JOURNAL of HISTORY and MILITARY STUDIES [JHMS] Copyright © the Author(S), 2019 Volume 5(1): ISSN (Print): 2536-6726 ISSN (Online): 2734-388X Page: 1-29

The Development of Military History in the Nigerian Defence Academy and the Study of the Nigerian Civil War*

*Ozinna Tochukwu Ntukogu & Otuu Vincent Uhere**

Abstract From 1968, publications on the Nigerian Civil War have continued to reel out, adding to the plethora of the already existing ones. Some of these works were written by the participants of the war, some by observers/ journalists, and some by literary artists. No doubt, most of these works are rich in their own contents. However, in assessing these existing literature on the war, this paper finds out that most of the operational aspects of the war have been miss- ing. The paper advances that while most of the existing literature dwell on the causes and effects of the war on the society, the few authors who gave operational accounts were jaun- diced by subjective biases in their writings. The paper then argues that this situation is as a result of dormancy of the study of military history in Nigeria since independence. Hence, this sterility caused that for about 45 years after the war ended, the Nigerian Civil War kept beg- ging for the intervention of professional military historians in its study. However, the answer- ing of this clarion call by the Nigerian Defence Academy has begun to narrow this obvious gap in Nigeria’s military history by documenting and objectively historicizing the military campaigns as well as critically analysing the operations of the war, unveiling new truths about the war and opening up new frontiers in the study of the Nigerian Civil War. Drawing information from primary and secondary sources of data, the paper adopts a thematic approach and a qualitative method of historical research.

Key Words: Development, Military History, Study, Nigerian Defence Academy, Nigerian Civil War

Introduction

*Aspects of this paper have been discussed in an earlier study Corresponding Authors: *Department of History and War Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna. **Center for the Study of Leadership and Complex Military Operations, Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna. Journal of History and Military Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, Dec. 2019

Prior to the introduction of Military History in the Nigerian Defence Academy Postgradu- ate School, various studies have been carried out on the Nigerian Civil War. However, most of the studies seem to be interrogating the causes of the war and some of them have been on the effects of the war on the society. Just a few of these studies dwell on the course of the war and these few works seem to have been written from the subjective perspectives of the war participants themselves. This development therefore, has left a big question mark on the extent to which such works can be relied upon. This is why Jeremy Black maintains that most of the literature on African conflict are not written by historians at all and as such, they are ahistorical in methodology and style.1 This view is shared by Ukpabi who laments on the unworthiness of participants’ war memoirs. He argues that a lot of personal prejudices lead to biases that end up undermining the worthiness of their personal accounts of the war.2

At a glance, it appears obvious that the above fate has been bedevilling the operational accounts given by the Nigerian Civil War veterans themselves. As far as the discipline of military history is concerned, those accounts lack the objective touch of the military historian. Hence, the credibility of such works remains questionable. However, that does not establish the fact that such works cannot be referred to by the military historian in the professional historical reconstruction of the war. Hence, such works still serve as part of the raw materials with which the military historian produces his craft. That is why Black suggests that such works are not entirely unimportant even though they are more of commercial in character and not academic in nature.3

The above situation explains why the cause and outcome of the war have been well discussed by scholars. However, the course of the war has suffered serious scholarly neglect. The first aspect, which is the cause and outcome, is well known because its theme allows for invasion from other disciplines like the social sciences. The reason is that the cause of the war would allow the engagement of other disciplines in the discussion of such theme. This is why Umoh argues that the nature of military history allows social science disciplines such as political science and defence studies to intrude into pure arts disciplines such as military history in particular.4 Hence, such situation helped to popularize this theme and made it well known. However, the course of the war which appears to be more difficult because of the technicalities of battle analysis seems to have been totally abandoned. This is because, once the reconstruction of battles is involved, the professional military historian with the requisite knowledge and craft will be needed since “military historians more than any other, have to create order out of chaos.”5 Also, being that military history treats warfare in all its ramifications, the obligation of comprehending all the technical and other array of elements associated with war then lies as an onus on the trained military historian. Hence, the operational aspect of the war was abandoned and left as an exclusive domain

2 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY) The Development of Military History… of the Nigerian Civil War O. T. Ntukogu & O. V. Uhere of the military historian who alone, possesses the craft with which such themes can be interrogated.

Since Military History emerged as one of the postgraduate programmes of the then De- partment of History and International Studies (HIS) now History and War Studies (HWS) in the Nigerian Defence Academy (NDA), most of the trained military historians of the De- partment began to venture into the reconstruction of Nigeria’s military history. With such a scenario, the Nigerian Civil War presented itself as a platform for scholarly historical engagement. Since then, lots of scholarly studies have been done in the institution unveiling the unknown aspects of the war and finding new facts. It is against this background that this paper examines the Nigerian Civil War studies which have been carried out by scholars in the Department of History and war Studies of the Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna since the introduction of military history in the NDA Postgraduate school curriculum.

The Study of the Nigerian Civil War before the Introduction of Military History in the Ni- gerian Defence Academy Literature on the Nigerian Civil War started appearing from 1968. One interesting fact about the pre-1970 Nigerian Civil War publications is that most of them were written by foreign authors who were more interested in the humanitarian implications of the war. However, some local authors also wrote about the war before the war ended. The works of the local authors include Egbuna’s The Murder of Nigeria (1968), Chinua Achebe’s Future Lies in a Progressive Biafra (1968), Ojukwu’s Biafra: Selected Speeches with Journal of Events and Biafra: Random Thoughts6 both published in 1969, A. Nwankwo’s and Ifejika’s The Mak- ing of a Nation (1969), Nnamdi Azikiwe’s Origin of the Nigerian Civil War (1969), and a few more. The works of the foreign authors include W. Schwarz’s Nigeria (1968), Graham- Douglas’ and B. Nabo’s Ojukwu’s Rebellion and World Opinion (1968), G. Birch and St. George’s Biafra: The Case for Independence (1968), H. G Hansbury’s Biafra: A Challenge to the Conscience of Britain (1968), M. Dent’s The Military and Political Process in Nigeria, 1966- 1968 (1968), F. Forsyth’s The Biafra Story (1969), Captain Armand’s Biafra Viancra (1969), Carl Von Rosen’s Le Ghetto Biafrais tel que je l’ai connu (1969), Auberon’s and Cronje’s Bia- fra: Britain’s Shame (1969), J. Wolf’s and C. Brovelli’s Le Guerre des Lapaces: La Verite sur la Guerre du Biafra (1969), R. Alain’s Biafra: Naissance d’une Nation? (1969),7 etcetera.

After the end of the war in 1970, the first 20 years that followed witnessed series of publications on the war by both local and foreign authors. Nevertheless, emphasis will not be placed on these works produced in the first 20 years because, most of the Nigerian Civil War books published from 1968 to 1989 have received adequate scholarly review in Osun- tokun’s chapter published in Ukpabi’s co-edited book of 19898. That said, it is pertinent to mention that apart from foreign publications of the war, local authors who wrote on the

Journal of History and Military Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, Dec. 2019 war were mainly war participants who fought in the war. The reason being that military history writing was perceived as an exclusive preserve of serving or ex-military men in Ni- geria during that period. As a result, such view is believed to have succeeded in discourag- ing young historians from venturing into the writing of military history. This, consequently, left the documentation of the history of the Nigerian armed forces in the hands of the Nigerian military institution only.9 But the high level of illiteracy among the veterans that fought the war continued to militate against the documentation of the war and then contributed to the scarcity of reliable source materials.10

A similar factor that has contributed to the paucity of source materials on the operational aspect of the war could be the sensitive nature of the theme. This reason could have in- formed the facts of participants that wrote on the war. Such writers would likely maintain high level of carefulness in dishing out facts so as not to raise issues that may either bring controversy either to their person or the forces they fought on their side during the war.11 Confirming this deliberate step was a former Biafran soldier who recounted how the Bia- fran officers and men were ordered to destroy all documents and records of the war as soon as the war ended.12 All these were in a bid to bury evidences that may not favour the fighting forces or implicate the commanders in the near future. In such processes, historical facts were buried along and the result of such deliberate acts is the paucity of source materials with which the military historian will study the operational aspects of the war.

On the other side of literature, most fiction writers who created works of fiction about the civil war in the first twenty years after the war ended, had their works published abroad. The place of publication and the fictionalization of the civil war events were partly caused by the successive military regimes in Nigeria which could not have allowed an objective discussion of the issues of the civil war. In that regard, an informant averred that everything about the war was an anathema since the same group of people who played pivotal roles in the war still occupied the political space for more than 20 years after the war ended.13 Consequently, since Nigerian and Biafran fiction writers in diaspora were out of the reach of the military juntas in Nigeria, they embarked on publishing their books abroad. Among such works were Chukwuemeka Ike’s Sunset at Dawn, Eddie Iroh’s Forty Guns for the General, Wole Soyinka’s The Man Died, Buchi Emecheta’s Destination Biafra, Ken Sarowiwa’s Sozaboy, John Pepper Clark’s Casualties, Chinua Achebe’s Girls at War and Other Stories,14 etcetera. Same was the case with literary giants who wrote in native Nige- rian languages about the war. Tony Ubesie who published two books about the war in Igbo language also published abroad. Ubesie’s Isi Akwu Dara N’ala15 (1973) and Juo Obinna16 (1977) which he published within the first two decades of the war fictitiously explore the experiences of the Biafran people during and after the war. However, one common fea- ture of all these publications is that most of the works centre their discussions on the causes and effects of the war on the people.

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It could be said that another factor that militated against the operational study of the war at that time was the prominence of the political and social branches of history as against the military aspect. Since political and social history were more popular than military history at that time, the political and social history of the war received more attention while military history, which has the operational study of the war in its domain was jettisoned. Since the topic was also very sensitive, a lot of operational information were still being hidden as the experiences of the war were still fresh in the memories and as such, discuss- ing some pertinent issues of the war could trigger violence again. In this regard, C. Osakwe agrees that “such rekindling could most likely threaten the nascent national security which was then conceptualized for the most part as military regime security.”17

All these hindered the development of military history in Nigeria and impeded the operational study of the Nigerian Civil War. Since the contents of the civil war literature that surfaced in the first 20 years after the war mostly emphasised same aspects of the war, leaving a major aspect which is the operational account of the war; these set of literature therefore, could be said to have only succeeded in re-inventing the wheel. Hence, one may not be wrong to adduce that these set of literature were either generated by emotions or they were simply responding to the market opportunities of the familiar topic, or, they were fulfilling both purposes. For this reason, Osuntokun argues that the objective and scholarly accounts of the war is lacking in literature; and he goes on to beckon on all the participants of the war to document their war experiences in writing either by themselves or through a contract writer.18

Conversely, it has been a harvest of civil war literature from 1990 to 2019 as lots of works on the Nigerian Civil War have surfaced between these years. These works include O. E. Okon’s Biafra War Revisited, Onyegbula’s The Nigerian-Biafran Bureaucrat, O. Mbachu’s Op- erations Research and Biafran Scientist, Philip Effiong’s Nigeria and Biafra, E. Okocha’s Blood on the Niger, L. S. Adamu’s Adamu Pankshin, E. Arene’s The Biafran Scientists, A. M. Adejo’s edited The Nigerian Civil War, Harneit-Seivers’, Ahazuem’s and Emezue’s co-edited A Social History of the Nigerian Civil War, O. Ogunsanwo’s General Yakubu Gowon, K. Maier’s This House Has Fallen, P. Obi-Ani’s Post-Civil War Political and Economic Reconstruction of Igbo land, O. E Osaghae’s, G. Alabi-Isama’s Tragedy of Victory, J. P. Dada’s The Federal Armed Forces in the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970, U. Faruk’s The Victors and the Vanquished of the Nigerian Civil War 1967-1970, E. Onwudiwe’s and R. T. Suberu’s co-edited The Nigerian Civil War and its Aftermath, A. Udenwa’s Nigeria/Biafra Civil War, A. Adekunle’s The Nigerian- Biafra War Letters, C. Achebe’s There Was a Country, K. Russell’s The Nigerian Civil War, Nnamdi Ebo’s, There Was a Time, M. Siollun’s Oil, Politics and Violence19 among others.

Journal of History and Military Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, Dec. 2019

More in this category include S. Bird’s and F. Ottanelli’s The Asaba Massacre, T. Enuwe’s Biafran War, A. Okpe’s The Last Flight, H. B. Momoh’s edited The Nigerian Civil War 1967- 1970, N. Chukwujindu’s Beckoned by Destiny, C. Korieh’s The Nigeria-Biafra War, J. Nwadike’s A Biafran Soldier’s Survival from the Jaws of Death, A. Uzokwe’s Surviving in Bia- fra, A. Atorafiti’s Nigerian Civil War, Causes, Strategies and Lessons Learnt, H. Ekwe-Ekwe’s The Biafra War, E. Ezeani’s In Biafra, Africa Died, L. Aneke’s The Untold Story of the Nigeria- Biafra War, P. Awuna’s The Nigeria-Biafra War (1967-1970), U. Anyanwu’s Perspectives on the Nigerian Civil War, G. Obiozor’s The United States and the Nigerian Civil War, R. Akraesh et.al’s First and Second Generation Impacts of the Biafran War, M. Echeruo’s Biafra, Civil War and Genocide,20 and others. On the part of fiction, some literary works of fiction that also surfaced in this era include C. Okparanta’s Under the Udala Trees, Seffi Attah’s Every- thing Good Will Come, Flora Nwapa’s Never Again, C. Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun,21 and a host of others. At this juncture, it is important to note that there are more civil war literature that were published in the 3rd, 4th, and 5th decades since the war ended; so this list is not exhaustive of all the civil war literature published in these decades.

A rather disturbing reality is the fact that among this long list of Nigerian Civil War publications, only a handful of authors have the operations of the war in their purview. The handful who documented the operations at all did so in a panegyric manner by documenting their personal contributions and praising their personal efforts in the war; such works ended up as eulogies of the major war participants.22 On the Biafran side, A. Madiebo’s The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War (1980)23, J. O Achuzia’s Requiem Biafra (1986)24 and some similar others are examples of such texts. While on the side of Nigeria, O. Obasanjo’s My Command (1980)25, G. Alabi-Isama’s Tragedy of Victory (2013)26 among others, represent the Nigerian side on this list of self-elevation.

In another thought, the revelation of some informants could be said to have relieved the enormity of the subjectivity and ahistorical blame on these authors. One of the informants argued that it is impossible for a commander to give a comprehensive and objective account of events in locations he did not operate. He stressed that the vastness of battle- grounds even makes it difficult for a commander to oversee all the events happening under his location and command.27 In agreement, another informant averred that due to the tenseness of battlefields, an embattled combatant is only interested in fighting and surviving and may not be able to watch the activities of other soldiers who are in the same location with him or give account of their actions; So, soldiers would only be able to give accounts of their personal experiences in any battle they featured in.28 Hence, this is why the craft of the military historian is needed in the recreation of battles and the documentation of the operations of war. That notwithstanding, these works cannot be totally ig- nored as they all fulfilled their purpose in their own period.

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Consequently, a rather awkward but not surprising antecedent developed as this plethora of publications surfaced. This development is in the form of conviction among scholars that the Nigerian Civil War has been completely studied. Among the body of the Nigerian academia, there was this feeling of satisfaction that there was nothing more to study about the Nigerian Civil War; and for this reason, any attempt to study the civil war was greeted with disapproving questions since it was believed that there was virtually nothing new to learn about the war. What the proponents of this view did not understand was that even with the enormity of these afore mentioned publications of the Nigerian Civil War, the war was still grossly understudied. Although the Department of HWS, NDA has taken up the quest to embark on the hitherto neglected operational aspects of the war, some other constituents of the war still remain untouched by scholars.29

The reason for the above claim is that war is very dynamic as it manifests differently in different locations where it is fought or felt. Wars have different aspects with peculiarities in time and place. For the Nigerian Civil War, as different strategies, tactics, weapons, commanders and their men, etcetera were used to prosecute the war, so were the experiences and the events of the war different in various locations where the war impacted directly or indirectly. Hence, as no war could be said to have been completely studied if all the aspects of the war and their peculiarities with respect to time and locations are not ex- hausted in the tradition of academic study; the Nigerian Civil War cannot be said to have been completely studied until all the events of the war are studied alongside their similar- ities, differences and peculiarities.30 As this gap in the knowledge and scholarship of the Nigerian Civil War has been identified, the study of military history in the Department of History and War Studies of NDA has been extensively interrogating issues of the Nigerian Civil War with special attention on the hitherto neglected operational aspects of the war.

Department of History and War Studies NDA, Military History and the Study of the Nige- rian Civil War It is of no doubt that the military history of every nation is an integral part of every nation’s national experience. As an organized memory bank, nations draw their lessons from this history which when they fail to do, is capable of jeopardizing the past, present and the future of any nation.31 Recognizing this pivotal importance of military history in any nation, when the postgraduate programme was launched in the Nigerian Defence Academy in 2005, Military History was as well inaugurated in MA and PhD programmes by the Depart- ment of History and International Studies (HIS).32 So, in a bid to resuscitate the study of military history in Nigeria, the academic process of training young and professional military historians commenced in earnest in the Department. This is not surprising as it is only a matter of fatal conjecture that history and historians without difficulty can respectively be

Journal of History and Military Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, Dec. 2019 substituted with the designations of ‘military history’ and ‘military historians’ in a military institution like the NDA.33

Often times, it is difficult to separate military history from the thought about war34 and for this reason, most of the MA and PhD students of the Department then began to interro- gate the Nigerian Civil with a view to bridging the bourgeoning gap in the knowledge of the war especially in the operational aspect. It is said that once the study of the Nigerian Civil War is well handled, both military personnel and civilians in Nigeria will benefit immensely from it because the war is the first modern war fought by Nigerians on their own.35 Hence, there is no gainsaying that the choice of studying the Nigerian Civil War by the budding military historians of the NDA is very important.

There is a common belief that military history is limited to operational accounts of wars; however, there is more to military history than just that. Military history also studies technology used in war, logistics in war, social and cultural implications of war, strategy, tactics, leadership and other aspects and constituents of war.36 Hence, the students of the department of HIS commenced further interrogation of the Nigerian Civil War from the different aspects of military history. But, in a bid to document the operational aspects of the war most of the studies concentrate on the course of the war which is said to be on “the gamut of battles and in the domain of tactics and techniques at the ‘boot level’ of analysis.”37 As a result, some of the studies in the department examine the technical arm of the war while some embody the strategic and tactical analysis of the war operations.

Again, military history has a way of de-militarizing warfare. It does so by establishing a link between war and the society. This is so because there is no part of the society that war does not touch.38 As military historians find it difficult to ignore the strong connections between war and the human society, the war and society approach also became a fashionable way of studying military history. That is why a common aspect of the studies carried by the budding NDA military historians is a de-militarized analysis of the war. By studying the impact of the war on the various areas of research, these scholars arrive at the socio-economic and political analysis of the war in their geographical scope.

At that early stage however, the infancy of the academic programmes in the Department of HIS as well as the limited knowledge of the department’s traditional historians in military history since they were not originally trained professional military historians, made the training of the young military historians difficult. The only resident self-made military historians in the department as at that 2005 were Professor A. E Ekoko and Professor S. C Ukpabi, who had either retired or transferred their services.39 According to Umoh, the only professionally trained military historian on the department’s staff list joined the department only in 2011. His name is Chukwuma Osakwe, a US-trained military historian.40 Nev- ertheless, the situation was not entirely helpless since the rest of the existing staff of the

8 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY) The Development of Military History… of the Nigerian Civil War O. T. Ntukogu & O. V. Uhere department not only possessed the professional craft of the traditional historian but had been engaging such basic skills in the teaching of military history courses in the 5-year Reg- ular Combatant Officer Undergraduate Programme before 2005.41

Yet, this obvious challenge could be said to have slowed down the production process as it took quite some years of fervent academic training for the first set of military historians to be produced by the Department. In 2010, Bulus Nom Audu, Ashiru Sani and Emmanuel Eyeh completed the first three MA theses in military history under the department of HIS.42 The following year which was 2011, Timothy Agbor who was supervised by Professor Abiola Lipede also completed the first PhD dissertation in Military History under the department.43 However, the commencement of studies on the Nigerian Civil War took off in the Department of HIS in 2014 when three M.A theses were written on the war. Ever since, the department has continued recording at least a study on an aspect of the Nigerian Civil War every year. These studies will subsequently be discussed in the paper.

P. I Orji’s work on weaponry in the Nigerian Civil War is among the first set of theses produced by the students of the department on the war. It is true that engagement with conflict is a very fashionable approach to military history44 but weaponry also plays a very crucial role in all wars. Studies in military history advance that the side with a better weapons system renders more casualties against the other side with a weaker system; hence it is needless to say that weapons, to a reasonable extent, help to determine the outcome of battles or war. In the case of the Nigerian Civil War, both Nigeria and Biafra were not adequately equipped to wage the war when the war broke out. So, they both turned to the outside world for weapons of war. Biafra, which suffered economic blockade mounted by the Federal side and suffered limited recognition in the international scene, could not only depend on foreign powers for weapons of war but also turned inwards to produce some war machineries and weapons to augment whatever they could get from the outside world.

Hence, all the weapons used by the belligerents to prosecute the war are discussed in Orji’s work. Such weapons include riffles, armoured vehicles, explosives (including foreign and locally made improvised explosive devices), booby traps, infantry equipment, naval and air war machines and equipments. The work not only describes the deployment of the weapons in various battles of the war but also brings to lime light, their countries of origin. The work is also replete with pictorial representations of the weapons to give the readers a sense of what the weapons looked like. Orji submits that the weapons system of the Federal side was comparatively better than that of Biafra and this, to a very large extent, decided the outcome of the war.45

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In 2014 also, R. I Ibu’s M.A thesis titled “The Nigerian Civil War in Ogoja Province: Opera- tions and Impact, 1967-1970”46, analyses the course of the war in Ogoja province. Ogoja was among the first to witness the war but prior to this study, little had been done on the military campaigns in this area. This could be as a result of its early fall to the Federal troops but such an obvious gap was narrowed by Ibu’s study on the area. The work is an account of the military campaigns in the Ogoja province including Garkem, Obudu, Ikom, Ugep, Oban and Obubra. Also, military engagements of the officers and men of 1 Division and 3rd Marine Commando Division of the Federal Army who were tasked with capturing this area are analysed. Since military history requires at all times, the assessment of the factors contributing to the successes or losses in battles,47 the work as well addresses the factors that influenced the battles in the Ogoja province. According to the findings of the study, operational and tactical faults, absence of local support, poor intelligence, lack of war machineries, etcetera not only undermined Biafran efforts in the area but also led to the fall of the province to the Federal troops. At the end, an appraisal of the socio-economic and political impact and effects of the war on the lives of the Ogoja people is given by the work.

Another research carried out on the Nigerian Civil War in the department in 2014 is N. J Odoh’s M.A thesis. This work is a major contribution in the field of war and society as it assesses the impact of the civil war on a location in Northern Nigeria. Prior to this study, earlier degree research studies in universities since the end of the war have focused on the communities of the former Biafra where the war was fought. For instance, the works of C. U Nwalu,48 O. E Onah,49 N. J Ibeh,50 C. Kanu-Oji,51 P. N Ezeh,52 J. O Okafor53 and the likes constitute this group. But interestingly, Odoh’s study serves as an alternative narra- tive to the popular view as it adopts a variant approach to analyse the impact of the war on Zaria, a location in the Northern part of Nigeria. Before the war broke out, people of Eastern Region of Nigeria migrated and lived in different parts of the country. So, when the war erupted, as it affected the lives of the Biafrans in different locations in Nigeria, so did it affect the locations and the people they lived with in these other regions. This means that the war not only affected former Biafran territories but also, territories considered as Nigerian territories during the war. Odoh’s geographical scope of Zaria is just an example of such a non-Biafran location that directly felt the ripple effects of the war.

The pogroms of 1966 on one hand severed the cordial relationship that had existed between the Igbo and the indigenous people of Zaria since the pre-colonial times.54 Hence, the massive population shift caused by not only the mass exodus of the Igbo from Zaria, but also the massive recruitment of Zaria men for war caused a serious shift in the population density of Zaria. Just as able-bodied men were recruited in Biafra for war and many never returned, same was the case in Zaria.55 As such the economy of Zaria was conse-

10 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY) The Development of Military History… of the Nigerian Civil War O. T. Ntukogu & O. V. Uhere quently affected as jobs, shops, and businesses previously managed by Igbo people col- lapsed. It took time for good native replacements to be found for these positions. As events played out differently in Zaria during and after the war, the work advances that wars play out in different locations in different ways. Hence, instead of seizing the abandoned property of the Igbo like the case in Rivers after the war, the Care Taker Committee which oversaw property owned by the Igbo in Zaria still returned those property back to their Igbo owners when they returned after the war.56

In 2015, L. O Udeagbala’s PhD dissertation was written on the role of the Navy during the war. Before this study, most of the existing literature were silent on the contributions of the navy as an arm of the military during the war. But, this study focuses on the naval campaigns of both the Nigerian and the Biafran Navies. Udeagbala’s extensive analysis of this arm of the military in the war then unveils a comprehensive understanding of the naval aspect of the Nigerian Civil War. Being that the coastal areas of the southern sector har- boured the highest oil installations during the war, the southern axes were so strategic because whoever controlled this sector controlled the most potential source of revenue in the war.57

Hence, as the two sides struggled to gain the control of this strategic location, the work discusses the naval engagements in this sector between Nigeria and Biafra. In that light, the work gives an assessment of the littoral campaigns at Port Harcourt, Onitsha and the Oguta axes. It also discusses other naval operations of the two navies in other parts of the southern sector like the Calabar Campaign (Operation Tiger Claw), Bonny operation, the Mid-West Operation, and Operation Sea Jack. Although the roles of the two navies in the war are discussed, but after considering the undaunted efforts of the Nigerian Navy in enforcing the economic blockade, their roles in the clearing and landing of Federal troops as well as the capturing and securing of many locations including the oil rich regions of the south, Udeagbala concludes in the work that Federal victory in the war could be attributed to the efforts of the Nigerian Navy58

The following year in 2016, another new study in an aspect of the war was carried out by U. J. Ugi. In this study, he carried out an extensive humanitarian study of the war. The pogrom of 1966 had lots of Easterners returning to the eastern part of Nigeria. The num- bers were so large that the Eastern region was already battling with economic crisis before the war broke out in 1967.59 So, when the war eventually came, there was a more massive displacement of people and more refugees to manage in Biafra; hence, the work focuses on the management of the refugee crisis in Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War. Amidst various methodological challenges, the study establishes that Biafra is an archetype for the study of refugees in war crisis and its findings outline different categories of refugees

Journal of History and Military Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, Dec. 2019 that existed in Biafra during the war. They included the refugee-recruits, refugee-casualties, encamped refugees, adventurers, stragglers, unaccompanied children, psychologi- cally displaced, ethnic displaced, bush-lurking groups, returnees, elite refugees, war-relo- cated, etcetera.60

The work further discusses how the various categories of refugees were created in the war and how they were being managed throughout the war years in Biafra. Ugi argues that both Bafran and Nigerian governments organized relief programmes to cater for these refugees but during the war, only about 3,000 refugee camps existed in Biafra to carter for about 4.6 million refugees in the region.61 The study also discusses the roles of the international humanitarian agencies which stepped in as the situation worsened due to the effects of the economic blockade on Biafra. In the end, the work suggests that to tackle humanitarian crisis in conflict such as the Nigerian Civil War, there should be a legally recognized international refugee humanitarian rules in all parts of the world which belligerents should meet before going into any war.62

As the study of military history gained more grounds in the department with a lot of studies on the war coming out yearly, there was a change of the department’s nomenclature to capture the peculiarity of the institution and befittingly reflect the core mandate of the NDA in 2016. So, by the second half of the year 2016, the name of the department was changed from History and International Studies (HIS) to History and War Studies (HWS).63

Under this new nomenclature, Ezeobi Stanley’s 2016 M.A thesis became the first thesis that was produced in the department. His thesis focuses on the Oguta area during the Nigerian Civil war; this area is located in today’s Imo State. The strategic importance of this area during the war lied not only in the importance of its naval channels which meant a lot to Biafra’s logistic support, but also in the area’s proximity to a Biafran heartland Owerri and the Uli airstrip which was the most viable line of communication between Biafra and the rest of the world. So, capturing this area for the Federal troops was very important while the Biafran command gave all it had to defend this location because losing this location could lead to the strangulation of entire Biafra.64 As a result, the pitched military engagements that took place in this area involving the three arms of service ae discussed in Ezeobi’s work. He establishes that the Federal troops lost a lot of men and equipment in this location due to lack of local support, adequate intelligence and poor knowledge of the terrain. The work submits that the difficulties orchestrated by the war reformed all aspects of life of the Oguta people especially in the reduction of the pride and laziness of Oguta people who prior to the war, felt that some means of livelihood were too meagre for them.65

In the following year, 2017, Ubong Ituen completed another study of the Nigerian Civil War in Ibibioland located in today’s Cross-River State. Since this location served as a gateway

12 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY) The Development of Military History… of the Nigerian Civil War O. T. Ntukogu & O. V. Uhere into the Biafran capital city of Umuahaia, the area recorded a lot of combat face-offs between Nigerian and Biafran forces. As a result, Ituen’s work assesses the different battles fought in the Uyo and Ikot-Ekpene axes during the war. According to the study, Biafra suffered a lot of sabotage in the hands of the local population of this area because the locals feared that the Biafrans would not only institute some form of internal economic imperialism in the area but would also treat them with harshness if they emerged victori- ous in the war.66 Already, there were some traces of distrust and dehumanizing punish- ments meted out on the natives of the area by Biafran troops on any slightest allegation of sabotage.67 This factor greatly marred Biafran war efforts in this area.

Also, the work records that although Biafran forces were ill-prepared, they held their defence for some time but the efforts of the Nigerian Air Force and Navy led to the fall of the area and the capturing of Uyo, Annang, Ikot-Ekpene and their environs.68 The work submits that while operational and strategic blunders led to the defeat of the Biafran forces in this axis, the subversive roles played by the local populace contributed immensely to the victory of the Federal forces in this area. In the end, Ituen concludes that the war left negative and positive impact on Ibibioland. Highlighting some of the negative impact like the social vices introduced by the war, the study argues that the war did not only raise the political consciousness of the people but also brought some breakthroughs in the local medicine of the people.69

In the same year 2017, O. Odunze completed another study on the technological backbone of the Biafran war efforts. This work introduced quite a unique approach to the study of the Nigerian Civil War in the department. It is a common practice for military historians to channel their attention on the course of battles. This is why J. Black laments that attention is mostly given to battles and weapons, neglecting other machinery and systems of war which are important in other aspects of war like logistics and communications.70 In that regard, Odunze’s study narrows a huge gap in the study of the Nigerian Civil War. Although both Nigeria and Biafra lacked the equipment with which to wage the war when the war started; however, Biafra’s situation was worse because of the excruciating effects of the economic blockade mounted by the Federal side as well as the politics of recognition going on in the international arena. Biafra was left with no option than to turn inward to locally produce all she needed to prosecute and survive the war.

This development gave birth to the Research and Production (RAP) Unit which undertook all the local productions in Biafra throughout the war. In this study, Odunze examines the activities and contributions of the Unit in the Nigerian Civil War. According to her findings, the RAP unit was made up of three major departments, namely: the Chemical Unit, the

Journal of History and Military Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, Dec. 2019

Biological Unit and the Engineering Unit.71 The RAP unit constituted of technical profes- sionals, students, university lecturers, scientist, etcetera. The unit produced both war and non-war materials. Some of the war materials produced by the RAP unit include the popular ogbunigwe and other explosives like the napalm and thermite bombs as well as Mol- otov cocktails. Others include the much revered Biafran armoured tanks known as the ‘Red Devil’, some booby traps like the foot cutter and the rest. The study discusses how these materials were produced and how they were applied in the war to pursue the Bia- fran cause. Odunze concludes in this work that at the end of the war, the Federal government of Nigeria did not put in enough effort to develop the technological innovation of the Biafran RAP Unit.72

Conversely, most of the earlier reviewed works have all dwelt on the impact and operational accounts of the war. However, there are other events that contribute to the development of wars which serve as components and constituents of such wars and are also worthy of discussion in the study of wars. That is why Umoh maintains that the central focus of military history is not only on war but also on its components and constituents.73 In the light of that, J. G Joseph’s 2018 study of the war discusses some other components and constituents of the war by focusing on the international dimension of the Nigerian Civil War. There is no gainsaying that a war as complex as the Nigerian Civil War can only be fully comprehended when intervening foreign interests are also studied. That is why this work focuses on the nature and dynamics of the roles played by the international community in the war and how they contributed to the outcome of the war. Since the two sides of the war lacked the adequate capability to prosecute the war, it seemed that the fate of the belligerents laid in the hands of foreign nations which were looked upon for moral and material support. In turn, the foreign powers looked at the war from different prisms of their vested national and strategic interests.

While USA claimed to have had more of humanitarian interest in the war, Britain who had colonial ties with Nigeria supported the Federal side so as to protect her economic interest. The Soviet Union on the other hand saw the war as an opportunity to bring her com- munist influence into West Africa. Ireland which had her priests all over Nigerian and Biafra at the time felt a spiritual connection with the war while Haiti’s cultural and historical affinities with the Igbo also guided her interest in the war. Israel’s interest was also drawn to the war as a result of the Biafran propaganda which echoed genocide and reminded the Jews of their Holocaust experience in Nazi Germany.74 The study also discusses the undaunted roles of various humanitarian and international organisations in the war. Such organisations include the Joint-Church Aid, the International Committee of Red Cross (ICRC), Caritas International, the United Nations (UN), the Commonwealth, and the Or- ganisation of African Unity (OAU), etcetera. The study argues that the position of the OAU and its members made it difficult for the Biafran secession to succeed despite the little

14 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY) The Development of Military History… of the Nigerian Civil War O. T. Ntukogu & O. V. Uhere support she got from some African countries.75 The study concludes that, contrary to the famous claim that, public opinion guides the national interests of world’s best democra- cies, the strategic national interests of nations are mostly guided by political and economic interests and not the popularly acclaimed humanitarian reasons or the religious, cultural and historical affinities as presented by nations.76

In the same year 2018, J. U Akpe wrote his M.A thesis on the course and impact of the Nigerian Civil War on Oron area. Oron offered great strategic advantage to any of the warring sides that controlled it because it was a gateway into other coastal areas like Uyo, Eket and Calabar. Hence the land, air and naval engagements between the two sides for the control of this strategic location are discussed in this work. Biafra later lost this location to the Federal side because the Federal side gained air and naval superiority over the Biafran forces. Another factor that made Biafra lose Oron was the case with most of the coastal regions where Biafra always lacked local support and faced sabotage among the local populace.77 In the end, Akpe submits that despite the negative impact of the war on the people of Oron, it also raised the self and political consciousness of the people, brought about advancements in areas of medicine and technology and also exposed the people more to education.78

The year 2019 recorded yet another major study of the Nigerian Civil War in the department. The year saw the completion of a PhD dissertation on the course of the Nigerian Civil War as well the wartime and post-war experiences of Afikpo people in the Afikpo area. Afikpo was very strategic in the war because it was a gateway into the new Biafran capital in Umuahia after the fall of Enugu. Secondly, Afikpo was a food producing area that contributed to the sustenance of the Biafran struggle in the face of the devastating economic blockade mounted against Biafra. With such strategic importance, Afikpo location became one of the fronts in Biafra that recorded combat operations and military face-offs between the forces of the warring parties. Hence, Itiri’s study analyses the military campaigns that took place in the Afikpo area. Since Afikpo share common river boundaries with some Cross River communities who were already under the control of the Federal forces, Afikpo became susceptible to Federal attacks.

When the Federal troops invaded Afikpo, it happened through the Afikpo communities that shared a common boundary with Cross River. Those communities from where Afikpo was invaded include Unwana, Ndibe and Ozizza. The work further discusses the battles as the war progressed to Akpoha, Amasiri, Ammangwu, Owutu, Ekoli and Nguzu. According to Itiri’s study, Biafra lost Afikpo due to tactical mistakes that bordered on lack of military preparedness. Such a tactical flaw kept haunting the Biafran forces in Afikpo area to the point that when the Federal troops ran out of support to sustain their gains, the Biafran

Journal of History and Military Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, Dec. 2019 forces still could not take advantage of that situation.79 The study argues that the war had both positive and negative impact on the people of Afikpo but its concluding part presents the immediate post-war Afikpo as a theatre of war after the civil war ended in 1970.80

In the same year, another study was carried out on the Nigerian Civil War by M Shuaibu. This M.A thesis focuses on the under-discussed issue of the war which scholars that have written extensively on the Mid-Western Invasion tend to neglect. The issue which the work discusses is the employment of irregular warfare in the Mid-West Region by both Biafran and Nigerian forces. This region was under the area of responsibility of the 2 Divi- sion Nigerian Army. This division which was a wartime creation was not professionally formed because of the urgency of the need to deploy its men to the field. For this reason, majority of the officers and men of the division lacked the professional and standard training required for conventional warfare. Hence, the battles of Agbor and Asaba as well as other parts of the Mid-West were characterized by irregularities as the tactics used in these areas were not in line with the rules of conventional warfare.81

Both sides did not follow the Rules of Engagement and Operational Code of Conducts as it should in a conventional war such as the Nigerian Civil War. This pattern of warfare did not only cost the Federal division a lot in men and materiele but also brought a lot of suf- fering to the people who were at the receiving end of the bitterness expressed by the embattled and frustrated soldiers from the two sides of the divide.82 The work concludes that the harsh effects the war situations, especially the brutality experienced by the local populace, left a long lasting psychological, political and socio-cultural impact on the people of Mid-West after the war.83

Furthermore, another study on the Nigerian Civil War was again completed in the department by O. T. Ntukogu in the same year, 2019. The M.A thesis focuses on the course of the war in Nsukka area which is located in the present Enugu State of Nigeria. Before this study, earlier discussions on Nsukka had neglected the operational accounts of the war in the area. Since this area was the first core Igbo location to witness the war, it fell very early before the war got to other parts of Biafra. This fact furnished the misconception among many that there were no military engagements in the area as such during the war. How- ever, battles fought in this area claimed lives of prominent actors of the war like Kaduna Nzeogwu, Tom Bigger (Ojukwu’s step-brother) and Christopher Okigbo, a well-known poet. The strategic importance of this area laid in its proximity to the first Biafran capital Enugu, its status as a food basket that was already contributing to the survival of Biafra and as a gateway to other Biafran food baskets like Abakaliki as well as other Biafran heart- lands. The study establishes that before the war got to the area, Nsukka natives felt secure and battle-ready because of the strong Biafran propaganda. But to their dismay, when the

16 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY) The Development of Military History… of the Nigerian Civil War O. T. Ntukogu & O. V. Uhere war erupted, the area was not well fortified as they were made to believe; and so, communities of Nsukka fell one after the other to the Federal troops that were stronger in force and weapons.84

The study discusses how Nsukka area was invaded by the Federal troops from three different axes at Okutu, Enugu-Ezike and Obollo/Orokam borders. These Nsukka communities are border communities bordering present day Kogi and Benue States which were considered Nigerian territories during the war. In analysing the various battles fought in this area, Ntukogu maintains that the area fell due to some strategic and tactical misad- ventures of the Biafran command. After the fall of the area, came the period of occupation by the Federal troops. This period was a period of harrowing experiences for the people of Nsukka area. The occupying Federal troops meted a lot of brutalities on the people of Nsukka during the time of occupation. However, this harsh relationship did not continue till the end of the occupation period because, the Federal troops began to mix with the local populace of the Nsukka area as the end of the war drew nearer.85 While assessing the impact of the war on the socio-economic, political and cultural lives of the Nsukka people, the study concludes that the war impacted on the area both positively and negatively but the negative impact of the war outweighed its positive impact.86

At the end of the war, the whole communities of former Biafra were in ruins. The sorry state of the defunct Biafran territory attracted a Federal government programme to reha- bilitate and reconstruct the territory as well as reconcile its people with the rest of Nigeria. However, most scholarly assessments of the 3R Programme (Reconciliation, Reconstruc- tion, and Rehabilitation) have all concluded that the programme was dead on arrival as it only did little to fulfil any of the Rs. Yet, the people recovered as though the programme worked. If the Biafran people picked up even after the programme failed, it means that there were obviously other recovery plans that have not found their way into popular literature of the Nigerian Civil War. In that regard, C. I. Okpara’s M.A thesis in the same year (2019) interrogates the recovery of the Afikpo people through other relief programmes since the Nigerian government’s 3Rs programme was not well-felt in Afikpo.87

Focusing on the rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes that took place in Afikpo after the war, the study maintains that the level of devastation and hardship in Biafra during the war attracted the attention of many humanitarian organisations. Some of these agencies include Oxford Famine Relief Organisation (OXFAM), World Council of Churches, (WCC), Caritas International, International Committee of Red Cross (ICRC), and Canair Re- lief Organisation (CRO), etcetera. After the war in Afikpo just like in other parts of the conquered Biafra, there were shortage of edibles including food, water, medical supplies, shelter and every other basic necessities of life.88 As a result, the deplorable state of the

Journal of History and Military Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, Dec. 2019

Afikpo people made some of the humanitarian agencies not to go back. Organisations such as Caritas International and the Joint Church Aid stayed back to contribute to the rehabilitation of the Afikpo people. Caritas International embarked on the distribution of various relief materials to Afikpo people at the Mater Misericordae Hospital which was built in the Afikpo area prior to the war. This intervention lasted till 1976 and the study submits that the war survivors in Afikpo will for a very long time, remain grateful to these humanitarian agencies for their good deeds.89

Currently, some other studies on the Nigerian Civil War are still under way in the department. A work such as R. I. Ibu’s “Air operations during the Nigerian Civil War” discusses impact of air power on the war by analysing air campaigns of the both Biafran and Nigerian Air Forces and the air operations of relief agencies. Also S. Uwakina’s PhD study is currently on the course and impact of the war in Aniomaland of present Delta State of Nigeria.

Again, there are series of other publications made by the department over the years which have studied different aspects of the Nigerian Civil War. The department has produced in 2017, a compendium90 of first-hand information on the Nigerian Civil War elicited from surviving participants of the war. This was the result of an oral interview field trip embarked on by the department to find new truths about the operations of the war from living war survivors who have continued to age and die since the war ended. The current president of Nigeria, President M. Buhari who was an officer on the Nigerian side during the war was as well interviewed in this project. Also, the department’s Journal of History and Military Studies in its various volumes have published different articles that have studied different aspects of the Nigerian Civil War. Hence, these extensive studies will continue to broaden our horizon in the understanding of the war.

With NDA taking the lead and introducing the study of the Nigerian Civil War through the different approaches of military history, it will not be surprising that more studies on the Nigerian Civil War will begin to surface in other academic and tertiary institutions in the course of time. A good example is a PhD dissertation91 which was produced in Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka in 2017. The study focuses on the war time experiences of the people of Nsukka and Enugu areas and so would be categorized as a study of war and society. The second example is seen in O. I. Nwobi’s 2019 PhD dissertation92 in Ebonyi State University, Abakiliki. Also, the study dwells on the international dimension of the war and could only pass as a diplomatic study of the war. Be that as it may, these developments serve as an indication of the gradual awakening of the larger body of the Nigerian academia who previously thought that the Nigerian Civil War had been completely studied.

18 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY) The Development of Military History… of the Nigerian Civil War O. T. Ntukogu & O. V. Uhere

Conclusion Before now, military history has appeared to be in its infancy and very slow in growth due to dearth of practitioners and intellectual sterility in this sub-field of history. This development has negated the study of the Nigerian Civil War from the perspective of military history. However, the emergence of military history in NDA has begun to change this narra- tive as the afore-discussed academic historical engagements of the emerging military historians have examined the Nigerian Civil War from different angles of military history. The reviewed studies have not only contributed to the existing literature on the war, but have also extended the frontiers of knowledge on the war. Most importantly, these studies have broken new grounds and created more opportunities for research in the field of history.

As more studies on the war continue to brew, it could be argued that a direct consequence of the situation is that the NDA has silently built a strong and formidable school for the study of the Nigerian Civil War in the country and as the years come by, the school will continue to be fortified by the new crop of professional military historians raised in the Academy. Consequently, and judging from the achievements of this nascent school of military history, one obvious reality is that the school has not only extended the annals of our Nigerian Civil War knowledge, but it continues to develop broader prospects in the discipline of military history as more researchers venture into this hitherto unpopular field of history. In all, the study of the Nigerian Civil War in the Department of History and War Studies, NDA at the postgraduate level is beginning to change the status of military history in Nigeria as it gradually pushes the sub-discipline from its infancy to a robust stage.

Journal of History and Military Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, Dec. 2019

Endnotes

1 J. Black, Rethinking Military History, New York: Routledge, 2004, 92. 2 S. C. Ukpabi, Strands in Nigerian Military History, Zaria: Gaskiya Corporation Limited, 1986, x-xi. 3 J. Black, Rethinking Military History, . . ., 39. 4 U. E. Umoh, “Interrogating Military History in the Nigerian Defence Academy”, in OE Tangban’s et.al (eds.), Nigerian Defence and Security: Essays in Commemoration of Nigerian Defence Academy Golden Jubilee, Kaduna: Pyla-Mak Services Limited, 2014, 172. 5 M. Howard, The Causes of Wars, London: Temple Smith, 1983, 213. 6 See Bibliography for Full Publication Details of listed books. 7 See Bibliography for Full Publication Details of listed books. 8 A. Osuntokun, “Review of Literature on the Civil War”, in T. N. Tamuno’s and S. C Ukpabi’s (eds.), Nigeria Since Independence: The First Twenty-Five Years, Volume VI, The Civil War Years, Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1989. 9 J. Childs, “What is History?” in History Today, Vol. 32, No. 12, December 1984, Cited in J. O. Ogbaji’s, “The Value of Military History in Educating and Training of Officers”, in OE Tangban’s et.al (eds.), Nigerian Defence and Security, . . ., 183. 10 C. C Osakwe, “Lessons of the Nigerian Civil War”, Forthcoming, 2. 11 Oral Interview with Professor Chukwuma C. C. Osakwe, 55+, Professor of Military History at Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, Interviewed at his Residence in Kaduna, 25-03-2020. 12 C. C Osakwe, “Lessons of the Nigerian Civil War”, …, 2 13 Oral Interview with Professor Chukwuma C. C. Osakwe, Interview Cited. 14 See Bibliography for Full Publication Details. 15 T. U. Ubesie, Isi Akwu Dara N’ala, London: Oxford University Press, 1973. 16 T. U. Ubesie, Juo Obinna, London: Oxford University Press, 1977. 17 CCC Osakwe, “Lessons of the Nigerian Civil War”, . . ., 1. 18 A. Osuntokun, “Review of Literature on the Civil War”, . . ., 104. 19 See Bibliography for full publication details of listed books. 20 See Bibliography for full publication details of listed books. 21 See Bibliography for full publication details of listed books. 22 Oral Interview with Professor Chukwuma C. C. Osakwe, Interview Cited. 23 A. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd., 1980. 24 J. O Achuzia, Requiem Biafra, Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers, 1986. 25 O. Obasanjo, My Command: An Account of the Nigerian Civil War 1967-1970, Ibadan: Heinemann, 1980. 26 G. Alabi-Isama, The Tragedy of Victory: On-The-Spot Account of the Nigerian-Biafra War in the Atlantic Theatre, Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited, 2013. 27 Oral Interview with Professor Sam C Ukpabi, 78+, Traditional Ruler, Professor Emeritus and Former Biafran Army Officer, Interviewed at his Residence in Enugu, 17-04-2019. 28 Oral Interview with Mr. Francis Ujam, 89+, Retired Civil Servant and Former Captain in the Biafra Army, Interviewed at his Residence in Akagbe Ugwu Enugu State, 18-04-2019. 29 Oral Interview with Dr. L. O Udeagbala, 37+, Lecturer Department of History and War Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, Interviewed at Kaduna, 23-03-2019. 30 Oral Interview with Professor O E Tangban, 66+, Professor of History in the Nigerian Defence Acad- emy Kaduna, Interviewed at NDA Kaduna, 24-03-2019. 31 S. C Ukpabi, Strands in Nigerian Military History, . . ., ix.

20 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY) The Development of Military History… of the Nigerian Civil War O. T. Ntukogu & O. V. Uhere

32 U. E Umoh, “Interrogating Military History in the Nigerian Defence Academy”, . . ., 167. 33 U. E Umoh, “Interrogating Military History in the Nigerian Defence Academy”, . . ., 167. 34 J. Black, Rethinking Military History, . . ., 5. 35 S. C Ukpabi, Strands in Nigerian Military History, xvi. 36 Oral Interview with Dr. L. O Udeagbala, Interview Cited. 37 U. E Umoh, “Interrogating Military History in the Nigerian Defence Academy”, . . ., 173. 38 S. C Ukpabi, Strands in Nigerian Military History, ii. 39 U. E. Umoh, “Interrogating Military History in the Nigerian Defence Academy”, . . ., 168. 40 U. E. Umoh, “Interrogating Military History in the Nigerian Defence Academy”, . . ., 168. 41 U. E. Umoh, “Interrogating Military History in the Nigerian Defence Academy”, . . ., 164. 42 Oral Interview with Dr. V. S. Akran, 60+, Senior Lecturer and Departmental Postgraduate Programme Coordinator, Department of History and War Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, Interviewed at Kaduna, 23-01-2020. 43 U. E. Umoh, “Interrogating Military History in the Nigerian Defence Academy”, . . ., 168. 44 J. Black, Rethinking Military History, . . ., 35. 45 P. I Orji, “Weaponry in the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970”, An M.A Thesis Submitted to the Depart- ment of History and International Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, June 2014,72-119. 46 R. I. Ibu, “The Nigerian Civil War in Ogoja Province: Operations and Impact, 1967-1970”, M.A Thesis Submitted to the Department of History and War Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, July 2014. 47 A. A. Olarenwaju, “The Nature and Role of Military History in Professional Development”, in College Eagle/Year Book: Journal of Command and Staff College, 1992, Cited in J. O. Ogbaji’s, “The Value of Military History in Educating and Training of Officers”, in O. E Tangban’s et.al (eds.), Nigerian Defence and Security, . . ., 185. 48 C. U Nwalu, “Social and Economic Impact of the Nigerian Civil War on Awgu LGA of Enugu State, 1967-1975”, An Unpublished B.A Project Submitted to the Department of History, University of Nigeria Nsukka, February 2001. 49 O. E Onah, “Impacts of Nigerian Civil War on Nsukka People, 1967-1970, An Unpublished B.A Project Submitted to the Department of History and War Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, June 2017. 50 N. J Ibeh, “The Nigerian Civil War in Akama Oghe, 1966-1970”, An Unpublished B.A Project Submitted to the Department of History and International Studies, University of Nigeria Nsukka, September 2006. 51 C. Kanu-Oji, “The Impact of the Nigerian Civil War on Arochukwu”, An Unpublished B.A Project Submitted to the Department of History, University of Nigeria Nsukka, February 1994. 52 P. N Ezeh, “The Impact of the Nigerian Biafran War 1967 to 1979 on Ezza”, An Unpublished B.A Project Submitted to the Department of History and International Studies, University of Nigeria Nsukka, September 2008. 53 J. O Okafor, “The Nigerian Civil War in Aguleri”, An Unpublished B.A Project Submitted to the De- partment of History, University of Nigeria Nsukka, March 1995. 54 N. J Odoh, “Crisis in Nigeria and Civil War: A Study of Socio-Economic Impact on Zaria, 1966-1970”, An Unpublished M.A Thesis Submitted to the Department of History and International Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, August, 2014, 25, 30, 34, and 57. 55 N. J Odoh, “Crisis in Nigeria and Civil War: A Study of Socio-Economic Impact on Zaria, 1966-1970”, . . ., 66-74. 56 N. J Odoh, “Crisis in Nigeria and Civil War: A Study of Socio-Economic Impact on Zaria, 1966-1970”, . . ., 79-93.

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57 L. O. Udeagbala, “The Navy and the Nigerian Civil War C. 1967-1970”, A PhD Dissertation Presented to the Department of History and International Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna, July 2015, 94. 58 L. O. Udeagbala, “The Navy and the Nigerian Civil War C. 1967-1970”, . . ., 214-215. 59 P. N. C. Okigbo, “The Economics of the Civil War: The Biafran Experience”, in T. N. Tamuno’s and S. C Ukpabi’s (eds.), Nigeria Since Independence, . . ., 201. 60 U. J. Ugi, “Refugees in the Nigerian Crises and Civil War: A Case Study of Eastern Region, 1966-1970”, An Unpublished M.A Thesis Submitted to the Department of History and International Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, April 2016, 75. 61 U. J. Ugi, “Refugees in the Nigerian Crises and Civil War: A Case Study of Eastern Region 1966-1970”, . . ., 94-158 62 U. J. Ugi, “Refugees in the Nigerian Crises and Civil War: A Case Study of Eastern Region, 1966-1970”, . . ., 161. 63 Undergraduate Handbook, Department of History and War Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, 2017, 1. 64 S. O. Ezeobi, “Oguta in the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970”, An Unpublished M.A Thesis Submitted to the Department of History and War Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, December 2016, 71. 65 S. O. Ezeobi, “Oguta in the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970”, . . ., 68 & 109. 66 U. I. Ituen, “The Nigerian Civil War in Ibibio Land, 1967-1970”, An Unpublished M.A Thesis Submitted to the Department of History and War Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, June 2017, 75-76. 67 N. U. Akpan, “The Position and Role of Nigeria’s Ethnic Minorities in War and Peace”, in T. N. Tamuno’s and S. C Ukpabi’s (eds.), Nigeria Since Independence, . . ., 139. 68 U. I. Ituen, “The Nigerian Civil War in Ibibio Land, 1967-1970”, . . ., 88-94. 69 U. I. Ituen, “The Nigerian Civil War in Ibibio Land, 1967-1970”, . . ., 116-119. 70 J. Black, Rethinking Military History, . . ., 33. 71 O. E Odunze, “Technological Innovation in the Nigerian Civil War: A Case Study of the Biafran Re- search and Production Unit (RAP Unit)”, An Unpublished M.A Thesis Presented to the Department of History and War Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, June 2017, 69. 72 O. E Odunze, “Technological Innovation in the Nigerian Civil War: A Case Study of the Biafran Re- search and Production Unit (RAP Unit)”, . . ., 93. 73 U. E Umoh, “Interrogating Military History in the Nigerian Defence Academy”, . . ., 163 74 J. G Joseph, “The Nature, Dynamics and Impact of the International Community in the Nigerian Civil War”, An Unpublished M.A Thesis Presented to the Department of History and War Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna, July 2018, 68-119. 75 J. G Joseph, “The Nature, Dynamics and Impact of the International Community in the Nigerian Civil War”, . . ., 119-155. 76 J. G. Joseph, “The Nature, Dynamics and Impact of the International Community in the Nigerian Civil War”, . . ., 162-163. 77 J. U. Akpe, “The Nigerian Civil War in the Oron Area of the Lower Cross River Region: A Study of Socio-Economic Impact (1967-1970)”, . . ., 66-73. 78 J. U. Akpe, “The Nigerian Civil War in the Oron Area of the Lower Cross River Region: A Study of Socio-Economic Impact (1967-1970)”, . . ., 79-89. 79 N. U. Itiri, “The Nigerian Civil War and its Immediate Aftermath in Afikpo Area, 1967 – 1970”, A PhD Dissertation Presented to the Department of History and International Studies, Nigerian Defence Acad- emy Kaduna, 2019, 117.

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