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Chemistry -III for B.Ed B.Ed. Science Education CHEMISTRY-III FOR B.ED. Course Code No. 6458 Unit No 1-9 Science Education Department Faculty of Education ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD 1 COURSE TEAM Dean Prof. Dr. Nasir Mehmood Chairman Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood Course Development Coordinator Dr. Aftab Ahmed Writers: Dr. Farzana Shaheen, Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, AIOU. Dr.Erum Jabeen, Department of Chemistry, AIOU. Ms. Hina Ali, Lecturer, Department of Biochemistry, PMAS Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi. Mr. Zia ul Haq Zia, lecturer, Federal College of Education, Islamabad. Syeda Koukab, Lecturer, Federal College of Education, Islamabad. Reviewers: Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer, Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry, AIOU. Dr. Aftab Ahmed, Lecturer, Department of Science Education, AIOU. Mr. Arshad Mehmood Qamar, Lecturer, Department of Science Education, AIOU. Dr. Farzana Shaheen, Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, AIOU. Dr. Erum Jabeen, Department of Chemistry, AIOU. 2 FOREWORD This course has been planned for fulfilling the content capability of future teachers who will be enrolled in B. Ed 4 years or B. Ed 2.5 years in Allama Iqbal Open University. This book may be beneficial for meeting the needs of the advance content for students and teachers. Scientific knowledge is expanding at a high speed. This is the age of scientific revolution and conceptions. which need skillful technologies. Allama Iqbal Open University and Science Education Department has accepted to maintain the excellence and adequacy. This book is one of those series of books which will enable the teachers to cope with changing needs of the society and students. This book is not written by a single author but a group of authors having vast experience in the field of Chemistry. The course development team was committed to make it possible in this shape. Now it is a complete book written according to the approved content and format of AIOU. Students of this level from any university can also get assistance from this manuscript. The focus of this book is to provide the students with best knowledge, skills and content in the subject of Chemistry. With the help of this book science students can explore the natural world, can understand the dynamics of Chemistry and discover new dimensions in the field. Keeping in view the qualitative aspect of education and an increasing demand of science teachers, stress is rested upon science content as well as strengthening their professional skills and knowledge. The elements of motivation and love are also considered. We welcome suggestions and comments for improvements from the readers, teachers and public at large for the improvement of this course. Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood Chairman Science Education Department 3 PREFACE Nevertheless, there is lot of books accessible in market, but there is no book which fulfills the requirements of University approved outlines. Some cover one area of content, while other covers another area. In this way there would be a lot of financial burden and dispersed focus. Further AIOU has its own requirement either to provide compiled material or textbook. This book is one of those series for coverage of content area requirement for B. Ed 4 Years and B. Ed 2.5 years in the field of Chemistry. This book is written as per prescribed procedure of book development. After approval of content from all statuary bodies, approval for starting development of this book was sought. Great stress has been laid in making the course to facilitate prospectus, in service and pre-service teachers for content knowledge regarding Chemistry. The course is equipped with illustrations for better understanding of the reader. Each unit is equipped with necessary illustrations, activities and self-assessment exercises. This is a quick effort and may have some errors and omissions for which we shall welcome suggestions for improvement in the next edition. AIOU hopes that this book will prove finest for the content knowledge regarding Chemistry at this level. Dr. Aftab Ahmed Course Development Coordinator 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Allama Iqbal Open University and the Course Development Coordinator along with course development team are grateful to the writers and publishers of Chemistry books for adopting their books and materials, internet for providing useful information regarding Chemistry, and reference materials for the development of the course of Chemistry -III for B.Ed. Science Education. All are specially acknowledged whose information and material have been quoted in the course that Allama Iqbal Open University is a non- commercial educational University in Pakistan which is providing educational facilities to under-privileged remote rural areas through distance and non-formal mode. It is a matter of pleasure for Department of Science Education and AIOU to acknowledge all those whose efforts and hard work make it possible to frame content of this book. Committee of courses tried her best to make necessary changes and then approved the content of this course. Highly acknowledged members of CoC Prof. Dr. Rizwan Akram Rana, Dr. Muhammad Idrees, Dr. Hafiz Athar Khan, Dr. Fazal Ur Rahman, Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer, Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal, Dr. Aftab Ahmed, Ms. Saima Kashif and Mr. Arshad Mehmood Qamar. My special thanks to Dr. Aftab Ahmed, Course Development Coordinator, who got the approval of Course Team. I acknowledge the writers and reviewers for a speedy write-up and review of the units efficiently. I also acknowledge the team of AP&CP, editor, lay out designer, composer and producer for giving their input to make this book more beautiful. Our PPU team is very cooperative and helpful for publishing the book. Finally, I acknowledge all those who in one way or the other put their efforts for completion of this task. Prof. Dr. Nasir Mehmood Chairman/ Dean Faculty of Education 5 OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE After completing this course, you will be able to: explain the behaviour of Organic Compounds. explain the saturated and unsaturated Hydrocarbons. understand the formal introduction of Functional Groups. elaborate the Alkyl Halides and Aromatic Hydrocarbons. explain the interconversion of various functional groups. describe the Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers, etc. differentiate various types of Stereoisomerism 6 CONTENTS Unit 1: The Nature of Covalent Bond 1 Unit 2: Basic Concepts of Organic Chemistry 31 Unit 3: Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes) 63 Unit 4: Unsaturated Hydrocarbons-I (Alkenes) 83 Unit 5: Unsaturated Hydrocarbons-II (Alkynes) 101 Unit 6: Alkyl Halides 121 Unit 7: Chemistry of Hydroxyl Group Containing Compounds and Ethers 139 Unit 8: Aromatic Hydrocarbons 191 Unit 9: Stereoisomerism 229 7 UNIT 1 THE NATURE OF COVALENT BOND Written By: Dr. Farzana Shaheen Reviewed By: Dr. Aftab Ahmed 8 CONTENTS Introduction 10 Objectives 11 1.1 Atomic Structure, Atomic Orbital and Molecular Orbital 12 1.2 Hybridization of Atomic Model 13 1.3 Shape of the Molecules, Bond Angles, Bond Lengths, and Bond Energies 16 1.4 Ionic Character of Covalent Bond 19 1.5 Inductive Effects 22 1.6 Dipole Moment 25 9 Introduction A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding. For many molecules, the sharing of electrons allows each atom to attain the equivalent of a full outer shell, corresponding to a stable electronic configuration. In organic chemistry, covalent bonds are much more common than ionic bonds. The simplest example of bonding can be demonstrated by the H2 molecule. We can see from the periodic table that each hydrogen atom has a single electron. If 2 hydrogen atoms come together to form a bond, then each hydrogen atom effectively has a share in both electrons and thus each resembles a noble gas and is more stable. The 2 electrons that are shared can be represented either by 2 dots or a single dash between the atoms. Valence bond theory describes a chemical bond as the overlap of atomic orbitals. In the case of the hydrogen molecule, the 1s orbital of one hydrogen atom overlaps with the 1s orbital of the second hydrogen atom to form a molecular orbital called a sigma bond. Attraction increases as the distance between the atoms gets closer but nuclear-nuclear repulsion becomes important if the atoms approach too close. In the molecule H2, the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent bonding. Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativities. Thus, covalent bonding does not necessarily require that the two atoms be of the same elements, only that they be of comparable electronegativity. Covalent bonding that entails sharing of electrons over more than two atoms is said to be delocalized. There are a number of theories to describe chemical bonding including Valance Bond Theory and Molecular Orbital Theory. In both cases the theory attempts to rationalize the geometry of a molecule based on how the bonds form. In both cases the idea of a chemical bond results from two (or more) atoms "sharing" electrons between them to complete the valance shell octet of the atom (i.e. a covalent bond). The atoms can share electrons when the atomic orbitals interact with each other, overlapping to produce a common orbital shared by both atoms and containing two electrons. The strength of the interaction between two orbitals depends on: The relative energies of the two atomic orbitals which will combine to form the new "bonding" orbital. The closer the two atomic orbitals energies are to start, the stronger the interaction. 10 The degree of overlap between two orbitals. For the two atomic orbitals to form a new bonding orbital they must merge together to form a common volume for the two electrons to share. Due to their relative shapes two "s" orbitals can overlap to a greater extent than two "p" orbitals.
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