Challenges for Transboundary River Management in Eastern Europe

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Vol. 149, No. 2-3 · Review article

Challenges for transboundary river management in Eastern Europe – DIE ERDE three case studies Journal of the Geographical Society of Berlin

Fabian Krengel1,2, Christian Bernhofer3, Sergey Chalov4, Vasily Efimov4, Ludmila Efimova4, Liudmila Gorbachova5, Michal Habel6, Björn Helm7, Ivan Kruhlov8, Yuri Nabyvanets5, Natalya Osadcha5, Volodymyr Osadchyi5, Thomas Pluntke3, Tobias Reeh2, Pavel Terskii4, Daniel Karthe1,9

1Department of Aquatic Ecosystem Analysis and Management, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Brückstraße 3a , 39114 Magdeburg, Germany, [email protected] 2Institute of Geography, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Goldschmidtstraße 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany, [email protected], [email protected] 3Institute of Hydrology and Meteorology, Technische Universität Dresden, Pienner Straße 23, 01737 Tharandt, Germany, [email protected], [email protected] 4Faculty of Geography, Lomonosov Moscow State University, GSP-1, Leninskie gory, 119991 Moscow, Russian Federation, [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 5Ukrainian Hydrometeorological Institute, Nauki Prospekt, 37, Kyiv, Ukraine, 03028, [email protected], [email protected] 6Institute of Geography, Kazimierz Wielki University, Chodkiewicza 30, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland, [email protected] 7Institute for Urban and Industrial Water Management, Technische Universität Dresden, Bergstraße 66, 01069 Dresden, Germany, [email protected] 8Faculty of Geography, Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, Mykhaila Hryshevskoho Street 4, 79005 Lviv, Ukraine 9Environmental Engineering Section, German-Mongolian Institute for Resources and Technology, GMIT Campus, 2nd Khoroo, Nalaikh, Mongolia, [email protected]

Manuscript submitted: 01 December 2017 / Accepted for publication: 05 April 2018 / Published online: 19 July 2018

Abstract The transboundary river basins shared between Russia, Ukraine and the European Union pose unique challenges for management because of differences regarding not only the legal framework but also related to monitoring practices and water utilization. Using the example of three river basins – the Desna (shared by Russia and Ukraine), the Western Dvina (shared by Russia, Belarus, Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia) and the Western Bug (shared by Ukraine, Belarus and Poland) – this paper provides an analysis of current challenges with respect to transboundary water resources management in Eastern Europe. This assessment is based on a comparison of similarities and disparities concerning the physical and human geography of the basins (and their national sub-basins) as well as specific problems related to water pollution caused by urban, agricultural and industrial water usage both in the recent past and today. All three catchments have a similar size, climate and hydrological characteristics. However, there are different challenges regarding up- and downstream sections of the respective basins: pollution input in the Western Bug originates primarily from upstream sources in Ukraine and Belarus, whereas ecological problems in the Desna and Western Dvina persist principally downstream, i.e.

Fabian Krengel, Christian Bernhofer, Sergey Chalov, Vasily Efimov, Ludmila Efimova, Liudmila Gorbachova, Michal Habel, Björn Helm, Ivan Kruhlov, Yuri Nabyvanets, Natalya Osadcha, Volodymyr Osadchyi, Thomas Pluntke, Tobias Reeh, Pavel Terskii, Daniel Karthe 2018: Challenges for transboundary river management in Eastern Europe – three case studies. – DIE ERDE 149 (2-3): 1 -1

57 72 DOI:10.12854/erde-2018-389

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57 Challenges for transboundary river management in Eastern Europe – three case studies in Ukraine respectively Belarus and Latvia. Despite some differences between the basins, it is concluded that interstate cooperation is an important prerequisite for integrated water resources management (IWRM) in all of the studied basins. This analysis identified several key challenges related to start or continue with IWRM, including pollution mitigation, improved monitoring, appropriate governance, climate change and its effect on water balances in the catchments, capacity development and thorough system understanding.

Zusammenfassung Die Bewirtschaftung der transnationalen Flusseinzugsgebiete im Grenzgebiet zwischen Russland, der Ukraine und der Europäischen Union ist insofern besonders anspruchsvoll, als erhebliche Unterschiede nicht nur hinsichtlich der gesetzlichen Rahmenbedingungen, sondern auch bezüglich des Monitorings und der Wassernut- zung bestehen. Am Beispiel von drei Flusseinzugsgebieten – der Desna (Russland und Ukraine), der Westlichen Düna (Russland, Weißrussland, Litauen, Estland und Lettland) und des Westlichen Bugs (Ukraine, Weißruss- land und Polen) – analysiert der vorliegende Beitrag gegenwärtige Herausforderungen in der grenzüberschrei- tenden Bewirtschaftung von Wasserressourcen in Osteuropa. Die Basis hierfür bilden neben der Betrachtung von Ähnlichkeiten und Unterschieden in den natur- und kulturräumlichen Ausgangsbedingungen der Einzugs- - schaftliche, industrielle und urbane Wassernutzung in der jüngeren Vergangenheit und heute ausgelöst werden. Allegebiete drei (und Einzugsgebiete ihrer nationalen ähneln Abschnitte) sich hinsichtlich auch spezifische ihrer Größe, Wasserqualitätsprobleme, der Klimabedingungen dieund durch der Hydrologie. die landwirt Es gibt jedoch unterschiedliche Problemstellungen bezüglich der jeweiligen Ober- und Unterlieger: Die Schadstoff- einträge im Westlichen Bug stammen vorwiegend aus den oberliegenden Staaten Ukraine und Weißrussland. In gefolgertder Desna werden, und der dassWestlichen der zwischenstaatlichen Düna hingegen konzentrieren Zusammenarbeit sich die eine Umweltprobleme Schlüsselbedeutung flussabwärts, für die Umsetzung d.h. in der einesUkraine integrierten bzw. in Weißrussland Wasserressourcenmanagements und Lettland. Trotz (IWRM)einzugsgebietsspezifischer in allen untersuchten Besonderheiten Einzugsgebieten kann zukommt. letztlich - rung eines IWRM von Bedeutung sind. Dazu zählen die Verringerung von Schadstoffeinträgen, Verbesserungen inDie den vorliegende Bereichen Bestandsaufnahme Monitoring und Governance, hat eine Reihe der Klimawandel von Herausforderungen und seine Auswirkungen identifiziert, aufdie diezur Wasserbilanz,Implementie Capacity Development und ein umfassendes Systemverständnis.

Keywords IWRM, transboundary rivers, Eastern Europe, water pollution, Western Bug, Desna, Western Dvina

1. Introduction (Karthe Ertel the implementation of measures (e.g. conservation, Transboundary rivers are natural connections be- technical et al. and 2015,non-technical 2017; problem et al. 2012).solutions) Moreover, can be tween different countries. Ukraine, Russia and the Eu- further complicated by institutional or political con- ropean Union share various river basins that cross one straints (Houdret et al. 2013). Besides an assessment or more international borders (Table 1). The availabil- of the current situation, changing boundary conditions such as climate, land use or demographic chang- of constantly ongoing transnational negotiations of es can have enormous impacts on water resources theity and riparian quality states. of these A joint water management resources is theonly subject possi- and have to be considered.

- In order to meet the manifold water demands of ri- dispensableble when all factorsfor the influencingunderstanding water of availabilitycharacteristics and parian states and to manage transboundary water ofquality hydrological are known. systems. Sufficient Ideally, and reliableinformation data arewould in resources in a sustainable manner, there is no way be collected and analyzed in a consistent manner. around a transnational system analysis and dialogue. Different national regulations (regarding for example International experience shows that the reasoning of - riparian countries is not always rational but driven city can seriously impede a consistent system analysis by political considerations or emotions. In such situa- monitoring or water quality standards) and data scar 1 DIE ERDE · Vol. 149 · 2-3/2018

58 Challenges for transboundary river management in Eastern Europe – three case studies

between the EU and external countries, however, the evidence have the advantage of being acceptable to directive becomes legally binding as soon as the riv- alltions, parties water involved management because concepts of their based generally on scientific neu- er enters EU territory. Similarly, when a river leaves tral and unbiased character. One of the most notable - approaches is Integrated Water Resources Manage- ments may change at the national border. In both cases,the transboundary EU and enters ancooperation external country,is essential legal so requirethat the promotes the coordinated development and man- interests of all riparian states can be met. Apart from agementment (IWRM), of water, which land is anddefined related as a resources “process whichin order to maximize the resultant economic and social understanding about environmental monitoring and - datasome exchange. compromises, At the this same at time,least new requires challenges a common must be integrated in IWRM due to transient conditions of (welfareGWP-TAC in 2000:an equitable 3). Particularly manner without in developing compromis and global change, concerning economic, demographic, transitioning the sustainability countries, IWRM of vital has (aquatic) become ecosystems” the leading land use or climate changes (Bernhofer concept for water management (Ibisch In this context, river basins are promoted as the rel- The aim of this review is to compile the et al. current 2016). state evant management units (Dombrowsky et al. 2016). of knowledge on the three transboundary catchments In the case of the European Union (EU), the EU Water as a basis for further analyses as well as the develop- Framework Directive (EU-WFD) is a general et al. frame 2014).- work for water resources monitoring and manage- in the future. For that purpose, this paper presents ment that is implemented by all member states and at ament comparison and implementation of similarities of and site-specific differences measures regard- river basin scale. Even though countries outside the ing the physical and human geography of the basins EU sometimes consider the EU-WFD as a role model, as well as key challenges for IWRM across national it was not designed for regions outside the EU (Heldt boundaries. et al. 2017). Focusing on transboundary rivers shared Table 1 Basic characteristics of the transboundary catchments of the case studies1. Source: Own elaboration based on EEA (2003) and Chalov et al. (2017)

Western Bug Desna Western Dvina

Basin size (km²) 37,757 89,003 85,964 River length (km) 772 1,130 1,020 Population 3,226,000 2,499,600 2,173,017 Prevailing ecoregions Central European East European Sarmatic mixed forests (96%) (% area) mixed forests (100%) forest steppe (52%) Scandinavian and Russian taiga (EEA 2003) Central European (4%) mixed forests (37%) Sarmatic mixed forests (11%) Continuous forest cover 32% 31% 65% (% area) Countries sharing Ukraine Russia Russia the basin and their Lviv, Volyn Bryansk, Kursk, Kaluga, Oriol, Tver, Smolensk, Pskov administrative areas Belarus Smolensk, Belgorod Belarus (province level) Brest Ukraine Vitebsk, Polotsk Poland Chernihiv, Sumy, Kyiv Latvia Lublin, Mazovian, Podlasie Zemgale, Vidzeme, Latgale Estonia Võru maakond Lithuania Utenos, Vilniaus

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59 Challenges for transboundary river management in Eastern Europe – three case studies

2. Material and methods pedias and legal documents were consulted. We com-

This paper presents a case study of three river basins in the available literature regarding their relevance for the border region between the eastern EU, Ukraine and piled our findings on a shared server and categorized Russia. Each river basin represents a different constel- and river pollution, terrestrial ecosystems and land use lation, i.e. rivers shared by Ukraine, Belarus and Poland change,the topics and water ecohydrology. flow and climate In this paper,change, we water focus quality on the (Western Bug), by Russia and Ukraine (Desna) and by Russia, Belarus, Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania (Western Dvina) (Fig. 1). This work was done within the context Formost a comparisonrelevant findings. of long-term changes in hydroclimatic of ManTra-Rivers, a trilateral project funded by the parameters between the three catchments, we com- Volkswagen Foundation. piled available datasets on precipitation and air tem- - The literature review consisted of accessing various ing stations located within the catchments. Data series wereperature, provided water by discharge the National and water Hydroclimatic quality from Services. gaug Regarding precipitation and air temperature, we com- transboundarydatabases for scientific issues in research. these river On thebasins, one e.g.hand, IWAS we pared the period 2001-2016 with 1980-2000 as refer- foridentified the Western previous Bug projects River basin that (focusedKalbacher specifically on - tuations of the annual water discharge including trend features of the river basins, e.g. large cities et al.like Lviv2012). in andence statistical period. In uniformity addition, weof the analyzed time series. long-term Trends fluc in UkraineOn the other or the hand, economic we looked development for literature in the onrespective specific the datasets (annual and seasonal) were tested with countries. In addition, other sources including encyclo- the Mann-Kendall test (Mann Kendall

20° E 25° E 30° E 35° E 40° E a 1945; 1975). Estonia

Estonia (0.13) rtsa Tve

Latvia Latvia (23.4) B a l t i c s e a

Dau Russia (27.5) gava Lithuania 55° N Lithuania (1.9) Western Dvina (Daugava) Oka 55° N Nema n Ne Belarus (33.1) Russia ris r iepe Dn

P oland B elarus

Bug Russia (55.5) Belarus (8.76) Belarus (0.13) Pripyat Desna Western Bug S eym Poland (19.1) Ukraine (33.5)

s t a l e

u n t

s o i U kraine D V U kraine Ukraine (9.87) Desna 50° N

50° N

Southern Bug Legend Km National part of basin and area in thsd.sq.km S lovakialovakia 0 125 250 Esri, DeLorme, GEBCO, NOAA NGDC, and other contributors

20° E 25° E 30° E 35° E

Fig. 1 Location and subdivision of the transboundary basins of the Desna, Western Dvina and Western Bug into national sectors. Source: Own elaboration based on Esri, DeLorme, GEBCO, NOAA NGDC. Cartography: Pavel Terskii

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60 Challenges for transboundary river management in Eastern Europe – three case studies

Uniformity (stationarity) of the time series data was checked by the application of the Student’s t-test information on the general geography of the basins in and the Fisher’s F-test. The t-test was made to check orderIn addition to account to the for water-specific resulting differences aspects, webetween collected the - three basins. The following case studies are therefore cantly. The Fisher’s F-test provides an estimate of structured into three subsections each, dealing with thewhether uniformity mean of values the time of two series periods with respect differ signifi to the (1) the physical environment, (2) the population, econ- variance. Since the Fisher’s F-test is designed for time omy and political geography as well as (3) the result- - ing challenges for river basin management. Obviously, cients of skewness (Cs) and autocorrelation (r1) were differences exist regarding the information available consideredseries that followin the analysisthe normal (Evstigneev distribution, and Magritskiythe coeffi for each basin, and between countries or even regions Rozhdestvensky - analysis of the three exemplary river basins helped to ries2013; length had to be at least et al. eight 2010). years. For The all tests,following the gainwithin a better a specific understanding basin. Nevertheless, of the general a systematic challeng- level of significance was set to 0.05, and the time se es for transboundary river basin management in the border region between Russia, Ukraine and the coun- Comparativetext mentions analyses only significant of the geodata changes. available for the tries of the eastern EU. - ta were performed and relevant applications were donecase studyfor environmentalareas with regard and to hydrometeorologicalspecific local geoda 3. Case study: Western Bug features of the river assessment. Global datasets of reanalysis simulations were assessed, which contain The Western Bug River originates in Ukraine, then be- grids of numerous climatological elements. The most comes a border river with Poland and later with Belarus. suitable datasets for the project are ERA-Interim and It drains into the Zegrze Reservoir of the Narew River, a NCEP-CSFR². Land use parameters were estimated for tributary of the Vistula. This reservoir provides drink- each national sector of the studied rivers according to ing water for roughly one million Warsaw residents Globcover LU Type (Globcover LU code) (CEOS n.d.). (DREBERIS and Stadtentwässerung Dresden GmbH 2008). 49.2% of the watershed is located in Poland, 23.4% in Be- The literature and data review were performed in or- Mioduszewski der to larus, and 27.4% in Ukraine ( et al. 2012). 1. assess the current availability of published litera- 3.1 Physical environment of the river basin

2. characterize the current state of knowledge rel- evantture and for data river and basin identify management knowledge in thegaps; three ba- some hills in the upper reaches of the river. The climate sins with a focus on the following topics: isThe temperate basin’s topographyand moderately is primarily continental flat ( exceptHerenchuk for a. Hydrological trends and their drivers (climate variability and change, land use change, water (1972,Lipinskyy 1975) with an annualPavlik mean temperature of 7.0- - snow7.6°C andcover yearly lasts meanfrom late precipitation November of to 650-700 mid-March mm abstractions); (Kasprowicz et al. and Farat 2003; 2010), leading et al. 2014). to a runoff On average, peak in b. water quality (problems, gradients, identifica- spring from snowmelt, in contrast to a low discharge in pactstion of of main pollution, pollution assessment sources); methods used in fall (ICWS 2001). The predominant soil classes are sod- c. aquatic ecology (state of ecosystems, known im podzolic soils, such as luvisols, podzoluvisols, and pod- d. technical measures (with a focus on municipal zols (Nachtergaele wastewaterdifferent countries/scientific collection and discharge studies); into the Our analysis of discharge et al. 2009). measurements of the Ukraini- e. institutional and geopolitical challenges for wa- an gauging station Lytovezh and the two Polish stations rivers);ter management beyond the above-mentioned Wlodawa and Wyszkow indicated a positive trend in the problems (differences regarding legislation and period 1983-2014. This contrasts with the other two in- - vestigated basins but also with the Ukrainian Western tions for transboundary cooperation). Bug sub-basin at the gauging station Kamianka Buzka, water governance structures; obstacles and op where a slight decrease in runoff was observed.

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61 Challenges for transboundary river management in Eastern Europe – three case studies

So far, only the Ukrainian part of the river basin has - been well investigated with coupled hydrological and fected population lives in the Ukrainian part of the Kalbacher Tavares catchment,Despite its followed relatively by small 36.3% size, in Poland, 47.4% and of the16.3% af Wahren in Belarus. As such, the Ukrainian part is the most water quality models ( et al. 2012; - densely populated, in particular because of Lviv, a city et al. 2012). The results demonstrate that the- velopedwater quality by the along German the Bund/Länder-Arbeitsgemeinriver course changes signifi- (Mioduszewski cantly. On the 7-point chemical water quality scale de Brest,on the Belarus, Poltva River with with0.34 milliona population inhabitants. of 0.76 The million Pol- ish sector has et al.the lowest 2012). population The second density largest withcity isa excessiveschaft Wasser pollution. (LAWA), Areas quality with excessivealong the pollutionriver ranges are number of smaller towns (Skurbilowicz 2014). thefrom Poltva a value River, of 3,a maindenoting tributary, moderate as well pollution, as the West to 7,- Human activity in the catchment differs depending on of this tributary. In these sections of the river system, the country. The Ukrainian part features the most de- ern Bug itself directly downstream of the confluence velopment, including agriculture, industry, coal mines, and the Dobrotvir power plant. In Belarus, there are onlyall but exception one water being quality acceptable variables nitrate fail to levels.meet bothThe larger farms exceeding 1,000 ha (Mioduszewski Ukrainian and European water quality standards; the 2012). In Poland, there are no large industrial sites, only section of the river system with moderate pollu- et al. tion,headwaters whereas preceding the remaining this headwaters confluence are contain in a state the basin consists of protected areas (IUCN of critical pollution. Downstream, the remaining sec- merely small farms. In addition, 5,739 km² of the sub- tions of the river are either critically, heavily, or very Prior to Ukrainian independence in 1991, 2017). the water heavily polluted (Hagemann subsidies, allowing for a satisfactory infrastructure and sedimentation processes et al.(DREBERIS 2014). and The Stadt- lower inmanagement the Soviet Union. sector Afterwards, benefited from companies governmental in this entwässerungsection is less Dresden polluted GmbH because 2008). of self-purificationThe Dobrotvir sector became municipal properties, bringing about - Ertel portant reason for this is that Ukrainian water com- Reservoir, “a river dam unintentionally serving as an paniesdeterioration charge becausecomparatively of financial low water shortages. use fees. An How im- oxidation pond” ( et al. 2012: 1471), contributes ever, the situation has been improving since 2006 due Thesignificantly morphological to this state positive of the change river systemin water is quality. another to fee hikes. Further fee increases remain a key task for improving the situation (DREBERIS and Stadtent- from the Dobrotvir Reservoir, which is the single big- wässerung Dresden GmbH 2008). factor facilitating water quality improvements. Apart Hagemann Until recently, Ukraine had a highly centralized ad- 2014:gest outlier, 2439). “the Downstream, river’s hydromorphology forests and swamp is mainly areas in ministrative structure consisting of many small ter- coveringa low to moderate the river degradation bank serve state” as buffers ( shielding et al. ritorial communities with little political power. In the river to a certain degree from further pollution addition, there was a distinct lack of horizontal coop- (Hagemann eration, for example between the Ministry of Regional Development, Construction and Communal Services et al. 2014). and the Ministry of Agrarian Policy, despite a shared 3.2 Population, economy and political geography responsibility for water management in rural areas.

The Western Bug river system is subject to the EU- of small municipalities into larger entities, improv- - ingHowever, their capacity a 2015 reformfor infrastructural unified the improvements large number charges into the Baltic Sea. As opposed to Poland, the (Verkhovna Rada Ukrainy 2015). Still, the Ukrainian WFDupstream because riparian the river countries flows Ukrainethrough andPoland Belarus and disare not EU member states. River management and protection fall under the respective national legislation, instructionssector of the for basin the suffered implementation from inefficient and enforce water- mentmanagement. of policies, Another such as problemwater management is a lack of on specific a river basin scale as per the 1995 Water Code of Ukraine infrastructurewhich also means and management that they do ( notDREBERIS benefit and from Stadt- EU (Hagemann entwässerungfinancial support Dresden mechanisms GmbH 2008). to improve their water of the Water Code of Ukraine by the Law of Ukraine et al. 2014). Adoption of the new version 1 DIE ERDE · Vol. 149 · 2-3/2018

62 Challenges for transboundary river management in Eastern Europe – three case studies

As per the 2014 Association Agreement between the EU and Ukraine, the latter has to approximate with№ 1830-19 those put has in in practice general in resolved the EU ( theVerkhovna problem Rada by its environmental legislation to EU standards until harmonizingUkrainy requirements to water management 2025 (European Council 2014). Currently, there are two main players in surface water monitoring: the 2017). State Emergency Service of Ukraine and the State 3.3 Resulting challenges for river basin management Water Agency of Ukraine. These organizations refer to ‘maximum allowable concentration’ (MAC) values - lems caused by outdated or overloaded wastewater are different depending on the type of surface water Thetreatment Western plants, Bug agriculture, suffers from industry water and quality coal prob min- for assessment of water quality. However, MAC values ing (Ertel water supply and recreation, on the other hand. The features well-functioning water-land connectivity chemicaluse, i.e. fish MAC farming, values for on the oneformer hand, are orprescribed drinking et al. 2012). For large sections,Scheifhacken the river by the so-called OBRV guideline (transliteration: - stronglyand a sufficient affected structural by human variability interventions ( generat- tion: approximate secure impact levels of pollution in inget al. severe 2012). environmental Nevertheless, impactsthe upper and Western health issues.Bug is Orientiryentovno Bezpechni Rivni Vplyvu; transla- Both point-source and diffuse pollution contribute ies), whereas the latter are prescribed by the SaNPiN to these issues (Helm - water bodies with fish industry; applied outside of cit lution primarily stems from outdated, deteriorating, - and overburdened – or et al.even 2012).non-existent Point source– wastewa pol- banguideline areas). (transliteration: This division sometimes Sanitarni causesPravyla misunder i Normy;- ter treatment plants (WWTPs), particularly in the standingtranslation: and sanitary misinterpretation rules and norms; of monitoring applied indata, ur city of Lviv on the Poltva River, but also in further especially when reports do not specify which guide- cities downstream (Malynovsky line they adhere to. In general, however, the current these WWTPs, dating back to the 1960s through the et al. 2011). None of- ter. In addition, only about 24% of the rural popu- EU-wideMAC values standards. are quite The close problem to the of target competing value standwhich- lation1980s, in can Ukraine sufficiently is connected reduce nutrients to central in WWTPs the wa ardscorresponds is exacerbated with ‘good’ by the water fact that quality data accordingare unavail to- (DREBERIS and Stadtentwässerung Dresden GmbH able or inaccessible in many cases (Blumensaat of organic pollution. Among other pollutants, it ex- (Pluntke et al. hibits2008). high The Poltvalevels ofRiver chemical is the mostoxygen significant demand source(COD), 2012). Furthermore, monitoring is often insufficient et al. 2014). 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), phospho- Climate constitutes one of the major boundary condi- rus, bacterial abundance, and antibiotic resistance tions for hydrologic processes. Future climate projec- (Ertel tions indicate decreasing water availability during both agriculture and industrial waste, particularly as- the summer half-year (Pavlik sociated et al. with 2012). mining. Diffuse Estimates pollution on pollution originates sources from - contribution vary widely (Helm culture (Fischer et al. 2014), which might Mioduszewski have serious implications for water quality and agri half of the total nitrogen and phosphorous et al. 2012). A pollution study by projected to rise et al. throughout 2014). In thethese course two works of the it year, was load in the Western et al. (2012)Bug is estimatesemitted by that agriculture. roughly particularlyfound that for in the the period winter 2071-2100, months, temperaturesleading to a arede- Following a surge of privatizations of formerly col- crease of cold events along with an increase of warm lective farms after 2000, large-scale application of events like heat waves and tropical nights. Reduced fertilizers and pesticides left nitrogen, phosphorus, precipitation and altered precipitation patterns are and other, persistent chemicals in the natural envi- projected to lead to more dry days. Both declining ronment (Hagemann precipitation and rising temperatures are projected land-cover changes, such as an increase in man-made to cause a decrease in the annual climatic water bal- surfaces, i.e. soil sealing, et al. to 2014). 12% of Finally, the Ukrainian land-use area and ance. This means that, e.g. in late summer, potential of the basin in 2010, affects the water balance while evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation. Hydrologic modeling showed less surface runoff and soil water Hagemann “causing reduced infiltration and enhanced overland and less snow accumulation. The projected socio- flow” ( et al. 2014: 2441). content, an increased number of low-flow events, DIE ERDE · Vol. 149 · 2-3/2018

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- Circumstances that are highly likely to cause cata- - economicagricultural consequences as well as silvicultural of such developments yields due to are water di scarcity,verse. Beyond the energy serious sector, impacts water on watermanagement, quality and ofstrophic snow in and the outstanding river catchment spring and floods deeply are frozen a cold soils au human health are projected to suffer. Potential haz- (tumn-winterKhrystyuk period, with a significant accumulation- ards include increasing air pollution and an increased perature increase during the main snowmelt period. occurrence of pests, pathogens, and diseases (Schanze Analysis of data et al. from 2017) the in gauging addition station to a Desna-Litky strong tem showed an average runoff of 12.1 km³/year for the pe- brings opportunities for agriculture: increased grow- riod 1980-1999 and a decrease to 10.6 km³/year for inget al. seasons 2012). due On theto higher other temperatures, hand, climate changein combina also- 2000-2014 (Gorbachova and Kolianchuk 2012a). tion with increased CO2 concentrations which stimulate growth in some crops3, including wheat and sugar The surface water of the Desna is characterized beets, may result in higher yields. However, this op- by high amounts of nutrients which lead to eutro- Fis- phication. For example, the mean concentration of cher non-organic compounds of nitrogen reaches up to portunity also depends on sufficient irrigation ( 0.68 mg N/l (Osadchy Luzovitska ). et al. 2014). 4. Case study: Desna river: while the upper et al. part 2008; shows processes et al. of self-pu 2011 - The water quality decreases over the course of the The Desna River originates in Russia and is the lon- pollution – in particular in the form of ammonia ni- gest tributary of the Dnieper River, which, then again, trogenrification, and the phosphorous middle section – and, suffers lastly, fromthe lower intensive sec- is the largest river in Ukraine and the third largest in Europe. It serves as a drinking water source for large (Luzovitska ). regions of Ukraine and is one of the main drinking wa- tion shows a significant increase of nitrate pollution ter sources for the capital city Kyiv (Khrystyuk et al. 2017 Luzovitska - 4.2 Population, economy and political geography ed in Russia, 38% in Ukraine (Rudenko 2 et al. 2017; et al. 2017). 62% of the basin is locat Among the cities located on the banks of the Desna 007). River are Oster, Chernihiv, and Novhorod-Siverskyi 4.1 Physical environment of the river basin in Ukraine and Trubchevsk, Briansk, and Zhukovka in Russia (Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies 2001). The river’s catchment area is in a mostly lowland Marynich into the Dnieper. With roughly 1.53 million (61.6%) - peopleKyiv is livinglocated in 16the km Russian south part of the of theriver’s basin, confluence and 0.96 areatinental with (Marynich muddy flats and and Shishchenko swampy valleys2005). (The aver- million (38.4%) in Ukraine, the population distribu- et al. 1985) and the basin’s climate is moderately con tion is in line with the respective countries’ shares of - the catchment (Rudenko age annual air temperature ranges from 6.3°C in the fallingupper basinduring to the 7.0°C warm in the season lower of part. the year.The mean General an- The gross domestic product 2007). in the Ukrainian part de- ly,nual a persistent precipitation snow is cover 650-700mm, forms around with the the majority second half of January and remains for 90-100 days (Lipinskyy highest priority agricultural product. Other focus areas includepends equally oil crops, on potatoes, agriculture sugar and beets, industry. and cattleCereal breed is theriver freezes over (Canadian Institute of Ukrainian ing. The industrial sector focuses on processing, e.g. Studieset al. 2003). From early December to early April, the food production and clothing (Chernihiv Regional State Khrystyuk Administration 2015). The soils 2001). in the It catchment “has quite are a wideprimarily floodplain, podzolic which and vegetationfloods almost consists every ofyear” coniferous ( and et al. mixed 2017: forests 64). (Marynich and Shishchenko 2005). pondRiver asregulation well as off-stream has an important water storages influence for on two the nuclewater- Based on measurements at the gauging station in arquality. power In plants.the Russian Downstream, part of the in basin, the Ukrainian there is a coolingsector, Chernihiv, Ukraine, the hydrological regime of the dozens of reservoirs have changed the river’s hydrology and morphology (Vishnevsky ).

1Desna is generally characterized by spring floods. DIE et al. ERDE 2011 · Vol. 149 · 2-3/2018

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A comparison of temperature changes for the periods and management problems discussed above for the 2001-2016 versus 1980-2000 revealed that tempera- WesternIn the Ukrainian Bug catchment sector of apply the river as well: basin, administrative the financial reforms have been improving the regional capacity most seasons. For example, measurements in Kursk to develop the water infrastructure. However, higher showedtures increased an increase significantly of mean bothannual annually temperatures and for - uation and enable investments in infrastructure. water use fees are needed to improve the financial sit seasonsby 1.3°C, and having regions. the most The pronouncedmost striking change features during are winter (1.8°C). Precipitation trends differ between 4.3 Resulting challenges for river basin management summer months and one station an increased trend duringthat some winter stations (Chalov show significant decreases in the The ecological state of the Desna at particular sections, especially in the downstream part of the river, The main peculiarity ofet al. regional 2017). hydrological change is rather poor mainly due to problems concerning is the seasonal redistribution of annual river discharge - stances and pesticides, which are not fully degraded andwater therefore quality. accumulate The main pollutantsin the basin. are Sewage organic waters sub higherand subsequent concentrations changes of inwater water pollutants. quality. EspeciallyChanging are a primary source of mineral forms of phosphorus. climaticthe increased conditions frequency and human of low impacts flow events cause causesan in- During the last 25 years, decreasing nutrient concen- creased intensity of bank erosion (Chalov trations have been observed. This is likely to be as- sociated with a phase of increased runoff and reduced et al. 2017). 5. Case study: Western Dvina and decreasing population density). Nevertheless, bioassay-basedemissions (due totoxicity a de-intensification assessments (using of agriculture several indicator organisms) showed that pollution levels in through Belarus and Latvia into the Gulf of Riga of the the Desna and the Dnieper are serious (i.e. toxicologi- BalticThe Western Sea. 32% Dvina of the originates catchment in belongs Russia andto Russia, flows Arkhipchuk 38.6% to Belarus and 29.4% to the EU – mostly in Lat- and Malinovskaya 2002). via with very small shares in Lithuania and Estonia. cally relevant) under low-flow conditions ( After the end of the Soviet Union, data exchange between Russia and Ukraine came to a halt. Hydro- 5.1 Physical environment of the river basin of four measurements per year. Additionally, the sub- Like the other case study basins, the catchment of the stanceschemical being observations monitored are are limited limited, to omittinga low frequency a num- - ber of priority substances (Chalov phy. The climate is temperate, moderately continen- talWestern with JanuaryDvina has temperatures a mainly flat, ranging undulating from topogra et al. 2017). 4 annual precipitation is 650 mm. The total runoff−6°C of the to SinceAs discussed 1917, there above, have thebeen circumstances three catastrophic facilitating floods −10°C in contrast to +17°C to +19°C in July. The average3/year (1917, 1931, 1970) and one outstanding flood (1942).- (656 m3/sec) (Nilsson 2006) with snowmelt being the ing and transboundary exchange of information can Westerndominant Dvina source. River As such,to the 50% Baltic of Sea the is discharge 20.7 km takes severe spring floods have been identified.Gorbachova Monitor place in spring (ICWS 2001). The main soil classes are and Kolianchuk 2012a, 2012b). However, Ukrainian podzoluvisols, histosols, and podzols in the Russian mitigatewater monitoring the impact systems of future are flood currently events (undergoing and Belorussian parts, and luvisols, histosols, and re-organization due to the implementation of Euro- podzols in the downstream EU part (Nachtergaele pean water resources management legislation. The

European Water Framework Directive. New legisla- Comparableet al. 2009). to the Desna River, an analysis of data tivegoal acts is harmonization concerning surface with the water requirements monitoring of and the from the gauging stations Velizh and Daugavpils re- new lists of priority substances are currently being vealed a negative runoff trend. Comparing the peri- - sampling will be increased (Yatsiuk creased in Velizh by 18% and in Daugavpils by 3%. elaborated and adopted. Moreover, the frequency of ods 1992-2015 and 1976-1991, the average runoff de DIE ERDE · Vol. 149 · 2-3/2018 et al. 2017). 1

65 Challenges for transboundary river management in Eastern Europe – three case studies

The surface waters of the Western Dvina are charac- try center. According to regional development plans, terized by total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations a cascade of four hydropower dams near the cities in the range of 110-280 mg/l. Total suspended solids Vitebsk, Beshankovichy, Polotsk and Verkhnedvinsk (TSS) were lower than 100 mg/l during high water will be developed until 2020. In Latvia, the range of periods in the past, but nearly reached 500 mg/l dur- industrial facilities located in the river catchment area is rather wide: food and chemical industry, elec- showed that the primary chemical composition of wa- tronics, and clothing industry are located in the cities ingter fromthe dry the season. Western A Dvinafield sampling River and campaign most of its in tribu2017- Daugavpils and Ogre. Among the largest hydroelectric taries follows the pattern of Ca > (Na and K ) > Mg power stations are the Western Dvina, Plavino and – 2– – and HCO3 4 > Cl . 2+ + + 2+ Rizhskaya stations. There are few split navigational waterways along the river (United Nations Economic Past monitoring ≫ SO efforts on the main stem of the West- Commission for Europe 2011). ern Dvina showed that the water was relatively soft The total water consumption in the Western Dvina 3 4 ) per year (0.56 in Rus- (hardness is less than– 4 mg-eq/l with a pH between and nitrate (NO3 ) observed in the water exceeds+ - 6.52 mg/l, and 7.5).while The total maximum phosphorous sum of concentrationsammonium (NH are basinania). isIn aboutthe Russian 347 million part, msurface water covers 5% in the range of 50 to 100 µg/l or more. ofsia, the 197.5 total in Belarus,consumption, 146 in in Latvia the Latvianand 3.35 part in Lithu 36% (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 2011) The waters within Russian territory are mostly im- and in the Belorussian part 44% for the whole country pacted by natural processes due to drainage from (AQUASTAT n.d.). Over 60% of the people within wetlands which lead to high concentrations of nutri- the Western Dvina basin are employed in services, ents and organic matter. The annual average water 23-31% in industry and less than 10% in agriculture content of ammonia and other nutrients are likely (World Bank Group n. d.). to exceed MAC values. The annual nutrient load is 40,600 tons/year for nitrogen and 1,400 tons/year for phosphorus (Nilsson 2006). 5.3 Resulting challenges for river basin management

- 5.2 Population, economy and political geography posite trends in land use in different countries. The WesternWater quality Dvina issuesbasin areis relatively mostly relatedweakly todisturbed the op The total population within the Western Dvina basin by human activities in the upper (Russian) part and CIESIN 2016). The Latvian part is the - most populated (51%), followed by the Belorussian larus and the EU. Drainage from municipal waters (39%),is 2.17 millionRussian ( (8%), Lithuanian (2%) and Estonian originateheavily modified for example in the from downstream large cities part, in Belarus, i.e. in Bei.e. parts (less than 1%) (CIESIN 2016). The largest town Vitebsk and Polotsk. This increases the concentrations of chlorides, ammonia nitrogen, and phosphorous, among others. The main sources are oil and en- or city in the Russian part is Western Dvina (8,347 ergy industry facilities (Yushchenko inh.), in Belarus Vitebsk (376,226 inh.), Novopolotsk ((102,394AQUASTAT inh.) n.d.). and Polotsk (85,078 inh.), in Latvia of the river (Kolmakova and Maslova et al. 2008). 2015). However, High Riga (641,007 inh.) and Daugavpils (95,467 inh.) rateschanges of chemicalin the agricultural fluxes are sector,seen in suchthe Latvian as abandon stem- Economic activity and land use in the catchment dif- ment of cultivated lands since 1980 in Russia, and im- fer remarkably depending on the country. Forestry proved water treatment plants help improving water and wood processing dominate in the Russian cities Tilis and Miris 2001). The waters Andreapol and Western Dvina and agriculture domi- within Russian territory are mostly impacted by nat- nate in Western Dvina and Velizh. Agriculture and uralquality processes in Latvia due ( to drainage from wetlands which industry – especially wood processing, mechanical lead to high concentrations of biogens and organic engineering, and metal-working industry – are typi- matter. The annual mean concentrations for ammonia cal for the Belorussian section of the catchment (in nitrogen and other nutrients occasionally exceed the Vitebsk, Beshankovichy, Polotsk and Verkhnedvinsk). environmental standards (Chalov - et al. 2017). Novopolotsk1 is the largest regional oil refining indus DIE ERDE · Vol. 149 · 2-3/2018

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A screening of the monitoring revealed data gaps in 6. Discussion and conclusions chain (meteorology, land use, hydrology, matter trans- Numerous river basins in Eastern Europe cross inter- port,both watererosion, quantity hydrobiology) and quality. that simulates Setting up water a model and national boundaries between EU member states, the Russian Federation, and/or newly independent states changes of natural and anthropogenic conditions or which emerged after the end of the Soviet Union in differentmatter flows management in the basin options in relation can act to, as fora substitute example, 1991. The geopolitical reorganization of Eastern Eu- rope in the last three decades has not only had a sig- can also provide information about impacts of chang- to fill such data gaps. Besides, experimental research individual countries and regions, but has also created conditions. For that, a pilot study in the Vilesa River, newnificant challenges impact onfor the transboundary socioeconomic water development resources of aing left hydrological tributary of and the landWestern use patternsDvina was on initiated river flow in management (Table 2). - erating to provide high-resolution data on sediment On the one hand, the entry of several Eastern Euro- transportMay 2017. andA water nutrient quality loads. monitoring Furthermore, station the isstudy op pean countries into the European Union has led to a is devoted to understanding the mechanisms of runoff formation based on hydrochemical analyses of inter- resources management between the new member action of waters from various water sources of a river statesharmonization and their inwestern the field neighbors of transboundary (e.g. via the imple water- in the process of mixing within the river basin. mentation of the EU-WFD). On the other hand, the dis- integration of the Soviet Union has created the oppo- Since the river discharges into the Baltic Sea, the site development at the western border of the Russian downstream parts of the Western Dvina fall under the Federation. Whereas some of the newly independent jurisdiction of the EU-WFD (Nilsson 2006). However, countries have joined the EU (such as the Baltic coun- since the end of the Soviet Union there are a number tries), those which did not join the EU have developed of different legal frameworks that affect the basin: in their own national water legislation, even though Russia, environmental protection of the river basin these laws are typically based on Soviet inheritance. falls under the Ministry of Natural Resources. Belarus introduced their own Water Code in 1998, which was Because the Eastern European countries have at the amended in 2010. Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania have same time experienced socioeconomic changes (e.g. experienced deeper institutional changes by joining a decline of old industries but also partial re-indus- the EU in 2004. As such, EU regulations generally su- perseded national regulations if contradictions ex- agricultural land use), this transition has had strong isted. However, implementation of the EU-WFD on all impactstrialization, on theabandonment region’s water but alsousage. intensification While in some of levels remains a main priority (ICWS 2001). reduced, trends such as urbanization or a decay of The hydroclimatic development in the wake of cli- wastewatercases, pressures treatment on aquatic systems ecosystems have locally have increased been mate change in the areas is another important issue water pollution. Moreover, some environmental leg- for transboundary dialogue. The reported decline in acies from the past continue to negatively affect the maximal discharge for different parts of the Western river systems of Eastern Europe. Dvina catchment area in the period 1966-2000 com- Due to differences in the physical environment and management and water legislation systems. These anthropogenic impacts between and within the three developmentspared to 1877-1965 also needis challenging to be taken for waterinto account resources for case study catchments, the distribution of key chal- plans of new dam construction in Belarus and Latvia (Volchek 2008). wastelenges watervaries. treatment Some challenges plants, require the impact attention of climate in all basins, such as specific pollution sources like outdated methods. Also, a well-developed water governance structurechange, or and harmonized a strong civil water society quality are essential assessment for - pacities to initiate or maintain the complex processes successful IWRM. Many countries lack sufficient ca

DIE ERDE · Vol. 149 · 2-3/2018 required for IWRM. Therefore, capacity development1

67 Challenges for transboundary river management in Eastern Europe – three case studies

Leidel transboundary perspective. Therefore, interstate cooperation along Eastern Europe’s borders constitutes measures are required on all levels ( et al. 2012). - hydrologicalOther challenges, models however, were aredeveloped more urgent for a insub-basin specific ment of the region’s water resources. Key aspects for ofbasins, the Western for example Bug within system the modeling. framework While of an specific IWRM thisan important include a prerequisiteharmonization for ofthe legislation integrated regarding manage project (Kalbacher - the Desna and Western Dvina catchments remain key ards, but also transboundary agreements on a more research needs. et al. 2012), comparable models for integratedmonitoring management requirements of andinternational environmental river basins. stand Ideally, such agreements should be arranged in a way Despite some differences between the basins of the that they are compatible with ongoing socioeconomic Western Bug, Desna and Western Dvina, in all cases transition as well as geopolitical reorganization pro- - cesses in Eastern Europe. In addition, they should ogy impairments can only be fully understood from a base on a profound system understanding. For this problems regarding water pollution and aquatic ecol Table 2 Key challenges in the transboundary catchments of the case studies. Source: Own elaboration

Western Bug Desna Western Dvina

Pollution: - Pollution from settlements, industrial areas, and agriculture sources and mitigation - Maintenance and modernization of WWTPs - Optimization of the application of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture - Pollution from coalmines - Removal of illegal landLills/ pesticide storages Monitoring - Systems are somewhat different and, e.g., not fully compliant with EU practices - IntensiLication of common transboundary monitoring programs - Harmonization of water quality assessment methods between countries and institutions, and upgrade and adjustment of analytical laboratories - IntensiLication of data exchange between different countries and between different national authorities - DeLicits in monitoring of biological and hydro-morphological components, and of toxic substances as well as the toxicity and composition of discharged waste waters

Governance - Lack of consistent, transnational water management plans - InsufLicient funding in water management sector, causing an investment backlog in infrastructure - Enforcement of national and transnational River Basin Councils as the central management instrument for IWRM

Climate and hydrology - Rising temperatures and altered precipitation throughout the year due to climate change, leading to changes in high and low Llow with impacts on water quality

- Reduced water availability - Flood mitigation in summer - Strong regulation of the river (water storages) Erosion - IntensiLication of bank erosion - Nearly no data available despite recognized problems

Capacity development - Foster understanding of CD as an integral and inherent part of IWRM (CD) - CD needed on all levels (individual, organizational, etc.)

System understanding - Setup of a model chain that simulates water and matter Llows and its ecologic impacts in the and modeling basin under changing boundary conditions in the past and future

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purpose, transnational model approaches are needed References which comprise an appropriate understanding of the changing boundary conditions (climate, land use, re- AQUASTAT - FAO’s Information System on Water and Agri- source management), and its hydrological and ecolog- culture (n.d.): Countries, regions, transboundary river ical impacts. The need for such integrated approaches basins. – Online available at: http://www.fao.org/nr/ is high, and further work should focus on this. Within the scope of the ManTra-Rivers project, we aim to water/aquastat/countries_regions/index.stm, accessed develop comparative semi-distributed modeling ap- Arkhipchuk, V.V. and M.V. Malinovskaya 2002: Quality of 20/07/2017 water types in Ukraine evaluated by WaterTox bio- case study areas. assays. – Environmental Toxicology 17 proaches for water runoff and water quality for the doi:10.1002/tox.10044 (3): 250-257 – Bernhofer, C., K. Barfus, D. Pavlik, P. Borges and D. Söhl 2016: Notes Climate Change information for IWRM. – In: Borchardt, D., J. Bogardi and R. Ibisch (eds.): Integrated Water Resources For the sake of consistency, we refer to cities, towns, and Management: Concept, Research and Implementation. 1 administrative regions according to the common trans- Springer Environmental Sciences Edited Volume.– literation of the respective country (e.g. Kyiv instead of Kiev). For transboundary rivers, however, we chose the Blumensaat, F., M. Wolfram and P. Krebs 2012: Sewer model Heidelberg/Germany and New York/USA: 171-197 common English spelling instead of deciding between different regional transliterations (e.g. Dnieper instead of – Environmental Earth Sciences 65 development under minimum data requirements. Dnipro or Dnepr). (5): 1427-1437 – Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies 2001: Desna River. doi:10.1007/s12665-011-1146-1 2 present. The ECMWF (European Centre for Medium-Range – Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine. – Online available at: ERA-Interim is a meteorological reanalysis from 1979 to Weather Forecasts) is responsible for the ERA (ECMWF www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath= re-analysis) project. NCEP-CSFR (NCEP Climate Forecast pages%5CD%5CE%5CDesnaRiver.htm, accessed 15/09/ System Reanalysis) is a meteorological reanalysis ranging from 1989 to 2010 by the US-American National Centers Center for International Earth Science Information Network 2017 for Environmental Prediction. (=CIESIN) 2016: Gridded Population of the World, Version

2 concentrations stimulate 4 (GPWv4): Population Count. – Palisades, NY: NASA 3 Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC). – Specifically, increased CO water and nitrogen in plants that rely on C3 and C4 photo- growth and increase resource-use efficiency for radiation, synthesis (Fischer Online available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.7927/H4X63JVC, Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (=CEOS) (n.d.): et al. 2014). accessed 13/11/2017 4 - GlobCover (v2.2) – Online available at: gcmd.gsfc.nasa. On the scale used by the authors, “catastrophic” floods Gorbachova and are classified as the most severe, followed by “outstand Kolianchuk 2012a: 9). ing”, “high”, and “average high water” ( gov/KeywordSearch/Metadata.do?Portal=idn_ceos&Ke ywordPath=%5BParameters%3A+Topic%3D%27LAND +SURFACE%27%2C+Term%3D%27LAND+USE%2FLAN Acknowledgements D+COVER%27%2C+Variable_Level_1%3D%27LAND+U SE+CLASSES%27%5D&OrigMetadataNode=GCMD&Ent The authors thank the Volkswagen Foundation for the ryId=geodata_2059&M, accessed 01/07/2017, accessed - Chalov, S., T. Pluntke, Y. Nabyvanets, I. Kruhlov, B. Helm, F. 01/07/2017 Krengel, N. Osadcha, M. Habel, V. Osadchyi, T. Reeh, D. Karthe funding of the project “Management of Transboundary Riv of Science-Based Goals and Fostering Trilateral Dialogue and C. Bernhofer ers between Ukraine, Russia and the EU – Identification 2017: Report on WP A – Assessment of The study on the Western Dvina was additionally sup- and Cooperation (ManTra-Rivers)” (Grant No: Az.: 90 426). the status quo in the three investigated basins. Interim 14-27-00083. Transboundary Rivers between Ukraine, Russia and the Report of the Volkswagenstiftung project “Management of Daniel Karthe thanks the German Academic Exchange Ser- ported by the Russian Scientific Fund project vice (DAAD) for the funding of his position. EU – Identification of Science-Based Goals and Fostering of Trilateral Dialogue and Cooperation”. – Online available meteorologie/forschung/forschungsprojekte/projekt- at: https://tu-dresden.de/bu/umwelt/hydro/ihm/

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