Relative Roles of Structure, Climate, and of a Tsunami Event on Coastal Evolution of the Falkland Archipelago Rôles Relatifs De

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Relative Roles of Structure, Climate, and of a Tsunami Event on Coastal Evolution of the Falkland Archipelago Rôles Relatifs De Géomorphologie : relief, processus, environnement, 2008, n° 1, p. 33-44 Relative roles of structure, climate, and of a tsunami event on coastal evolution of the Falkland Archipelago Rôles relatifs de la structure, du climat et d’un tsunami sur l’évolution du littoral de l’archipel des Malouines Hervé Regnauld*, Olivier Planchon*, James Goff** Abstract The relative importance of structural or climatic controls on coastal evolution is debatable. The Falkland Archipelago (52° S – 59° W) comprises many small scattered islands. They correspond to an appalachian folding in various sandstones and many bays are located in synclines. Differential erosion explains the local scale location of headlands and embayments. Faultlines are associated with high cliffs. All the islands are exposed to broadly the same wind and wave climate. Dominant westerlies impart a strong sediment flux down drift (i.e. West to East), displaying, at a local scale, a source to sink distribution of coastal features. A tsunami deposit has been identi- fied in the Falkland Islands, and its relative role upon the geomorphic evolution of the coast is discussed and compared to structural and climate controls. The tsunami hit the north-western islands but not the southern ones. A north-south comparison shows that the tsu- nami has disrupted some key elements of the sedimentary flux leading to areas of non deposition and local reversal of the sediment cell direction (i.e. East to West). A few 14C dates indicate that the tsunami probably occurred about 1500 radiocarbon years BP. Today its impacts are slowly disappearing and a ‘usual’ West to East drift-controlled behaviour is redeveloping. Key words: Falkland Islands, coast, structure, climate, tsunami, pavement, pebble. Résumé L’identification des facteurs qui contrôlent l’évolution du littoral est toujours un objet de débat. L’archipel des Malouines (52° S et 59° O) comprend de nombreuses petites îles. Il s’agit d’un relief appalachien dans différents grès et les synclinaux fixent l’emplace- ment de nombreuses baies. À une échelle plus locale, l’érosion différentielle crée des anses et des caps. Les îles sont toutes soumises aux mêmes contraintes régionales de houles et de vent. Les vents d’ouest dominants déterminent un flux sédimentaire abondant et les formes littorales, à l’échelle locale, se distribuent selon une logique spatiale alignée sur la dérive littorale avec des sites source à l’ouest et des sites puits à l’est. Un tsunami a atteint les îles du nord-ouest, mais pas celles du sud : une comparaison entre elles per- met de comprendre que ce tsunami a entraîné une diminution significative des flux sédimentaires et a localement créé des surfaces de « non-dépôt ». Très localement des cellules sédimentaires ont fonctionné de l’est vers l’ouest, c’est-à-dire en sens inverse des vents dominants. Les datations 14C des dépôts fossilisant les traces du tsunami indiquent un âge minimum d’environ 1 500 ans. Aujourd’hui on commence à observer les signes d’un retour à un comportement « normal », contrôlé par la dérive littorale régionale ouest-est. Mots clés : Îles Malouines, littoral, structure, climat, tsunami, pavage, galets. Version française abrégée son et al., 2002) et facilement disponible, par gravité, pour les processus littoraux. L’archipel est soumis à un climat océa- L’archipel des Malouines est situé à 52° S et 59° O au nique frais et très venté dont les directions de vent et houles large de l’Argentine. Il comprend deux îles principales et plu- d’ouest sont très régulières. Le secteur ouest représente 70 à sieurs centaines d’îles plus petites (fig. 1) dont la morpholo- 85 % des vents (Vosper et al., 2002) et leur force moyenne est, gie côtière est contrôlée par la structure appalachienne. L’en- en été, supérieure à 10 m/s et à 20 m/s en hiver. Les houles semble des îles est constitué de grès et de quartzites et les peuvent atteindre 8 et 9 m (hauteur significative) durant les baies sont souvent situées dans les synclinaux (fig. 2 et fig. 3). tempêtes d’ouest (Upton et Shaw, 2002). Les versants sont remaniés par une sculpture périglaciaire. Le La conjonction d’un environnement riche en sédiments matériel issu de la dernière période froide est abondant (Wil- meubles et d’un système de houle unidirectionnel fait que * Laboratoire Costel, UMR 6554 L.E.T.G. CNRS, université de haute-Bretagne (Rennes 2), I.F.R. Caren et PRES Université Européenne de Bretagne, place H. Le Moal, 35043 Rennes cedex, France. Courriel : [email protected] ; [email protected] ** National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd., PO Box 8602, Christchurch, New Zealand. Courriel : [email protected] Hervé Regnauld, Olivier Planchon, James Goff sur les côtes exposées des îles externes (Sea-Lion au sud, depuis le nord-est et recouvre une paléo-dune. Ces deux pa- Carcass, West Point et Pebble au nord), la répartition spa- vages sont des surfaces dépourvues de dépôt : le sable ne s’y tiale des formes littorales est commandée par le fonctionne- accumule plus (comme cela avait noté aussi en Nouvelle-Zé- ment des cellules sédimentaires depuis les sites sources au lande). Cependant, dans leurs parties distales vers l’inté- vent jusqu’aux sites puits sous le vent. Les cartes morpholo- rieur des terres, les galets sont en partie recouverts par des giques du littoral de ces îles montrent la localisation des débris glissés depuis les reliefs avoisinants et des particules sites sources (c’est-à-dire les zones d’ablation) à l’ouest et fines, tourbeuses commencent à les colmater. Une végétation celle des sites puits (c’est-à-dire les zones de dépôt) dans les embryonnaire s’y installe (mousses et lichens) et, sur ce sub- parties orientales des îles. L’exemple le plus clair est à Sea- strat, le sable commence à s’accumuler. Des échantillons ont Lion (fig. 5). À Pebble ou Carcass (fig. 5) le même princi- été choisis dans le sol sur le pavage, dans l’un des rares en- pe général de distribution spatiale des formes subsiste, mais droits où le sable sous-jacent contient du matériel organique, la tectonique cassante a divisé les îles en parties distinctes, et dans deux systèmes dunaires (sites puits protégés de l’ex- donc en plusieurs cellules sédimentaires. Des formes dues à trémité orientale des deux îles non touchées par le tsunami), des tempêtes (éventails, berme…) sont présentes sur les par- afin d’établir une chronologie de la croissance des dunes et ties du littoral exposées à l’ouest. De l’ouest vers l’est, vers la comparer avec celle des espaces que le tsunami a parcou- l’aval de la dérive, on observe de nombreux galets et du rus. Les datations 14C sont cohérentes entre elles, mais peu sable migrant sur les plates-formes d’abrasion vers des sites précises (fig. 11). Elles donnent un âge minimum de 1410 puits orientaux. ± 30 BP. Cet archipel permet d’illustrer un concept élaboré initiale- Cet exemple démontre qu’aux Îles Malouines un tsunami ment par M.J. Bray et al. (1995) et M.J. Bray et J.M. Hooke peut, localement, modifier le sens de la migration des sédi- (1997). Selon ces auteurs, la localisation des formes litto- ments et établir une surface de « non-dépôt » qui empêche, rales obéit à deux contrôles scalaires emboîtés. À l’échelle localement, la construction de dunes pendant une durée plu- régionale, les formes littorales sont guidées par la structure riséculaire. Cet exemple n’a qu’une valeur locale, mais il géologique, qui détermine l’emplacement des côtes basses, pose la question de la durée pendant laquelle un événement celle des falaises et qui explique, souvent par érosion diffé- brutal modifie fortement l’évolution d’une portion de litto- rentielle, la localisation des caps et des baies. À l’échelle ral avant que les contrôles habituels (structure et cellules locale, la position des formes est totalement contrôlée par les sédimentaires) ne reprennent un rôle dominant. flux des cellules sédimentaires. Ce concept a été largement confirmé par de nombreux travaux et ré-exprimé de façon Introduction synthétique en 2002 par J.D. Orford et al. Dans un tel systè- me, les formes sont alignées selon la direction de la dérive Morphological differences between coasts may be linked dominante et leur évolution dans le temps (si le niveau marin to different scale-related controlling processes (Cowell and est stable et la fourniture en sédiments constante) est une Thom, 1994). From this point of view, there are two main évolution directionnelle : ce sont toujours les sites sources streams of thought. Firstly, coastal landforms evolution is qui reculent et les sites puits qui progradent. due to ongoing processes involving interactions between L’impact d’un tsunami sur la morphologie d’un littoral est variable wave climates, fluctuations in sediment supply and spectaculaire, mais peu d’études se sont attachées à en me- local currents (Guilcher, 1957; Jennings and Schulmeister, surer l’importance à moyen terme, ni à en évaluer les consé- 2002). The alternative view is that significant coastal evolu- quences sur l’évolution des formes.A.S. Scheffers et D. Kel- tion occurs as a result of catastrophic processes (Orford et letat (2003) signalent que la question est l’objet de débat et al., 2002). The basic assumption of the latter is that if sedi- que de nombreux exemples de terrain doivent être étudiés ment supply is maintained and sea level remains stable, avant qu’on ne puisse répondre de manière argumentée. Ils ‘normal’ conditions are incapable of forcing significant indiquent que l’importance morphogénique des tsunamis ne coastal evolution. Coastal landforms are resilient to change doit pas être surévaluée même si, ponctuellement, certains and to shift them to a new form outside the usual bounds of tsunamis ont des effets durables.
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