 27, 2018, tie/11/02/2020/. Translation by the author.) gust 31, 2018, http://www.irr.org.uk/news/ on visit to refugees, says no to xenophobia,” https://www.zeit.de/gesellschaft/zeitgesche- 54. “Syrian convicted of Chemnitz killing urgent-alert-solidarity-with-the-victims-of- Reuters, August 26, 2015, https://www.re- hen/2018-08/chemnitz-sachsen-roland-woell- that sparked far-right riots,” Aljazeera, Au- far-right-violence-in-saxony/; (Original “Lasst uters.com/article/us-europe-migrants-merkel- ner-innenminister-ausschreitungen-pressekon- gust 23, 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/ uns zusammen zeigen wer in der Stadt das idUSKCN0QV1LL20150826. ferenz (original Drei Opfer der rechten Übergriffe news/2019/08/syrian-convicted-chemnitz-kill- sagen hat!” https://twitter.com/idacampe/ 23. Henrik Böhme, “Opinion: To understand haben Anzeige erstattet). ing-sparked-riots-190823072342490.html. status/1033806354547437569); Matt Ford, Saxony, look at its history,” Deutsche Welle, 39. Original interview by author, August 25, “From the Stand to the Streets: What does August 31, 2018, https://www.dw.com/en/ 2019. End Times Antisemitism Chemnitz violence Have to do with football?” opinion-to-understand-saxony-look-at-its- 40. “Chemnitz protests: Thousands attend free 1. Randy Blazak, “Oregon Citizen’s Alliance,” Deutsche Welle, August 28, 2018, https://www. history/a-45312184. anti-racism concert,” BBC News, September 4, The Oregon Encyclopedia, (Portland, OR: Oregon dw.com/en/from-the-stands-to-the-streets- 24. Original interview with author, August 12, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-eu- Historical Society, Mar 17, 2017), https://orego- what-does-chemnitz-violence-have-to-do-with- 2019. rope-45402005. nencyclopedia.org/articles/oregon_citizens_al- football/a-45258812. 25. Rainer Münz and Ralf E. Ulrich, “Changing 41. “Chemnitz protests: Thousands attend free liance/. 11. Kate Connolly, “Chemnitz riots spark calls Patterns of Immigration to Germany, 1945- anti-racism concert,” BBC News, September 4, 2. Randy Blazak, “Oregon Citizen’s Alliance,” for AfD to be put under surveillance,” The 1997,” UC Davis, https://migration.ucdavis. 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-eu- The Oregon Encyclopedia, (Portland, OR: Oregon Guardian, September 4, 2018, https://www. edu/rs/more.php?id=69. rope-45402005. Historical Society, Mar 17, 2017), https://orego- theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/04/chem- 26. University of Hildesheim, “The Treuhand- 42. Rick Noack and Luisa Beck, “German Spy nencyclopedia.org/articles/oregon_citizens_al- nitz-riots-spark-calls-for-afd-to-be-put-under- anstalt in the context of German unification,” Chief dismissed amidst row with Merkel over liance/. surveillance-neo-nazi. https://www.uni-hildesheim.de/no_cache/ ‘fake’ video that wasn’t fake,” The Washing- 3. Timothy Egan, “Violent Backdrop for 12. Ulli Jentsch, “Homegrown Terror Comes to fb1/institute/geschichte/erasmus-und-europa- ton Post, September 18, 2018, https://www. Anti-Gay Measures,” The New York Times, Chemnitz,” September 6, 2018, apabiz archive, gespraeche/europa-gespraeche/sommerse- washingtonpost.com/world/2018/09/18/ November 1, 1992, https://www.nytimes. https://www.apabiz.de/2018/homegrown-ter- mester-2007/die-treuhandanstalt-im-kontext- german-chancellor-merkel-has-new-rival-with- com/1992/11/01/us/violent-backdrop-for-anti- ror-comes-to-chemnitz/. der-deutschen-einigung/?sword_list=Einigung powerful-supporters-her-own-spy-chief/; “No gay-measure.html?searchResultPosition=7. 13. Katrin Bennhold, “Chemnitz Protests Show (original Die Treuhandanstalt im Kontext der Information on the Hunt,” Bild, September 6, 4. Centers for Disease Control, “Update: Mor- New Strength of Germany’s Far Right,” The New deutschen Einigung). 2018, https://www.bild.de/bild-plus/politik/ tality Attributable to HIV Infection Among York Times, August 30, 2018, https://www.ny- 27. Sonya Angelica Diehn, “Neo-Nazis inland/politik-inland/verfassungsschutz-chef- Persons Aged 25-44 Years—United States, times.com/2018/08/30/world/europe/germa- cloak themselves in eco-rhetoric,” Deutsche maassen-keine-information-ueber-hetzjagden- 1991 and 1992,” Morbity and Morality Weekly ny-neo-nazi-protests-chemnitz.html Welle, March 8, 2012, https://www.dw.com/ 57111216,view=conversionToLogin.bild.html Report 42(45), 869-872, November 19, 1993, 14. Griff Witte, “In Germany’s Chemnitz, extrem- en/neo-nazis-cloak-themselves-in-eco- (original Keine Information über Hetzjagden). https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrht- ists exploit a killing to take aim at refugees,” The rhetoric/a-15793310. 43. Ben Knight, “German spy chief passed info ml/00022174.htm.

42 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 endnotes

5. Georgetown Lawn Library, A Timeline ism: Fresh Perspectives on Israel & the Land, ed. bating Anti-Semitism,” Executive Orders, De- 219-238, at 228. of the Legalization of Same-Sex Marriage in (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2016), cember 11, 2019, https://www.whitehouse.gov/ 55. Eric Gormly, “Peering Beneath the Veil: An the U.S., https://guides.ll.georgetown.edu/c. Gerald McDermott, 11 – 29, at 11. On the ques- presidential-actions/executive-order-combat- Ethnographic Content Analysis of Islam as Por- php?g=592919&p=4182201. tion of the significance of the New Apostolic Ref- ing-anti-semitism/. trayed on The 700 Club Following the September 6. Julian Borger, “‘Brought to Jesus’: the Evan- ormation in Christian Zionism see John Weaver, 36. International Holocaust Remembrance Al- 11th Attacks,” Journal of Media and Religion 3(4), gelical Grip on the Trump Administration,” New Apostolic Reformation: History of a Modern liance, Working Definition of Antisemitism, 219-238, at 235. The Guardian, January 11, 2019, https://www. Charismatic Movement (Jefferson, NC: McFar- https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/ 56. Mark Olalde and Dustin Gardiner, “The theguardian.com/us-news/2019/jan/11/trump- land, 2016), 214. working-definition-antisemitism. Network Behind State Bills ‘Countering’ Sharia administration-evangelical-influence-support. 19. Randall Reed, “Of Prophets and Propaganda: 37. Keneth Stern, “I Drafted the Definition of Law and Terrorism,” Center for Public Integrity, See also: Ron Kampeas, “Mike Pence’s Faith An Exploration of Modern Christian Dispensa- Antisemitism. Rightwing Jews Are Weaponizing July 18, 2019, https://publicintegrity.org/poli- Drives His Support for Israel. Does It Drive Mid- tionalism Using the Work of Martin Riesebrodt,” It,” The Guardian, December 13, 2019, https:// tics/state-politics/copy-paste-legislate/many- east Policy?” Times of Israel, January 24, 2018, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 51, no. www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/ state-bills-one-source-behind-the-push-to-ban- https://www.timesofisrael.com/mike-pences- 3, September 2012, 468 – 481, at 1. dec/13/antisemitism-executive-order-trump- sharia-law/. faith-drives-his-support-for-israel-does-it-drive- 20. Revelation 6:8, New King James Version, chilling-effect. 57. Steven Fink, “Fear Under Construction: mideast-policy/; Edward Wong, “The Rapture BibleGateway, https://www.biblegateway.com/ 38. ACLU, “ACLU Comment on President Islamophobia Within American Christian Zion- and the Real World: Mike Pompeo Blends Beliefs passage/?search=Revelation+6&version=NKJV. Trump’s Executive Order on Combating Anti- ism,” Islamophobia Studies Journal 2(1): Spring and Policy,” The New York Times, March 30, 21. Michelle Goldberg, “Ron Paul’s Christian Semitism,” December 11, 2019, https://www. 2014, 26 – 43, at 32, https://www.jstor.org/ 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/30/ Reconstructionist Roots,” Daily Beast, January theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/dec/13/ stable/10.13169/islastudj.2.1.0026. us/politics/pompeo-christian-policy.html; also, 3, 2012, https://www.thedailybeast.com/ron- antisemitism-executive-order-trump-chilling- 58. John Hagee, In Defense of Israel: The Bible’s CUFI, “Mike Pence to CUFI: I Support Israel Be- pauls-christian-reconstructionist-roots. effect. Mandate for Supporting the Jewish State, Revised cause I am a Christian,” CUFI.org, July 2017, 22. Frederick Clarkson, “Theocratic Domin- 39. Chris Mitchell, “‘We’re Seeing Prophecy & Updated (Lake Mary, Florida: FrontLine, https://www.cufi.org/mike-pence-to-cufi-i-sup- ionism Gains Influence,” Political Research Unfold’: Trump’s Jerusalem Embassy Sends a 2007), p. 66. port-israel-because-i-am-a-christian/. Associates, March 1, 1994, https://www.politi- Message to Israel’s Enemies,” CBN News, May 59. Political Research Associates, “Where the 7. Katherine Stewart, “Eight-One Percent of calresearch.org/1994/03/01/christian-recon- 15, 2018, https://www1.cbn.com/cbnnews/ White House Gets Its Racist Immigration Poli- White Evangelicals Voted for Donald Trump. structionismtheocratic-dominionism-gains- israel/2018/may/were-seeing-prophecy-unfold- cies,” PRA, Mar 1, 2018, https://www.politic- Why?” The Nation, November 17, 2016, https:// influence/. trumps-jerusalem-embassy-sends-a-message-to- alresearch.org/2018/03/01/where-the-white- www.thenation.com/article/eighty-one-per- 23. See Rachel Tabachnick, including “Spiri- israels-enemies. house-gets-its-racist-immigration-policies. cent-of-white-evangelicals-voted-for-donald- tual Warriors with an Antigay Mission: The 40. John Hagee, “A Special Message from Pas- 60. Ben Lorber, “Taking Aim at Multiracial De- trump-why/. New Apostolic Reformation,” The Public Eye, tor Hagee,” John Hagee Ministries, Oct 2017, mocracy: Antisemitism, White Nationalism, and 8. Shibley Telhami, “Why Is Trump Undoing Spring 2013, https://www.politicalresearch. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cipxvxol- Anti-Immigrant Racism in the Era of Trump,” Po- Decades of U.S. Policy on Jerusalem?” Brook- org/2013/03/22/spiritual-warriors-with-an- Mk&t=2s, at 1:45. litical Research Associates, Oct 22, 2019, https:// ings Institute, December 5, 2017, https://www. antigay-mission. 41. New King James Version, https://www. www.politicalresearch.org/2019/10/22/taking- brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2017/12/05/ 24. John Weaver, New Apostolic Reformation: biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis+12 aim-multiracial-democracy. why-is-trump-about-to-declare-jerusalem-the- History of a Modern Charismatic Movement (Jef- &version=NKJV. 61. S. Jonathon O’Donnell, “Antisemitism un- capital-of-israel/. ferson, NC: McFarland, 2016), 43. 42. John Hagee, “A Special Message from Pas- der Erasure: Christian Zionist Anti-Globalism 9. Tara Isabella Burton, “The Biblical Story the 25. John Weaver, New Apostolic Reformation: tor Hagee,” John Hagee Ministries, Oct 2017, and the Refusal of Cohabitation,” Ethnic and Ra- Christian Right Uses to Defend Trump,” Vox, History of a Modern Charismatic Movement (Jef- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cipxvxol- cial Studies, 10, https://www.tandfonline.com/ March 5, 2018, https://www.vox.com/identi- ferson, NC: McFarland, 2016), 95. Mk&t=2s, at 1:10. For a thorough review of doi/full/10.1080/01419870.2019.1704042. ties/2018/3/5/16796892/trump-cyrus-chris- 26. Frederick Clarkson, “Dominionism Rising: Christian Zionist references to Genesis 12:3 see 62. Gabe Meadow, “Profile on the Right: ACT tian-right-bible-cbn-evangelical-propaganda. A Theocratic Movement Hiding in Plain Sight,” Daniel Hummel, Covenant Brothers: Evangeli- for America,” Political Research Associates, 10. Daniel Burke, “Why Evangelicals are The Public Eye, Summer 2016, https://www.po- cals, Jews, and U.S.-Israeli Relations (Philadel- Mar 1, 2018, https://www.politicalresearch. ‘Ecstatic’ about Trump’s Jerusalem Move,” liticalresearch.org/2016/08/18/dominionism- phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019). org/2018/03/01/profile-on-the-right-act-for- CNN, December 6, 2017, https://www.cnn. rising-a-theocratic-movement-hiding-in-plain- 43. Holly Pivec, “The NAR Obsession With Is- america. com/2017/12/06/politics/american-evangeli- sight/. rael,” Spirit of Error blog, Apr 12, 2013, http:// 63. John Hagee, “The Coming Fourth Reich,” cals-jerusalem/index.html. 27. Christians United for Israel, “2019 CUFI Pol- www.spiritoferror.org/2013/04/the-nars-ob- John Hagee Ministries, no date (circa 2016). This 11. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, icy Highlights & Accomplishments,” CUFI.org, session-with-israel/2915. is a website promotion for a recorded Hagee ser- “American Evangelicals and Israel,” Pew Re- https://www.cufi.org/. 44. John Weaver, The New Apostolic Reforma- mon that is no longer available. Contact PRA for search Center, March 15, 2005, https://www. 28. Tamara Keith, “Trump’s ‘Disloyalty’ tion: History of a Modern Charismatic Movement an archived copy of the webpage. pewforum.org/2005/04/15/american-evangeli- Claim about Jewish Democrats Shows He (Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & - Com 64. John Hagee, Beginning of the End: The As- cals-and-israel/. For the 80 percent number, see Doesn’t Get How They Vote,” Morning Edition pany, 2016), p. 2. sassination of Yitzhak Rabin and the Coming Joel C. Rosenberg, Evangelical Attitudes toward (NPR), August 22, 2019, https://www.npr. 45. Bruce Wilson, “Mike Bickle Predicts ‘Prison Antichrist, (Nashville, Tenn.: Thomas Nelson, Israel, Chosen People Ministries, December org/2019/08/22/753131249/trumps-disloy- Camps’ and ‘Death Camps’ for Jews” (long ver- 1996), 13. 2017, http://lifewayresearch.com/wp-content/ alty-claim-about-jewish-democrats-shows- sion), YouTube, October 18, 2011, https://www. 65. John Hagee, “Pastor John Hagee on Why uploads/2017/12/Evangelical-Attitudes-To- he-doesn-t-get-how-they-vot; Eric Cortellessa, youtube.com/watch?v=EpRV0spflIE, at 1:34. U.S. Embassy Move to Jerusalem Is So Impor- ward-Israel-Research-Study-Report.pdf. “Trump Tells Pro-Israel Conference that Some 46. Mike Bickle, “Coming Eschatological Revo- tant,” The Watchman with Eric Stakelbeck, Dec. 12. Pew Research Center, “Jesus Christ’s Re- US Jews don’t Love Israel Enough,” Times of Is- lution Part 1,” Onething Conference (video), 16, 2017, https://youtu.be/XEOOUFsmhQw, at turn to Earth,” Pew Research Center, July 14, rael, December 8, 2019, https://www.timesofis- 2008, as quoted in John Weaver, New Apostolic 4:36. 2010, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact- rael.com/trump-tells-jewish-group-theyll-vote- Reformation: History of a Modern Charismatic 66. CUFI, “CUFI Welcomes Pres. Trump’s Jeru- tank/2010/07/14/jesus-christs-return-to- for-him-to-protect-their-wealth/. Movement (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & - Com salem Policy,” CUFI Press Release, no date, (circa earth/. 29. JTA and Ron Kampeas, “Watch: ‘Your Prime pany), p. 137. early 2018), accessed Feb. 10, 2020, https:// 13. Important recent works include the volume Minister Netanyahu’: Watch Trump’s Very 47. Rachel Tabachnick, “The New Christian www.cufi.org/cufi-welcomes-pres-trumps-jeru- edited by Gerald McDermott, The New Christian Awkward Speech to American Jews,” Haaretz, Zionist and the Jews: A Love/Hate Relation- salem-policy/. Zionism: Fresh Perspectives on Israel & the Land, April 7, 2019, https://www.haaretz.com/ ship,” Political Research Associates, Janu- 67. Dan Hummel, “What You Need to Know (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2016) us-news/netanyahu-is-your-pm-trump-tells- ary 18, 2010, https://www.politicalresearch. about Mike Pence’s Speech to Christians United and Daniel Hummel, Covenant Brothers: Evan- u-s-jews-in-speech-marred-by-awkward-mo- org/2010/01/18/the-new-christian-zionism- for Israel,” Washington Post, Jul 17, 2017, gelicals, Jews, and U.S.-Israeli Relations (Phila- ments-1.7089805. and-the-jews-a-lovehate-relationship/. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/made- delphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019). 30. Jewish Virtual Library, “U.S. Presidential 48. Bruce Wilson, “Audio Record of McCain’s by-history/wp/2017/07/17/what-you-need-to- 14. Hummel, Covenant Brothers, 3, quoted in Ra- Elections: Jewish Voting Record (1916–Pres- Political Endorser John Hagee Preaching Jews know-about-mike-pences-speech-to-christians- phael Magarik, “Why Everything You Think You ent),” American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, Are Cursed and Subhuman,” Talk to Action, united-for-israel/?noredirect=on. Know about Christian Zionism Is Wrong,” The https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jewish- May 15, 2008, http://www.talk2action.org/ 68. Ron Kampeas, “Pompeo Assures Christian Forward, August 26, 2019, https://forward.com/ voting-record-in-u-s-presidential-elections. story/2008/5/15/141520/281. Zionists that Israel Allows Conversions to Chris- culture/430251/why-everything-you-think-you- 31. Alia Chughtai, “Understanding US Military 49. Sam Stein, “Unapologetic Hagee Says Hitler tianity,” Times of Israel, Jul 11, 2019, https:// know-about-christian-zionism-is-wrong/. Aid to Israel,” Aljazeera.com, March 8, 2018, Statement Was ‘Mischaracterized,’” Huffington www.timesofisrael.com/pompeo-assures-chris- 15. There are only two dismissive references to https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interac- Post, May 25, 2011, https://www.huffpost.com/ tian-zionists-that-israel-allows-conversions-to- John Hagee, and none to Christians United for Is- tive/2018/03/understanding-military-aid-isra- entry/unapologetic-hagee-says-h_n_103081. christianity/. rael in the edited collection of The New Christian el-180305092533077.html. Sarah Posner, “The Evangelicals Who Pray 50. The Right in the Streets Zionism (InterVarsity Press, 2016); Hummel, in 32. Matthew Haag, “Robert Jeffress, Pastor Who for War With Iran,” The New Republic, January 9, his Covenant Brothers (University of Pennsylva- Said Jews Are Going to Hell, Led Prayer at Jeru- 2020, https://newrepublic.com/article/156166/ 1. For more see: Kossert, Aandreas, “Founding nia Press, 2019), talks extensively about Hagee salem Embassy,” The New York Times, May 14, pence-pompeo-evanglicals-war-iran-christian- Father of Modern Poland and Nationalistic Anti- and CUFI, but underestimates the radicalism of 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/14/ zionism. semite: Roman Dmowski,” in R. Haynes and M. the New Apostolic Reformation (NAR), referring world/middleeast/robert-jeffress-embassy-jeru- 51. John Hagee, “Pastor John Hagee: US, Israel Rady, eds., In the Shadow of Hitler: Personalities only to “Spirit-centered” wing of the Christian salem-us.html. Need to Team Up Against Iran,” Clear Cut With of the Right in Central and Eastern Europe, Lon- Right. 33. John Hagee, “Pastor John Hagee: US, Israel Michelle Makori (i24NEWS), July 16, 2019, don: I.B Taurus, 2011, pp.89-105. 16. Rachel Tabachnick, “Spiritual Warriors with Need to Team Up Against Iran,” Clear Cut With https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_tuE- 2. Unless otherwise stated, all translations are an Antigay Mission: The New Apostolic Refor- Michelle Makori (i24NEWS), July 16, 2019, 3FIz4Aw, (“snake,” at 0:05 – 0:10; “suicide and from the authors. mation,” The Public Eye, Spring 2013, https:// https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_tuE- mass murder” at 1:14 – 1:18). 3. Translation from The Guardian. Luxmoore, www.politicalresearch.org/2013/03/22/spiri- 3FIz4Aw (3:17 – 3:23). 52. Chuck Pierce, A Time to Triumph: How to Matthew, “Poles apart: the bitter conflict over tual-warriors-with-an-antigay-mission. 34. Edward Wong, “U.S. to End Funding to U.N. Win the War Ahead (Bloomington, MN: Chosen, a nation’s communist history,” The Guardian, 17. Rachel Tabachnick, “New Apostolic Ref- Agency that Helps Palestinian Refugees,” The 2016), p. 41. July 13, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/ ormation’s Apostles Receiving Long Over- New York Times, August 31, 2018, https://www. 53. John Weaver, The New Apostolic Reforma- news/2018/jul/13/poles-apart-the-bitter-con- due National Coverage,” Talk to Action, July nytimes.com/2018/08/31/us/politics/trump- tion: History of a Modern Charismatic Movement flict-over-a-nations-history-poland-monuments- 13, 2001, http://www.talk2action.org/sto- unrwa-palestinians.html. On CUFI’s opposition (Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & - Com communism-soviet-union. ry/2011/7/13/03334/8216/Front_Page/New_ to UNRWA see CUFI, “UNRWA Perpetuating pany, 2016), p. 145. 4. S.447 - Justice for Uncompensated Survivors Apostolic_Reformation_s_Apostles_Receiving_ Conflict at US Taxpayer Expense,” Christians 54. Eric Gormly, “Peering Beneath the Veil: An Today (JUST) Act of 2017, Congress.gov, https:// Long_Overdue_National_Coverage. United for Israel, http://support.cufi.org/site/ Ethnographic Content Analysis of Islam as Por- www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate- 18. Gerald McDermott, “What Is the New PageServer?pagename=CUFI_Blog13. trayed on The 700 Club Following the September bill/447. Christian Zionism?” In The New Christian Zion- 35. Donald Trump, “Executive Order On Com- 11th Attacks,” Journal of Media and Religion 3(4), 5. By January 2020 this campaign had gathered

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 43 endnotes

more than 200,000 signatures and march orga- The Guardian, February 16, 2018, https://www. wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/wiadomosci/7,114 26/05/2013 Area ITALIA Regione LAZIO Pro- nizers had already threatened that if Polish MPs theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/feb/16/polish- 884,24150084,duda-zrobi-sobie-zarabiste- vincia ROMA Comune ROMA,” https://elezionis- don’t act according to their initiative, the Polish far-right-speaker-rafa-ziemkiewiczc-ancels-uk- selfie-z-faszysta-frasyniuk-krytykuje.html ; Gro- torico.interno.gov.it/index.php?tpel=G&dtel=2 people will rebel. Link to the petition: https:// visit-hate-speech. chal, Renata, “Przejmując marsz narodowców 6/05/2013&tpa=I&tpe=C&lev0=0&levsut0=0& donotlink.it/Q9EVY. 21. “Interia zerwała współpracę z Rafałem Ziem- Duda i Morawiecki biorą na siebie ogromne ry- lev1=12&levsut1=1&lev2=70&levsut2=2&lev3 6. Chrzczonowicz, Magdalena and Sitnicka, kiewiczem i usunęła jego tekst o ‘strzelaniu do zyko” [”By taking the nationalists’ march, Duda =900&levsut3=3&ne1=12&ne2=70&ne3=7009 Dominika, “Idą biali wojownicy, narodowi katol- LGBT’” [“Interia broke off cooperation with Rafał and Morawiecki take huge risks”], Newsweek, 00&es0=S&es1=S&es2=S&es3=N&ms=S. icy, Za Polskę wolną od aborcji, islamu, Żydów i Ziemkiewicz and removed his text about ‘shoot- https://www.newsweek.pl/opinie/przejmujac- 10. Dipartimento per gli AffariInterni e Territo- LGBT!” [“White warriors and national Catholics ing the LGBT’”], Wirtualne Media, 2019, www. marsz-narodowcow-duda-i-morawiecki-biora- riali, “Archivio storico delle elezioni, Comunali are coming, for a Poland free from abortion, wirtualnemedia.pl/artykul/interia-zerwala- na-siebie-ogromne-ryzyko/c91rteg; Szczęśniak, 05/06/2016 Area ITALIA Regione LAZIO Pro- Islam, Jews and LGBT!”], Oko.press, November wspolprace-z-rafalem-ziemkiewiczem-i-usune- Agata, “Wrogie przejęcie Marszu Niepodległości vincia ROMA Comune ROMA,” https://elezionis- 11, 2019, https://oko.press/ida-ida-biali-woj- la-jego-tekst-o-strzelaniu-do-lgbt. nie pomoże. Narodowcy nie ustępują” [“Hostile torico.interno.gov.it/index.php?tpel=G&dtel=0 ownicy-narodowi-katolicy-za-polske-wolna-od- 22. “Wozy TVN podpalone podczas zamieszek” takeover of the Independence March will not 5/06/2016&tpa=I&tpe=C&lev0=0&levsut0=0& aborcji-islamu-zydow-i-lgbt/. [“TVN’s satellite trucks set on fire amid riots”], help. Nationalists do not give way”], Oko.press, lev1=12&levsut1=1&lev2=70&levsut2=2&lev3 7. Biskupski, M.B.B., “Independence Day: TVN24 Warszawa, November 11, 2014, https:// November 7, 2018, https://oko.press/wrogie- =900&levsut3=3&ne1=12&ne2=70&ne3=7009 Myth, Symbol, and the Creation of Modern Po- tvn24.pl/tvnwarszawa/najnowsze/wozy-tvn- przejecie-marszu-niepodleglosci-nie-pomoze- 00&es0=S&es1=S&es2=S&es3=N&ms=S. land,” Oxford University Press, 2012, pp.122 et podpalone-podczas-zamieszek-32647. narodowcy-nie-ustepuja/. 11. “Elezioni Bolzano 2016, i risultati: bal- seq. 23. “Poland’s Independence Day marred by 35. “President will ‘not participate’ in inde- lottaggio Pd-centrodestra. Affluenza del 8. Siedziako, Michał, “Tak wyglądał 11 lis- clashes with police,” BBC, November 11, pendence march,” TVP.pl, October 29, 2018, 56%. Sorpresa Casapound al 6%,” il Fatto topada w PRL” [“This is how November 11 was 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-eu- https://www.tvp.pl/polandinenglishinfo/news/ Quotidiano, May 9, 2016, https://www.ilfat- celebrated in Polish People’s Republic”], Dzieje. rope-15703316. politics-economy/president-will-not-participate- toquotidiano.it/2016/05/09/comunali-bolza- pl, August 11, 2018, https://dzieje.pl/artykuly- 24. Kozlowska, Hanna, “Why Poland’s Right- in-independence-march/39694666; “Prezydent no-sara-ballottaggio-pd-centrodestra-affluenza- historyczne/tak-wygladal-11-listopada-w-prl. Wing Thugs Keep Burning Rainbows,” Foreign Andrzej Duda i politycy PiS nie pójdą w warsza- del-56/2708110/. 9. Szymanik, Grzegorz, “Pierwsze Marsze” Policy, November 12, 2013, https://foreignpol- wskim Marszu Niepodległości” [“President An- 12. Giada Zampano, “‘We need to slap Italians [“First Marches”], Gazeta Wyborcza Warszawa, icy.com/2013/11/12/why-polands-right-wing- drzej Duda and Law and Justice Politicians will in the face with what fascism really was,’” Po- November 11, 2012, https://warszawa.wybor- thugs-keep-burning-rainbows/. not participate in Warsaw’s March of Indepen- litico, August 16, 2017, https://www.politico. cza.pl/warszawa/56,34862,10624511,pierws 25. A squat is a word describing an abandoned dence”], TVP.Info, October 30, 2018, https:// eu/article/italy-fascism-legacy-chioggia-beach- ze-marsze,,1.html. building, settled without a legal permit. Usually www.tvp.info/39718574/prezydent-andrzej- mussolini-casapound/. 10. “Wrocławski NOP na marszu w Warsza- squatting is connected to the anarchist move- duda-i-politycy-pis-nie-pojda-w-warszawskim- 13. Dipartimento per gli AffariInterni e Terri- wie” [“Wrocław’s NOP at the March of Indepen- ment, which is contesting the role of private marszu-niepodleglosci. toriali, “Archivio storico delle elezioni, Camera dence”], Gazeta Wyborcza Warszawa, Novem- property. 36. “Warsaw bans nationalist march marking 04/03/2018 Area ITALIA,” https://elezionis- ber 11, 1999, https://warszawa.wyborcza.pl/ 26. “Marsz Niepodległości 2014: 276 osób za- 100 years of Polish independence,” Politico, torico.interno.gov.it/index.php?tpel=C&dtel=0 warszawa/56,34862,10624511,11-11-1999-r- trzymano w związku z zamieszkami” [“March of November 7, 2018, https://www.politico.eu/ 4/03/2018&tpa=I&tpe=A&lev0=0&levsut0=0& wroclawski-nop-na-marszu-w-warszawie,,5. Independence 2014: 276 people were detained article/warsaw-independence-poland-bans- es0=S&ms=S. html. in connection with the unrest”], Polska Times, nationalist-march-marking-100-years-of-polish- 14. Erica X Eisen, “Italy’s Green Fascists,” Jewish 11. Right-wing activists accused Zygmunt Bau- https://polskatimes.pl/marsz-niepodleglosci- independence/. Currents, September 18, 2019, https://jewish- man, whom they pointedly described as a “Jew- 2014-276-osob-zatrzymano-w-zwiazku-z- 37. “Poland’s president addresses far right at currents.org/italys-green-fascists/. ish” scholar to invoke antisemitic sentiment, zamieszkami-zdjecia-video-relacja/ar/3634070. independence march,” The Guardian, November 15. Maddalena Gretel Cammelli, “The legacy of of not only propagating neo-Marxist ideolo- 27. Gładysz, Daniel, “Działalność Policji podczas 11, 2018, www.theguardian.com/world/2018/ fascism in the present: ‘third millennium fas- gies they oppose, but also of evading justice for Marszów Niepodległości w latach 2010-2014” nov/11/poland-far-right-independence-cente- cists’ in Italy,” Journal of Modern Italian Studies his involvement in the Polish-Stalinist state. [“Activity of the Police during Independence nary. 23, no 2 (2018): 199-214, https://doi.org/10.10 See: Chmielewski, Adam J., “Academies of Marches in 2010-2014”], Kielce: Stowarzyszenie 38. 250,000 is the official estimate of the Polish 80/1354571X.2018.1427952. Hatred,” Open Democracy, www.opendemoc- Współpraca Polska-Wschód, 2015, p. 16. Police, see: https://twitter.com/PolskaPolicja/ 16. “Progetto,” Mutuo Sociale, Casapound Ita- racy.net/en/can-europe-make-it/academies- 28. Machajski, Piotr, “Marsz Niepodległości status/1061677005702422528. lia, https://donotlink.it/MV7j1. An archived of-hatred/. Video from this event: “National 2015. Spokojny po raz pierwszy od pięciu lat” 39. This estimation is based on fieldwork con- version is available here https://web.archive. Revival of Poland disturb [sic] lecture by Zyg- [“March of Independence 2015. Calm for the first ducted by a team of scholars led by the authors. org/web/20200421144840/https://www.mu- munt Bauman,” https://www.youtube.com/ time in five years”], Gazeta Wyborcza Warszawa, 40. Witkowski, Przemysław, “Co z tym Mars- tuosociale.org/progetto.html. watch?v=UJFyiSf57uQ. November 11, 2015, https://warszawa.wybor- zem?” [“What about the March?”], Krytyka 17. Elisabetta Cassina Wolff, “CasaPound 12. Szymanik, Grzegorz, “Pierwsza blokada cza.pl/warszawa/1,34862,19173785,marsz- Polityczna, November 11, 2019, https://krytyka- Italia: ‘Back to Believing. The Struggle Con- Marszu” [“The first blockade of the March”], niepodleglosci-2015-spokoj- polityczna.pl/kraj/witkowski-marsz-niepodle- tinues’”, Fascism 8, 1: 61-88, https://doi. Gazeta Wyborcza Warszawa, November 11, ny-po-raz-pierwszy-od-pieciu.html. glosci-2019/. org/10.1163/22116257-00801004. 2012, https://warszawa.wyborcza.pl/warsza 29. It’s important to note that these actions 41. Witkowski, Przemysław, “Wojna domowa w 18. Pietro Castelli Gattinara, Caterina Froio, and wa/56,34862,10624511,pierwsza-blokada- take place at a time when the ruling Law and Marszu Niepodległości” [“Civil War in the March Matteo Albanese. “The appeal of neo-fascism marszu,,8.html. Justice party is introducing reforms in the judi- of Independence”], Oko.press, https://oko.press/ in times of crisis. The experience of CasaPound 13. Napiórkowski, Marcin, Turbopatriotyzm ciary system that violate the rule of law, alarm wojna-domowa-w-marszu-niepodleglosci/. Italia”, Fascism 2, 2: 234-258, https://doi. [Turbopatriotism], Wołowiec: Wydawnictwo EU institutions and result in Poland plummet- Third Millenium Fascism org/10.1163/22116257-00202007; Caterina Czarne (2019). ing in various indexes of democracy. For more Froio and Pietro Castelli Gattinara, “Neofascist 14. For a right-wing activist’s perspective see: “Poland might be forced to leave EU by its 1. “Gomito a gomito coi neofascisti? Mai. mobilization in contemporary Italy. Ideology on increased policing, see: Gładysz, Dan- judicial reforms, top court says,” Euronews, Ovvero: perché non andremo al #SalonedelLi- and repertoire of action of CasaPoun,” Journal for iel, “Działalność Policji podczas Marszów December 18, 2015, https://www.euronews. bro di #Torino,” Wu Ming Foundation, May 5, Deradicalization 2, (2015): (86-118). Niepodległości w latach 2010-2014” [“Activity com/2019/12/18/poland-could-be-forced-to- 2019, https://www.wumingfoundation.com/ 19. Maddalena Gretel Cammelli, Fascisti del ter- of the Police during Independence Marches in leave-eu-by-its-judicial-reforms-top-court-says. giap/2019/05/non-andremo-al-salone-del- zo millennio. Per un’antropologia di CasaPound, 2010-2014”], Kielce: Stowarzyszenie Współpraca 30. Duda, Andrzej, “List Andrzeja Dudy do libro/. (Verona: Ombre Corte, 2015); Maddalena Gretel Polska-Wschód, 2019. uczestników Marszu Niepodległości” [“A letter 2. Angela Giuffrida, “Anger grows over neo- Cammelli, Fascistes du troisième millénaire. Un 15. Poland’s largest newspaper, perceived by the from Andrzej Duda to the participants of the fascist publisher’s presence at Turin book fair,” phénomène italien? (Milan: Editions Mimésis, Polish Far Right as a chief enemy, in part due to March of Independence”], Prezydent.pl, official The Guardian, May 7, 2019, https://www. 2017). the Jewish background of its editor-in-chief, for- website of the Polish President, November 11, theguardian.com/world/2019/may/07/anger- 20. Elia Rosati, CasaPound Italia. Fascisti del mer dissident Adam Michnik. 2016, https://www.prezydent.pl/aktualnosci/ grows-over-neo-fascist-publishers-presence-at- terzo millennio (Milano-Udine: Mimesis, 2018). 16. Bodakowski, Jan, “Fotorelacja z pierwszego wypowiedzi-prezydenta-rp/inne/art,282,list- turin-book-fair. 21. “Fasciobook: credere, obbedire, condivi- Marszu Niepodległości. Zobacz jak daleką drogę prezydenta-do-uczestnikow-marszu-niepodle- 3. Pietro Castelli Gattinara and Caterina Froio, dere,” Patria Indipendente, April 16, 2018, przeszliśmy od 2010 roku” [“Photos from the glosci-.html. “Why Italy’s media fixates on CasaPound, an http://www.patriaindipendente.it/persone-e- First Independence March. See how Far We 31. Broniatowski, Michal and Herszenhorn, extreme-right party with a racist agenda,” The luoghi/inchieste/fasciobook-credere-obbedire- Have Come since 2010”], November 10, 2018, David M., “White nationalists call for ethnic Washington Post, May 28, 2019, https://www. condividere/. Prawy.pl, https://prawy.pl/82374-fotorelacja-z- purity at Polish demonstration,” Politico Europe, washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/05/28/why- 22. Gabriele Adinolfi, “Sorpasso Neuronico. Il pierwszego-marszu-niepodleglosci-zobacz-jak- November 15, 2017, https://www.politico.eu/ italys-media-fixates-casapound-an-extreme- prolungato omega della destra radicale e i vaghi daleka-droge-przeszlismy-od-2010-roku/. article/white-nationalists-call-for-ethnic-purity- right-party-with-racist-agenda/. bagliori dell’alfa,” 2008, http://www.gabrielea- 17. Jajecznik, Konrad, “The Nationalist Move- at-polish-independence-day-march/. Quote 4. Louis Menand, “The Pound Error,” The New dinolfi.it/Sorpassoneuronico.pdf. All transla- ment in Poland: the Third Evolution Phase of translations by the authors. Yorker, June 2, 2008, https://www.newyorker. tions by the author, unless noted otherwise. Polish Nationalism after 1989?” in K. Cordell 32. “Warsaw slams EU official for calling Polish com/magazine/2008/06/09/the-pound-error. 23. Tobias Jones, “The fascist movement that has and K. Jajecznik, eds., The Transformation of Na- marchers ‘neo-Nazi,’” Times of Israel, Novem- 5. Maurizio Cotta and Luca Verzichelli, Political brought Mussolini back to the mainstream,” The tionalism in Central and Eastern Europe, Warsaw: ber 17, 2017, https://www.timesofisrael.com/ Institutions in Italy (Oxford; New York: Oxford Guardian, February 22, 2018, https://www.the- University of Warsaw, 2015, pp. 35-62. warsaw-slams-eu-official-for-calling-polish- University Press, 2007), 40. guardian.com/news/2018/feb/22/casapound- 18. Official websites of the All-Polish Youth, marchers-neo-nazi/. 6. Tobias Jones, “The fascist movement that has italy-mussolini-fascism-mainstream. https://mw.org.pl/, and of the National-Radical 33. Polski sąd chce uchylenia immunitetu Guy- brought Mussolini back to the mainstream,” The 24. Matteo Albanese, Giorgia Bulli, Pietro Cas- Camp, https://www.onr.com.pl/. owi Verhofstadtowi. To efekt prywatnego aktu Guardian, February 22, 2018, https://www.the- telli Gattinara, and Caterina Froio, Fascisti di 19. See for example: Vonberg, Judith, “‘Women oskarżenia [“The Polish court wants to waive the guardian.com/news/2018/feb/22/casapound- un altro millennio? Crisi e partecipazione in Casa- must earn less than men,’ Polish politician says,” immunity of Guy Verhofstadt. This is the result italy-mussolini-fascism-mainstream. Pound (Roma: Bonanno Editore, 2014), 84. CNN Europe, March 3, 2017, https://edition. of a private indictment”], Gazeta Wyborzca, Oc- 7. Heiko Koch, “CasaPound Italia,” in Trouble 25. Maddalena Gretel Cammelli, “The legacy of cnn.com/2017/03/03/europe/polish-politi- tober 22, 2019, https://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/ on the Far Right: Contemporary Right-Wing Strate- fascism in the present: ‘third millennium fas- cian-remarks-women/index.html; or Singh, wiadomosci/7,114884,25332842,polski-sad- gies and Practices in Europe, eds. Maik Fielitz and cists’ in Italy,” Journal of Modern Italian Studies Rajnish, “Polish far-right MEP blasted for use chce-uchylenia-immunitetu-guyowi-verhofstad- Laura Lotte Laloire, (Colombia University Press, 23, no 2 (2018): 199-214, https://doi.org/10.10 of ‘racist’ language,” The Parliament, July 17, towi.html. 2017), 79-86. 80/1354571X.2018.1427952. 2014, https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/ 34. “Duda zrobi sobie zarąbiste selfie z faszystą”. 8. Tuttitalia, “Elezioni Regionali Lazio 2013,” 26. ZetaZeroAlfa, “Cinghiamattanza.” articles/news/polish-far-right-mep-blasted-use- Frasyniuk krytykuje negocjacje z nacjona- https://www.tuttitalia.it/elezioni-italiane/elezi- 27. The ethnography for my PhD in anthropol- racist-language. listami” [“Duda will take a great selfie with oni-regionali-lazio-2013/. ogy was carried out in Rome in 2010. All refer- 20. Marsh, Sarah, “Polish far-right speaker the fascist.” Frasyniuk criticizes negotiations 9. Dipartimento per gli AffariInterni e Territo- ences to testimonies of CasaPound’s activists cancels UK visit amid hate speech concerns,” with nationalists”], Gazeta Wyborcza, https:// riali, “Archivio storico delle elezioni, Comunali come from that fieldwork.

44 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 endnotes

28. George L. Mosse, La Nazionalizzazione delle lence in Italy see the antifascist site and the map Laws,” The Guardian, August 5, 2019, https:// 29. Ana P Santos, “’Those charges are bulls**t’: Masse. Simbolismo Politico e Movimenti di Massa at http://www.ecn.org/antifa/. www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/06/ Philippines jailed de Lima defiant,” Aljazeera, in Germania dalle Guerre Napoleoniche al Terzo 48. Maddalena Gretel Cammelli, “Fascism as jair-bolosonaro-says-criminals-will-die-like- January 20, 2020, https://www.aljazeera.com/ Reich (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1975). a style of life. Community life and violence cockroaches-under-proposed-new-laws. news/2020/01/charges-bullst-philippines- 29. David Kertzer, Riti e Simboli del Potere in a neofascist movement in Italy,” Focaal, 12. Érika Kokay, “Bolsonaro Em 25 Frases jailed-de-lima-defiant-200120061152430.html. (Roma- Bari: Laterza, 1989). Journal of Global and Historical Anthropology Polêmicas,” October 29, 2018, Deutsche Welle, 30. Michael Scharf and Elizabeth Andersen, “Is 30. Christian Raimo, “Ritratto del neofascista 79, (2017): 89-101, https://doi.org/10.3167/ https://www.dw.com/pt-br/bolsonaro-em- Lawfare Worth Defining - Report of the Cleveland da giovane,” Internazionale, January 29, 2018, fcl.2017.790108; Valerio Renzi, “Un lupo soli- 25-frases-polêmicas/a-46065201. Experts Meeting - September 11, 2010.” Case https://www.internazionale.it/reportage/chris- tario dentro CasaPound?” ed. Elia Rosati, Casa- 13. Tom Phillips, “Jair Bolsonaro’s Racist Com- Western Reserve, J. Int’l L. 43 (2010): 11, https:// tian-raimo/2018/01/29/neofascismo-scuola- Pound Italia. Fascisti del terzo millennio (Milano- ment Sparks Outrage from Indigenous Groups,” scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/jil/vol43/ ragazzi. Udine: Mimesis, 2018), 221-227; Tom Kington, The Guardian, January 24, 2020, https://www. iss1/2/. 31. Giovanna De Maio, “Matteo Salvini is out “Florence gunman shoots Senegalese street ven- theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/24/jair-bol- 31. Mariana Oliveira, Fernanda Vivas, and but not down,” Brookings, September 4, 2019, dors dead,” The Guardian, December 13, 2011, sonaro-racist-comment-sparks-outrage-indige- Rosanne D’Agostino, “Bolsonaro é Presidente https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from- https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/ nous-groups. Com Mais Decretos e MPs Questionados No chaos/2019/09/04/matteo-salvini-is-out-but- dec/13/florence-gunman-shoots-street-vendors. 14. Davi Nogueira, “VÍDEO – Bolsonaro: ‘Não STF No Primeiro Ano De Mandato,” G1, March not-down/. 49. “Renzi: orrore figlio del razzismo ma questa Terão Sossego. Sou Homofóbico Sim, Com Muito 1, 2020, https://g1.globo.com/politica/noti- 32. Tash Shifrin, “Italy: fascism on the rise as città ha gli anticorpi per fermare chi predica Orgulho,’” Diário Centro Mundo, October 11, cia/2020/03/01/bolsonaro-e-presidente-com- Lega Nord and Casa Pound join forces,” Dream l’ odio ,” la Repubblica, December 14, 2011, 2018, https://www.diariodocentrodomundo. mais-decretos-e-mps-questionados-no-stf-no- Deferred, June 1, 2015, https://www.dreamde- https://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/ar- com.br/video-bolsonaro-nao-terao-sossego-sou- primeiro-ano-de-mandato.ghtml. ferred.org.uk/2015/06/italy-fascism-on-the- chivio/repubblica/2011/12/14/renzi-orrore- homofobico-sim-com-muito-orgulho/. 32. Amandino Teixeira Nunes Junior, A Ju- rise-as-lega-nord-and-casa-pound-join-forces/. figlio-del-razzismo-ma-questa.html?. 15. Shelia Coronel, “‘I Will Kill All the Drug dicialização da Política no Brasil: os Casos das 33. Dario Lapenta, “Quando Matteo Salvini an- 50. Camilla Hawthorne, “Anti-racism without Lords’: The making of Rodrigo Duterte,” The Comissões Parlamentares de Inquérito e da Fideli- dava a cena con CasaPound,” nextQuotidiano, race,” Africa is a Country, September 15, 2016, Atlantic, September 20, 2016, https://www.the- dade Partidária (Brasília: Edições Câmara), 2016, May 12, 2018, https://www.nextquotidiano.it/ https://africasacountry.com/2016/09/anti-rac- atlantic.com/international/archive/2016/09/ https://livraria.camara.leg.br/a-judicializacao- matteo-salvini-cena-casapound/. ism-without-race-in-italy. rodrigo-duterte-philippines-manila-drugs- da-politica-no-brasil-os-casos-das-comissoes- 34. Archie Farquharson, “Salvini hits headlines 51. Tobias Jones, “The fascist movement that has davao/500756/. parlamentares-de-inquerito-e-da-fidelidade- in CasaPound clothing controversy,” The Italian brought Mussolini back to the mainstream,” The 16. “Profile: Duterte the controversial ‘strong- partidaria. Insider, May 11, 2018, http://www.italianinsid- Guardian, February 22, 2018, https://www.the- man’ of the Philippines,” BBC, May 22, 2019, 33. Euan Marshall, “Brazil President Jair Bol- er.it/?q=node/6727. guardian.com/news/2018/feb/22/casapound- https://www.bbc.com/news/world-36659258. sonaro Ignores Coronavirus Warnings to Take 35. Cristina Abellan Matamoros and Antonio italy-mussolini-fascism-mainstream. 17. Lindsay Murdoch, “Rodrigo Duterte Lashes Selfies with Demonstrators,” The Telegraph, Sorto, “Self-proclaimed fascist banned from 52. “Il Tribunale dà torto alla figlia di Ezra Pound: out at Australia after Missionary Rape Joke,” The March 16, 2020, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/ Turin book fair after boycott call,” Euronews, ‘Legittimo il nome Casapound,’” Adnkronos, Oc- Sydney Morning Herald, April 19, 2016, https:// news/2020/03/16/brazil-president-jairbolsona- October 5, 2019, https://www.euronews. tober 6, 2016, https://donotlink.it/7pn4r. www.smh.com.au/world/rodrigo-duterte-lash- ro-ignores-coronavirus-warnings/. com/2019/05/09/self-proclaimed-fascist- 53. Ministero dell’Interno, Dipartimento di Pub- es-out-at-australia-after-missionary-rape-joke- 34. “Bolsonaro Diz Que Parte Da ‘Grande Imp- banned-from-turin-book-fair-after-boycott-call. blica Sicurezza, Direzione Centrale della Polizia 20160419-go9pg5.html. rensa’ é Inimiga,” Folha de S.Paulo, September 36. R4Mantifa, “29 Ottobre 2008 - I burattini di Prevenzione. N.224/SIG.DIV2/Sez.2/4333. 18. Russell Goldman, “Rodrigo Duterte on Kill- 13, 2019, https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/pod- del potere,” November 10, 2008, https://www. Rome, April 11, 2015, https://insorgenze. ing Criminal Suspects: ‘I Used to Do It Person- er/2019/09/bolsonaro-diz-que-parte-da-grande- youtube.com/watch?v=TnFgrJ3niL4&has_veri- net/2016/01/30/il-documento-shock-del- ally,’” New York Times, December 14, 2016, imprensa-e-inimiga.shtml. fied=1. ministero-dellinterno-casapound-solo-bravi- https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/14/world/ 35. “Bolsonaro Cancela Assinaturas Da Folha 37. Milano In Movimento, “CasaPound Mi- ragazzi/. asia/rodrigo-duterte-philippines-killings.html. No Governo Federal e Ameaça Anunciantes lano S.P.A. – Pivert,” Dinamo Press, October Leila B. Salaverria, “Duterte Passes Aquino Do Jornal,” Folha de S.Paulo, November 1, Right-Wing Populism Outside the 19. 14, 2017, https://www.dinamopress.it/news/ Global North in Number of Votes Won,” Inquirer, May 11, 2019, https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/pod- casapound-milano-s-p-a-pivert/. 2016, https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/785015/ er/2019/10/bolsonaro-determina-cancelamen- 38. Silvia Sanna, “Francesco Polacchi, l’editore 1. Roger Eatwell and Matthew Goodwin, Na- duterte-passes-aquino-in-number-of-votes-won. to-de-assinaturas-da-folha-no-governo-federal. fascista, accoltellò un sassarese,” La Nuova, tional Populism: The Revolt Against Liberal De- 20. Leila B. Salaverria, “It’s Duterte, Robredo in shtml; Paul Farhi, “Trump Instructs Federal May 8, 2019, https://www.lanuovasardegna.it/ mocracy, (Penguin UK, 2018), 85. Final Count,” Inquirer, May 28, 2016, https:// Agencies to End Washington Post and New York regione/2019/05/08/news/polacchi-l-editore- 2. “Gastos Parlamentares Na Câmara Dos Dep- newsinfo.inquirer.net/787902/its-duterte-ro- Times Subscriptions,” Washington Post, October fascista-accoltello-un-sassarese-1.17813790. utados,” Portal da Câmara dos Deputados, ac- bredo-in-final-count. 25, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/ 39. Dario Lapenta, “Quando Matteo Salvini an- cessed May 2, 2020, https://www.camara.leg.br/ 21. “More Millennials Voted for Duterte, Exit lifestyle/style/trump-instructs-federal-agencies- dava a cena con CasaPound,” nextQuotidiano, transparencia/gastos-parlamentares?ano=2019; Poll Shows,” ABS-CBN News, May 14, 2016, to-cancel-washington-post-and-new-york-times- May 12, 2018, https://www.nextquotidiano.it/ “Salário mínimo sobe para R$ 1.045 a partir https://news.abs-cbn.com/halalan2016/fo- subscriptions/2019/10/24/aefcf0b0-f68a-11e9- matteo-salvini-cena-casapound/. deste sábado,” Globo, January 2, 2020, https:// cus/05/14/16/more-millennials-voted-for- 8cf0-4cc99f74d127_story.html. 40. Chiara Sandrucci, “Polacchi (Altaforte): «La g1.globo.com/economia/noticia/2020/02/01/ duterte-exit-poll-shows. 36. Gustavo Uribe, “Bolsonaro Recua e Revoga sinistra del Salone vuole libertà culturale poi salario-minimo-sobe-para-r-1045-a-partir- 22. RG Cruz, “Why Duterte Is Popular among Licitação Da Presidência Que Excluiu a Folha,” però ci censura»,” Corriere Torino, May 6, 2019, deste-sabado.ghtml. Wealthy, Middle Class Voters,” ABS-CBN News, Folha de S.Paulo, December 6, 2019, https:// https://torino.corriere.it/cronaca/19_mag- 3. Lúcio Vaz, “Quanto Custa Um Deputado Fed- May 1, 2016, https://news.abs-cbn.com/ha- www1.folha.uol.com.br/poder/2019/12/bolso- gio_06/polacchi-altoforte-la-sinistra-vuole- eral Ao Contribuinte,” Gazeta do Povo, January lalan2016/focus/04/30/16/why-duterte-is- naro-recua-e-revoga-licitacao-da-presidencia- liberta-culturale-poi-pero-ci-censura-98219d6a- 31, 2019, https://www.gazetadopovo.com.br/ popular-among-wealthy-middle-class-voters; que-excluiu-a-folha.shtml; Fernanda Valente, 6fcf-11e9-90a6-5e2915e36bd9.shtml# . vozes/lucio-vaz/salario-assessores-cotao-mora- Carmen N. Pedrosa, “Why Do Filipinos Continue “MP pede que TCU apure perseguição de Bolso- 41. “Polacchi, dell’editrice Altaforte: “Sì sono dia-viagens-saiba-quanto-custa-um-deputado. to Support Duterte?” The Philippine Star, Novem- naro ao excluir Folha de licitação,” Consultor Ju- fascista. Mussolini il miglior statista italiano”,” 4. Nathalia Passarinho, “Segundo Mais Caro ber 30, 2019, https://www.philstar.com/opin- rídico, November 29, 2019, https://www.conjur. La Repubblica, May 6, 2019, https://torino. Do Mundo, Congresso Brasileiro Tem Parlamen- ion/2019/12/01/1973187/why-do-filipinos- com.br/2019-nov-29/mp-tcu-apure-persegui- repubblica.it/cronaca/2019/05/06/news/po- tares Demais?” BBC News Brasil, December 7, continue-support-duterte. cao-bolsonaro-folha-spaulo. lacchi_dell_ditrice_altaforte_si_sono_fas- 2018, https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/bra- 23. Ramon Casiple, interviewed by Ramon H. 37. “Bolsonaro Critica Imprensa e Ataca cista_mussolini_il_miglior_statista_italia- sil-46427803. Royandoyan, December 28, 2019. Repórter,” Poder360, May 16, 2019, https:// no_-225594832/ . 5. “Efeitos No Exterior,” Ministerio Público 24. Marco Rodrigo Almeida, “Para Especialistas, www.poder360.com.br/midia/bolsonaro-criti- 42. “Polacchi, dell’editrice Altaforte: “Sì sono Federal, March 6, 2020, http://www.mpf.mp.br/ Bolsonaro Adota Visual Simples Como Tática,” ca-imprensa-e-ataca-reporter/; Larissa Calixto, fascista. Mussolini il miglior statista italiano”,” grandes-casos/lava-jato/efeitos-no-exterior. Folha de S.Paulo, November 12, 2018, https:// “Bolsonaro Ataca Jornalista Da Folha Com Co- La Repubblica, May 6, 2019, https://torino. 6. Talita Abrantes, “Brasil Está Em Último Em www1.folha.uol.com.br/poder/2018/11/para- mentários Sexuais,” Congresso em Foco, February repubblica.it/cronaca/2019/05/06/news/po- Ranking Que Mede Confiança Em Políticos,” especialistas-bolsonaro-adota-visual-simples- 18, 2020, https://congressoemfoco.uol.com.br/ lacchi_dell_ditrice_altaforte_si_sono_fas- Exame, September 27, 2017, https://exame. como-tatica.shtml. governo/bolsonaro-ataca-jornalista-da-folha- cista_mussolini_il_miglior_statista_italia- abril.com.br/brasil/brasil-esta-em-ultimo-em- 25. Eric Pace, Eric, “THE FALL OF MARCOS: com-comentarios-sexuais/; “Planalto Exclui no_-225594832/ . ranking-que-mede-confianca-em-politicos/. TWO DECADES AS PHILIPPINE CHIEF; THE ‘Folha’ Da Cobertura De Jantar De Bolsonaro Com 43. “Salone del libro di Torino, Francesco Polac- 7. “PH Ranking in Global Corruption In- MARCOS YEARS: FROM VOW TO ‘MAKE COUN- Trump Nos EUA,” G1, March 7, 2020, https:// chi indagato per apologia di fascismo,” Il Messag- dex Worsens,” Rappler, January 25, 2017, TRY GREAT’ TO THE PUBLIC REVOLT,” New g1.globo.com/politica/noticia/2020/03/07/ gero, May 8, 2019, https://www.ilmessaggero. https://www.rappler.com/move-ph/issues/ York Times, February 26, 1986, https://www.ny- planalto-exclui-folha-da-cobertura-de-jantar-de- it/politica/salone_libro_torino_francesco_polac- corruption/159439-philippines-corruption-per- times.com/1986/02/26/world/fall-marcos-two- bolsonaro-com-trump-nos-eua.ghtml. chi_apologia_fascismo_casapound-4478008. ceptions-index-2016-rank. decades-philippine-chief-marcos-years-vow- 38. Lais Lis, “Imprensa Sofreu 11 Mil Ataques html. 8. Michael Bueza, “Perceived Corruption in make-country-great.html; Michael Henry Li and Diários Nas Redes Sociais Em 2019, Diz Asso- 44. Mimmo Franzinelli, “Squadrism,” in The Ox- 2019: PH Gets Its Lowest Ranking in 7 Years,” Yusingco, “‘Imperial Manila’ Is a Constitutional ciação De Rádio e TV,” March 11, 2020, https:// ford Handbook of Fascism, ed. R. J. B. Bosworth Rappler, January 24, 2020, https://www.rap- Design: Towards Configuring Executive Author- g1.globo.com/politica/noticia/2020/03/11/ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 91-108. pler.com/nation/250067-2019-corruption-per- ity in a Federal System,” ConstitutionNet, March casos-de-violencia-contra-jornalistas-caem- 45. Maddalena Gretel Cammelli, “The legacy of ceptions-index-ph-gets-its-lowest-ranking. 20, 2018, http://constitutionnet.org/news/ pela-metade-em-2019-na-comparacao-com- fascism in the present: ‘third millennium fas- 9. “Bolsonaro é o 2º Presidente Eleito Durante imperial-manila-constitutional-design-towards- 2018-diz-abert.ghtml. cists’ in Italy,” Journal of Modern Italian Studies o Mandato De Deputado Federal,” Cámera dos configuring-executive-authority-federal-system. 39. Hannah Ellis-Petersen, “Philippines libel 23, no 2 (2018): 199-214, https://doi.org/10.10 Deputados, January 1, 2019, https://www. 26. Ramon Casiple, interviewed by Ramon H. trial of journalist critical of Rodrigo Duterte be- 80/1354571X.2018.1427952. camara.leg.br/noticias/550399-bolsonaro-e- Royandoyan on December 28, 2019. gins,” July 23, 2019, https://www.theguardian. 46. “Casa Pound/Concia, come sarà andato o-2o-presidente-eleito-durante-o-mandato-de- 27. “Philippine Chief Justice Sereno, Duterte’s com/world/2019/jul/23/philippines-libel-trial- l’incontro/scontro?,” Gay.it, October 1, 2009, deputado-federal/. Critic, Removed,” Aljazeera, May 11, 2018, of-maria-ressa-journalist-critical-of-president- https://www.gay.it/attualita/news/casa-pound- 10. “Veja 10 Frases Polêmicas De Bolsonaro https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/05/ duterte-begins. concia-come-sara-andato-l-incontro-scontro; Sobre o Golpe De 1964 e a Ditadura Militar,” philippine-chief-justice-sereno-duterte-critic- 40. “Philippines’ Duterte Tells Media Conglom- Mario Cirrito, “Anna Paola Concia: Su alcuni Folha de S.Paulo, August 8, 2019. https://www1. removed-180511065453926.html. erate Owners to Sell Out,” Aljazeera, December diritti meglio Casa Pound del Pd,” QueerBlog, folha.uol.com.br/poder/2019/03/veja-10-fra- 28. Floyd Whaley, “Philippine Chief Justice 30, 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/ajimpact/ October 2, 2009, https://www.queerblog.it/ ses-polemicas-de-bolsonaro-sobre-o-golpe-de- Removed Over Omission in Report on Assets,” philippines-duterte-tells-media-conglomerate- post/6205/anna-paola-concia-su-alcuni-diritti- 1964-e-a-ditadura-militar.shtml. New York Times, May 29, 2012, https://www.ny- owners-sell-191230114922285.html. meglio-casa-pound-del-pd. 11. Tom Phillips, “Jair Bolsonaro Says Criminals times.com/2012/05/30/world/asia/philippines- 41. Alexandra Stevenson, “Maria Ressa, Journal- 47. For a complete list of episodes of fascist vio- Will ‘Die like Cockroaches’ under Proposed New chief-justice-removed-over-finances.html. ist Critical of Duterte, Is Arrested Again in Philip-

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 45 endnotes

pines,” March 28, 2019, https://www.nytimes. discursos do governo Bolsonaro,” Agenda Política gia,” Philippine Sociological Review 65 (2017): 84. Pauline Macaraeg, “Who to Vote For? Get To com/2019/03/28/business/media/maria-ressa- 7, no. 3 (2019): 8-35. 77-102, www.jstor.org/stable/45014310; Know the Political Parties in the Philippines,” arrested-philippines-rappler.html; Lian Buan, 52. “Bolsonaro ‘Ataca Frontalmente’ Os Direitos Paulo Prada, “Special Report: Why Brazil’s Esquire, January 27, 2020, https://www.es- “LIST: Cases vs Maria Ressa, Rappler directors, Humanos, Alerta HRW,” Uol, October 17, 2019, New Middle Class Is Seething,” Reuters, July quiremag.ph/politics/news/political-parties-in- staff since 2018,” February 25, 2019, https:// https://noticias.uol.com.br/ultimas-noticias/ 3, 2013, https://www.reuters.com/article/ the-philippines-a00287-20190127-lfrm; Jorge www.rappler.com/nation/223968-list-cases- afp/2019/10/16/bolsonaro-ataca-frontalmente- us-brazil-middle-specialreport/special-report- Villamor Tigno, “The party-list system in the filed-against-maria-ressa-rappler-reporters. os-direitos-humanos-alerta-hrw.htm. why-brazils-new-middle-class-is-seething-idUS- Philippines: Is it better or worse for democracy?” 42. “154 Attacks, Threats vs Journalists since 53. Ingrid Soares, “Bolsonaro critica ambien- BRE9620DT20130703. Asia Research Institute, July 4, 2019, https:// Duterte Took Office – Media Groups,” Rappler, talistas: ‘Fumam cigarrinho ‘legal’ a noite toda,’” 67. Gustavo Patu, “Novos Dados Indicam Que theasiadialogue.com/2019/07/04/the-party- December 11, 2019, https://www.rappler.com/ Correio Braziliense, February, 6, 2020, https:// Recente Recessão Não Foi a Pior Da História,” Fol- list-system-in-the-philippines-is-it-better-or- nation/246992-recorded-attacks-threats-vs- www.correiobraziliense.com.br/app/noticia/ ha de S.Paulo, February 12, 2017, https://www1. worse-for-democracy/. journalists-duterte-administration. politica/2020/02/06/interna_politica,826291/ folha.uol.com.br/mercado/2017/12/1940049- 85. Richard Javad Heydarian, “Penal Populism in 43. Daniel Avelar, “WhatsApp Fake News bolsonaro-critica-ambientalistas-fumam-cigar- novos-dados-indicam-que-recente- Emerging Markets,” in Human Rights in a Time of during Brazil Election ‘Favoured Bolsonaro,’” rinho-legal-a-noite-t.shtml. recessao-nao-foi-a-pior-da-historia.shtml. Populism: Challenges and Responses, ed. Gerald The Guardian, October 30, 2019, https:// 54. See for example, Jean-Philip Struck, “Acabar 68. Daniel Silveira, “Crise Levou 4,5 Milhões L. Neuman (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Univer- www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/30/ Com o Crime No Rio, Uma Velha Promessa,” a Mais à Extrema Pobreza e Fez Desigualdade sity Press, 2020): 130. whatsapp-fake-news-brazil-election-favoured- Deutsche Welle, March 14, 2018, https://www. Atingir Nível Recorde No Brasil, Diz IBGE,” G1, 86. Mark R. Thompson, “Why Duterte Remains jair-bolsonaro-analysis-suggests; Tom Philips, dw.com/pt-br/acabar-com-o-crime-no-rio- November 5, 2019, https://g1.globo.com/eco- So Popular.” Foreign Affairs, October 11, 2018, “Bolsonaro Business Backers Accused of Illegal uma-velha-promessa/a-42964088; Thaiza Pau- nomia/noticia/2019/11/06/crise-levou-45-mil- https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/phil- Whatsapp Fake News Campaign,” The Guardian, luze, “Doria Deixa No Papel Maioria De Suas hoes-a-mais-a-extrema-pobreza-e-fez-desigual- ippines/2018-10-09/why-duterte-remains-so- October 18, 2018, https://www.theguardian. Promessas Para Segurança Pública,” Folha de dade-atingir-nivel-recorde-no-brasil-diz-ibge. popular. com/world/2018/oct/18/brazil-jair-bolsonaro- S.Paulo, August 17, 2019, https://www1.folha. ghtml. 87. Randy David, “‘Dutertismo,’” Inquirer Opin- whatsapp-fake-news-campaign; Matheus Ma- uol.com.br/cotidiano/2019/08/doria-deixa- 69. Felipe Matoso, “Governo Dilma Tem Aprova- ion, May 1, 2016, https://opinion.inquirer. genta, Juliana Gragnani, and Felipe Souza, “How no-papel-maioria-de-suas-promessas-para- ção De 9% e Reprovação De 70%, Diz Ibope,” G1, net/94530/dutertismo. WhatsApp Is Being Abused in Brazil’s Elections,” seguranca-publica.shtml; Eduardo Rodrigues, December 15, 2015, http://g1.globo.com/polit- 88. Mark R. Thompson, “Why Duterte Remains October 24, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/ “Dilma Promete Integrar Polícias Para Aumen- ica/noticia/2015/12/governo-dilma-tem-apro- So Popular.” Foreign Affairs, October 11, 2018, technology-45956557. tar Segurança Pública,” Estadão, October 19, vacao-de-9-e-reprovacao-de-70-diz-ibope.html; https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/phil- 44. Artur Rodrigues and Patricia Campos Mello, 2014, https://politica.estadao.com.br/noticias/ Pedro Venceslau, “Após Protestos, Aprovação a ippines/2018-10-09/why-duterte-remains-so- “Fraude Com CPF Viabilizou Disparo De Mensa- eleicoes,dilma-promete-integrar-policias-para- Governadores Cai Junto Com Popularidade De popular. gens De WhatsApp Na Eleição,” Folha de S.Paulo, aumentar-seguranca-publica,1579295; “Gover- Dilma - Política,” Estadão, July 26, 2013, https:// 89. Lian Buan, “TokHang Documents Prove December 2, 2018, https://www1.folha.uol. no Lula Promete Aumentar Verba Da Segurança politica.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,apos- Drug War Caused Cops to Kill Suspects,” Rappler, com.br/poder/2018/12/fraude-com-cpf-via- Após Críticas,” Folha de S.Paulo, January 11, protestos-aprovacao-a-governadores-cai-junto- October 23, 2019, https://www.rappler.com/ bilizou-disparo-de-mensagens-de-whatsapp- 2007, https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/fsp/co- com-popularidade-de-dilma,1057353. nation/243230-flag-says-tokhang-documents- na-eleicao.shtml; “Países Precisam Se Preparar tidian/ff1101200710.htm. 70. Roger Eatwell and Matthew Goodwin, Na- prove-drug-war-caused-cops-kill-suspects. Para Abrigar Venezuelanos Por Muito Tempo, 55. See for example, “Philippines: Two Years tional Populism: The Revolt Against Liberal De- 90. Peter Bouckaert, “‘License to Kill’ Philip- Diz Representante Da ONU,” Folha de S.Paulo, Under Aquino, Abuses Go Unpunished,” Human mocracy, (Penguin UK, 2018), 179-222. pine Police Killings in Duterte’s ‘War on Drugs,’” March 25, 2019, https://www1.folha.uol. Rights Watch, June 27, 2012, https://www.hrw. 71. Francisco Porfírio, “Cotas Raciais: Criação, Human Rights Watch, March 2, 2017, https:// com.br/mundo/2019/03/paises-precisam-se- org/news/2012/06/27/philippines-two-years- Leis, Argumentos Pró e Contra,” Brasil Escola, www.hrw.org/report/2017/03/02/license-kill/ preparar-para-abrigar-venezuelanos-por-muito- under-aquino-abuses-go-unpunished; Mark R. accessed May 16, 2020, https://brasilescola.uol. philippine-police-killings-dutertes-war-drugs; tempo-diz-representante-da-onu.shtml; Patricia Thompson, “Bloodied Democracy: Duterte and com.br/educacao/sistema-cotas-racial.htm. Manuel Mogato and Clare Baldwin, “Special Re- Campos Mello, “Empresários Bancam Campanha the Death of Liberal Reformism in the Philip- 72. Deborah Wetzel, “Bolsa Família: Brazil’s port: Police describe kill rewards, staged crime Contra o PT Pelo WhatsApp,” Folha de S.Paulo, pines,” Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs Quiet Revolution,” World Bank, November 4, scenes in Duterte’s drug war,” Reuters, April October 18, 2018, https://www1.folha.uol.com. 35, no. 3 (2016): 39–68. https://doi.org/10.117 2013, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ 18, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us- br/poder/2018/10/empresarios-bancam-cam- 7/186810341603500303. opinion/2013/11/04/bolsa-familia-Brazil-quiet- philippines-duterte-police-specialrep/special-re- panha-contra-o-pt-pelo-whatsapp.shtml. 56. Shasta Darlington, “A Year of Violence Sees revolution. port-police-describe-kill-rewards-staged-crime- 45. Chay F. Hofileña, “Fake Accounts, Manufac- Brazil’s Murder Rate Hit Record High,” New York 73. “Pobreza Extrema Cresce No Brasil e Afeta scenes-in-dutertes-drug-war-idUSKBN17K1F4; tured Reality on Social Media,” Rappler, October Times, August 10, 2018, https://www.nytimes. 13,5 Milhões De Pessoas,” Deutsche Welle, No- Mikas Matsuzawa and Patricia Viray, “Casualties 9, 2016, https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/ com/2018/08/10/world/americas/brazil-mur- vember 7, 2019, https://www.dw.com/pt-br/ of Rody’s war,” PhilStar Global, September 19, investigative/148347-fake-accounts-manufac- der-rate-record.html. pobreza-extrema-cresce-no-brasil-e-afeta- 2016, https://newslab.philstar.com/war-on- tured-reality-social-media. 57. Sheila Royo Maxwell, “Perceived Threat of 135-milhões-de-pessoas/a-51147425. drugs/poverty. 46. Ibid. Crime, Authoritarianism, and the Rise of a Popu- 74. “Pobreza Extrema Cresce No Brasil e Afeta 91. Peter Bouckaert, “‘License to Kill’ Philippine 47. Paige Occeñola, “Exclusive: PH Was Cam- list President in the Philippines,” International 13,5 Milhões De Pessoas,” Deutsche Welle, Police Killings in Duterte’s ‘War on Drugs,’” Hu- bridge Analytica’s ‘Petri Dish’ – Whistle-Blower Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal November 7, 2019, https://www.dw.com/ man Rights Watch, March 2, 2017, https://www. Christopher Wylie,” Rappler, September 10, Justice 43, no. 3 (December 17, 2018): 207–18, pt-br/pobreza-extrema-cresce-no-brasil-e- hrw.org/report/2017/03/02/license-kill/philip- 2019, https://www.rappler.com/technology/ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080 afeta-135-milhões-de-pessoas/a-51147425; pine-police-killings-dutertes-war-drugs. social-media/239606-cambridge-analytica-phil- /01924036.2018.1558084 . Carmen Nery, “Extrema Pobreza Atinge 13,5 92. “IN NUMBERS: The Philippines’ ‘war on ippines-online-propaganda-christopher-wylie. 58. Pia Ranada, “Is Duterte’s ‘4 Million Drug Milhões De Pessoas e Chega Ao Maior Nível drugs,’” Rappler, September 13, 2016, https:// 48. João Filho, “‘Na Ditadura Tudo Era Mel- Addicts’ a ‘Real Number’?” Rappler, May 6, Em 7 Anos,” Agência IBGE, November 6, www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/145814-num- hor.’” The Intercept Brasil, September 23, 2018, 2017, https://www.rappler.com/rappler- 2019, https://agenciadenoticias.ibge.gov.br/ bers-statistics-philippines-war-drugs. https://theintercept.com/2018/09/22/na-dita- blogs/169009-duterte-drug-addicts-real-num- agencia-noticias/2012-agencia-de-noticias/ 93. Felipe Villamor and Richard C. Paddock, dura-tudo-era-melhor-entenda-a-maior-fake- ber. noticias/25882-extrema-pobreza-atinge- “Nearly 1,800 Killed in Duterte’s Drug War, Phil- news-da-historia-do-brasil/; Ana Beatriz Rosa, 59. Pia Ranada, “A Look at the State of 13-5-milhoes-de-pessoas-e-chega-ao-maior- ippine Police Official Tells Senators,” New York “9 Pontos Para Entender Por Que a Ditadura Não Crime, Drugs in the Philippines,” Rappler nivel-em-7-anos. Times, August 22, 2016, https://www.nytimes. Foi ‘Gloriosa’ Como Bolsonaro Defende,” Huff- January 5, 2016, https://www.rappler.com/ 75. Ben O. de Vera, “EIU: PH to Be among com/2016/08/23/world/asia/philippines-rodri- Post Brasil, March 31, 2020, https://www.huff- nation/118004-crime-drugs-philippines. Fastest-Growing Economies in 2020s,” Inquirer, go-duterte.html. postbrasil.com/entry/ditadura-militar-bolsona- 60. “Duterte, Alan Cayetano Appear on Video: December 21, 2019, https://business.inquirer. 94. Matthew Tostevin, “War on Numbers: ro_br_5c9bc797e4b072a7f6039f6d; Jean-Philip ‘Change Is Coming,’” Inquirer News, December net/285870/eiu-ph-to-be-among-fastest-grow- Philippines Targets Drug Killing Data,” Re- Struck, “O Brasil Do Regime Militar Idealizado 8, 2015, https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/745675/ ing-economies-in-2020s. uters, Thomson Reuters, July 18, 2019, Por Bolsonaro,” Deutsche Welle, March 27, 2019, duterte-alan-cayetano-appear-on-video-change- 76. “Ease of Doing Business rankings,” The https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philip- https://www.dw.com/pt-br/o-brasil-do-regime- is-coming. World Bank, accessed May 20, 2020, https:// pines-drugs/war-on-numbers-philippines- militar-idealizado-por-bolsonaro/a-45951726. 61. Richard Heydarian interviewed by Ramon H. www.doingbusiness.org/en/rankings#. targets-drug-killing-data-idUSKCN1UD1CJ; 49. Oswaldo E. do Amaral, “A Base De Apoio Royandoyan on March 03, 2020. 77. Richard Heydarian, interviewed by Mario Emmanuel Tupas, “29,000 Deaths Probed a Jair Bolsonaro,” El País, October 4, 2018, 62. Arjan Aguirre, interviewed by Ramon H. Braga on October 30, 2018. since Drug War Launched,” PhilStar Global, https://brasil.elpais.com/brasil/2018/10/04/ Royandoyan on November 19, 2019. 78. “Brasil Tem 77 Partidos Em Processo De March 5, 2019, https://www.philstar.com/ opinion/1538678574_649992.html; “Eleições 63. Arjan Aguirre, interviewed by Ramon H. Formação,” Tribunal Superior Eleitoral, Decem- nation/2019/03/06/1898959/29000-deaths- 2022: Os Diferentes Mundos Que Apoiam Bolso- Royandoyan on November 19, 2019. ber 23, 2019, http://www.tse.jus.br/imprensa/ probed-drug-war-launched; Davinci Maru, naro Ou Lula,” Veja, October 18, 2019, https:// 64. Mario Braga and Ramon H. Royandoyan. noticias-tse/2019/Dezembro/brasil-tem-77-par- “CHR chief: Drug war deaths could be as high veja.abril.com.br/politica/eleicoes-2022-os- “What Can Brazil Learn from the Philippines?,” tidos-em-processo-de-formacao. as 27,000,” ABS CBN News, December 5, 2018, diferentes-mundos-que-apoiam-bolsonaro-ou- November 18, 2018, https://brazilian.report/ 79. “Brazil’s President Bolsonaro launches https://news.abs-cbn.com/focus/12/05/18/ lula/; “Jair Bolsonaro Diz Que a Minoria Tem power/2018/11/18/brazil-philippines-bolsona- new political party,” BBC, November 21, 2019, chr-chief-drug-war-deaths-could-be-as-high- Que Se Adequar a Maioria 10/02/17,” Febru- ro-duterte/. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-ameri- as-27000; Lian Buan, Rambo Talabong, and ary 15, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/ 65. Richard Javad Heydarian, The Rise of Duterte: ca-50507996. Jodesz Gavilan, “Duterte Gov’t Allows ‘Drug War’ watch?v=BCkEwP8TeZY. (In this video from A Populist Revolt Against Elite Democracy (Pal- 80. Felipe B. Miranda, “Leadership and Politi- Deaths to Go Unsolved,” Rappler, January 14, the 2017 campaign he says, “We are a Christian grave Pivot, 2018) 4-6, 97-98, 110-111. cal Stabilization in a Post-Aquino Philippines,” 2019, https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/ country. We will govern for the majorities. The 66. See for example, OECD, Under Pressure: The Philippine Political Science Journal 17, no. 33-36 in-depth/220595-duterte-government-drug- minorities [aka minority groups] will have to Squeezed Middle Class (Paris OECD Publishing, (April 18, 2012): 142–222, https://doi.org/10.1 war-deaths-unsolved; “Everything You Need to bend to the majorities.” Translation by Mario 2019), https://doi.org/10.1787/689afed1-en; 080/01154451.1992.9754180. Know about Human Rights in the Philippines,” Braga.) Tamar Manuelyan Atinc and Carol Graham, 81. Edwin Espejo, “Could Duterte be the Lib- Amnesty International, accessed May 20, 2020, 50. Fabiano Maisonnave for Climate Home, “Can Education Reform Address Inequality and eral Party’s wild card bet?” Rappler, March 18, https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/asia- part of the Guardian Environment Network, Middle Class Frustration? An Experiment in 2015, https://www.rappler.com/nation/87197- and-the-pacific/philippines/report-philippines/. “Amazon at Risk from Bolsonaro’s Grim Attack Chile,” Brookings, July 29, 2016, https://www. duterte-lp-wild-card-candidate-2016. 95. Kenneth Roth, “World Report 2019: Rights on the Environment,” The Guardian, October 9, brookings.edu/blog/education-plus-develop- 82. Nathan Gilbert Quimpo, “The Philippines: Trends in Philippines,” Human Rights Watch, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/05/09/can-education-reform-ad- Political Parties and Corruption,” Southeast January 22, 2019, https://www.hrw.org/world- ment/2018/oct/09/brazils-bolsonaro-would- dress-inequality-and-middle-class-frustration- Asian Affairs 2007 (2007): 277–94. report/2019/country-chapters/philippines. unleash-a-war-on-the-environment. an-experiment-in-chile/; Adele Webb, “Why Are 83. Carl H. Lande, “Parties and Politics in the 96. Richard C. Paddock, “Becoming Duterte: The 51. Bruna Soares de Aguiar and Matheus Ribeiro the Middle Class Misbehaving?: Exploring Dem- Philippines,” Asian Survey 8, no. 9 (1968): 725- Making of a Philippine Strongman,” New York Pereira, “O antifeminismo como backlash nos ocratic Ambivalence and Authoritarian Nostal- 47, doi:10.2307/2642641. Times, March 21, 2017, https://www.nytimes.

46 • The Public Eye WINTER/SPRING 2020 endnotes

com/2017/03/21/world/asia/rodrigo-duterte- reporter_brasilia/2019/09/703324-bancada- 129. “Duterte Reiterates Support for Fam- 145. Adriana Ferraz, Caio Sartori, and Alessan- philippines-president-strongman.html. evangelica-triplicou.html. ily Planning but Not Abortion,” ABS-CBN News, dra Monnerat, “Ex-Aliados De Bolsonaro, Doria e 97. Pia Ranada, “Duterte: I Take Marijuana 113. Andrew Fishman, “Jair Bolsonaro Is Elected March 11, 2017, https://news.abs-cbn.com/ Witzel Miram 2022 – Política,” Estadão, January to Stay Awake,” Rappler, December 3, 2018, President of Brazil. Read His Extremist, Far- news/03/11/17/duterte-reiterates-support-for- 5, 2020, https://politica.estadao.com.br/noti- https://www.rappler.com/nation/218111- Right Positions in His Own Words,” The Inter- family-planning-but-not-abortion. cias/geral,descolados-de-bolsonaro-ex-aliados- duterte-says-he-takes-marijuana-stay-awake. cept, October 28, 2018, https://theintercept. 130. Pia Ranada, “Duterte Pushes for Return of miram-2022,70003144164. 98. Adriana Aguiar, “Resultado Do Referendo com/2018/10/28/jair-bolsonaro-elected-presi- Death Penalty for Drug Crimes, Plunder,” Rap- 146. Breiller Pires, “‘A Radicalização Sus- Mudará Pouca Coisa Sobre Uso De Armas,” Con- dent-brazil/ pler, July 22, 2019, https://www.rappler.com/ tenta o Protagonismo De Bolsonaro Na Dire- sultor Jurídico, October 9, 2005, https://www. 114. Jen Kirby, “Jair Bolsonaro Says Brazil nation/236024-duterte-pushes-return-death- ita,’” EL PAÍS, September 26, 2019, https:// conjur.com.br/2005-out-09/resultado_mudara_ and the US Stand Side by Side ‘against Fake penalty-drug-crimes-plunder-sona-2019. brasil.elpais.com/brasil/2019/09/25/politi- coisa_uso_armas_fogo; Antonio Carlos Moriel News,’” Vox, March 19, 2019, https://www. 131. Aurora Almendral, “Crony Capital: How ca/1569363708_151865.html. Sanchez, “Pessoa Física (Cidadão),” Portal da vox.com/2019/3/19/18272995/jair-bolsonaro- Duterte Embraced the Oligarchs,” Nikkei Asian 147. Ronaldo de Almeida, “Bolsonaro presi- Polícia Federal do Brasil, March 4, 2020, http:// trump-white-house-brazil-fake-news. Review, December 4, 2019, https://asia.nikkei. dente: conservadorismo, evangelismo e a crise www.pf.gov.br/servicos-pf/armas/aquisicao/ 115. Michael Fox, “Education Is in the Crosshairs com/Spotlight/Cover-Story/Crony-capital-How- brasileira,” Novos estud. CEBRAP, vol.38, n.1 pessoa-fisica-cidadao. in Bolsonaro’s Brazil,” The Nation, January 15, Duterte-embraced-the-oligarchs. (2019), 185-213, https://doi.org/10.25091/ 99. Tom Phillips, “‘Firearms Safeguard Free- 2019, https://www.thenation.com/article/ar- 132. Alexis Romero, “Misogynist? Duterte In- s01013300201900010010. dom’: Brazil’s New President Vows to Relax Gun chive/brazil-bolsonaro-education-repression/. vokes Freedom of Expression” PhilStar Global, 148. Clara Cerioni, “Um Raio-x De Como Ficam Laws,” The Guardian, October 30, 2018, https:// 116. “Bolsonaro To Erase Paulo Freire And March 12, 2019, https://www.philstar.com/ as Assembleias Legislativas Do País,” Exame, www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/30/ Feminism From Textbooks,” teleSUR English, headlines/2019/03/13/1901004/misogynist- October 10, 2018, https://exame.abril.com.br/ firearms-safeguard-freedom-brazils-new-presi- February 12, 2019, https://www.telesurenglish. duterte-invokes-freedom-expression. brasil/um-raio-x-de-como-ficam-as-assemble- dent-vows-to-relax-gun-laws. net/news/Bolsonaro-To-Erase-Paulo-Freire-and- 133. Arjan Aguirre interviewed by Ramon H. ias-legislativas-do-pais/. 100. Tom Phillips, “Jair Bolsonaro Says Crimi- Feminism-From-Textbooks-20190212-0018. Royandoyan on November 19, 2019. 149. Ranier Bragon and Bernardo Caram, nals Will ‘Die like Cockroaches’ under Proposed html. 134. Luiz Felipe Barbieri, “Governo Bolso- “Número De Médicos e Professores Cai Na Câ- New Laws.” The Guardian, August 5, 2019, 117. Jonathan Watts, “Brazil’s New Foreign Min- naro Tem Aprovação De 29% e Reprovação mara; Militares e Religiosos Sobem,” Folha de https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/ ister Believes Climate Change Is a Marxist Plot,” De 38%, Diz Pesquisa Ibope,” G1, December S.Paulo, November 5, 2018, https://www1. aug/06/jair-bolosonaro-says-criminals-will-die- The Guardian, November 15, 2018, https:// 20, 2019, https://g1.globo.com/politica/noti- folha.uol.com.br/poder/2018/11/numero-de- like-cockroaches-under-proposed-new-laws. www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/15/ cia/2019/12/20/governo-bolsonaro-tem-apro- medicos-e-professores-cai-na-camara-militares- 101. Andre Peixoto,“Bolsonaro: ‘O Cidadão brazil-foreign-minister-ernesto-araujo-climate- vacao-de-29percent-e-reprovacao-de-38percent- e-religiosos-sobem.shtml . Armado é a Primeira Linha De Defesa De Um change-marxist-plot. diz-pesquisa-ibope.ghtml. 150. “Cai Apoio à Democracia No Brasil Durante País,’” O Tempo, June 30, 2015, https://www. 118. Elyse Samuels, “Brazil’s President Resur- 135. Joao Pedro Caleiro, “Governo Bolsonaro Governo Bolsonaro; Apoio à Ditadura Militar Per- otempo.com.br/politica/bolsonaro-o-cidadao- rects the Zombie Claim That Nazism Was a é Aprovado Por 35% e Reprovado Por 27%, manece Estável,” G1, January 1, 2020, https:// armado-e-a-primeira-linha-de-defesa-de-um- Leftist Movement,” The Washington Post, May Diz Pesquisa,” Exame, April 24, 2019, https:// g1.globo.com/politica/noticia/2020/01/01/cai- pais-1.1060490. Translation by the author. 7, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/ exame.abril.com.br/brasil/governo-bolsonaro- apoio-a-democracia-no-brasil-durante-governo- 102. “Decreto De Bolsonaro Facilita Porte De politics/2019/05/07/brazils-president-resur- e-aprovado-por-35-diz-pesquisa-cni-ibope/. bolsonaro-apoio-a-ditadura-militar-permanece- Armas Para 20 Categorias,” Deutsche Welle, May rects-zombie-claim-that-nazism-was-leftist- 136. Alessi, Gil. “Bolsonaro é Alvo De Panelaço estavel.ghtml. 8, 2019, https://www.dw.com/pt-br/decreto-de- movement/. e De Novo Pedido De Impeachment,” EL PAÍS, 151. Jamil Chade, “Brasil Veta Termo ‘Gênero’ bolsonaro-facilita-porte-de-armas-para-20-cat- 119. Nick Burns, “Brazil’s Foreign Minister March 18, 2020, https://brasil.elpais.com/bra- Em Resoluções Da ONU e Cria Mal-Estar,” UOL, egorias/a-48664627. Wants to Save the West From Postmodernism,” sil/2020-03-18/bolsonaro-e-alvo-de-panelaco- June 27, 2019, https://jamilchade.blogosfera. 103. Pedro Rafael Vilela, “Bolsonaro Revoga Foreign Affairs, January 24, 2019, https://www. pelo-segundo-dia-consecutivo.html. uol.com.br/2019/06/27/brasil-veta-termo- Decreto De Armas e Publica Novas Regras,” foreignaffairs.com/articles/brazil/2019-01-24/ 137. “#MassTestingNow: Online Petition Calls genero-em-resolucoes-da-onu-e-cria-mal-estar/. Agência Brasil, June 25, 2019, http://agencia- brazils-foreign-minister-wants-save-west-post- for Urgent Action on PH Coronavirus Outbreak,” 152. “2nd International Conference on Chris- brasil.ebc.com.br/politica/noticia/2019-06/ modernism. Rappler, March 22, 2020, https://www.rappler. tian Persecution,” 2nd International Conference bolsonaro-revoga-decreto-de-armas-e-publica- 120. “Bolsonaro Contraria Dados Do Gov- com/move-ph/255466-online-petition-calls- on Christian Persecution, November 26, 2019, novas-regras. erno e Diz Que Fogo Na Amazônia é Restrito urgent-action-coronavirus-outbreak-ph; “Social https://www.iccphungary.com/. 104. “Congresso Aponta Excessos Em Novo a Regiões Desmatadas,” GaúchaZH, August (Status) Distancing? Filipinos Seek Comic Relief 153. Guilherme Evelin, “Análise: Os Perigos Decreto De Armas,” Deutsche Welle, May 10, 24, 2019, https://gauchazh.clicrbs.com.br/ through Memes during Lockdown,” Rappler, Da Guinada Radical No Itamaraty,” Época, No- 2019, https://www.dw.com/pt-br/congres- ambiente/noticia/2019/08/bolsonaro-con- March 22, 2020, https://www.rappler.com/ vember 14, 2018, https://epoca.globo.com/ so-aponta-excessos-em-novo-decreto-de- traria-dados-do-governo-e-diz-que-fogo-na- nation/255491-social-status-distancing-filpi- analise-os-perigos-da-guinada-radical-no-ita- armas/a-48693772. amazonia-e-restrito-a-regioes-desmatadas-cjz- nos-comic-relief-memes-coronavirus-lockdown; maraty-23235603. 105. Delis Ortiz and Fernanda Vivas, “Bolsonaro pt19ob004001n79xxxllhf.html; “Demitido Por “DOH Justifies COVID-19 Testing of Asymptom- 154. Jamil Chade, “Itamaraty Contraria Consti- Decide Revogar Decreto Que Facilita Porte De Bolsonaro, Ricardo Galvão é Eleito ‘Cientista Do atic Gov’t Officials,” Inquirer, March 23, 2020, tuição e Prega Religião Como Política De Estado,” Arma De Fogo e Edita Outros Três,” G1, June Ano,’” Veja, December 13, 2019, https://veja. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1246874/covid- UOL, November 28, 2019, https://noticias.uol. 25, 2019, https://g1.globo.com/politica/noti- abril.com.br/ciencia/demitido-por-bolsonaro- 19-testing-of-asymptomatic-govt-officials-justi- com.br/colunas/jamil-chade/2019/11/28/gov- cia/2019/06/25/bolsonaro-decide-revogar-de- ricardo-galvao-e-eleito-cientista-do-ano/. fiable-doh-says#ixzz6HVR9jXiM. erno-bolsonaro-cristaos-hungria-diplomacia- creto-que-facilita-porte-de-arma-de-fogo.ghtml. 121. Jonathan Watts, “Jair Bolsonaro Claims 138. Lucas Borges Teixeira, “Juristas: Institu- itamaraty.htm. 106. “Bolsonaro: ‘Dependo Do Parlamento Para NGOs behind Amazon Forest Fire Surge – but ições Têm De Cobrar De Bolsonaro Prova De 155. Fernando Caulyt, “‘Com Bolsonaro, Política Ampliar Posse e Porte De Armas.,’” O Antagoni- Provides No Evidence,” The Guardian, August Fraude Eleitoral,” UOL, March 10, 2020, https:// Externa Se Tornou Uma Caixa De Surpresas,’” sta, December 29, 2019, https://www.oantago- 21, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/ noticias.uol.com.br/politica/ultimas-noti- Deutsche Welle, July 1, 2019, https://www. nista.com/brasil/bolsonaro-dependo-do-parla- world/2019/aug/21/jair-bolsonaro-accuses- cias/2020/03/10/juristas-instituicoes-tem-de- dw.com/pt-br/com-bolsonaro-política-externa- mento-para-ampliar-posse-e-porte-de-armas/. ngos-setting-fire-amazon-rainforest. cobrar-de-bolsonaro-prova-de-fraude-eleitoral. se-tornou-uma-caixa-de-surpresas/a-49407488. 107. Jair M. Bolsonaro, Twitter, December 29, 122. Jonathan Watts, “Brazil’s President Claims htm. 156. “Steve Bannon Welcomes Eduardo Bolsona- 2019, https://twitter.com/jairbolsonaro/sta- DiCaprio Paid for Amazon Fires,” The Guardian, 139. Marina Dias, “‘Quero Que Você Me Ache ro as Head of The Movement in South America,” tus/1211268726043140096 November 29, 2019, https://www.theguardian. Um Brasileiro Que Confie No Sistema Eleito- The Movement, February 2, 2019, https://donot- 108. “Monitor Da Violência: Assassinatos Caem com/world/2019/nov/29/brazils-president- ral’, Diz Bolsonaro,” Folha de S.Paulo, March link.it/bRjAQ. Em 2019, Mas Letalidade Policial Aumenta; claims-dicaprio-paid-for-amazon-fires. 10, 2020, https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ Nº De Presos Provisórios Volta a Crescer,” G1, 123. Rebecca Tan, “In the Fight for Gay Mar- poder/2020/03/quero-que-voce-me-ache-um- December 9, 2019, https://g1.globo.com/ riage in the Philippines, Duterte Could Be an brasileiro-que-confie-no-sistema-eleitoral-diz- retrospectiva/2019/noticia/2019/12/16/ Unlikely Ally,” The Washington Post, June 19, bolsonaro.shtml. Translated by Mario Braga. monitor-da-violencia-assassinatos-caem-em- 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/ 140. Claudio Ferraz, Filipe Campante, and Rodri- 2019-mas-letalidade-policial-aumenta-no-de- worldviews/wp/2018/06/19/in-the-fight-for- go R. Soares, “Artigo: A Democracia Em Tempos presos-provisorios-volta-a-crescer.ghtml. gay-marriage-in-the-philippines-duterte-could- De Crise,” Época, March 20, 2020, https://epoca. 109. Clara Velasco Thiago Reis, and Felipe Gran- be-an-unlikely-ally/. globo.com/brasil/artigo-a-democracia-em-tem- din, “Número De Pessoas Mortas Pela Polícia 124. Darryl John Esguerra, “Duterte Fires pos-de-crise-24317027. Cresce No Brasil Em 2019; Assassinatos De Poli- Last Leftist in Government,” Inquirer News, 141. Richard Heydarian interviewed by Ramon ciais Caem Pela Metade,” G1, April 13, 2020, October 3, 2018, https://newsinfo.inquirer. H. Royandoyan on March 3, 2020 https://g1.globo.com/monitor-da-violencia/no- net/1038554/duterte-fires-last-leftist-in-gov- 142. Fabiano Santos and José Szwako, “Da rup- ticia/2020/04/16/numero-de-pessoas-mortas- ernment. tura à reconstrução democrática no Brasil,” pela-policia-cresce-no-brasil-em-2019-assassi- 125. Pia Gutierrez, “Duterte says relieved Con- Saúde em Debate 40 (2016): 114-121. Translated natos-de-policiais-caem-pela-metade.ghtml. gress rejected leftist leaders’ Cabinet appoint- by Mario Braga. 110. Bruno Paes Manso, “Novo Recorde De Le- ments,” ABS CBN News, September 26, 2018, 143. Regine Cabato, “Philippine Midterm talidade Mostra Dificuldade Dos Estados Em https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/09/26/18/ Elections Deliver a Resounding Vote of Con- Controlar Suas Polícias,” G1, April 16, 2020, duterte-says-relieved-congress-rejected-leftist- fidence for Duterte,” The Washington Post, https://g1.globo.com/monitor-da-violencia/no- leaders-cabinet-appointments. May 14, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost. ticia/2020/04/16/novo-recorde-de-letalidade- 126. “How Duterte Spent His President’s Social com/world/philippine-midterm-elections- mostra-dificuldade-dos-estados-em-controlar- Fund In 2017,” Rappler, https://www.rappler. deliver-a-resounding-vote-of-confidence-for- suas-policias.ghtml. com/nation/206638-how-duterte-spent-presi- duterte/2019/05/14/9286d7a6-75fd-11e9- 111. “Anuário Brasileiro De Segurança Pública,” dential-social-fund-2017. ac17-284a66782c41_story.html; Vergel O Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública, June 26, 127. Pia Ranada, “Duterte Slams Climate Change Santos, “The Philippines Just Became More 2019, http://forumseguranca.org.br/anuario- Conferences for Accomplishing ‘Nothing,’” Rap- Authoritarian, Thanks to the People,” New York brasileiro-seguranca-publica/. pler, May 31, 2019, https://www.rappler.com/ Times, May 24, 2019, https://www.nytimes. 112. Cláudia Trevisan, “Bancada evangélica nation/231941-duterte-slams-climate-change- com/2019/05/24/opinion/philippines-duterte- cresce 63% na Câmara,” Folha de S.Paulo, Feb- conferences-accomplishing-nothing. election-senate.html. ruary 1, 1999, https://www1.folha.uol.com. 128. “Third Quarter 2018 Social Weather Survey: 144. Jason Gutierrez, “Philippines Election: br/fsp/brasil/fc01029907.htm; Edgar Lisboa, Net Trust in Rody Duterte rises to “Very Good” Duterte Allies Sweep Senate, Unofficial - Re “Bancada Evangélica Triplicou,” Jornal do Com- +62,” Social Weather Stations, October 27, sults Indicate,” New York Times, May 14, 2019, mercio, September 17, 2019, https://www. 2018, https://www.sws.org.ph/swsmain/artcld https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/14/world/ jornaldocomercio.com/_conteudo/colunas/ isppage/?artcsyscode=ART-20181027115939. asia/philippines-election-results.html.

WINTER/SPRING 2020 Political Research Associates • 47 NON-PROFIT ORG. US POSTAGE PAID POLITICAL RESEARCH ASSOCIATES BOSTON, MA 1310 BROADWAY, SUITE 201 PERMIT NO. 54584 SOMERVILLE, MA 02144

The Art of Activism: Atelier Populaire

In support of the May 1968 student and worker protests in France, a collective of students and faculty occupied lithography studios in L’Ecole des Beaux-Arts to produce hundreds of screenprinted posters. Distributed widely as political tools, the creators insisted that the posters remain “weapons in the service of the struggle”: To use them for decorative purposes, to display them in bourgeois places of culture or to consider them as objects of aesthetic interest is to impair both their function and their effect…Even to keep them as historical evidence of a certain stage in the struggle is a betrayal, for the struggle itself is of such primary importance that the position of an “outside” observer Credit: gallica.bnf.fr. is a fiction which inevitably plays into the hands of the ruling class.1 Reproduced here as the cover of this special international issue of The Public Eye, the work of Atelier Populaire remains in the service of the struggle: the struggle against fascist forces in the U.S. and abroad.

1. Wells, Emily, “The Struggle Continues: Atelier Populaire and the Posters of the Paris ‘68 Uprising,” Artillery Magazine, Apr 24, 2018, www.artillerymag.com/the-struggle-continues-atelier-populaire-and-the-posters-of-the-paris-68-uprising/.

Political Research Associates (PRA) is a think tank devoted to challenging the Right and advancing social justice. Visit our website, www.politicalresearch.org, to access past issues of The Public Eye, connect with us through social media, and donate. You’ll also find in-depth reports, web-only features, and our Eyes Right blog. Need to renew or purchase a subscription? Go to politicalresearch.org/subscribe. Call 617.666.5300 or email us at [email protected] for more information.

Your support makes The Public Eye possible. Subscribe and donate today!