CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS:
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
ISSN 2465-4930 VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017)
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017) CONTENTS
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MESSAGE FROM ACTING VICE-PRESIDENT FOR KAMPHAENG SAEN 1 CAMPUS INTRODUCTION -ICHCRD 2 CONFERENCE PROGRAM SCHEDULE 7 INFORMATION FOR PARTICIPANTS: KASETSART UNIVERSITY 9 OPERRATIONS COMMITTEE 13 REVIEWERS COMMITTEE 15 PROCEEDINGS COMMITTEE 17 KEYNOTE SPEAKER 18 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS: ORAL PRESENTATION 19 ICHCRD-01 21 A KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PROCESS FOR LOCAL WISDOM IN FOOD PRESERVATION PROCESSING IN WESTERN LOCAL COMMUNITY OF THAILAND APICHART JAI-AREE / KASETSART UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-02 29 EFFECT OF MOTIVATION ON PERCEIVED LABOR PRODUCTIVITY: A CASE STUDY OF GARMENT FACTORIES IN HLAING THAR YAR INDUSTRY ZONE, MYANMAR THANT SIN / NARESUAN UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-03 39 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RELATIONSHIP AMONG MULTI AGES OF SASIMUM SUB-DISTRICT, KAMPHAENG SAEN DISTRICT, NAKHONPATHOM PROVINCE BY USING COMMUNITY HEALTH ACTIVITIES WIPANUN MUANGSAKUL / KASETSART UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-04 46 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT OF TRAINING FOR IMPROVING COMPETENCY OF GOVERMENT OFFICERS IN THE TAX DEPARTMENT AT CENTRAL PART OF LAO PDR BOUNPONE SYBOUNHEUANG / KASETSART UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-05 55 THE APPLICATION OF SUFFICIENCY ECONOMY AND QUALITY OF LIFE OF STUDENTS AT SUAN PHUNG WITTAYA SCHOOL, RATCHABURI PROVINCE WORASETH WONGAREE / KASETSART UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-06 60 GUIDELINES OF TEACHER RESEARCH CAPACITY BUILDING IN SCIENCE TEACHER NETWORK PROFESSIONAL COMMUNITY VARAPORN YAMTIM / KASETSART UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-07 69 THE WOMEN’S ROLES IN THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION SECTOR AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD DEBT BEHAVIORS KANOKWAN LAOAROON / KASETSART UNIVERSITY
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CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS: ORAL PRESENTATION ICHCRD-08 77 EVALUATION OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVOLOPMENT PROJECT ON MANAGEMENT CAPACITY BUILDING FOR LEVEL 8 STAFF OF BANK OF AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES RUNGRATTANA CHUMSING / KASETSART UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-09 83 FACTORS RELATED TO THE SELF DEVOLOPMENT OF PERSONNEL IN MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS, LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC BOUTHSY VILAYCHAK / KASETSART UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-10 88 BODY OF KNOWLEDGE AND WAYS OF PRACTICE TOWARD SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE: A CASE STUDY OF INTEGRATED FARMING IN CENTRAL THACHIN BASIN NIRUN YINGYUAD / KASETSART UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-11 95 CHANGES IN THE DEMAND FOR HIGHER EDUCATION FROM 2000 TO 2010: EVIDENCE FROM THE POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS IN THAILAND PIMPRAPA YODTOMORN / OSAKA CITY UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-12 105 DOWNSIZING AND THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT : A STUDY OF THE GHANAIAN INSURANCE INDUSTRY ANASTAS KABRAL NYAMIKEH / PENTECOST UNIVERSITY COLLEGE ICHCRD-13 121 THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN INTENSIVE COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH WORKSHOP CAMP FOR BORDER PATROL POLICE TEACHER ANUCHA CHAROENPO / KASETSART UNIVERSITY CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS: POSTER PRESENTATION 129 ICHCRD-14 130 ENCOURAGING PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE IN SCIENCE STUDENT TEACHERS THROUGH MICROTEACHING ACTIVITIES THANAWIT TONGMAI / PHUKET RAJABHAT UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-15 134 A STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL FOR SUSTAINABLE LEADERSHIP OF A SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORSIN NORTHEAST OF THAILAND WILAIPORN TECHA / ROI ET RAJABHAT UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-16 141 THE STUDY OF NEEDS TO DEVELOP AN EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITY MODEL FOR ENHANCING THE 21ST CENTURY SKILLS OF MATHEMATICS EDUCATION STUDENTS, KASETSART UNIVERSITY KANITHA CHOAWATTHANAKUL / KASETSART UNIVERSITY
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CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS: POSTER PRESENTATION ICHCRD-17 149 THE STUDY AND DESIGN OF SOPERVISION STRATEGIES FOR STUDENT TEACHERS IN ENGLISH EDUCATION PROGRAM TASSANEE JUNTIYA / KASETSART UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-18 154 THE DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT IDENTITIES OF SRINAKHARINWIRO UNIVERSITY THROUGH RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES SUMATE NOKLANGA / KASETSART UNIVERSITY ICHCRD-19 161 ASSESSING THE SOCIAL DIMENSION OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE TO ENHANCE RESILIENCE OF WOMEN TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN TAYABAS, QUEZON PROVINCE, PHILIPPINES AND SANSAI, CHIANG MAI PROVINCE, THAILAND EDNA LUISA A. MATIENZO / UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BANOS CONFERENCE FULL PAPER TEMPLATE 170
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017) 1
Message from Acting Vice-President for Kamphaeng Saen Campus
It is with immense pleasure, a great honor and privilege that I have been invited to address this meeting. The paradigm and direction of global development are refocusing on strengthening and sustaining humanity. Human resources are important for country development accordingly; human and community resources development (HCRD) is the main goal of education in the 21st century, engulfing changes within socio-cultural, economy and science. The rapidity of these changes has destroyed much of the world’s natural resources and those that remain are insufficient for a sustainable future and have also had a significant effect on the global environment. To return to a strengthening human and sustainable resources in the community the capacity to develop skills and knowledge, decrease conflict of diversity, as well as creating a healthy environment and a happy society is our challenge.
The stream idea of social development partnerships and alliances between the diversity of socialization is needed to build up human social relationships and responsibility. Therefore, education is an important tool for awakening people to the concerns and to act on their social responsibility.
Moreover, research is one of the core missions of this university and it plays a key role in education and HCRD. We are concerned and pay particular attention to research utilization and knowledge sharing. The 1st International Conference on Human Community Resource Development 2016: Education for Sustainable Development is an initiative of knowledge sharing and collaboration between 5 main agencies: 1st) The Human and Community Resource Development Program, Faculty of Education and Development, Kasetsart University, 2nd) The National University of Laos, 3rd) The National Chung Cheng University, 4th) The NGO-Business Partnerships, and last but not least The Development Association of Thailand – Japan. The main objectives are; to enhance participants understanding and experience of HCRD, to encourage the building of research competency and to promote integrated research in HCRD, as well as promoting inspirational research for educational personnel, students and scholars within the paradigm of HCRD, with the ultimate goal of social sustainable development. The conference activities include; a symposium on “Education and Sustainable Development”, a panel discussion on “Education and Sustainable Development: From Theory to Implementation”, free paper presentations, and a HCRD exhibition.
It is hoped that the conference will offer practical alternatives and help advance development in the field of human and community resources development as well as building those vital links for both national and international cooperation which are fast becoming a necessary part of life. Thank you very much in advance for your contribution towards the succession of the 1st International Conference on Human and Community Resource Development 2016 (ICHCRD 2016) We look forwards to welcoming you to this unique experiences in Nakhon Prathom, THAILAND, 26-27 May, 2016. We hope you will find your participation in the conference rewarding and professionally stimulating.
Sincerely,
Associate Professor, Dr. Trin Saengsuwan Acting Vice-President for Kamphaeng Saen Campus
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INTRODUCTION
THE 1ST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT 2016 ------
1. PRINCIPLE AND RATIONALE Research is a key of knowledge development and the mission of the higher education institutions. It can be seen that the current institutions has given priority to the research by providing each lecturer has the opportunity to produce research relate with their research, teaching and learning, which is a measure of the quality of the Institute. The mission of the Universities are to produce graduates who have the wisdom to know how to building the public consciousness, moral, and social aspects of community development and social responsibility, as well as heading the accumulation wisdom. To address this aim, the conference will develop diverse of knowledge including creating a standard competitive, so in order to promote and develop the potential of university research as well as research experience at international level.
Department of Human and Community Resource Development, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University in collaboration with National University of Laos, National Chung Cheng University, The Network NGO-Business Partnerships, and Human Resource Development Association (Thailand – Japan) will be hosting The 1st International Conference on Human and Community Resource development 2016 on the theme of Education for Sustainable Development; May 26- 27, 2016 at Department of Human and Community Resource Development, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Sean Campus, Nakhon Prathom Province, THAILAND.
2. PURPOSES 2.1 To provide academics and practitioners with an opportunity to explore, enhance, and engage in the concept on the development of human resources and community, and to develop researcher and community development officer through an integrated approach in educational sciences to get high potential for strategy issues, researches and empowered participatory community with the moral conscience.
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2.2 To encourage international cooperation across all sectors involving in human and community resource development and strengthen research integration in human and community resource development links and supportive that meets the wants and needs of individuals, organizations and communities as well as create an academic network domestically and internationally.
3. DETAILS 3.1 Plenary Session: Special Lecture on the topic of “Education for sustainable development”
3.2 Academic panel discussion: on the topic of “Education for sustainable development on the concept and practices”
3.3 Oral and Poster Presentations: the conference has paper submission in 2 categories; oral presentation, and poster session papers. Each oral presentation will last for 20 minutes in total, with 15 minutes for the presenter to present her/his findings and 5 minutes dedicated to questions from the audience and change of the presenter. All accepted papers will be published in the proceedings.
Research presentation topic areas: Education and Psychology Human and Community Resource Development Community Development and Social Development Environmental Education Management and Business Administration
3.4 Exhibitions: on the topic of Human and Community Resource development, local arts and culture show from the model communities, the sale of community-bases products.
4. TARGETS Lecturers, Researchers, teachers and educational officers, graduate students in the field of Human and Community Resource development, and related fields.
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5. SPEAKERS
5.1 Keynote Speech Title: Education for sustainable development: patterns of teaching integrated human values. Keynote speaker: Dr.Art-ong Jumsai Na Ayudhya
Director of Institute for Sathya-Sai Education, Thailand. A NASA Scientist, former Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs, Thailand.
5.2 Panel discussion Issue: Education for sustainable development: principle and practice Panelists; Associate Professor Athithouthay Chatouphonexay, Ph.D.
Vice-Dean, Faculty of Education, National University of Laos
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Ms. Ushio Miura
Programme Specialist, Education for Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship Section for Educational Innovation and Skills Development UNESCO, Bangkok
Associate Professor Tsai, Hsiu-Mei, Ph.D.
Chair of National Chung Cheng University Adult and Continuing Education
Dr.Permsak Makarapirom, Ph.D.
Research Center for Peace Building (Old) Institute of Human Rights and Peace Studies, Mahidol University
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Moderator; Associate Professor Pongpan Traimongkolkul, Ph.D.
Department of Human and Community Resource Development, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University
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CONFERENCE PROGRAM SCHEDULE
The 1st International Conference on Human and Community Resource Development 2016 Theme “Education for Sustainable Development” MAY 26 – 27, 2016 Department of Human and Community Resource Development Faculty of Education and Development science, Kasetsart University ------
Day 1: MAY 26, 2016 08.00-08.30 am. Registration 08.30-08.45 am. Introduce Department of HCRD and Kasetsart University 08.45-09.00 am. Welcoming the participants Mr. Ravee Sajjasophon, Ph.D. Miss Uraipon Janta-um-mou 09.00-09.30 am. Reporting Speech Asst. Prof. Apichat Jai-aree, Ph.D. Director of Programme 09.30-10.00 am. Opening Remark Associate Professor, Dr. Trin Saengsuwan Acting Vice-President for Kamphaeng Saen Campus 10.00 am. local arts and culture show from the model communities 10.30 am. Tea/Coffee Break 10.30-12.00 am. Keynote Speaker/Plenary Session: Special Lecture on the topic of “Education for sustainable development” Dr. Art-Ong Jumsai Na Ayudhya 12.00-13.00 pm. Lunch 13.00-14.30 pm. Academic panel discussion: on the topic of “Education for sustainable development on the concept and practices” Panelists; 1. Associate Professor Athithouthay Chatouphonexay, Ph.D. National University of Laos 2. Ms.Ushio Miura Programme Specialist, Education for Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship Section for Educational Innovation and Skills Development, UNESCO, Bangkok 3. Associate Professor Tsai, Hsiu-Mei, Ph.D. Chair of National Chung Cheng University Adult and Continuing Education 4. Dr.Permsak Makarapirom, Ph.D. Research Center for Peace Building (Old) Institute of Human Rights and Peace Studies, Mahidol University
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Moderator; Associate Professor Pongpan Traimongkolkul, Ph.D. Department of Human and Community Resource Development, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University 14.30-14.45 pm. Tea/Coffee Break 14.45-16.00 pm. Academic panel discussion: on the topic of “Education for sustainable development on the concept and practices” 08.00-16.00 pm. Exhibition Day 2: MAY 27, 2016 08.00-09.00 am. Registration 09.00-12.00 am. Oral and Poster Presentations Room A Room B Oral presentation will last for Oral presentation will last for 20 20 minutes in total, with 15 minutes in total, with 15 minutes minutes for the presenter to for the presenter to present present her/his findings and 5 her/his findings and 5 minutes minutes dedicated to questions dedicated to questions from the from the audience and change audience and change of the of the presenter presenter Room C Poster Presentations 12.00-13.00 pm. Lunch 13.00-15.00 pm. Oral and Poster Presentations 08.00-16.00 pm. Exhibition 15.00-16.00 pm. Closing Ceremony by Associate Professor, Dr. Trin Saengsuwan Acting Vice-President for Kamphaeng Saen Campus with Announcement the best poster and oral Presentations awards
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INFORMATION FOR PARTICIPANTS: KASETSART UNIVERSITY
History of the University
Antecedents
The establishment of Kasetsart University was part of the evolution of agricultural education in the country which began with the founding of a system of technical schools. This era may be divided into three periods. 1) In the initial period (1904-1913), agricultural education was first established. In 1904, Prince Phichaimahintharodom, Director of the Department of Sericulture of the Ministry of Agriculture, founded the School of Sericulture in Tambon Thung Saladaeng, Bangkok, adjacent to the mulberry gardens and the Sericulture Experimental Station. Initially, the School offered a two-year program devoted to sericulture alone, but in 1906, the program was extended to three years and expanded to include instruction on the cultivation of other crops and also on veterinary science, and at the same time, the name of the institution was changed to the School of Agriculture. In 1908, the Ministry of Agriculture merged the three schools under its jurisdiction, namely, the School of Surveying, which had been founded in 1882, the School of Irrigation, founded in 1905, and the School of Agriculture, in order to train personnel to serve in the various departments and divisions of the Ministry. The school was named the School of the Ministry of Agriculture and was located in the Sapathum Palace. At the same time, a new curriculum, Thailand's first tertiary-level agriculture curriculum, was drawn up and was inaugurated in 1909.
In 1913, the Government of Siam merged the School of the Ministry of Agriculture with the Civil Service School, which was established under the Ministry of Public
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Instruction and Religion, because the purposes of the two were identical. Agricultural education was thus placed under the Ministry of Public Instruction and Religion.
2) In the middle period (1914-1923), the first primary school agriculture teacher training school was established. The Minister of Public Instruction and Religion, Chao Phraya Thammasakmontri (Sanan Thep-hatsadin na Ayutthaya), founded the Primary School Agriculture Teacher Training School at Ban Suan Luang in Bangkok. The School offered a two-year program for graduates of Secondary Level 3 (the entrance requirement was later raised to Secondary Level 6). Upon completion of the program, graduates were awarded a certificate in primary school agricultural education. In 1918, the School was relocated to Tambon Phra Prathon in the Meuang District of Nakhorn Pathom Province.
3) In the later period (1924-1942), the primary school agriculture teacher training school system was established in all regions of the country. In 1924, the Primary School Agriculture Teacher Training School was moved from Nakhorn Pathom Province to Tambon Bang Saphan Yai in Bang Saphan District of Prajuab Khirikhan Province, and in 1926, a second primary school agriculture teacher training school was established in Tambon Thap Kwang in Kaeng Khoi District of Saraburi Province. Following this, agricultural education on the primary and secondary levels was provided through primary- and secondary-level agriculture technical schools.
Toward the end of the year 1931, Mom Chao Sitthiphorn Kritdakorn, Director of the Agricultural Research Department of the Ministry of Agriculture, proposed that agricultural research stations be set up in the Northeastern, Southern, and Northern Regions together with primary school agriculture teacher training schools so that agricultural research and agricultural education could be carried out in concert. As a result, primary school agriculture teacher training schools and agricultural experiment stations were established in each region of the country, and in this way, the Ministry of Agriculture once again became involved in agricultural education.
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In 1933, the Non Wat Primary School Agriculture Teacher Training School was established in Tambon Non Sung, Non Sung District, Nakhorn Ratchasima Province, and the Mae Jo Primary School Agriculture Teacher Training School was established in Tambon Nong Han, Sansai District, Chiang Mai Province.
In 1934, the Khor Hong Primary School Agriculture Teacher Training School was established in Tambon Khor Hong, Hat Yai District, Songkhla Province.
The operating of agricultural experiment stations in conjunction with the three primary school agriculture teacher training schools proved to be an excellent model of the interplay between research and education. The first experiment-station-head-cum-headmasters were Luang Ingkhasikasikan at Non Wat, Luang Suwan Vajokkasikij at Khor Hong, and Phra Chuangkasetsinlapakan at Mae Jo.
In 1935, agricultural education policy changed once again. The government, concerned that the numbers of agriculture teachers graduated would be in excess of needs, decided to close the three new primary school agriculture teacher training schools. In response, Luang Ingkhasikasikan, Luang Suwan Vajokkasikij, and Phra Chuangkasetsinlapakan together proposed a project whereby the Mae Jo school was retained as a secondary-level agriculture technical school. This was later elevated to become the College of Agriculture, with the status of a division in the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries. The person appointed to serve as the first director of the College was Phra Chuangkasetsinlapakan.
Also in 1935, the Ministry of Agriculture established in Phrae Province another technical school, namely the School of Forestry, which offered a two-year program, and shortly later, this was made a part of the College of Agriculture.
In 1938, the Ministry of Agriculture established the Central Agriculture Station, or Kaset Klang, in Bang Khen District of Bangkok, the area in which the main campus of Kasetsart University is located. The College of Agriculture was moved from Mae Jo to Bang Khen, and Luang Suwan Vajokkasikij became the director. The College offered three-
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year certificate programs in three fields: agriculture, cooperative science, and forestry. Students of the agriculture program studied all three years at Bang Khen, while students of the cooperative science program studied their first two years at Bang Khen and their third year at the Department of Cooperatives at Tha Thian in order to facilitate their practical training. The forestry program was conducted at the School of Forestry in Phrae Province.
Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Sean Campus,
Nakhon Prathom Province, THAILAND
Department of Human and Community Resource Development, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences
Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Sean Campus, Nakhon Prathom Province, THAILAND
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OPERRATIONS COMMITTEE
Advisory Board 1. President of Kasetsart University 2. President of National University of Laos 3. President of National Chung Cheng University 4. Director of The Network NGO-Business Partnerships 5. Director of Development Association of Thailand - Japan 6. Vice President of Kasetsart University 7. Dean of Faculty of Education and Development Sciences 8. Head of Department of Human and Community Resource Development 9. Division of Human and Community Resource Development Program
Operations Committee 1. Assist. Professor Apichat Jai-aree, Ph.D. Chairman of the board 2. Associate Professor Pud Simmarawong Dean of Faculty of Social sciences, National University of Laos Vice chairman 3. Associate Professor Tsai, Hsiu-Mei Chair of Faculty of Adult and Continuing Education, National Chung Cheng University Vice chairman 4. Associate Professor Prasong Tanpichai, Ph.D. Board 5. Associate Professor Sunti Srisuantang, Ph.D. Board 6. Professor Wei, Hui-Chuan Faculty of Adult and Continuing Education, National Chung Cheng University Board 7. Associate Professor Wg.Cdr. Sumit Suwan, Ph.D. Board 8. Miss. Sireerat Chetsumon, Ph.D. Board 9. Mr.Thanut Wongsaichue, Ph.D. Board 10. Miss.Chutathip Thawornratana, Ph.D. Board 11. Assist. Professor Vannee Ungsittipoonporn, Ph.D. Board 12. Miss. Supharsinee Numniem, Ph.D. Board 13. Miss. Areerat Pakpitjarean, Ph.D. Board 14. Mr. Niran Yingyoud, Ph.D. Board 15. Miss. Supharuk Aticomsuwan, Ph.D. Board 16. Mrs.Varaporn Yamtim, Ph.D. Board 17. Assist. Professor Pinda Varasununt, Ph.D. Board 18. Miss Kanistha Choawattaoakul, Ph.D. Board 19. Mr. Withust Fukchareanphol, Ph.D. Board 20. Mr.Paitool Khamkolsan Board 21. Delegate of Development Association of Thailand – Japan Board 22. Delegate of The Network NGO-Business Partnerships Board 23. Doctoral students in HCRD Program Board
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24. Graduate students in HCRD Program Board 25. Mr. Ravee Sajjasophon, Ph.D. Director and Secretary 26. Miss Apinya Udomwet Director and Assistant Secretary 27. Miss Chonticha Chaejeng Director and Assistant Secretary 28. Miss Wanwipa Loa-aloon Director and Assistant Secretary 29. Miss Piyawan Wilaipat Director and Assistant Secretary 30. Mr. Napat Thongmang Director and Assistant Secretary 31. Miss Kritsanee Motthong Director and Assistant Secretary
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REVIEWERS COMMITTEE
PEER REVIEWS: Kasetsart University 1. Associate Professor Prasong Tanpichai, Ph.D. 2. Associate Professor Wg.Cdr. Sumit Suwan, Ph.D. 3. Associate Professor Sunti Srisuantang, Ph.D. 4. Assist. Professor Apichat Jai-aree, Ph.D. 5. Assist. Professor Thippawan Sichan, Ph.D. 6. Miss. Sireerat Chetsumon, Ph.D. 7. Miss. Chutathip Thawornratana, Ph.D. 8. Assist. Professor Vannee Ungsittipoonporn, Ph.D. 9. Miss. Supharsinee Numniem, Ph.D. 10. Miss. Areerat Pakpitjarean, Ph.D. 11. Miss. Supharuk Aticomsuwan, Ph.D. 12. Mrs.Varaporn Yamtim, Ph.D. 13. Mr. Ravee Sajjasophon, Ph.D. 14. Mr. Niran Yingyoud, Ph.D. 15. Assist. Professor Pinda Varasununt, Ph.D. 16. Miss Kanistha Choawattaoakul, Ph.D. 17. Mr. Withust Fukchareanphol, Ph.D. 18. Mr.Thanut Wongsaichue, Ph.D.
EXTERNAL PEER REVIEWS 1. Professor Wei, Hui-Chuan, Ph.D. (National Chung Cheng University) 2. Professor Soukkongseng SAIGNALEUTH , Ph.D. (National University of Laos) 3. Associate Professor Tsai, Hsiu-Mei , Ph.D. (National Chung Cheng University) 4. Associate Professor Pud Simmarawong , Ph.D. (National University of Laos) 5. Associate Professor Lin, Li-Hui , Ph.D. (National Chung Cheng University) 6. Associate Professor Phetsamone KOONSAWAD, Ph.D. (National University of Laos) 7. Associate ProfessorSaikong SAINASIN, Ph.D. (National University of Laos) 8. Associate Professor Pongpan Traimongkolkul, Ph.D. 9. Associate Professor Archanya Ratana-Ubol, Ph.D. (Chulalongkorn University) 10. Associate Professor Pituk Siriwong, Ph.D. (Silapakorn University) 10. Assist. Professor Wirathep Pathumcharoenwattana, Ph.D. (Chulalongkorn University) 11. Assist. Professor Weerachat Soopanyo, Ph.D. (Chulalongkorn University)
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12. Assist. Professor Pattarapol Mahakhun, Ph.D. (Silapakorn University) 13. Associate Professor Duchduen Bhanthumnavin, Ph.D. (National Institute of Development Administration) 14. Professor Jiro TAKAI, Ph.D. (Nagoya University) 15. Associate Professor Minako NAKASHIMA, Ph.D. (Nagoya University) 16. Associate Professor Chatcharee Nareothom, Ph.D. 17. Mr.Teerasak Srisurakul, Ph.D. (Mahidol University)
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PROCEEDINGS COMMITTEE
1. Assist. Professor Apichat Jai-aree, Ph.D. Editor in Chief 2. Associate Professor Prasong Tanpichai, Ph.D. Assistant editor 3. Associate Professor Sunti Srisuantang, Ph.D. Editorial Board 4. Associate Professor Chatcharee Nareothom, Ph.D. Editorial Board 5. Assist. Professor Thippawan Sichan, Ph.D. Editorial Board 6. Assist. Professor Weerachat Soopanyo, Ph.D. Editorial Board 7. Associate Professor Pud Simmarawong , Ph.D. Editorial Board 8. Associate Professor Lin, Li-Hui , Ph.D. Editorial Board 9. Assist. Professor Pattarapol Mahakhun, Ph.D. Editorial Board 10. Miss. Sireerat Chetsumon, Ph.D. Editorial Board 11. Mr. Ravee Sajjasophon, Ph.D. Editorial Board 12. Miss. Supharuk Aticomsuwan, Ph.D. Editorial Board 13. Miss. Supharsinee Numniem, Ph.D. Editorial Board 14. Mr. Withust Fukchareanphol, Ph.D. Editorial Board 15. Miss. Wanwipha Lao-arun Managing Editor
OFFICE Department of Human and Community Resource Development: HCRD Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, KASETSART UNIVERSITY, KAMPHAENG SAEN CAMPUS | 1 Moo 6 Kamphaeng Saen Sub-district, Kamphaeng Saen District, Nakhon Prathom Province, THAILAND 73140 Tel. (+66) 034-281081, Fax. (+66) 034-281081
Website: http://hcrd.edu.kps.ku.ac.th/thai/index.php
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KEYNOTE SPEAKER
Ms. Ushio Miura
Ushio Miura is a Programme Specialist at the UNESCO Bangkok Office, Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education. She coordinates UNESCO’s work to promote Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and Global Citizenship Education (GCED) in the Asia-Pacific region. Since joining UNESCO in 1998, she has worked to promote inclusive and equitable quality education globally, focusing on key issues such as the right to education, literacy and Education for Sustainable Development. Originally from Tokyo, Japan and currently based in Bangkok, Thailand, Ushio has served in various parts of the world, including through the UNESCO Headquarters in Paris, France and the UNESCO Kingston Cluster Office for the Caribbean in Jamaica.
Title of the presentation:
Global Action Programme on Education for Sustainable Development and Community-based Learning.
Abstract of the presentation:
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) aims to provide everyone with the opportunity to acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values necessary to shape a sustainable future. In order to accelerate the promotion of ESD around the world, the Global Action Programme on Education for Sustainable Development (GAP-ESD) was launched and is being implemented under the leadership and coordination of UNESCO. The presentation will introduce the key ideas contained in GAP-ESD, and discuss community-based learning for sustainable development, which is one of the five priority areas of GAP-ESD.
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ORAL PRESENTATION
ICHCRD-01
A Knowledge Management Process for Local Wisdom in Food Preservation Processing in Western Local Community of Thailand
Apichart Jai-aree / Kasetsart University
ICHCRD-02
Effect of Motivation on Perceived Labor Productivity: A Case Study of Garment Factories in Hlaing Thar Yar Industry Zone, Myanmar
Thant Sin / Naresuan University
ICHCRD-03
The Establishment of Relationship among Multi Ages of Sasimum Sub-District, Kamphaeng Saen District, Nakhonpathom Province By Using Community Health Activities
Wipanun Muangsakul / Kasetsart University
ICHCRD-04
Curriculum Development of Training for Improving Competency of Government Officers in the Tax Department at Central Part of Lao PDR
Bounpone Sybounheuang / Kasetsart University
ICHCRD-05
The Application of Sufficiency Economy and Quality of Life of Students at Suan Phung Wittaya School, Ratchaburi Province
Woraseth Wongaree / Kasetsart University
ICHCRD-06
Guidelines of Teacher Research Capacity Building in Science Teacher Network Professional Community
Varaporn Yamtim / Kasetsart University
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ICHCRD-07
The Women’s Roles in the Agricultural Production Sector Affecting Household Debt Behaviors
Kanokwan Laoaroon / Kasetsart University
ICHCRD-08
Evaluation of Human Resource Development Project on Management Capacity Building for Level 8 Staff of Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives
Rungrattana Chumsing / Kasetsart University
ICHCRD-09
Factors Related to the Self Development of Personnel in Ministry of Home Affairs, Lao People’s Democratic Republic
Bouthsy Vilaychak / Kasetsart University
ICHCRD-10
Body of Knowledge and Ways of Practice toward Sustainable Agriculture: A Case Study of Integrated Farming in Central Thachin Basin
Nirun Yingyuad / Kasetsart University
ICHCRD-11
Changes in the Demand for Higher Education from 2000 to 2010: Evidence from the Population and Housing Census in Thailand
Pimprapa Yodtomorn / Osaka City University
ICHCRD-12
Downsizing and The Psychological Contract : A Study of The Ghanaian Insurance Industry
Anastas Kabral Nyamikeh / Pentecost University College
ICHCRD-13
The Construction of an Intensive Communicative English Workshop Camp for Border Patrol Police Teachers
Anucha Charoenpo / Kasetsart University
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Knowledge Management Process for Local Wisdom in Food Preservation Processing in Western Local Community of Thailand
Apichart Jai-aree Department of Human Resources and Community Development, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University, Nakronprathom, Thailand Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected] Tel. 081-941-8776
Abstract This research aimed to study the knowledge management process of local wisdom on food processing in rural community in the western region of Thailand by employing qualitative research method and content analysis. Bamboo shoot processing and Ban Phu Toei community was studied in this case. The results revealed that: 1) there were two sources of knowledge concerning bamboo shoot processing in western rural communities; indigenous wisdom, and new knowledge acquired by integrating modern technology into existing local wisdom. This showed community potential and the rich abundance of natural resources within region. 2) The knowledge management process consisted of 5 steps; (1) defining knowledge by determining whether it was indigenous knowledge or new knowledge modified from indigenous one, (2) acquiring knowledge either by sharing within community or receiving additional support from outside agencies, (3) exchanging knowledge through socialization and consultation to solve the problems occurred in processing procedures, (4) maintaining knowledge predominantly by keeping it in individuals’ memory without any written documentation, and (5) transferring knowledge unofficially by passing onto family members or blood-relatives.3) The key factors essential to the successful knowledge management strategy included (1) knowledge management expertise, (2) culture/lifestyle, (3) community leaders, (4) local resources, and (5) infrastructures. Keywords: knowledge management, local wisdom, indigenous wisdom, food processing
Introduction Local wisdom is knowledge, thought, belief, ability, or proficiency that people gained from experience in the adaptation and survival in the ecosystem or natural environment and socio-cultural environment that has been developed and carried on through generations (Wasi, 1987; Na Thalang, 1997). It is obvious that human developed lifestyle from learning and accumulating experiences over an extended period of time. That wisdom was utilized in settlement, occupation, adaptation, and problem solving to suit their lifestyle in the natural and social environment that they live in (Jai-Aree, 2012). Agricultural products processing is among many wisdoms that humans have been practicing for a long time. One of agricultural products that are widely used in food processing is bamboo shoot. The bamboo shoots are the edible shoots of the bamboo plant and are frequently used in many Asian cuisines. On top of that, they can be consumed by processing into a wide range of food products with longer shelf-life. One local community that is able to generate income from distributing processed bamboo shoots is Ban Phu Toei community, Kanchanaburi province, where bamboo
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shoots are commonly found in their community forest and along the boundaries of the forest conservation areas. Knowledge Management (KM) refers to the acquisition of accurate and appropriate knowledge for the right person at the right time that allows individuals to exchange information in order to improve the operation of their organization (Davenport and Prusak, 1998). Therefore, the acquisition of the accurate knowledge must be well- managed and used to benefit the operation. The key principle is to capture the knowledge embedded in persons (Tacit Knowledge) and convert it to a tangible form (Explicit Knowledge). In order to do so, the knowledge management process (KM Process) is considered important in handling the existing knowledge effectively and efficiently. The implementation of knowledge management to the local wisdom requires a system developed for gathering knowledge available within the community. By using information technology as a tool to collect, store, and transform a wealth of accumulated knowledge into useable formats that are readily shared and accessed, members of the community are able to acquire a self development and work more efficiently. As a result, it adds value to the community incomes and enables them to improve their livelihood in a way that is suitable for their local environment and culture (Sung-Sri, 2007).Since knowledge management requires active involvement from the community, this study focused on the process of acquiring local wisdom along with the cooperation from the community, how it can be stored in the form of public knowledge that the community can easily access, and the result of applying such knowledge to the development of education and career within the community. Most of the community areas in the western region of Thailand are made up of foothills and high mountains with relatively abundant forests. The region is widely known for a source of wild edible forest products such as termite mushrooms, Pak Wan Pa (sweet leaf bush vegetable), and bamboo shoots (Jai-Aree, Traimongkolkul and Srisuantang, 2011).By conducting a continuous long-term fieldwork, it was found that rural communities processed bamboo shoots for consumption in different ways. It could be done either in the form of activities within the household or integrated into housewife group activities. Their inherited local wisdom of bamboo shoot processing techniques had been passed on for generations. The uniqueness of their products was the outstanding quality preserved in many kinds of bamboo shoots. However, there is a grave risk that much valuable knowledge is being lost over generations. After the focus group discussion with stakeholders such as community leaders, community representatives, and housewife group, they recognized the importance of the knowledge management of local wisdom on bamboo shoot processing in order to establish a systematic way of gathering knowledge and be able to exchange them within the community and network. It will also support the analysis and synthesis of information to broaden their knowledge base. Hence, the researcher was interested in conducting a community-engaged research to study the knowledge management model of local wisdom on bamboo shoot processing in rural community in the western region of Thailand in the hope that it would provide the community with useful information and could further extend their technical expertise.
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Research Objective To study the knowledge management process and key success factors of local wisdom on bamboo shoot processing in rural community in the western region of Thailand.
Research Framework The researcher conducted a literature review to develop the conceptual framework and to formulate an appropriate research focus, method of investigation, and research tools. The previous studies which were examined are as follows; The Concept of Local Wisdom, Learning Process, and Knowledge Transfer by Apichart Jai-aree (2012), Ekawit NaThalang (1997), Moolaniti PhumPanya (1993), Prawet Wasi (1987), Sumalee Sungsri (2007), Terdchai Chuaybumrung (2011), and Brundage and Mackeracher (1980). The Concept of Knowledge Management from 5 sources: Tiwana (2003); Laudon and Laudon (2002);Mertins, Heisig and Vorbeck (2003); Keyser (2004); and Dalkir (2005). The researcher then conceptualized the knowledge management process which consisted of 5 steps as follows: 1) knowledge identification, 2) knowledge acquisition and capture, 3) knowledge sharing, 4) knowledge storage, and 5) knowledge transfer. The Concept of Local Wisdom on Bamboo Shoot Processing by the Ministry of Culture (2012) and Kanidta Poonpolkul et al. (2001). Such synthesized concepts were developed into the research framework as shown in the figure below.
Bamboo Shoot Processing Context
1. Raw materials and preparation 2. Tools Set of Local Wisdom on 3. Product Model and Bamboo Shoot Processing Processing Procedures Knowledge Management Process of Local Wisdom on Bamboo Shoot Processing
Key Success Factors Community Context Knowledge Transfer 1. Local Resource Base: of Local Wisdom on Forest Bamboo Shoot Processing 2. Local Intellectuals 3. Economic and Social Information, Culture
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Research Method In this study, bamboo shoot processing was studied in this case, the researcher used a qualitative method with in-depth interviews, informal conversations, documents and other evidences review, community survey, and focus group with 24 key informants comprised of community leaders, local intellectuals, housewife group representatives, and village representatives from Ban Phu Toei community, Kanchanaburi province. The area selection was done by purposive sampling which targeted for a region with an abundance of forest resources, especially tall bamboo shoots, had an established group of community members that processed bamboo shoots, and had extensive experience in working with both public agencies and private agencies. The data were analyzed using content analysis.
Conclusion and Discussion 1. Local wisdom in food preservation processing: bamboo shoot processing There were two sources of knowledge concerning bamboo shoot processing in Ban Phu Toei community. (1) One of them was the indigenous wisdom that had been passed down through each generation. It corresponded to their lifestyle and the local resource base where bamboos (Gramineae family) were fairly common as dominant tree species. This reflected the important elements of social capital within the community in intellectual capital and natural resource capital.(2) The other source of knowledge was the new knowledge acquired by integrating modern technology which had been promoted by the government into the existing indigenous wisdom. As a result, the community was able to process bamboo shoots in 4 different forms; fermented, boiled, dried, and sliced bamboo shoots. This reflected the ability of the community and the rich abundance of natural resources within the region. The local knowledge was done through the selection and learning process passing down from one generation to another until it became a community lifestyle. This was consistent with the concept of Prawet Wasi (1987) which stated that intellectual capital and natural resource capital were social capital that played a significant role in community development. Also, the research of Teerapun Chokudomchai (2009), which studied the relation between bamboos and household economy of the community in Kanchanaburi province, had found that bamboos were utilized in many ways. One of those ways practiced in Ta Sao community was bamboo shoot processing. Thus, it goes without saying that bamboos were used for economic benefits to generate household income and the community way of life. 2. Process of knowledge transfer of local wisdom Process of knowledge transfer of local wisdom in bamboo shoot preservation processing: the members of Ban Phu Toei community practiced and learned how to bamboo shoot preservation processing from their experience, basically in their families. They learned more from others, such as experts from agencies. The members in Ban Phu Toei community learned how to bamboo shoot preservation processing by 2 forms: 1) formal learning; knowledge transfer by oral tradition and observe activities in community models, and knowledge sharing and 2) informal learning; trial and error learning, learning by doing, observation or Imitation, and cultural reproduction. Which consisted of 4 processes, there are attention processes, retention processes, production processes and motivation process. This was consistent with the concept of Pranotnon Teanprapakul (2014) which stated that the members of the
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earthenware production group practiced and learned how to mold earthenware from their experience, basically in their families. They learned more from others, such as experts from agencies. In the past, the children in this village interested in earthenware production by observation or Imitation. Which consisted of 4 processes; there are attentional processes, retention processes, production processes and motivation process. 3. The knowledge management process consisted of 5 steps; 1) Defining the type of knowledge by determining whether it was the indigenous knowledge or the new knowledge that was modified from the indigenous one. 2) Acquiring the knowledge by sharing within the community and receiving additional support from outside agencies. 3) Exchanging the knowledge unofficially through socialization and consultation in order to solve the problems occurred in the processing procedures. 4) Maintaining the knowledge predominantly by keeping it in individuals’ memory without any written documentation. 5) Transferring the knowledge which was done generally in an unofficial manner by passing onto members of the family or blood-relatives. The results were similar to the findings of Duangrutai Akasang (2009) which studied the knowledge management process of local wisdom on naturally-dyed Mudmee Thai silk fabric and discovered that Nong Ya Plong community had been practicing the knowledge management to preserve, transmit, and disseminate their local wisdom. The process included; 1) knowledge creation, 2) knowledge storage in form of memories, experiences, and brief personal notes, 3) dissemination of knowledge, 4) the use of knowledge by integrating with the new knowledge through the support of government agencies, therefore, making the manufacturing process more efficient. Additionally, it was consistent with the research done by Anyanee Klaisuban and Pornrat Prasitkusol (2007) which studied the knowledge management of local wisdom on bamboos in Ta Sao community, Kanchanaburi province. They found that the most important source of knowledge transfer was the family, followed by the community. The knowledge transfer could be done by telling, chatting, explaining, demonstrating, helping, trialing, observing, studying, discussing with neighbors, and participating in community activities. The results also agreed with the work of Kamolnut Sri-Choi (2013) which studied the knowledge synthesis of local wisdom on weaving cloth in Ban Noen Kham community. It revealed that, at the individual level, the knowledge was transferred from one person to another between mother and children, among relatives, or between neighbors. Their knowledge transfer also occurred at the community level with the support from both public agencies and private agencies. 4. Key success factors The key success factors essential to the success of knowledge management strategy concerning the local wisdom on bamboo shoot processing in rural community in the western region of Thailand included; 1) Knowledge management expertise 2) Culture or lifestyle
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3) Community leaders 4) Local resources 5) Infrastructures These findings complied with the concept suggested by Morey, Maybury and Thrashing (2002) which stated that the factors affecting the success of knowledge management included leadership and decision making, organizational structure, organizational communication, environment, teamwork, and infrastructures. They were also in agreement with the research of Pattama Ruang-Udomchokchai (2012) which studied the factors affecting the knowledge management of local wisdom on educational management in municipal schools, Trang province. It was found that such factors were organizational culture, leadership and strategy, and infrastructures. 5. Recommendations to develop the knowledge management Recommendations to develop the knowledge management of local wisdom in bamboo shoot preservation processing in Ban Phu Toei community, include the development of 5 areas: 1) knowledge, 2) conventional thinking, 3) a shared vision, 4) learning teams, and 5) systematic thinking of the bamboo shoot preservation processing vocational entrepreneur. The results were similar to the findings of Doungooppama and Paranak (2013: 195-203) which studied the transfer of knowledge and wisdom woven reed mats. They found that the proposed development that convey wisdom: should be encouraged to exchange knowledge and develop skills, learning together to promote the knowledge and skills to provide quality and standards.
References 1Akasang, D. (2009). Knowledge management process of local wisdom on naturally-dyed Mudmee Thai silk fabric. Master of Business Administration, KhonKaen University. 2Brundage, Donald H.; MacKeracher, Dorothy. (1980).Adult Learning Principles and Their Application to Program Planning.Education Research.P 134. 3Chokudomchai, T. (2009). Relation between bamboos and household economy of the community, Ta Sao subdistrict, Sai Yok district, Kanchanaburi province. Kanchanaburi: KanchanaburiRajabhat University. 4Chuaybumrung, T. (2011). Local wisdom for creative community development. Bangkok: The College of Local Government Development, King Prajadhipok’s Institute. 5Cultural Information Center, Ministry of Culture. (2012). Bamboo shoot processing (online). http://www.m-culture.in.th/moc_new/category/life/. July 20, 2014. 6Dalkir, K. (2005). Knowledge Management in Theory and Practice.Burlington, MA: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. 7Doungooppama, S and Paranak, P. (2013). The transfer of knowledge and wisdom woven reed mats. Journal of Community Development and Quality of Life 1 (3): 195-203. 8Grenier, L. (1998). Working with Indigenious Knowledge: A Guide for Researchs. Ottawa: International Development Research Center.
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9Jai-Aree, A. (2012). Local wisdom of agriculture and environment. Nakhon Pathom: Department of Human Resource and Community Development, Kasetsart University. 10Jai-Aree, A.; Pongpan Traimongkolkul and Sunti Srisuantang. (2011). Status and utilization of forest products in Ban Phu Toei community forest: participatory case study.Kasetsart University Journal (Social Sciences), 32: 229-242. 11Keyser, Richard Lewis. (2004). Assessing the Relationship between Knowledge Management and Plant Performance at the Tennessee Valley Authority. Doctor dissertation, The University of Alabama. 12Klaisuban, A., and Prasitkusol, P. (2007).Knowledge management of local wisdom on bamboos in Ta Sao subdistrict, Sai Yok district, Kanchanaburi province. Kanchanaburi: Kanchanaburi Rajabhat University. 13Laudon, Kenneth C. and Laudon, Jane.P. (2002).Management Information Systems: Managing the Digital Firm.7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall. 14Mertins, K., Heisig, P. and Vorbeck, J. (2003). Knowledge Management: Concepts and Best Practices.2nded. New York: Springer. 15Moolaniti PhumPanya.(1993). Local wisdom and rural development volume 2. Bangkok: Amarin Printing Group. 16Morey, Daryl.,Maybory, Mark and Thraising, Bhavani. (2002). Knowledge Management: Classic and Contemporary Works. Cambridge: MIT Press. 17Na Thalang, E. (1997).Local wisdom of 4 regions: lifestyle and learning process of Thai villagers. Nonthaburi: Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University. 18Poonpolakun, K., &Wongtong, O. (2001).Thai cuisine and Thai wisdom.Division of Nutrition and Food Science, Department of Home Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University.(Photocopied documents). 19Praputnitisan, S. (2003).Participatory action research:concepts and practices. Chiang Mai:Academic program for children and community, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University. 20Ruang-Udomchokchai, P. (2012).Factors affecting the knowledge management of local wisdom on educational managementin municipal schools, Trang province (online). http://www.kroobannok.com/blog/63630. July 20, 2014. 21Sri-Choi, K. (2013).Knowledge synthesis from weaving cloth wisdom of Bannueankham through learning (online). http://www.teched.rmutt.ac.th/. July 20, 2014. 22Sung-Sri, S. (2007).Local wisdom and creation of learning society. Journal of Education, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, 2(3), 99-100. 23Thomas H. Davenport and Larry Prusak. (1998). Working Knowledge: How Organizations Manage What They Know. England: Harvard Business School Press.
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24Tiwana, Amrit. (2003). The Knowledge Management Toolkit: Practical Techniques for Building a Knowledge Management System.Atlanta: Prentice- Hall. 25Teanprapakul, P. (2014). Process of Knowledge Transfer of Local Wisdom on Earthenware Production: The Case of Ban Monkaokaew Pichai Sub-District, Muang District, Lampang. Journal of humanities and social sciences KhonKaen university, 31 (2) May-August, 79-100. 26Wasi, P. (1987).Invention of Thai wisdom for development. Journal of Community Development, 1(5).
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Effect of Motivation on Perceived Labor Productivity: A Case Study of Garment Factories in HLAING THAR YAR INDUSTRY ZONE, MYANMAR
Thant Sin Department of Business Administration Faculty of Business, Economics and Communication Naresuan University, Thailand Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Motivation plays an important role in all public and private organizations. Without motivating their employees organizations can’t run and achieve their goals. The aim of present study is to explore the effect of motivation on perceived labor productivity of private garment factories in Hlaing Thar Yar Industrial Zone, Myanmar. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory was used as a tool to perform a research study to monitor the motivation and perceived labor productivity. To achieve this objective survey study was carried out at garment factories in Hlaing Thar Yar Industrial Zone and data collected using questionnaire. The sample consists of 379 employees and 51 managers from 51 garment factories. Data analysis was performed by using SPSS software by applying statistical techniques. The empirical results indicate that the hygiene factors and motivating factors are positively and significantly correlated with perceived labor productivity. Then, the results also show that, monetary, relationship with supervisor, personal-growth, job security and recognition factors are statistically significant contribution to the prediction of perceived labor productivity in garment factories.
Keywords: garment factory, motivational factors, perceived labor productivity
1. Introduction Garment factories are one of the oldest and largest export oriented industries in the developing and least developed countries in Asia. This industry plays a vital role in the global market and participates in the regional and international production and distribution networks (Kudo, 2010). The industry provides more job opportunities than any other business enterprises in the least developed and developing countries. Moreover, this industry plays a significant role in the economy because of its foreign exchange earnings potential. Motivation is the most import factor for improving perceived labor productivity (Zameeret.al., 2014). Motivation is a helpful instrument in the hands of management in exciting the workforce. It increases the willingness of the labors to work, so increasing the effectiveness of the factory. Motivating labor is a fundamentally important dimension of successful management and a vital aspect of a leader’s role. Factory outcomes can be enhanced by having motivated labors. Motivated employees are inclined to be more productive than non-motivated employees. Motivated employees will increase the capability of the factory to achieve its mission, goals and objectives (Anuj, & Anita, 2015). Employee motivation has a direct impact on perceived labor productivity. Motivated employees are likely to deliver higher perceived labor productivity and influence others to work harder. Perceived labor productivity is also an important aspect of supply change
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 30 management of factories and it is able to improve factory performance. In order to achieve motivation, managers must know each worker and should practice a wide range of motivational techniques. Therefore, an attempt has been made to find out: what are the motivational factors in the garment factories? How these motivational factors effect on perceived labor productivity in the garment factories?
1.1 Statement of the Problem Private garment factories in Myanmar have faced many problems. The Myanmar creative productivity index (CPI) still ranks 22out of 24 in the Asia- Pacific Region (ADB, EIU, 2014). This means that, productivity is the one of the most critical issues facing the Myanmar garment factories. The garment factories in Cambodia, Laos PDR, Myanmar and Vietnam (CLMV) are faced with similar constraints but the labor productivity of Myanmar remains at a low level compared to its peers CLV (Kunzli et al, 2014).
1.2 Research Objective The purposes of this study are:
To identify the motivational factors in the private garment factories in Hlaing Thar Yar Industrial Zone, Myanmar. To determine the motivational factors influence on the perceived labor productivity in the private garment factories in Hlaing Thar Yar Industrial Zone, Myanmar.
1.3 Research Hypotheses The following hypotheses were investigated. H1: There is a relationship between hygiene factors and perceived labor productivity. H2: There is a relationship between motivating factors and perceived labor productivity. H3: There is an impact of motivational factors (hygiene and motivating) on perceived labor productivity. 1.4 Scope of the Study The study focuses only on the private garment factories in Hlaing Thar Yar Industrial Zone of Yangon, Myanmar. The vast majority of Myanmar garment manufacturers are concentrated in this zone, in the form of both domestic and multinational private companies. This study also focuses on the hygiene factors (company policy, relationship with supervisor, relationship with co-worker, monetary, job security, working condition), and motivating factors (achievement, advancement, personal growth, recognition, responsibility) of garment factories in Hlaing Thar Yar Industrial Zone. Further, these motivational factors (hygiene and motivating) effect on perceived labor productivity are examined.
1.5 Benefits of the Study The motivation is an important factor influencing organizational efficiency. It is a helpful instrument in the hands of management in encouraging workers to give of their best. Motivation increases willingness of workers to work, thus increasing the
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 31 effectiveness of the factory, reducing labor problems and increasing productivity. It forms the basis of cooperation and improves the public image of the company (Chaudhary & Sharma, 2012). Through the best practices in perceived labor productivity management, garment manufacturers can achieve performance benefits in terms of improved productivity, reduced production costs, reduced production time, higher exports, increased returns on assets, and improved HR capabilities. Finally, this study provides valuable data for decision makers and industrial relations practitioners on the impact and application of theories of motivation as perceived labor productivity.
2. Literature Review
‘Why managers need to motivate employee?’ It is because of the survival of the company (Smith, 1994). Motivated employees are needed in our rapidly changing workplaces. Motivated employees are needed for the survival of the organizations and it helps to increase productivity (Lindner, 1998). Unmotivated employees are likely to expend little effort in their jobs, avoid the workplaces as much as possible, exit the organization and produce low quality of work (Amabile, 1993).To be effective, managers need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform. Of all the functions a manager performs, motivating employee is arguably the most complex (Lindner, 1998). It is evident that managers need to motivate employees to obtain the desirable results for the organization. And it can be stated that there is consensus about the facts that motivation is an individual phenomenon, it is described as being intentional, it is multifaceted and that the purpose of motivational theories is to predict behavior. It seems that Maslow, Herzberg and McClelland are the first researchers at this topic and their theories are still being used today.
2.1The Content Theories of Motivation
There are number of views of literary personalities relating to motivation and motivational theories. Content theories give us a lead to know about people’s needs and the things which are necessary for motivation work: a. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory: This theory is based on the assumption that there is a hierarchy of five needs within each individual. Maslow suggests that they are arranged hierarchically (levels or stages) from the lowest to highest. Those stages are: the physiological need, the need for safety, the need for love, the need for esteem and the need for self actualization. Maslow (1943) separated his hierarchy of needs into higher and lower order needs. Physiological, safety and social needs were described as lower-order needs and esteem and self- actualization needs, as higher- order needs. When lower-order needs are satisfied people become motivated by high order needs such as the need for supportive and satisfactory relationships with others, needs for freedom, independence, recognition and achievement and finally the need to develop one’s potential. The self- actualization which is the highest step in Maslow’s pyramid can be described as the ending point of gradual psychological maturation process. This final level is achieved by few people and unlike other needs is never fully satisfied.
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 32 b. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: This theory focuses on outcomes of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Hertzberg (1968) revealed that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not opposite phenomena. He also point out that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are produced by different factors. He termed the sources of work satisfaction as “motivating factors” (intrinsic). Motivators are also known as “growth factors” and are closely related to the nature and content of work done. These factors include achievements, advancement, recognition, responsibility, personal growth and are associated with positive feelings about their work. Griffin and Moorhead (2009) described that when present in a job, these factors could apparently cause satisfaction and motivation; when they were absent, the result was feelings of no satisfaction rather than dissatisfaction. Hertzberg termed the sources of work dissatisfaction as “hygiene factors” (extrinsic) and are factors in the job context that includes salary, interpersonal relations (supervisor and subordinates), company policies and administration, working condition and job security. If these factors are adequately provided for, there will be no dissatisfaction. In order to motivate employees, the theory suggests that the intrinsic aspects of work need to be considered separately. c. McClelland’s Theory of Needs: This theory focuses on three motivators that are relevant in an organizational context. McClelland indicates that some people have higher needs than others. Moreover, needs in McClelland’s point of view change over a life as they are shaped by peoples’ experience. McClelland (1990) revealed that there are three needs of human that are very important and necessary, (a) necessity for attainment; an erudite need to outrival and show in life, (b) necessity for power, an erudite need to lead and change the conducts and dogmas of others, (c) need for connection, a speculative need for social interaction with others. Above mention three theories, the researcher used Fredrick Herzberg Two-Factors Theory as a tool to perform for my research study because: Hertzberg’s theory was more directly applicable to the work situation. This theory was focusing attention on the importance of job-centered factors in the motivation of employees. Herzberg’s theory brought a lot of interest from academics and from managers who were looking for ways of motivating their employees. The reason for so much interest in Herzberg’s results comes from a dual character of his work. This theory was a very clear distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
3. Methodology 3.1 Population and Sample size As an empirical study, the field survey designed to cover all export oriented private garment factories using the cut, make and packing (CMP) system. The target population for this study is employees from the private garment factories in Hlaing Thar Yar Indusatrial Zone. There are altogether 23000 employees in 51 garment factories, which are population for the study. By calculation the Cochran’s formula (1977), the sample sizes are379 employees and 51 managers from 51 garment factories in Hlaing Thar Yar Indusatrial Zone. However, the actual survey has been conducted with only 48 factories as 3 factories refused to answer the questionnaire and total number of employees 335 and manager 48 were responded.
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3.2 Research Instrument
Surveys are suitable for research questions on self-reported beliefs or behaviors and it is applied to collect the primary data (Neuman, 2006).Two different semi-structured questionnaires were designed and employed: one for labor sample and another for manager sample. Labors report on “motivation” and personal demographic data such as age, gender, position, and so forth whereas managers provide data on “perceived labor productivity of their factory”, company profile, and personal demographic data. Personal demographic, company profile and perceived labor productivity were acquired via close type and multiple choice questions while motivational factors were measured on five-point Likert-type scale, (1- strongly disagree to 5- strongly agree). The study is of a mixed method type, employing quantitative and complementary qualitative methods.
The different Likert-type scales to measure for the employee motivation factors, the number of items included, and their Cronbach’s alpha values are shown in Table(1). It was found that Cronbach’s alpha value for all factors were greater than the criteria value 0.6, thus result indicating that the employee motivation measurement scale used in this study had the sufficient reliability (Sekaran, 2005). Table 1: Reliability Measures.
Hygiene Factors N of Cronbach’s Motivating Factors N of Cronbach’s Items alpha Items alpha
Company policies (CP) 4 0.773 Achievement (Ac) 3 0.689
Relationship with 4 0.876 Advancement (Ad) 3 0.693 supervisor (RS) Personal Growth 3 0.707 Relationship with co- 4 0.768 (PG) worker (RC) Recognition (Rec) 3 0.873 Monetary (M) 4 0.861 Responsibility (Res) 3 0.763 Job security (JS) 3 0.766
Working condition 3 0.695 (WC)
Source: Survey data 3.3 Data Collection The primary data was collected through self-administered questionnaires from 335 semi-skilled labors and 48 managers from 48 garment factories in Hlaing Thar Yar Indusatrial Zone. In order to get in-depth understanding of the gathered data, qualitative research was done through personal interviews of five managers as the sample informants from the 48 garment factories. The data was recorded by audio recording and written notes. In addition, the secondary data was extracted from various publication, text books, websites, and Myanmar garment manufacturer association annual reports.
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3.4 Data Analysis Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS version 17.0) was employed to collate and analyze the data. First, the demographic characteristics of the respondents are presented as descriptive statistic to illustrate the general information. The next step, Pearson correlation and multiple regression analysis were also employed for data analysis. Correlation analysis is a measure of association between two or more variables (Fisher, 2007). To make the most of this study, the prediction perceived labor productivity could be possible with analyzing the same set of data using multiple regression. Qualitative data analysis is the range of processes and procedures that move from the qualitative data that have been collected into interpretation of the key informants. These interview data sets are analyzed by manual method listing the audio to find out the current situation of garment factories in Hlaing Thar Yar industrial zone. It has listened again and again to organize the messages into the crucial themes.
4. Results To observe the effect of motivation on perceived labor productivity in garment factories, the correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis were used to examine the connection between independent and dependent variables. Table 2: Correlation between motivational factors and perceived labor productivity.
CP RS RC M JS WC Ac Ad PG Rec Res PLP CP 1 RS .179** 1 RC .275** .297** 1 M .192** .425** .363** 1 JS .323** .373** .408** .394** 1 WC .245** .211** .260** .238** .424** 1 Ac .227** .159** .177** .196** .224** .202** 1 Ad .158** .229** .242** .212** .262** .177** .337** 1 PG .207** .387** .308** .405** .349** .266** .167** .289** 1 Rec .267** .335** .299** .423** .288** .181** .244** .209** .475** 1 Res .240** .236** .255** .276** .362** .216** .158** .366** .313** .277** 1 PLP .256** .619** .399** .689** .516** .300** .155** .205** .578** .494** .284** 1 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Correlation analysis is normally used to describe the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. Table 2 shows that the Pearson correlation matrix depicting the association between the independent variables (hygiene and motivating factors) and dependent variable (perceived labor productivity). Results of the analysis found that all the hygiene factors and motivating factors are positively and significantly correlated with perceived labor productivity at the 0.01 level. Thus, hypothesis H1, and hypothesis H2 are all accepted. Results also show that monetary (r= 0.689), relationship with supervisor (r=0.619), personal growth (r= 0.578), and job security (r=0.516) factors are highly correlated with perceived labor productivity. Another factors recognition (r=0.494), relationship with co-worker (r=0.399), working condition (r=0.300), responsibility (r=0.284), company policy(r=0.256), advancement ( r=0.205), and achievement (r=0.155) factors are moderate correlated with perceived labor productivity. In order to see which factors, either hygiene factors or motivating factors or both, have the best predictor on the perceived labor productivity. To address this question, multiple regression analysis was conducted and then interpreted beta weight to assess
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 35 the relative predictive contribution of each of these variables considered. Model I is an estimated regression model of hygiene factors on perceived labor productivity. Model II is an estimated regression model of motivating factors on perceived labor productivity. Model III is an estimated regression model of both hygiene factors and motivating factors on perceived labor productivity. Table 3: Results of multiple regression analysis (Model I) with hygiene factors. Variable Beta Sig. R Square Adj. R Square F Sig.
CP .034 .343 RS .339 .000 RC .051 .182 .642 .636 98.143 .000 M .445 .000 JS .171 .000 WC .028 .450
The table 3 shows that the model (I) study on hygiene factors (company policy, relationship with supervisor, relationship with co-worker, monetary, job security and working condition) explained 64.2% of variance in perceived labor productivity. According to the table, F statistics of 98.143, (p<.05) indicated that the regression model I of the hygiene factors on the perceived labor productivity variable assessed was statistically significant. The coefficients described the relative contribution of the variables considered to the prediction of dependent variable. Results indicated that, relationship with supervisor, monetary and job security factors were statistically significant contribution to the prediction of perceived labor productivity. The largest beta coefficient is 0.445, (p<.05) which is for monetary. This meant that monetary variable made the strongest unique contribution to the explaining the dependent variable, perceived labor productivity. The second largest beta coefficient is 0.339, (p<.05) which is for relationship with supervisor variable. The least beta coefficient is 0.171, (p<.05) which is for job security variable, indicating that it made less contribution to the prediction of perceived labor productivity. Table 4: Results of multiple regression analysis (Model II) with motivating factors. Variable Beta Sig. R Square Adj. R Square F Sig. Ac .007 .873 Ad -.005 .918
PG .427 .000 0.402 0.393 44.241 .000
Rec .270 .000
Res .076 .110
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The table 4 shows that, the model II study on motivating factors (achievement, advancement, personal-growth, recognition and responsibility) explained 40.2% of variance in perceived labor productivity. From the table, F statistics of 44.241, (p<.05) indicated that the regression model II of the motivating factors on the perceived labor productivity variable assessed was statistically significant. In this study, personal-growth and recognition were statistically significant contribution to the prediction of perceived labor productivity. The largest beta coefficient is 0.427, (p<.05) which is for personal-growth. This meant that personal growth variable made the strongest unique contribution to the explaining the dependent variable, perceived labor productivity. The least beta coefficient is 0.270, (p<.05) which is for recognition variable, indicating that it made less contribution to the prediction of perceived labor productivity.
Table5: Results of multiple regression analysis (Model III) with all motivational factors. Variable Beta Sig. R Square Adj. R Square F Sig. CP .022 .511 RS .288 .000 RC .031 .386 M .381 .000 JS .165 .000 WC .015 .667 0.698 0.688 67.906 .000 Ac -.054 .111 Ad -.053 .133 PG .226 .000 Rec .099 .009 Res -.035 .317
The table 5 shows that the model III study on all the motivational factors (both hygiene and motivating factors) explained 69.8% of variance in perceived labor productivity. According to the table, F statistics 67.906, (p<.05) indicated that the regression model III of the motivational factors (both hygiene and motivating factors) on the perceived labor productivity variable assessed were statistically significant. It is also found that only five of the eleven variables (relationship with supervisor, monetary, job security, personal growth, recognition) were statistically significant contribution to the prediction of perceived labor productivity. The monetary (beta =.381), made the strongest unique contribution to the explaining the perceived labor productivity. And then, relationship with supervisor, personal growth, job security and recognition also made a statistically significant contribution with (beta = .288), (beta = .226), (beta=.165) and (beta=.099) respectively. Thus, it can be concluded that
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 37 effective motivational factors lead to perceived labor productivity. Therefore, hypothesis H3 is also accepted.
To sum up, if the effects on the perceived labor productivity of hygiene factors and motivating factors are separately considered, three hygiene factors of relationship with supervisor, monetary and job security, and two motivating factors of personal growth and recognition are found to be significantly affect the perceived labor productivity. However, if the effects on the perceived labor productivity of hygiene factors and motivating factors are simultaneously considered, three hygiene factors of relationship with supervisor, monetary and job security and two motivating factors personal growth and recognition are also found to be significantly affect on the perceived labor productivity. And also, hygiene factors explain 64.2% and motivating factors explain 40.2% of variance in perceived labor productivity. Therefore, it is sufficiently evident to conclude that hygiene factors are more important than motivating factors in explaining the perceived labor productivity. However, the company should be considered both factors (by the result of model III, R-square 69.8%) for improving the perceived labor productivity in garment factories of Hlaing Thar Yar industrial zone.
5. Conclusion and Discussion Employee motivation plays a vital role in making a successful business and to maintain consistent performance. Managers must motivate employees by bringing out their talents and encouraging them to work individually and in group. This paper found that all the hygiene factors and motivating factors are positively and significantly correlated with perceived labor productivity. We can say that if top management put their focus upon motivation of employees then it will leaders toward a positive increase in perceived labor productivity. From the result of the multiple regression analysis of model (I,II,III) only five of the eleven factors (relationship with supervisor, monetary, job security, personal growth and recognition) have significant effected on perceived labor productivity. In terms of relative importance, monetary is the most important, followed by relationship with supervisor, personal growth, job security, and recognition respectively. Therefore, it is observed that the hygiene factors are more important than the motivating factors in explaining the perceived labor productivity of garment factories in Hlaing Thar Yar industrial zone. Results from present study suggest that if garment factories motivate their employees by using these tools such as monetary, relationship with supervisor, personal growth, job security and recognition then the perceived labor productivity automatically will be increased and the factory can achieve their goals easily. As a general overview, the findings of this study indicate that if managers and supervisors choose the right and proper motivator factors will not only increase the employee’s motivation but also improve the perceived labor productivity. Regarding the limitations of this study, the motivation of employees studied from the framework of Herzberg’s two factors theory. Further research should also be considered from other theoretical point of views for employee motivation. In this regards, the underlying factors of motivations and perceived labor productivity of government employees should also be done in the future. Finally, as a concluding remarks we can say that we have clearly answered our research questions, meet our research purposes and accepted our hypotheses.
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References [1] ADB. (2014). Asia Development Bank: analyzing creative productivity index, the Economist Intelligence Unit. [2] Amabile, T. (1993). Motivational synergy: toward new conceptualizations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in the workplace. Human Resource Management Review,185-201. [3]Anuj, S.,& Anita, S. (2015). Impact of motivation on employee’s performance / productivity. International Journal of Scientific Research and Reviews, ISSN:2279-0543. [4] Chaudhary, N.,& Sharma, B. (2012). Impact of employee motivation on performance (productivity) in private organization, IJBTT-vol.2 Issue 4. [5] Fisher, C. (2007). Researching and writing a dissertation, A guidebook for business students second edition, Pearson Education Limited, England. [6] Griffin,W,. & Moorhead, G. (2009). Organizational Behavior: Managing People and Organizations. (9th ed.). USA: Thompson South-Western. [7] Herzberg, F,. (1968). One more time: How do you motivate employees? Harvard Business Review, Jan 68, Vol. 46 Issue 1, 53-63. [8] Kudo, T. (2010). Investment climate in Myanmar: the case of the garment industry. In investment climate of major cities in CLMV edited by Masami Ishida, BRC, Bangkok research report, No 4. Bangkok Research Center, IDE_JETRO, Bangkok Thailand, 1-35. [9] Kunzli ,A., Raps ,L., Bals ,S.,&Wichate ,Y. (2014). Discovering Myanmar as a manufacturing country. Barcelona school of management and ESCI-UPF. [10]Linder, J. (1998). Under standing employee motivation. Journal of extention, 36(3),1-8. [11] Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation, Psychological Review,370-396. [12] McClelland, D. (1990). Human motivation, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. [13] Neuman, W. (2006). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 6th Edition. [14] Sekaran, U. (2005). Research methods for business: A skill-building approach (4thed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. [15] Smith, G. P. (1994). Motivation, Human resources management and development hand book (2nded.). [16] Zameer, H., Ali, S., Nisar, W.,& Amir, M. (2014).The impact of the motivation on the employee’s performance in beverage industry of Pakistan: International Journal of AAFMS Vol.4,No.1.
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The Establishment of Relationship among Multi Ages of Sasimum Sub-District, Kamphaeng Saen District, Nakhonpathom Province By Using Community Health Activities
Wipanun Muangsakul, Rojana Nilmanon, Bundit Thongsong, Borvorn Subsing, Yutthana Kadem, Suthanee Maliphan, Seksan Sonwa, Kritsada Siripattanachotikul, Prasong Tanpichai Nirun Yingyod and Sunti Srisuantang*
Department of Human and Community Resource Development, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University, KamphaengSaen Campus, Thailand *Corresponding Author: [email protected] Tel. 081-467-5236
Abstract This action research has aim to; 1) design relationship activities to improve health of elderly in community, 2) to study the result of relationship activities that will build relationship between multi ages to driving community health activities, and 3) to reflect ideas of relationship activities that will build relationship between multi ages to driving community health activities. The approach of data collation is including qualitative and quantitative approach applied to both pre and post-test. The qualitative part is conducted in group meeting, observation and analysis of document and target area which is including leads, member of community and researchers. This research has pointed out that relationship activities to promote health of elderly is a training program of how to elderly care and their parents. This program is including session of how to make the herbal compress and the herbal water from Ya-Nang leaf. The result of this study has shown that those students from every grade who had attended to the session are having better knowledge. Furthermore, the result of this study also gave a positive sign as attendees are able to apply their knowledge to care their parents and elderly in their family. Lastly, government, students, parents and elderly in community also reflect that this program is satisfying them as it can help to promote better relationship between people in different age. Key words: human and community resource development, community health, elderly
Background and Significant of Study
The concern on elderly in community is considered as important issue by last decade, this can be reflected from several of rules and agreement conducted by government to improve the quality of life of elderly. Furthermore, rules and act are also enforced and the consequences are showing that elderly in Thailand are being developed and care. These consequences are really important as the structure of population in Thailand is predicted to transforms to a Complete Ageing Society by 2021. The Complete Ageing Society means that there are at least 1 / 5 of the whole population in the community are elderly (Health Information System Development Office, 2014; Board of support and reformation of elderly of Thailand, 2015). Elderly are considered as venerable and really precious to community since they have experience and they were key factor to nation and community back in their age. These are reason why elderly should be praised and care to have better condition of their life. Younger people in the community are the key factor and they should prepare for coming up issue of elderly
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 40 to context with Thai culture and practice which is including balance of body, mind, social and spiritual. These are described as function of the concept of health. (Prawet Wasi, 2011)Refers to described information, promotion of quality of life in elderly should considering about activities that invite family members and people in community to elderly care by using local wisdoms and knowledge which can be transferred to next generation of people in community. Sasimun Sub-district is consisted of 24 villages and Sasimun Health Promoting Hospital has 13 villages under its scope. The researchers had collected raw data from visiting the place and interview with related parties including people and representative from Sasimun Health Promoting Hospital, Local Administration of Sasimun sub-district, Don-Tao-It School, lead of people in the community and volunteer from Public Health Organization of villages. These related organizations are having the same agreement that relationship activity should be promoted to bring better relationship between different ages in community. These are believed to bring sustainable improvement of quality of life in elderly to help them live properly in community and also bring happiness and health to them.
Objective 1. To design relationship activities that will build relationship between multi ages to driving community health activities in Sasimun sub-district. 2. To study the result of relationship activities that will build relationship between multi ages to driving community health activities in Sasimun sub-district. 3. To reflect ideas of relationship activities that will build relationship between multi ages to driving community health activities in Sasimun sub-district.
Approach This research is an action research describe with the qualitative method. An action research is about designing relationship activities that will build relationship between multi ages to driving community health activities in Sasimun sub-district, Kamphaeng Saen district, Nakhonpathom province. Stakeholders are including: 1) leaders in community including director of local school, director of health promoting hospital and developer from local administration in community, 2) members of community including sage of community, parents, student and elderly, and 3) the researchers. Step of approach 1. Define research proposition: Conduct a meeting between related parties to discuss about the related issues and choose the issue to solve or develop. Then, develop the proposition or problem and brainstorm on possibility to solve or develop the solution. Lastly, co-ordinate to setup the direction and process of the research. 2. Process the action research This research is consisted of planning, action, observation and reflect thinking. Step1: Planning Planning is started from interview, observation and conduct group conversation with leader of community, director of local school, director of health promoting hospital and developer from local administration of sub-district to develop plan to process the relationship activities to promote health in community.
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Step2: Action and Observation This step has been divided into 2 parts; Step2-1 Preparation: this step is including meeting between the researchers term and stakeholders to develop action plan. Step2-2 Action: this step is about the planned activities which run by the stakeholders in the community. These activities are leads by leader of community with assist from the group of researchers to help them run the event smoothly. The researchers took an account in coordinator, facilitator in the activities and data collection from event by observation and note taking. The researchers also need to evaluate the result of conducted event by apply pre and post-test to 67 students from grade 4, 5 and 6 who joined the event. The reliability coefficients of pre and post-test is 0.6. Then, home visiting with 10 selected volunteer also conducted. Step3: Reflection This step is about reflects the think of the community. Reflection step is required from the teacher of Don-Tao-It School, the director of health promoting hospital and the developer from local administration. Furthermore, 5 people from group of elderly and parent and 7 students volunteer. Lastly, all of these volunteer are required to join with the researchers share the lessons learned the activities of participants.
Results of Study 1. The context of the community of Sasimun sub-district related that drive the community health activity of elderly in the community. Sasimun sub-district has an area covered around 10,167 acre. The geography is considered as low land, it caused the area to be flooded in some area when the rainy season has arrived The area has been divided into 24 villages with approximately 2,728 families and 9,748 people including 4,728 men and 5,020 women (Local Administration of Sasimun sub-district, 2015). In description, 13 villages under control of Sasimun Health Promoting Hospital have been studied by the researchers. The topic is about community activities that including; the day of older person, the campaign to against Dengue, an introduction of herbal uses, an introduction for better housekeeping, and an introduction to protect themselves from dangerous chemical that might be found during their daily life.
2. The result from planning of relationship activities to promote health in elderly. Referred to discussion between community leads, director from local school, director from local hospital and developer from the local administration, the relationship activities to promote well-being in elderly has been developed to help younger to have better knowledge and attitude with elderly in their family and also able to apply knowledge in the future. The target of the program is including elderly, parents and Grade 4-6 students to study 2 main activities including; “Making Herbal Compression” and “Making Herbal waters from Ya-Nang leaf”.
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3. The result of relationship activities that driving community health activities in Sasimun sub-district. 3.1 Basic information of student participated. Refers to the training of the elderly care, there are 67 students participated to the session with 61.2% of men, 41.8 % from grade 5 and 37.3% from grade 6. The significant evidence also showing that most of them are having elderly in their family which is can be considered as 67.2% (Table 1).
Table 1 number of student participated in the training of looking after elderly people.
N=67 Information Number (person) % Gender Man 41 61.2 Woman 26 38.8 Grade Grade 4 14 20.9 Grade5 28 41.8 Grade6 25 37.3 Having elderly in the family Yes 45 67.2 No 22 32.8
3.2 Result of the Activity The result of the activity can be divided into 3 sections as below: 3.2.1 Fundamental about elderly care of student The study has shown the improvement of knowledge of taking care of elderly in student participated after they have been trained. In addition, there are significant change as table 2 (p<.05).
Table2 comparing the different of knowledge as of before and after training. N=67 Knowledge of Student (n) X S.D t-test p-value* Student Before training 67 6.93 1.16 -6.98 .00 After training 67 8.21 1.49 p-value< .05*
3.2.2 The result from adaption of knowledge transferred As the follow up on application of knowledge that has been transferred to selected student from Don-Ta-It school, the result has shown that most of them brought the herbal compression to use in their family. The herbal compression has been used in massaging to reduce pain in many parts of body such as back and shoulder. One of them also gave a comment as below;
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“…I had used the herbal compression with my grandmother. It had really good smell while I had it warm in the cooker. I can smell the hint of herbal. I put it on grandmother shoulder and arm then press on her arms. She also told me that she felt better as it reduced stress in muscle…” 3.2.3 The result from reflective thinking of relationship activities to drive community health activities. The result from the training has shown that students who attended the training have improved their knowledge in elderly care at almost every grade. In the part of satisfaction, the research has pointed out that student who participated in the session are satisfied at the max in every topics. In the part of knowledge adaption, the result show high satisfaction from parents and elderly as these knowledge are able to use in the real situation. For example, using of the herbal compression to reduce pain and stress of muscle in elderly. In addition, the smell of herbal also helps elderly to relax and reduce stress of mind. The reflective thinking of relationship activity to drive well-being in the community through the community leads and members, student leads and the researchers pointed out that there are changes in relationship found in 3 different ways 1) Relationship in family: the research found that relationship between members including parent student and elderly is getting better as they are able to spend more time together and also able to care more on other as they have the same activity to share their own time. In addition, it also help younger to have good activity to do while they are in free-time and it also help them to improve responsibility and improve bond with other family members. These also described by a conversation with one of the elderly “…I think that these activities are good as it help in tied up relationship in family. Family also has greater time together as we are sharing the same activity. It also helps in reduction of gap between ages as we are able to have more conversation together…” 2) Relationship between relative: the research found that the program help those younger who participated to have better relationship as they are able to have much more conversation that also related to better relationship between relative and closer gap between ages. It also confirmed by one of the elderly volunteer as follow “… It is good to have the compression ball therapy, orn rarely do this therapy to her real grandmother but me as a relative I do like this. She always came to me almost every evening. I also told her that I this is great and I really love the smell of those herbal…” 3)Relationship between people in community: the research found that the conducted activity also stimulates an awareness of multi ages in community including younger, elderly, parent and government’s organization that help in building better relationship in different level including family, relative and social. It could be said that this can lead changes to the community of Sasimun sub-district as the structure of the community here is building on relative structure. In addition, the reflective thinking also pointed out that “STRENGHT” is a significant factor that the community should align with in case of building up a better community.
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Sharing
Healthy Teamwork
Relationship Techno Relationship Structure building in Multi Ages
Growth Empowerment
Network
S – Sharing is about sharing knowledge, skills and experience while working on the activity. T – Teamwork is about finishing the task with co-operation between related organization. R – Relationship is about build up relationship between members in the community and relationship between multi ages. E – Empowerment is about improve the performance of younger in community to drive the community health activities of elderly. N – Network is about relationship and co-operation between organization including inside and outside the community. G – Growth is about younger in community will be the significant factor that will drive the future of the community. T – Techno Structure is about academic association (Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus) will help to improve the ability of the community. H – Healthy is about to drive the community reach the goal of well-being.
Research Conclusion The result in this study is start from the planning of relationship activities to promote well-being in elderly. The participant as been developed to help younger to have better knowledge and attitude with elderly care in their family and also able to apply knowledge in the future. An activities including “Making Herbal Compression” and “Making Herbal waters from Ya-Nang leaf”. The relationship activity to drive the community health activities through the community leads and members, student leads and the researchers pointed out that there are changes in relationship found in 3 different ways; 1) relationship in family, 2) relationship between relative, and 3) relationship between people in community. In addition, the reflective thinking of the
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 45 participants pointed out that “STRENGHT” is a significant factor that the community should align with in case of building up a better community. Discussion 1. The activities which are designed to serve roles and interest of community that blending action from related part of the community are significant factor that lead to success of life condition and relation improvement of elderly at Sasimun sub-district. 2. The training by experienced trainers in the area combined with intimation with community also lead to succeed communication and knowledge transfer process. It also helps to expand the area of knowledge sharing. 3. Follow-up action after the training of the research team also help in adaption of the knowledge and skills gained from the training in the real situation. 4. The result of relation activity to promote life quality of elderly is not only has direct impact to quality of health of elderly and relation between ages but it also leads other good consequence such as happiness, proud, cooperation and also improve the understanding about people and resource in community. Recommendation 1. The direction of relation activity in the community including health promotion, economic, education or happiness improvement are require cooperation in community to brings idea, resource and funds to accomplished the target by considering the best performance of parties in the community. 2. The activity that has been used to develop the relation activity to promote life quality of elderly such as herbs planting, and relation development between groups in community can be considered as the initiation of ability improvement of the community. Acknowledgement This research has been supported on funding by Department of Human and Community Resource Development, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus.
References
Board of support and reformation of elderly of Thailand. (2015). Thailand Board of support and reformation of elderly Report. Health Information System Development Office. (2014). Life expectancy at birth (Online).http://www.hiso.or.th/hiso/visualize/Index.php?links=v1&show=2&n o=1&menu=1., 30 August2015. Local Administration of Sasimun Sub-District. (2015). General Information (Online). http://www.sasimum.go.th/index.php/2015-09-16-11-09-58., 30 August2015. Prawet Wasi. (2011). Health for All, All for Health (online). http://www.thaiichr.org/autopagev4/files/05booksum190711.pdf., 3 July2015.
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Curriculum Development of Training for Improving Competency of Government Officers in the Tax Department at Central Part of Lao PDR
Bounpone Sybounheuanga*, Prasong Tanpichaib and Santi Srisuantangb aThe Personnel Department, Ministry of Finance, Lao PDR bDepartment of Human and Community of Resource Development, Kasetsart University Corresponding author: e-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract This research aimed to study the state, problems and training needs of civil servants in the Tax Department at the central part of Lao and curriculum development of training for improving competency of civil servants. The population consisted of 377 officials and 11 specialists on curriculum development. The instruments were questionnaires and focus group and the data were analyzed by statistical package to look at frequency, percentage, means and standard deviation. The results revealed that; 1) civil servants got high percentage in three sections that include state-problems of working, training and training needs. Tax law, competency of working, occupational pride, good human relations and prioritizing government’s income were among the subject at the highest level for the training needs, and 2) curriculum development of training for improving competency of civil servants included subjects that were in the highest level. A subject was selected from the high level group with the highest frequency. The curriculum draft was sent to expertise to measure the item of objective congruence of curriculum structure and content. They commented that it was completely done and at the highest level. A focus group of expertise advised that the length of time should be in accordance with the subject’s context and the training methodology, particularly the hours of practice. Keywords: training curriculum, competency improvement
Introduction The National Economics and Society Plan (NESP) No. 6 of Lao PDR, Year 2006- 2010, was the most successful plan by setting the economics terms as center- development to support economic-growth by 7.5 to 8 percent a year. During implementation, there were some problems encountered that affected the development. The world’s financial crisis resulted in the increase of export and fuel costs. Investments in the mega projects resulted to a bottle neck for the developing countries. National Economics and Society Plan No. 7 was submitted late and resulted to limit the government’s management on macro-economic-policies (Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2011: 11-12).
The National Economics and Society Plan (NESP) No. 7, Year 2011-2015, insisted on human resource development, management improvement and determined a suitable measure for managing and enhancing civil servants’ skills, competence, attitude and experience for a short and long term plan. The NESP No. 7 extended its development and sustainability until 2020. The government wants to change from agricultural to industrial system through modernization. To lead the country out from the group of
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 47 least developing countries in the year 2020, the government had set 4 important breakthrough and necessary obligations such as mind set, human resource development, improving management system, and reduce poverty (MOPI, 2011:96).
The crucial key for developing country is an educated human resource. Education plays an important role in human development leading to civilization to match the developed countries. It is the basic key to build people physically, emotionally, socially and intellectually. Furthermore, education is still precedent of human’s competent development to lead the country to its objectives. Preparing an education for all should be considered in accordance with the human and society needs (Chunpen Chuepanich and et al 1993: 1).
Organizations have two key components: production and human resources. Production component is a mission of achieving objectives and organizing the work system to be able to administer all activities effectively. Human resources on the other hand, have sufficient knowledge and capability to manage all tasks. It is the most important key in the organization. If an organization does not have sufficient staff to do the job, it will not be successful in achieving its objective if they have technologies and method to support it (Sujitra Nunthana, 1996:4). Tax department under the Ministry of Finance whose mandates are:1.Assist the Ministerin both macro and micro Tax Policies 2.Evaluate the performance of the staff 3.Human resources development and human resources management administration 4. Drafting strategies, laws, regulations, and working methodologies 5. Disseminate the Tax laws to the public 6.Determinethe method and regulations of revenue collection 7.Internal controls of revenue collection done as per regulations 8.Do a master plan for training course and education up grade and 9. Application of new technologies (Minister’s decree no 1482/MOF, 2013:1-3).
The training curriculum is a crucial tool for developing human resources because it enhances knowledge, understanding, skills and attitude to be able to implement the duties effectively. Moreover, it is preparing the staff for the future. Therefore, curriculum development for improving competency of civil servants in the Tax Department at central part of Lao PDR is to be developed to meet the learners and department’s goals. Research Objectives 1. To study the state, problems and training needs of officials in the Tax Department at the central part of Lao PDR. 2. To develop curriculum of training course in improving competency of civil servant in the tax department at the central part of Lao PDR.
Methodology The population The population of this research was divided into two groups: the state, problems and training needs of 377 officials and the curriculum development of training course with 11 specialists.
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The research instrument A questionnaire and focus group were used. The questionnaire development consisted of 2 steps:1) state, problems and training needs, and 2) measure the curriculum between a structure and content. Assessment of research instrument Questionnaire was sent to 5 experts, for item of objective congruence and got the figure 0.60 – 1.00 totaled0.88, meaning the questionnaire is satisfactory. Finding its reliability with the30 officials of tax department in Luangprabang province, Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient, totaled 0.91 it has the high level and can proceed to the next step. Data collection Requested an official letter from personnel department and sent to relevant sectors to collect the data needed. From the data collected, drafted and sent the developed curriculum to experts and trainers for their consideration and organizing a focus group of specialists to discuss the measurement of the curriculum. Data analysis The data were divided into two types; 1) population’s information analyzed by frequency and percentages, and 2) state, problems and training needs and curriculum development analyzed by means and standard deviation. Research results The state, problems and training needs revealed that there were more males than females, (59.9%), age between 26-30 years was the majority, (24.9%), the majority graduated in bachelor’s degree, (73.5 %),a majority worked at the revenue division, (42.7 %) and a majority had worked under 6 years, (31.3%).
The state and problems of working consisted of three groups: understanding of laws, work attitude and work competence totaling to ( = 3.76, = .387)a high level, the highest was the work attitude group ( = 4.23, = .493) and the highest mean in the μ group was valuable duties ( = 4.67, = .626). Next was understanding of laws ( = μ 3.60, = .486), the highest in the group was tax laws ( = 3.81, = .662). And the μ μ final was work competence group, it was at the medium level ( = 3.43, = .693), the highest in the group was the computer literacy/competenceμ to use new technology ( = 4.06, = .929). The details are shown in Table 1. μ μ
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Table 1 The state and problems of working of Government officers. (N = 377) The state and problems of work Level Understanding of laws Understanding of laws concerned 3.12 .672 Medium Understanding of tax laws 3.81 .662 High Understanding in the tax policies 3.63 .737 High Understanding of tax regulations 3.67 .764 High Understanding of division’s rules 3.65 .769 High Understanding of the whole process of working 3.71 .710 High Total 3.60 .486 High The work Attitude Valuable duties 4.67 .626 Highest Work experience necessary for implementation 4.50 .726 Highest The designated job description satisfactory 4.46 .754 High The job description was boring 3.75 1.361 High Focusing on designated duties were key to doing other jobs 4.23 .969 High Pride/Appreciation of the designated job 4.49 .755 High The job description was challenging 4.14 .949 High Resolve difficult/challenging task by your own 4.46 .743 High Work well with co-workers and learn from each other 4.48 .669 High The workplace is motivating to perform tasks 4.13 .845 High Obstacles occurring on the job are left to someone else 3.19 1.371 Medium Total 4.23 .493 High Work Competence Computers literacy 4.24 .929 High Competent to work on the tax software 3.59 1.068 High Competent to use e-banking system 2.97 1.213 Medium Competent to use internet for job reporting 3.46 1.259 Medium Competent to install computer software by own 2.60 1.301 Medium Competent to do a difficult job 3.53 .996 High Competent to correspond in foreign languages 2.65 1.306 Medium Competent to do tax networking system 3.19 1.203 Medium Able to contact all relevant sectors 3.79 .916 High Competent to solve the conflict while implementing 3.46 .970 Medium Competent to control and evaluate the job performance 3.64 .895 High Competent in team work building 4.05 .851 High Total 3.43 .693 Medium Total of three groups 3.76 .387 High
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The state of problems of training, total a high level of (μ= 3.86, = .516), the highest mean of the group was the opportunity to participate in a training was useful for the job implementation (μ= 4.38, = .759) and the lowest mean was that the curriculum content was not fit for the job mandate (μ= 3.18, = 1.112). The details are shown in table 2. Table 2 The states and problems of training course of Government officers. (N = 377) The states problems of training course μ Level The training curriculum was related to your job 4.06 .861 High The training curriculum helps you to do the job 4.22 .769 High efficiently Training course should be conducted before new 3.73 1.171 High internal job resumption. The curriculum content was not fit for the job mandate 3.18 .964 Medium There were too many curriculums 3.42 1.112 Medium A study tour program should be organized 4.31 .878 High The time length of training was too short 3.88 1.013 High The recently training’s methodology was well done 3.64 1.008 High The opportunity to attend training course was useful for 4.38 .759 High job implementation The trainers were competent in transferring knowledge 3.90 .839 High The knowledge which was gained from training course 4.11 .792 High can be adopted to do job The training news was announced to civil servants 3.49 1.094 Medium Total 3.86 .516 High
The training needs consisted of four groups which included law, technology and communication, human resource management and visions group. Got a total of a high level of (μ= 4.31, = .242), the group which had the highest mean was vision group (μ= 4.48, = .547). Next was the laws (μ= 4.43, = .525) and the human resource management group (μ= 4.18, = .582). The lowest was the technology and communication group (μ= 4.16, = .672). The details are shown in table 3.
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Table 3 Training needs of Government officers (N = 377) The training needs μ Level The Law group The law was related to tax context 4.46 .714 High The tax law 4.63 .601 Highest The strategy for policies planning 4.27 .779 High The tax regulations 4.42 .722 High The division’s legislation/rules 4.27 .835 High Total 4.43 .525 High The technology and communication group Basic knowledge on Microsoft office 4.12 .975 High Reporting by e-mail 4.03 1.045 High How to use the Tax software 4.16 .991 High e-banking system 3.94 1.130 High English language 4.03 1.178 High Efficient communication 4.20 .950 High Networking management 3.88 1.057 High Finance and accounting 4.39 .736 High Total 4.16 .672 High The Human Resource Management The team building and networking in the organization 4.38 .697 High The leadership skills 4.31 .758 High The evaluation performance 4.17 .754 High The partnership management 4.17 .784 High The conflict administration 3.58 1.244 High The technical consultation 4.11 .8.34 High The organizational attitude 3.90 1.136 High The occupation pride 4.55 .732 Highest Safety first 4.35 .612 High Total 4.18 .582 High The visions group Self-development and self-competent 4.56 .607 Highest Good relation within co-workers 4.52 .648 Highest Prioritizing to government’s income 4.50 .786 Highest Responsibility to the organization and society 4.41 .739 High Mind set 4.42 .693 High Total 4.48 .547 High Total of fourth group 4.31 .468 High
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The curriculum development was divided into three steps: first, we prioritized the training needs with subjects in the highest level and a subject was selected from the high level group with the highest frequency and consulted with advisory committee. Second, the curriculum draft was sent to 11 experts and trainers for evaluation and comments. The expert’s recommendations were at the highest level. Third, a focus group was organized, the experts’ finding were presented to the focus group case by case. After discussions, it was concluded that only one case has to be changed. It is the content and length of time and that the laws were complicated and sensitive. The training focusing on theory may cause the trainees not to meet the organization’s objectives. Thus, to add more length of time to meet each subject content and training methods for implementation term, details were shown in table 4. Table 4 Curriculum structure Curriculum structure Hours 1. Overall subject group 12 1.1 Self-development in core competency 3 1.2 Occupational pride 3 1.3 Good relation within co-workers 3 1.4 Priority to government’s income first 3 2. The laws subjects 46 2.1 Tax law 18 2.2 Value Added Tax 8 2.3 National Budgeting Law 4 2.4 Enterprise Law 4 2.5 National Auditing Law 4 2.6 Accounting Law 6 2.7 Foreigner Investment Promotion 4 3. Practice 18 3.1 Study tour within province 6 3.2 Study tour outside province 12 Total 76
Conclusion The state problems of working and training, understanding of law concerned and curriculum content is not yet covered by the context of the curriculum and existing proceedings of the curriculum principles. According to Hilda Taba, 1962 the task of selecting and organizing of learning experience involves more that playing certain principles of learning. The training needs with subject that needed at highest level were: tax law, self- development for core competency, occupational pride, good relation, and privileges to government’s income. According to Chuchai Smithikrai (1997) training organizers
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 53 should survey the needs before conducting a training course to make sure that it will solve the issues that occur in the organization while Suchitra Nunthana (1994) mentioned that the organization’s human resource with problems can be clarified by conducting training. Curriculum development process, on the other hand, got the data from the training needs with subjects at the highest level, prioritized and consulted to advisory committee. The curriculum draft was sent to experts for evaluation and comments. Organizing a focus group of experts to discuss on matters were not clear. It matched with Fungsri Pakdeesuvun (2007) and Noawarat Intradech (2011) who found out that it is a systematic development, all process were checked by those experts and the curriculum efficiently met the learner’s needs and matched the objectives as Songpon Phethong and Kanoknuch Kampak (2011) found out that there was a designing by the principles and theories to determine the process of structuring, content, training activities, and evaluation with expectations that the learners will get knowledge from the need selection. Summary and Recommendation The state and problems of working should promote that officials must try to solve the issue by themselves, workplace should stimulate job implementation and foreign languages could also be enhanced. The training state and problems should have a curriculum that meets with organizations’ mandate with study tour that could be supported. The training needs strategy and leadership could be paid with more attention. The curriculum development should appoint a committee responsible for the whole process of development. References Chuchai Smithiklai. (1999). Personnel Training in Organization. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. Chunpen Chuepanich, Nomsri Kate and PaitoonSinlarat. (1994).Curriculum. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. Fungsripak Deesuvun. (2007). A wickerwork business training course development using community-based approach. Master degree Engineering department Kasetsart University. Hilda Taba. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory and practice. New York, Chicago, San Francisco Atlanta: Hardcourt, Brace & World, Inc. Kanoknuch Kampak. (2011). Development of Training Packages for Promoting Nursing Students’ Alternative Learning Styles Royal Thai Navy College of Nursing. Ph.D degree Science Education Department, Kasetsart University. Songpon Phethong. (2011). Developing Reaction Leadership Knowledge Enhancement Training Program for Undergraduate Students. Master degree Department of Sports Science Kasetsart University. Sujitranun Thana. (1994). Training and Human Development. Business Administration and Sahakorn Institute of Rachpatpanakorn. Tax Department. (2013). The Minister of Finance decree on mandate of tax department. Vientiane Capital
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The Ministry of Planning and Investment. (2011). National Economics and society no 7. Vientiane Capital. Vichit Avakoon. (1992). The Management of Training. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press.
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The Application of Sufficiency Economy and Quality of Life of Students at Suan Phung Wittaya School, Ratchaburi Province
Woraseth Wongareea Chutathip Thawornratanab and Apichart Jai-areeb a Master of Arts (Human Resource Development and Community) b Department of Human Resources and Community Development, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University, Thailand Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected]. 097-1284488
Abstract
The purpose of the research was to study the applied sufficiency economy and quality of life of students at Suan Phung Wittaya School, Ratchaburi Province. It was a survey research, the sample were 181 students. The instrument was a questionnaire. The data was analyzed by using frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation. The results showed that, the overall of applied sufficiency economy was high level: 1) moderation was high level 2) reasonableness was high level and 3) the need self- immunity was medium level. The overall of quality of life was high level; 1) physical domain was high level, 2) psychological domain was medium level, 3) social relationship was high level, and 4) environment was high level. Keywords: sufficiency economy, quality of life Introduction Since July, 18th 1974, His Majesty the King Bhumibol Adulyadej gave a speech about the concept of sufficiency economy and the development of a process of Thais, in graduation ceremony at Kasetsart University that the need for country development had to build the foundation meant the adequacy of people by saving. After people did it, the foundation was stable, gradually strengthen as economic growth and rising further. After that he had told about sufficiency economy many times. These showed that he concerned a lot about it. In 1997, Thailand confronted economic crisis issue. He still had given the idea about sufficiency economy again. He compared with a tiger that being the tiger, great power, was less important than sufficiency economy that meant to be able to live by ourselves. However, it was the economic system but it is the system that produces for living in the family and does not make us in trouble. The point does not focus on trade in economic system. Moreover, in 1981, he gave the speech that “The idea means whatever you do you have to be moderate and not too much greedy, then we can live happily.” He emphasized that the developmental process based on of the moderate way and precaution, considering about moderation, having the reason to build the immunity for ourselves, including using the knowledge and moral to exist, protecting from the crisis and living under the current globalization and the changing (Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board, 2007). And the summary of the Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board and Bureau of the Crown Property seminar focused on the importance of a lesson of former Thai society. If they had applied and brought the philosophy of sufficiency economy to manage their lives, the economy and society crisis issue would have never happened as at present. Almost all sectors were awake and interested in applying the philosophy of sufficiency economy in many levels and characters. But unfortunately, the
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 56 understanding and truly intention operation still limited (Apichai Panthasen, 2006). For the school, Tissana Khemmani (2012) said that the teachers managed and supported activities a lot about philosophy of sufficiency economy, but did not cover all. The thinking process, evaluation, most of teachers often focused on doing the activities. If teachers wanted to complete the process, they should think whether students have thought logically and sufficiently or not. Teachers had to observe how students thought and did the activities and noticed that whether they did activities by using their knowledge and carefulness or not (The Siam Commercial Foundation, 2014). 11th National Economic and Social Development Plan (2012-2016) has been realized about the risks are arising from changes in the domestic country and globalization. Especially, the rapid growth in economy, energy and climate change that obviously impact to Thailand both of positive and negative ways. Therefore, the management of the country under this philosophy for supporting such changes, the government has to use the strengths and potential exists to beneficially develop the country. This will enhance the strength and stability. The students, the youth of nation, will be prepared to be ready for the above changes and become the important human resource to create the society and bring the nation to be happy. Especially, Thailand is facing of the social, politic and economic crisis now as appear in several medias. The foresight scholars, educators, thinkers, writers and developers try to review and solve these problems. The important approach is developing the citizen to qualify by determinate policy, guideline for management education toward the develop quality, moral, value and better life of human resource. WHO (1997) discussed the important of the quality of live that the better life was important and was the aimed of person, community and country. However, some countries rich of environment, but overall image of nation that citizen distressed, it could not make them civilization as the countries that had the quality citizen. A quality citizen is important factor that point to the economic and social development of any country to progress that the others. It is evident hat quality of life is critical to their family, community and nation. Everyone should know and understand the issues. Related quality of life was to help develop and improve themselves, family, community and nation a better environment. This will lead to a better quality together in the end. From the foregoing, show that Thailand society need to improve quality of life according to sufficiency economy philosophy in order to maintain a balanced life by instilling the concept of sufficiency economy philosophy to the youth. This is a concept that encompasses many dimensions of life and comprehensive context of Suan Phung Wittaya school, the school provides students with moral education, cultural and environmental conservation, quality standards for basic education ASEAN under the philosophy of sufficiency economy. But since today what the researcher noted in their classes, and the atmosphere within the school. Most students still have a lifestyle that is inconsistent with the concept, lack of immunity for life. Thus, the application of interest to study the philosophy of sufficiency economy on a daily basis to improve the quality of life for students Suan Phung Wittaya school, Ratchaburi Province. The findings will be useful to students, teachers, and students in the field of teaching and living the philosophy of sufficiency economy.
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The Purpose of This Research
The purpose of the research was to study the applied sufficiency economy and quality of life of students at Suan Phung Wittaya School, Ratchaburi Province.
Methodology It was a survey research, population was 948 students at Suan Phung Wittaya School, Ratchaburi Province, the random sample was 181 students by each level of classes by compared with Krejcie and Morgan timetable then calculated the ratio. The instrument was a questionnaire. The data was analyzed by using frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation. Results Data foundation of students Data foundation of students of Suan Phung Wittaya School, found out that 181 samplings, 97 were the female and 84 male. Most of them were grade point average were about 2.00 - 2.50. Data of the career of parents of sample found out that there were 74 employers (40.90%) 33 government officers (18.20%), 33 owner business 33 (18.20%), and 31 farmers (17.10%) in order. Data of the members of each sample family found out 2 persons (41.40%), 3 persons (21.00%) and 5 persons (15.50%) in order. Data of the owner land proprietary right of parents found out that there were 92.30% and some of them were rent the land for faming. The sample’s families were famers that the owner land proprietary right. The average income was about 65,600 Bath per year. The monthly expense spent for food, fuel, telephone and internet, and public utility charge. Applying Sufficiency Economy The overall of the applied sufficiency economy in the way of life of students was high level ( X = 3.84, S.D. = 0.18). Consider about each point found out that the moderation was high level ( X = 4.16, S.D. = 0.33), reasonableness was high level ( X = 4.17, S.D. = 0.34) and the need self-immunity was medium level ( X = 3.19, S.D. = 0.41).
Table 1 Applying of sufficiency economy of students of Suan Phung Wittaya School, Ratchaburi Province . (n = 181)
No. Applying of sufficiency economy X S.D. Level
1 Moderation 4.16 0.33 high 2 Reasonableness 4.17 0.34 high 3 The need self-immunity 3.19 0.41 medium
total 3.84 0.18 high
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Quality of life
The overall of the quality of life of students was high level ( X = 3.94, S.D. = 0.23). Consider about each point found out that the environment was high level ( X = 4.25, S.D. = 0.29), the social relationship was high level ( X = 4.23, S.D. = 0.33), physical domain was high level ( X = 4.01, S.D. = 0.44), psychological domain was medium level ( X = 3.26, S.D.=0.46) in order.
Table 2 Quality of life of students Suan Phung Wittaya School, Ratchaburi Province. (n = 181) Quality of life of students No X S.D. level
1 Physical domain 4.01 0.44 high
2 Psychological domain 3.26 0.46 medium
3 Social relationship 4.23 0.33 highest
4 Environment 4.25 0.29 highest
Total 3.94 0.23 high
Summary
The research found out that the overall of applied sufficiency economy in the way of life of students of Suan Phung Wittaya School, Ratchaburi Province was high level. Consider about each point found out that the moderation and reasonableness was high level, and the need self-immunity was medium level in order. Nevertheless, the school has brought the sufficiency economy integrated to learning, and there were many kinds of studying resource, until students released the knowledge, principle, and the method to apply and use sufficiency economy philosophy in their lives as well as, according to Sudthida Niyomwong (2013) said that, using the sufficiency economy principle for diary life should begin by support the knowledge and skills to people for make sure they realized about the world changing. People should have been supported and aware about moral, understanding, living together in community or society and ecology system balance until they got immunity for the lifestyle. They were able to think and practice on the reasonableness, and moderation.
The research found out that quality of life of students of Suan Phung Wittaya School, Ratchaburi Province found out the overall was high level. Consider about each point found out that the environment were high level, the social relationship was high level, the physical domain was high level, psychological domain was medium level in order. Because of most of the sample live with their parents and kids in the same area which is the countryside. They grown up among by closed looked after and in the good
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 59 environment, no pollution. They also had happily life during studying. They didn’t bear the burden’s family about the responsible anything. This made them satisfy for their lifestyle by passed the recognize and self-assessment, according to the thinking of Hendershott Wright and Henderson (1992: 11-19) said that the person would have a better quality of life. That person must be satisfied in what happens to themselves which is what makes them happy in life, include learning, society, resident, and relationships with friends and according to Narongsak Talapat (2007) said that insignificant basic element of quality of life for general people, psychological domain was aware of their mind such as positive awareness, self-image, had a sense of proud, self-confident, thinking, remembrance, decision and capability about self learning toward themselves, and include aware of how to manage self emotion, too. References
Narongsak Talapat. (2016). Documentation Training Course “Psychology leadership towards the excellence of the Executive.”Accessed April 25 2016. accessible. www.tu.ac.th/org/icess/tabletraining/kon11.doc. Tissana Khemmani. (2015). Decoding the philosophy of Sufficiency Economy The teaching process. Bangkok: Publisher of Chulalongkorn University. The Siam Commercial Foundation. (2006). Philosophy of Sufficiency Economy: The main idea into practice. Nonthaburi: Thanaphat Printing, Sutida Niyumwong. (2015). Adopting the sufficiency economy in the daily life of its own. Accessed April 25 2016. accessible. http://narongrit1.blogspot.com/2013/02/blog-post_18.html. Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board. (2007). What the meaning of sufficient economy. Bangkok: Office of the National Economic and Social Development. Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board. (2011). 11th National Economic and Social Development Plan (2012-2016). Bangkok: Sahamit Printing & Publishing Limited, a Republican. Aphichai Puntasen. (2006). Synthesis of knowledge about the sufficiency economy. Bangkok: Book center Chulalongkorn University. Handershott, Anne B., Sheila P. Wright and Deborah Henderson. (1992). Quality of Life Correlates For University Student. Nation Association of Student Personnel Administrator Journal 30, 1 (1992).
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Guidelines of Teacher Research Capacity Building in Science Teacher Network Professional Community
Varaporn Yamtim Department of Human and Community Resource Development Faculty of Education and Development Science, Kasetsart University, Kampheangsaen Campus, Thailand Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected] Tel. 081-941-8776
Abstract Research capacity building is an attempt to elevate the research expertise of individuals and groups of individuals, to help improve the development of educational research both qualitative and quantitative. The objectives of this study were 1) to study the attitudes of teachers in Science Teacher Network on research to develop learner cognition, and 2) to develop guidelines of teacher research capacity building in Science Teacher Network professional community. The participants were 12 Science Teacher Network members, consisting 1 educational supervisor, 1 school administrator, and 10 science teachers. Data were collected by focus group and analyzed by content analysis. The research findings are as follows: a) the teacher perceptions on research to improve the learning of the students, it was found that most teachers believe that the researches by teachers can help students develop their cognition because it allows teachers to solve students learning problems right to the point. The condition of the teacher seriously doing research in Science Teacher Network to develop cognition, there are quite still few and far in between due to the lack of accurate knowledge and understanding in conducting research, teachers having significant amount of workload resulting in not having enough time to conduct researches. b) there are 7 guidelines for teacher research capacity building; 1) setting the plans and project on teacher research capacity building, 2) practical study to promote teacher knowledge, skills and confidence in conducting the research by focusing the research on the real problems of learning, 3) to promote the exchange of teacher research experiences, 4) creating cooperation networks of the relevant authorities both the original affiliation and the universities that play a role in teacher development, 5) periodically supervise and monitor research to provide guidance to help resolve problems in the process of research, 6) diverse form of research findings publication, and 7) honor teachers whose research is apparent. Keywords: research capacity building, teacher research, community-based participatory research, teacher network
1. Introduction Continuous teacher professional knowledge development is essential to improving the quality of education. (Commission of the European Communities, 2007; Darling- Hammond, Chung Wei, Alethea, Richardson, and Orphanos, 2009; Schwille, Dembélé, and Schubert, 2007) recent researches indicate that the quality teacher professional development would help teachers change how they work and affect the learning of the students in a positive way (Borko, 2004) teacher professional development will be more effective when the teachers are from the same school, discipline, to participate in the professional development activities (RAND Corporation, 2012) focused on the creation of a learning community with members
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 61 engaged in activities that are meaningful with colleagues to share knowledge on how to manage learning. (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; Shulman & Shulman, 2004) with essential activities for the teacher professional development, which is generally accepted by scholars are the research-based practice or called the research work of teachers. This can be done several ways such as action research, research- based design. Self-study, and narrative inquiry (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009). Although the Education Act of 2542 BE encourages teachers to conduct research to improve learning for learners and able to use the research as part of the learning process it. However, the research conducted by Yutphong Ayusuk (2006) suggested that teacher also needs to conduct research in class at each step. One of the major reasons that teachers still needs to conduct research in the classroom is the lack of knowledge and skills in research including lack of cooperation from people involved in the research. Therefore, teachers can conduct to properly improve the learning of the students so it is necessary to develop capabilities in conducting research or research potential to teachers. Christie & Menter (2009) said that research capacity building is an attempt to elevate the research expertise of individuals and groups of individuals to help improve the development of educational research, both in quality and quantity. By way of collaboration, which is a form of social practice (social practices) that are different from how it is used by individuals. Such as training courses aimed at providing the research knowledge and skills unrelated to the context in which Cooke (2005) has proposed the 6 aspect of Research Capacity Building: 1) skills and confidence building, 2) developing connections and partnerships, 3) ensuring that the research is close to the practice, 4) development of appropriate publication, 5) infrastructure investment, and 6) establishing the elements of sustainability and continuity. Teacher research capacity building is necessary develop cooperation from those involved in the context of the work of teachers who made up the professional community consistent with the community-based participatory research, which is the integration between education and social practice. It is conducting a research with the focused on equal collaboration and partnership in the research process, and recognize the unique strengths that each person possesses with the aim being to combine the knowledge and practice for social change (Minkler & Wallerstein, 2003, cited in Wallerstein & Duran, 2006). There are 9 key principles on research using participatory community-based; 1)realizing that the community is governed by the principle of identity, 2) enhancing community strength and resources, 3) encouraging equal partnership, collaboration in all stages of the research, and participate in the process of empowerment, and a power-sharing process with a focus on inequalities and social principles, 4) promotes collaborative learning and capacity-building partnerships between all the partners, 5) integrating and achieving balance between research and practice, for the mutual benefit of all partners, 6) focusing on issues related to the community and views on the relationship between man and environment, 7) being involved in the development process through the cycle repeatedly, 8) dissemination of research findings and knowledge gained to all partners and letting there be participation in the publishing process, and 9) focusing on the long-term processes and responsibilities for sustainability (Ritchie et al., 2013). Science Teacher Network, an out-of school professional community of Suphanburi Primary Education Service Office region 2 has a critical mission being developing network with the members jointly plan and carry out activities to develop the network.
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These activities are related to improving the quality of learning in their own disciplines based on the scope of the content and curriculum development, learning process to develop innovative learning resources, measurement, evaluation, and research in the classroom. However, research in class has not been seriously promoted the past. This is an important activity in the teaching profession development. Therefore, the research is interested in developing the guidelines of teacher research capacity building in Science Teacher Network professional community by applying the concept of research capacity building and community-based participatory research. This will yield guidelines that help the development of teacher research capacity community-based participatory in professional community. This would empower teachers to carry out research for professional development and to develop knowledge that is beneficial to quality work performance with sustainability.
2. Purpose of the study There are 2 purposes for conducting this research; 1) to study the perceptions of teachers in Science Teacher Network on research to improve the learning of the students, and 2) to develop guidelines of building research capacity of teachers in Science Teacher Network. 3. Research Method The participants were 12 members of the Science Teachers Network, Suphanburi Primary Education Service Office Region 2voluntary participants consisting 1 educational supervisor, 1 school administrator, and 10 science teachers. The research process was divided into two phases: 1) to study the attitudes of teachers in Science Teacher Network on research to develop learner cognition, and 2) to develop guidelines of teacher research capacity building in Science Teacher Network professional community by synthesizing the concept on research capacity-building with data from focus groups.
4. Results 4.1 the attitudes of teachers in Science Teacher Network on research to develop learner cognition : The majority believes that the research of the teachers can help students develop learning research because it allows teachers to pertinently solve learning problems of students on learning and behavioral problems of students.
“It is when teachers know the aspect of learning difficulties the students have. Teachers will find solutions for the problem for students to have a better understanding on the problems…” (member 1)
" ... Knowing the cause of the problem will result in find a solution for the problem right on point…” (member3)
" ... To resolve the student learning and behavior problem…”(member 12)
Additionally, some informants have mentioned on the condition of teachers to in their own profession Community conducting research that Conducting research to improve
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 63 learning seriously are few and far in between and the researches are done by teachers, who want to upgrade their academic status, which does not actually help solve problems with learning or learning development because the research process is wrong.
…Teachers" that would conduct researches are the ones that want academic accreditation and would find their own guideline and knowledge. Those who did not want to do it simply just not do anything…” (member4)
“…Research in the theory. If it is done, it would be useful but there are some people that only do the research on paper, but does not practice the rules of research the data was not actually collected but made up making it a waste…” (member8)
“…There have been relatively little research. Most are done for the academic submissions to upgrade the academic status, there are very little conducted to actually improve learning…” (member 9)
The informants viewed that the reason teachers did not conduct serious research were teachers lacking accurate knowledge and understanding in conducting research, teachers having significant amount of workload resulting in not having enough time to conduct researches.
“…Not clearly understanding on the method and innovation in research. The school teachers are similar because we have little studies on this with no depth…” (member 2)
“…Lack of understanding on how to research Innovations appropriate for children…” (member 5)
"…the lack of knowledge, understanding on the research, and incorrectly issue…” (member 8)
"…having to conduct classes and be responsible for several school activities or projects of resulting in not having much time to conduct the research…” (member 11)
Additionally, the informants reflect the approaches of teacher research capacity building from their own experience that most of them were brief trainings in limited time and there were also some that conduct self-studies. However, these could not make them to clearly understand and there was actual resulting in the impossibility of conducting research with confidence.
“…Trainings at Educational Service Office are few and the training periods are short, urgent. There also were other agencies providing training. However, teachers did not have time to participate fully because they had to conduct classes and the training were also brief …” (member 9)
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“…there were trainings jointly provided by the Educational Service Office and other institutions held but little attended the trainings and the durations were short and brief making the research not following the correct procedure. This resulted in being deviate from reality and teachers not understanding how to promote innovation and research…” (member 10)
“…Teachers lack the knowledge and understanding on how to conduct researches without samples and there was no actual practice …”(member 12)
4.2 Guidelines of Teacher Research Capacity Building in Science Teacher Network Professional Community: The informants suggested the guidelines for research capacity building appropriate for teachers in professional network science based on 6 research capacity building principles; 1) to build skills and confidence, 2) to develop connection and partnerships, 3) to ensure that the research is tied to the performance, 4) to develop appropriate publication, 5) to invest on infrastructure, and 6) to build sustainability and as details in Table 1.
Table 1 Guidelines of Teacher Research Capacity Building in Science Teacher Network Professional Community.
Capacity Informants’ suggestions Appropriate Research building Capacity Building Guidelines: principles 1. Building “Arranging conference, training, - Arranging conferences, skills and seminar, studies on research of seminars, and workshops confidence. interest" (member 1). focusing on practical “Arranging training on research implementation from simple methods and guidelines for teachers by to more complex issues. b inviting knowledgeable speakers” - Organizing experience from (member 6). conducting research exchange “Establishing positively stimulation forums. from easy to hard, leading actual practice for them to actually realize the importance of conducting the research”( member 8). “There should be knowledge exchange on teacher researches would help teachers to have far more experience and research guidelines.”(member 10). 2. The “Building a network on sub-district - Creating networks of development level or school group, establishing cooperation with the of connection knowledge exchange meeting calendar relevant authorities. and to periodically develop research until - Establishing research partnerships. success” (member 2). tracking calendar. “having the support from other agencies by arranging competent people to provide knowledge and supporting budget so teachers researches can go well and successful” (member 5).
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Table 1 Guidelines of Teacher Research Capacity Building in Science Teacher Network Professional Community.
Capacity Informants’ suggestions Appropriate Research building Capacity Building principles Guidelines: 3. Ensuring that “Establishing consensus in the - Allocating time for the research is network member, conducting teachers to conduct tied to the research on a subject in classroom research. performance. study once an academic year.” - Promoting research on (member 4). actual cognition problem. “promoting the establishment of - Establishing the research sub-groups in networks encouragement of based on the problem from research processes to be teaching or O-Net” (member 6). used at work. “Encouraging network members to establish learning by allowing students to use the research process including inviting school administrators to use the research process in management and educational supervisor as the leaders” (member 12). 4. Development “Establish forums for presentation - Establishing research of appropriate of research finding, discussions in finding exchange forum. publication. the area to be printed or CD - Adding channels to widely releases and an exchange network publish research findings. on network Facebook” (member 3). “Teacher proposing to colleagues by means of workshops in schools” (member 11). 5. Investment on “School establishing projects to - Establishing projects to Infrastructure. improve teaching and learning by encourage teachers to conducting research in order to conduct research. have money in the - Procuring external implementation budget” (member capitalsources. 2). “Not committing the whole local budgets. External resources should be procured for both the budget and speaker such as TRF.” (member 8).
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Table 1 Guidelines of Teacher Research Capacity Building in Science Teacher Network Professional Community.
Capacity Informants’ suggestions Appropriate Research building Capacity Building principles Guidelines: 6. Ability to “Honoring and awarding the - Honoring those who create an Researchers as agree.”(member conducted research sustainability 1). according to the criteria. and continuity “Administrators and teachers - Creating an atmosphere elements. consulting and motivating each Favorable to research. other”(member 6). - Presenting research finding “Affecting the research of on stage. network members, participating in - Establishing forums for the regional and national level knowledge exchange exhibition.” (member 7). among members of both “Establishing knowledge inside and outside the exchange meeting calendar both profession community. at regional and sub-groups level both official and unofficial not only on research but also on issues of interest and urgent problem. (member 11).
The synthesis results informants comments on appropriate guidelines of teacher research capacity building in science teacher network professional community and the capacity building concept, it was found that appropriate guidelines teacher research capacity building consists of seven guidelines; 1) establishing the plans and projects on teachers capacity research building, 2) learning from practical reality to promote the knowledge, skills and confidence of teachers in research with the research focused on the actual problems of learning, 3) promoting the exchange of teacher research experiences, 4) creating cooperation networks of the relevant authorities both the original affiliation and the universities that play a role in teacher development, 5) periodically supervise and monitor research to provide guidance to help resolve problems in the process of research, 6) diverse form of research findings publication, and 7) honor teachers whose research is apparent.
5. Discussion There are 7 guidelines teacher research capacity building developed; 1) establishing the plans and projects on teachers capacity research building, 2) learning from practical reality to promote the knowledge, skills and confidence of teachers in research with the research focused on the actual problems of learning, 3) promoting the exchange of teacher research experiences, 4) creating cooperation networks of the relevant authorities both the original affiliation and the universities that play a role in teacher development, 5) periodically supervise and monitor research to provide guidance to help resolve problems in the process of research, 6) diverse form of research findings publication, and 7) honor teachers whose research is apparent. this is consistent with the research conducted by Cooke (2005) ) offers 6 research potential building principles; 1) Building skills and confidence, 2)The development of
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 67 connection and partnerships, 3)Ensuring that the research is tied to the performance, 4)Development of appropriate publication, 5)Investment on Infrastructure, 6)creating sustainability and continuity elements consistent with the research context am at development as suggested by Pound& Adolph (2005) that the potential of the research involved facilities and resources in working with relevant stakeholders to identify and define the scope of the problem can be researched to the point, developing and maintaining partnerships and research networks, planning and implementation on research tasks, being involved and benefiting from the research and evaluation of selected findings from research to be appropriate, published, and applied.
6. Suggestion 1) Agencies involved in developing the teachers research capacity building include the Primary Education Commission Office., Regional Education Office, and school can use the results as a guide in planning, driving, and evaluating teacher capacity in conducting research in classroom. 2) There should be research to further study capacity building on research conducted in classroom because this study used empirical data from Science Teacher Network Professional Community comprising of teachers in the same school. However, it would be beneficial to study different subject, Teacher Network Professional Community in the same school with context being different from this research.
Acknowledgments The researcher would like to thank Kasetsart University Research and Development, Faculty of Education and Development Science, and Department of Human and Community Resource Development for funding this research as well as Associate Professor Prasong Tanpichaifor advice.
References Aryusuk, Y. (2006). A needs assessment research study for developing teachers' classroom action research conduction.Master thesis of educational degree, Department of Education research, Graduate school, Chulalongkorn University. Pound, B. & Adolph, B. ( 2005). Developing the Capacity of Research Systems in Developing Countries : Lessons Learnt and Guidelines for Future Initiatives. Study commissioned by the Central Research Department of DFID. Natural Resources Institute (NRI), Chatham. Borko, H. (2004). Professional development and teacher learning: Mapping the terrain. Educational Researcher, 33(8), 3-15. Christie, D. &Menter, I. (2009).Research capacity building in teacher education: Scottish collaborative approaches. Journal of Education for Teaching, 35 (4), 337-354. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009).Inquiry as stance: Practitioner research for the next generation. New York: Teachers College Press.
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Commission of the European Communities. (2007). Communication from the commission to the council and the European parliament: Improving the quality of teacher education. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities. Cooke, J. (2005). A framework to evaluate research capacity building in health care.BMC Family Practice,6(44), 1-11. Darling-Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco: John Wiley. Darling-Hammond, L., Chung Wei, R., Alethea, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher development in the United States and abroad. Stanford: National Staff Development Council and The School Redesign Network. Ponte, P. (2005). A critically constructed concept of action research as a tool for the professional development of teachers. Journal of In-Service Education, 31(2),273-295. RAND Corporation. (2012). Teaching and Learning 21st Century Skills: Lessons From the Learning Sciences. New York: Asia Society. Ritchie, S. D., Wabano, M. J., Beardy, J., Curran, J., Orkin, A., Vander Burgh, D., & Young, N. L. (2013). Community-based participatory research with Indigenous communities: The proximity paradox. Health & Place, 24, 183– 189. Schwille, J., Dembélé, M., & Schubert, J. (2007).Global perspectives on teacher learning: Improving policy and practice. Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning. Shulman, L. S., & Shulman, J. H. (2004). How and what teachers learn: A shifting perspective. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36(2), 257-271. Wallerstein, N. B. & Duran, B. (2006).Using Community-Based Participatory Research to Address Health Disparities. Health Promotion Practice, 7(3), 312- 323.
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The Women’s Roles in the Agricultural Production Sector Affecting Household Debt Behaviors
Kanokwan Laoaroon*, Areerat Pakpitjarean and Pinda Varasunun Department of Human and Community Resource Development, Kasetsart University, Thailand *Corresponding Author: [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
The objectives of this research were 1) to study women’s roles in the agricultural production sector and the household debt behaviors of these women, and 2) to analyze how women’s roles in the agricultural sector affected their household debt behaviors. The random samplings of 289 households were chosen in ten villages in the Tung Kwang Sub-District, Kamphaeng Saen District, Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand. This study was quantitative research and its instrument was questionnaires. The data were analyzed by using a statistical package to calculate standard deviation, correlation coefficient, and enter regression analysis.
The women’s roles in the agricultural production sector affecting household debt behaviors included the study of the preparation roles of agricultural production factors, accessing to factors of production, ownership and entrepreneurship, the roles of agricultural planning and decision-making and the roles of production management, post-harvest management, marketing and distribution.
These factors were predictors explaining a 10.20 percent of variance at a 0.01 statistically significant level of household behaviors to reduce debt or have no debt. The research question was answered that there was a number of variables in the women’s role in the agricultural sector that affected their household debt behaviors which were production management, post-harvest management, marketing and distribution. Nevertheless, the results showed that there was no women’s role in the agricultural production sector that affected household spending behaviors to create debt.
Keywords: women roles, agricultural production, household debt behaviors
Introduction
Women comprise an average of 43 per cent of the agricultural labor force in developing countries, varying considerably across regions founded 50 percent or more in parts of Asia and Africa (The World Bank, 2012). In the 20th century during the economic recession, the role of women in driving economic growth was recognized. Thailand as an agricultural based country, the study founded that women have been accepted by society in all aspects at work, standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of herself and of her family, including food, clothing, and housing and medical care and necessary social services (National Statistical Office, 2012). The
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 70 number of workers in economic system, women are primarily located in the agricultural sector for 40.40 per cent, 40.20 percent in services sector and industry 19.50 per cent, respectively (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 2016). There are significant data showed that women roles are important in economic growth of the nation.
Gender roles are learned behaviors in a given community or other social group that condition which activities, tasks and responsibilities are perceived as male or female. Women roles in most low income women consist of a triple role which is reproductive, productive, and community managing activities (Moser, 1993). Productive role includes both market production, and subsistence home production. This study sought to determine the women’s roles in the agricultural production sector which consists of three roles; 1) preparation, accessing to factors of production, ownership and entrepreneurship (Kanda, 1978; Chucheep, 1993), 2) agricultural planning and decision-making (Kanda, 1978; Sansanee and Ruj, 2012), and 3) production management, post-harvest management, marketing and distribution (Lal and Khurana, 2011; Chucheep, 1993; Janenarong, 2006).
According to the survey research of household economic in 2009 found that in the past decade, the household living conditions are better than in the past since people have higher income and higher expenses which mean people have purchasing power of consumer goods (National Statistical Office, 2012). The populations and housing census showed the raising of household’s income, expenditure and debts; the average monthly income per household has increased 4.6 percent of 2011 to 25,403 baht in 2013, the average monthly expenditure per household had increased increasing 5.2 percent of 2011 to 19,259 baht in 2013 and the average amount of debt per household increasing 8.7 percent of 2011 to 159,492 baht (National Statistical Office, 2013), due to the economic stimulus policy of the public and private sectors and the opportunities in accessing to financial resources and household loan which it had reflected the household economic level and creating an impact to the national economic level. Thus; this research focused on the household debt behaviors of women in the agricultural production sector which comprised of both negative and positive which were; 1) household spending behaviors to create debt (Office of Agriculture Economic, 2012; Napa , 2014), and 2) household spending behaviors to reduce debt or have no debt (Office of Agriculture Economic, 2012; Sudjai, 2008).
Objectives
The objectives of this research were 1) to study women’s roles in the agricultural production sector and the household debt behaviors of these women, and 2) to analyze how women’s roles in the agricultural sector affected their household debt behaviors.
Conceptual Frameworks
This research had analyzed secondary data from documents, journal publication and related research documents included women roles, agricultural production, and
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 71 household economic etc. to create conceptual frameworks of the Women’s Roles in the Agricultural Production Sector Affecting Household Debt Behaviors as showed in picture 1.
The factors of women’s roles in the agricultural production sector consist of three roles as below;
1) Preparation, accessing to factors of production, ownership and entrepreneurship. 2) Agricultural planning and decision-making. 3) Production management, post-harvest management, marketing and distribution. The household debt behaviors of women in the agricultural production sector consist of both negative and positive which were; 1) Household spending behaviors to create debt. 2) Household spending behaviors to reduce debt or have no debt.
Independent variables Dependent variable X1 : Preparation, accessing to
factors of production, Y1: Household spending ownership and behaviors to create debt entrepreneurship
X2 : Agricultural planning and decision-making
X3: Production management, Dependent variable post-harvest management, marketing and distribution Y2: Household spending behaviors to reduce debt or have no debt
Picture 1 Conceptual Frameworks
Research Methods
The population considered for this research consisted of 1,038 households, located in ten villages in the Tung Kwang sub-District, Kamphaeng Saen district, Nakhon Pathom province, Thailand. The study focused on how the women’s roles in the agricultural production sector affected household debt behaviors; thus, this research selected a sampling population by Taro Yamane sampling calculation (Yamane, 1973) from women employed in that sector by using the stratifying random sampling population to size method and random sampling in each village. From the random
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 72 sampling 289 households were chosen. This study was quantitative research and its instrument was questionnaires. It was analyzed content validity by 3 experts. The index of item objective congruence (IOC) was appropriated value in between 0.67- 1.00.Moreover, the effectiveness of questionnaires were try-out with 30 women employed in agricultural sector, located in the Houy Monthong sub-district, Kamphaeng Saen district, Nakon Pathom province, Thailand. This try-out analysis obtained the statistical values by means of cronbachs alpha coefficient at 0.95. The data were analyzed by using a statistical package to calculate standard deviation, correlation coefficient by Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient, and enter regression analysis.
Borg ’s descriptors (Traimongkolkull and Chatraphorn, 2006 cited Cohen, 1994) have described correlation coefficient criterions are as follows;
0.85 or higher The highest relationship 0.65 to 0.85 High relationship 0.35 to 0.64 Moderate relationship 0.20 to 0.34 Low relationship less than 0.20 The lowest relationship
This research refers the dependent variables and independent variables are as follows;
Y1 refer to household spending behaviors to create debt Y2 refer to household spending behaviors to reduce debt or have no debt X1 refer to preparation, accessing to factors of production, ownership and entrepreneurship X2 refer to agricultural planning and decision-making X3 refer to production management, post-harvest management, marketing and distribution
Results and Discussion The general information of 289 sampling populations in agricultural production sector from ten villages in the Tung Kwang sub-district, Kamphaeng Saen district, Nakhon Pathom province, Thailand, founded that the women in middle ages between 46-60 years, had the highest range of 53.3 percents, the average age was 51.85 years. The average numbers of children were 2.5 persons. The number of household members between 4-6 persons had the highest range of 56.40 percents. The highest range of education was primary school at 76.80 percents. Most of them worked in agricultural sector as a permanent job at 98 percents and only few of them worked in agricultural sectors as supplementary job. The average hours of working in agricultural sectors were 5.62 hours. These women had opportunity to obtain knowledge and training in agriculture only 28.80 percents. The monthly incomes were less than 10,000 baht at 62.28 percents and the monthly expenditure were less than 10,000 baht at 76.82 percents. Moreover, the yearly income per household in agriculture was less than 30,000 baht at 39.10 percents and the highest range per year of production cost in agricultural sector was less than 30,000 baht at 51.80 percents.
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The household debt status of these women founded that 58.80 percents were in debts.72.42 percents were formal debts by bank or financial system, 16.91 percents were informal debts outside the banking or financial system and 10.63 percents were in debts both formal and informal debts, respectively. During the last 5 years, their household debt has been stable at 46.70 percents because they have no debts and 42.90 percents of households have decreasing in debts. Nevertheless, there are 10.40 percents of household has rising in debts. The results revealed that there are three factors related to the women’s roles in the agricultural production sector which are; 1) preparation, accessing to factors of production, ownership and entrepreneurship (X1), 2) agricultural planning and decision-making (X2), and 3) production management, post-harvest management, marketing and distribution (X3). The household debt behaviors of these women consists of both negative and positive which are; 1) household spending behaviors to create debt (Y1), and 2) household spending behaviors to reduce debt or have no debt (Y2). These research analyzed correlation coefficient variables by Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient. It revealed that X1 correlated with X2 (r = 0.671), X1 correlated with X3 (r = 0.731) and X2 correlated with X3 (r = 0.700) that its correlation was significant at the 0.01 level. These three independent variables correlation analysis concluded that it was positive correlation and it was appropriated to analyze in enter regression with no significant of multicolinearity condition since these variables had correlation analysis values less than 0.8 (Krit, 2011) as showed in table 1. Table 1 analyzing correlation coefficient variables of the women’s role in the agricultural production sector.
Variables X1 X2 X3
X1 -
X2 .671** -
X3 .731** .700** -
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Regarding the analysis of enter regression for the women’s roles in the agricultural production sector affecting household debt behaviors included the study of the preparation roles of agricultural production factors, accessing to factors of production, ownership and entrepreneurship, the roles of agricultural planning and decision- making and the roles of production management, post-harvest management, marketing and distribution, the results are as follows;
1) There was no women’s role in the agricultural production sector that affected household spending behaviors to create debt as showed in table 2.
The regression equation for predicting equation of raw scores and standard scores are as follows;
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The regression equation for predicting equation of raw score is:
Ŷ = 2.719** -.067 X1 + .063 X2 + .047 X3
The regression equation for predicting equation of standard score is:
Zy = -.073 Z1 + .085 Z2 +.058 Z3
Table 2 analyzing the women’s roles in the agricultural sector affected household spending behaviors to create debt (Y1).
Variables B Beta t P
Constant 2.719 15.121 .000
Preparation, accessing to factors of -.067 -.073 -.800 .424 production, ownership and entrepreneurship
(x1)
Agricultural planning and decision-making .063 .085 .974 .331
(x2)
Production management, post-harvest .047 .058 .604 .546
management, marketing and distribution (x3)
R2 = 3.1%
2) These three roles factors are predictors explaining a 10.20 percent of variance at a 0.01 statistically significant level of household behaviors to reduce debt or have no debt. The research question was answered that there are a number of variables in the women’s role in the agricultural sector that affect their household debt behaviors which are production management, post-harvest management, marketing and distribution as showed in table 3.
The regression equation for predicting equation of raw scores and standard scores are as follows;
The regression equation for predicting equation of raw score is:
Ŷ = .2.253** -.054 X1 + .022 X2 + .257 X3**
The regression equation for predicting equation of standard score is:
Zy = - .063 Z1 + .032 Z2 +.341 Z3
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Table 3 analyzing the women’s roles in the agricultural sector affected household spending behaviors to reduce debt or have no debt (Y2).
Variables B Beta t P
Constant 2.253 14.229 .000
Preparation, accessing to factors of production, -.054 -.063 -.731 .466
ownership and entrepreneurship (x1)
agricultural planning and decision-making (x2) .022 .032 .383 .702
production management, post-harvest .257 .341 3.742** .000
management, marketing and distribution (x3)
R2 = 10.20 %
Remarks: ** Significant at the 0.01 level
Conclusion
The women’s roles in the agricultural production sector affecting household debt behaviors included the study of the preparation roles of agricultural production factors, accessing to factors of production, ownership and entrepreneurship, the roles of agricultural planning and decision-making and the roles of production management, post-harvest management, marketing and distribution. These factors are predictors explaining a 10.20 percent of variance at a 0.01 statistically significant level of household behaviors to reduce debt or have no debt. The research question was answered that there are a number of variables in the women’s role in the agricultural sector that affect their household debt behaviors which are production management, post-harvest management, marketing and distribution (Lal and Khurana, 2011; Chucheep, 1993; Janenarong, 2006). Nevertheless, the results showed that there was no women’s role in the agricultural production sector that affected household spending behaviors to create debt.
Based on the finding of this paper, policy strategies should be formulated to promote the roles of production management, post-harvest management, marketing and distribution to women; who works in the agricultural production sector, whom their roles support the household economic. The policy strategies should focus on identifying effective knowledge, skills and technology to promote women’s roles to be more focus on their household’s economic level.
References
[1] Caroline Moser. (2015). Moser Gender Analysis Framework. Retrieved from http://web.worldbank.org, January10, 2015.
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[2] Chucheep Piputsitee. (1993). The role and status of farm household members: a case study of baby/young ear corn in Thailand, Proceedings of the 31st Kasetsart University Annual Conference: Home Economics, Science, Engineering, Agro- Industry, Economics and Business Administration, Education, Humanities, Natural Resources and Environmental Economics, 1993, 424-432. [3] Janenarong Tiensawang. (2006). Women farmer roles in community enterprises development: a case study of Ban Toong Samae weaving group, Nong Kham sub- district, Nong Ya Sai district, Suphan Buri province, Thesis, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 2006. [4] Kanda Paranakian. (1978). Role of women in agriculture: a comparative study of housewives in the Nong Wai irrigation project areas, Khon Kaen and in the greater Mae Klong irrigation project areas, Nakorn Pathom and Ratchabri, Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 1978.14-35. [5] Krit Rangsoongnuean. (2011). SPSS and AMOS for Research. Bangkok, Se- education Public Company Limited. [6] Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. (2016). Bureau of agricultural economic research, retrieved from http://www.oae.go.th. in March 25, 2016 [7] Napa Srinuan. (2012). The Informal Loan Causes of Farmers in Pla Pak District of Nakhon Phanom Province, the 2nd STOU Graduate Research Conference, September 4-5, 2012. [8] National Statistical Office, Ministry of Information and Communication Technology. (2016). The Income and Expenditure of Household in 2013 (First 6 Months), retrieved from http://web.nso.go.th/index.htm in March 25, 2016. [9] Pongpan Traimongkolkull and Suparp Chatraphorn.. (2006). Research Designed. Bangkok: Kasetsart University Press. [10] Roshan Lal and Ashok Khurana. (2011). Gender Issues: The Role of Women in Agriculture Sector. ZENITH International Journal of Business Economics & Management Research Vol.1 Issue 1. 2011. [11] Sansanee Nayong and Ruth Sirisunyaluck. (2012). Agricultural activities decision making of farmer's housewife's according to the sufficiency economy in Chiang Mai. Journal of Agricultural Research and Extension, Thailand, 29 (2), 2012, 45-57. [12] Sudjai Joongvorakitwattana. (2015). Revenue and marginal propensity of households in spending towards the sufficiency economy, Office of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of agriculture and cooperatives, retrieved from http://www.oae.go.th/, December15, 2015. [13] The World Bank, World Development Report: Gender Equality and Development, 2012, 5. Retrieved from http://web.worldbank.org, January10, 2015. [14] Yamane Taro. (1973). Statistic: An Introductory Analysis. New York: Harper and Row Publication.
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Evaluation of Human Resource Development Project on Management Capacity Building for Level 8 Staff of Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives
Rungrattana Chumsing*, Supharsinee Numniam Department of Human and Community Resource Development, Kasetsart University, Thailand *Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract
The purposes of this study are to assess the managerial knowledge of the eight-level staff of the Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives before and after their participation in the managerial capacity building training under the Human Resource Development Programme organized by the Bank. The target group was the staff members at level eight that underwent the capacity building training from 2010 B.E. to 2013 B.E. Out of 1,570 participants, the sample size of 318 was determined using Yamine’s sampling method. Based on the identified sample size, 329 participants were selected by specific sampling technique. he test was administered to assess the management knowledge of the trainees before and after the training. The standard deviation was equivalent to 0.85. The questionnaire using the five-scale level of responses was administered to evaluate the achievement of the capacity building training course. Data analysis methods were average percentage, standard deviation and descriptive statistics of T-Test of Dependent Paired Samples T-Test. The questionnaire aimed to measure three aspects, namely, Reaction, Behavior and Results. The IOC level was equivalent to 0.66-1.00 while the Standard Deviation was 0.94. The outcome of the study revealed that there was a significant different in the managerial knowledge of the participants before and after the training at 0.01 level. The participants were capable of applying the knowledge gained from the training to the actual working environment resulting in the behavioral change. The overall level of satisfaction on the capacity building program on the above aspects was assessed as high (Reaction: x̅ = 4.32, Behavior: x̅ = 4.12, Result: x̅ = 3.99). Keywords: project evaluation, human resource development, bank for agriculture and agricultural cooperatives, the development of capacity management
Introduction
In today’s world of rapid changes in all aspects of social, economic, political, business, financial and technology, the Organization must adapt its ability in order to effectively compete with its counterparts. The Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC), being a financial institution for rural development by providing financial support to farmers in order to promote the quality of life. The BAAC’s policy driven strategies are to develop the group and network centric community, to provide proactive lending support to the community to add value to the products of its customers and to build up the Bank’s capacity as the modernized organization. In order to respond to the capacity building strategy, BAAC aims to
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 78 develop the capacity of the staff members with particular emphasis on the managerial skills. Staff members at eighth level were those that will transform to the executive level. They were seen as the policy driven workforce for the organization success of the Bank. It is necessary that they must be equipped with the necessary managerial knowledge and skills as a preparation for the higher level of responsibility and roles. Since 2010 B.E. BAAC has conducted a capacity building in managerial skills for staff members at eight levels under the Human Resources Development Project. Total 1,570 staff members have been trained. A systematic assessment on the training needs to be conducted to evaluate the outcome of the training and its contribution to the Organization. According to a study on the evaluation of the training program, four aspects were assigned to evaluate the effectiveness of training (Kirkpatrick (1998). Those are: 1) Reactive Evaluation An assessment of the response to the project, such as courses of content, how to train the trainers, documentation, and training facility, appropriateness of the audiovisual and training period, 2) learning Evaluation of the learning that it happened as a result of the training such as an increase in learning before - after training on the knowledge, skills and attitude, 3) behavior Evaluation on the behavioral change upon returning to work after the training whether it is going in the right direction and desirable including the knowledge and skills that can be applied in practice, more or less, and 4) results evaluation was an assessment of the results or the impact on the organization as a result of the change in the behavior of participants as risk factors increases, the performance of the agencies/organizations, the reduction of costs, an increase in profits for organization, benefits to associates or related agency or organization in association with the training time.
Objectives
The purposes of this study are to assess the managerial knowledge of the eight-level staff of the Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives before and after their participation in the managerial capacity building training under the Human Resource Development Program organized by the Bank. The specific objectives are: 1) to assess the knowledge on management of the staff members at eight level of the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives before and after participating in the management capacity building training under the Human Resources Development Project, and 2) to assess the outcome of management capacity building training course organized by the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives.
Research Methods
A total of 36 training on managerial capacity building were conducted for 1,570 eight- level staff members of the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives from 2010 to 2013. Out of the 1,570 staff members that were trained, a sample size of 328 was determined using a Yamane formula with the confidence level of 95%. Based on the identified sample size, 329 participants that participated in the training in 2013 was selected using specific sampling method.
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Tools and methods that were used to gather information for the study are as follows;
1. For the assessment of knowledge management before and after the training, the instrument for data collection was the multiple-choice knowledge test comprising 34 questions. The confident level of 0.85 was derived. The quiz was administered before the training and immediately after the training. 2. Data collection to collect information in order to training course was done through the five-level scale questionnaire. The questionnaire aimed to collect information on three aspects of the training, namely, Reaction, Behavior and Resources. The IOC is 0.66-1.00 and the confidential is 0.93 confidentiality is 0.94. The questionnaires were distributed to the sample group. Returned questionnaires were received by e-mail and post. All questionnaires have been restored. Analyses of the data for the purposes of research are as follows; 1. Paired T-Test: The evaluation of knowledge by comparing the knowledge management before and after participating in the program. 2. Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation: To analyze the results of the three projects (Reaction, Behavior and Recourse).
Results and Discussion The findings can be summarized as follows for the purposes of research: Assessing of knowledge on management before and after the training Results of the knowledge test before training (Pre-Test) and after the training (Post- Test) of the trained participants revealed that average score of the knowledge in management after training was higher than the average score on the subject before the training at the statistical significance of 0.01 level as shown in the following table 1. Table 1 analysis to assess the knowledge before and after the training.
n X S.D. df t P
Pre - Test 329 21.10 5.45 328 23.04 .000*
Post - Test 329 28.36 2.51 328
Note: Significant 0.01
Assessment of the outcome of the management capacity building training course organized by the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives Analysis of the data showed that the participants rated the overall satisfaction on the training course at the appropriate level ( X = 4.14 and S.D. = 0.16) Responses on each aspect of the assessment are mostly at appropriate level, namely, Reaction (curriculum subjects, method of training by trainers and the management and facilities) is suitable ( X = 4.32, S.D. = 0.13) Behavior (Knowledge application in practice, knowledge transfer to employees and organizations) is at reasonable level ( X = 4.12, S.D. = 0.01) and Recourses (application of knowledge after the training) is appropriate ( X = 3.99, S.D. = 0.79) Please refer to Table 2 for reference.
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Table 2 assessment of the training on managerial capacity building organized by the Human Resource Development Program of the Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives.
Evaluation Types X S.D. Appropriation Level
Reaction 4.32 0.13 The highest
Behavior 4.12 0.01 high
Results 3.99 0.76 high
In totals 4.14 0.16 high
Summary and discussion 1.The knowledge of the eight-level staff in managerial subjects have increased statistically significant as a result of the training. The management capabilities and the level of knowledge were also improved. The result implies that the training is consistent with the need to learn and the principles of adult learning which is the goal of this project. The training is practical and relates to the actual working experiences of the participants. The use of video to present case study is appropriate as it gives more impact to viewers. The findings are consistent with the research of Supawadee Theanwattarakun (2010) Chanyapak Wongba and Kingkan Jongjaihan (2012) and Korrawut Yueanyong (2010). They found that participants with the knowledge after the training than before training.
2. The participants found that the training on managerial capacity is appropriate in all aspects of the evaluation, namely, reaction, behavior and results. Management of the training was found to be suitable. On reaction, the course content, course management and learning activities to meet the needs of learners, are viewed as appropriate. Trainees are involved in the learning activities and actively participated in the learning from practice. Trainers have the suitable personality and ability to deliver the training and create the positive learning atmosphere. They were able to give the clear answer to the questions raised. Management of the training and facilities helps to promote the learning of the students which is consistent with the concept of creating a good learning environment. A physical and Psychological atmosphere such as familiarity or very good relationship between teachers and students also contribute to the learning (Pimpan Techakoop and Payouw Yindeesook, M.P.P). It allows the students to learn and achieve better results which is consistent with research study of Seksan Jamneansook (2007), Sirarat Kunamuang (1979), Aorn-Anong Mark-Jaan (2012). On the aspect of Behavior (application of knowledge and transfer of knowledge), it was found that the training was appropriate at the high level. The participants were of the opinion that the course content was practical and applicable to their working environment. Level of difficulty was appropriate to the participants which was consistent with research study of Mayura Tinvimol (2007) and Akanit Hongsaveena (2000). Course content was adequate for the learning experience of participants in
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 81 such a way that it provoked thinking and further enhanced the knowledge. Learning activities were systematically developed and associated with the works of the participants which was consistent with research study of Sunee Phuphan, (2003) and Pisnanu Fongsee (2007). Regarding the Results (what happens to the employees and the organization as a result of the application of knowledge), the results of the study is in same direction as the application of knowledge. It showed that this course was practical useful to employees and the organization. Therefore, it is likely that those who were trained tend to be deeply knowledgeable in the subject matters and that the knowledge gained would last long. This is in accordance with the rule of learning and the principle of association Thorndike which is consistent with research study of Tissana Khammanee (2016). If the student or trainee has done a lot in the application of knowledge that resulted in the permanent satisfaction, the benefits derived from the application of knowledge will make students want to learn and the learning will last long. References Aorn-Anong Mark-Jaan. (2012). The Evaluation of Local Personnel Development Project on the Community Developer Course by Academic Cooperation between Silpakorn University and Department of Local Administration, Ministry of Interior,Thesis, Bangkok. Akanit Hongsaveena. (2000). Evaluation of the Training Program for Heads of Academic Departments / Sections of the King’s Father Institute, Public Health Ministry, Thesis Master of Education, Kasetsart University. Chanyapak Wongba and Kingkan Jongjaihan. (2012). The Evaluation of Training the CHAMPION Program Applied By Kirkpatrick Approach.. Journal, The office of Disease Prevention and Control 6 Khon Kaen, Property Print. Korrawut Yueanyong. (2010). An Evaluation of the Training Program for the Operational Staff of Black Canyon (Thailand) Co., Ltd., Thesis (Human Resources Development), Ramkhamhaeng University, 2010. Kirkpatrick, Donald L. (1998). Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels, 2nd edition. Mayura Thinwimon. (2007). Program Evaluation towards Organizational Success. Bangkok: Master Thesis, Master of Education, Ramkhamhaeng University. Pimpan Techakoop and Payouw Yindeesook. (2008). 5 C Skills for Learning Unit Development and Integration of Teaching Management. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. Pitsanu Fongsri. (2007). Techniques of Program Evaluation. 4th ed, Bangkok. Seksan Jamneansook. (2007). The Project evaluation of Truck Maintenance Employer, Volvo Truck and Bus (Thailand). Thesis, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang.
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Sirarat Kunamuang. (1979). The Project evaluation of teacher development work shop for electronic newspapers, Nondaengratprasit, Kalasin Primary Educational Service Area Office 2, Thesis, Rejabhat Mahasarakham University. Supawadee Theanwattarakun. (2010). The Evaluation of Local Personnel Development Program: in the development plan for public participation. Thesis, Department of Human Resource and Organization Development, Silpakorn University. Sunee Poopan. (2003). Basic Concepts for Curriculum Creation and Development. Chiangmai: Saeng Sin Printing. Tisana Khammani. (2016). Teaching Sciences: Effectiveness of Learning Process Management Knowledge. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn Book Center.
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Factors Related to the Self Development of Personnel in Ministry of Home Affairs, Lao People’s Democratic Republic
Bouthsy Vilaychaka, Prasong Tanpichaia, Sunti Srisuantangb Department of human and community resource development Faculty of Education and Development Science, Kasetsart University, Thailand. Corresponding author: [email protected] Abstract The objective of this research to study level of self-development of Personnel in Ministry of Home Affairs of Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The population used in this research consisted of 298 of technical officers in Ministry of Home Affairs, of Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The research instrument included the questionnaire. The data was analyzed with a statistical package to calculate frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation. The research finding were technical officers in Ministry of Home Affairs, of Lao People’s Democratic Republic had high levels of self-development knowledge, skill and attitude. Keywords: self-development, home affairs
Introduction
Human resource development is the main objective of country development. Developing human resources for higher quality. In addition to be functions the government but also the direct responsibility of the personnel in terms develop of knowledge, competence, skills and attitudes characteristics for appropriate and efficient performance for nowadays and the future. This is to have peaceful life, satisfying career, warm family, life stability, good health and mental health, and then be able to benefit their own lives, society and nation. Therefore, self-development is what every personnel has to give importance to and keep practicing it for them whole life. The self-development also has positive effects on the personnel in properly and successfully adjusting and adapting themselves to different situations or environments (Maliny Juthopama, 2010). The initial step of the self-development is the vision to shape the idea of whom you want to be and of what you want to have and then compares the real situation with such a vision. This will help to reflect what you have to improve and develop. Moreover, being aware of the importance and necessity of the self-development will encourage people to always have self-evaluation, which could reveal their potentials, intelligence, emotion and acting or expression skills. After that, improving or developing approaches on these results or findings could be found out, and could make the self-development more fruitful and lead the personnel to their set goals. Their adjustment and adaptation to new environment within the organization could appear to have less conflict or contradiction (Chilaphone Tangkittiphaphone, 2013).When the personnel can efficiently develop themselves and happily live, their families, society and country will progressively develop and quickly bring about the stability of economy, politics, society and culture in the
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 84 country. One key element of all development is the self-development which does not need others' help and human resources development is the core factor creating enabling environment for all dimensions of the country development (Maliny Juthopama, 2010). Therefore, this means education plays an important role in developing human resources for higher quality which is the significant force driving the economic, social, political and cultural development of a country and emphasizing the progress of intelligence and perspective of people in terms of high technical and professional aspects. In addition, the education focuses on developing people to have meritocracy, ethical behavior, knowledge and cultural understanding (Wanwipha Taweetanytrakul, 2014).
As mentioned above, there are many technical officers in the Ministry of Home Affairs lacking the opportunity of the self-development. This causes the staff to have the lack of knowledge, ability, skills and technical competence, and to be unable to follow the changes of globalization, working system and other scientific aspects. Moreover, the lack of opportunity of the self-development results in some failures and poor quality of programs, plans and projects implementation, which periodically affects the social and economic development of the government.
From above-mentioned issues, the researcher on behalf of a staff in the Ministry of Home Affairs realizes the significance of the self-development and is interested in studying the level of the self-development in order to increase the effectiveness and improve the working quality in the Ministry of Home Affairs. This is also to raise awareness for the personnel and the importance of the self-development and the application of knowledge in their organizations and better performances. From these reasons, it leads to the study on the personnel in the Ministry of Home Affairs. This study is strongly believed to facilitate and bring about the better administration of developing approaches on managing staff in each unit and further encouragement the self-development of the Ministry of Home Affairs.
Research Objective To study level of self-development of Personnel in Ministry of Home Affairs, of Lao People’s Democratic Republic.
Research Contribution The results of this research keeping in mind the level of self-development of Personnel in Ministry of Home Affairs, Lao People’s Democratic Republic the essentials for the Ministry of Home Affairs Used plan guide development to improve the Human Resource Development in organizations. Promotions personnel accrue compliance with strategy development of the Ministry of Home Affairs Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The research instruments 1. Review the concept, theories from journal to find related to the self development of personnel in Ministry of Home Affairs based on the research objective.
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2. Review principle and methodology to develop questionnaires and self – development rating scale form. The closed and open questionnaires were used in this research. The closed questionnaire has two sections: Section 1 Focusing on the general information of officials including gender, age, education, and work experience. All of these were in a checklist. Section 2 Focusing on knowledge, skills, and attitude of the officials which related to self-development with five rating scales including excellent, very good, good, fair, and poor. Verification the instrument A questionnaire was used for data collection in this research. The questionnaire was developed using the following steps: 1. Questionnaire draft consultation with advisory committee. 2. Questionnaire was sent to a total of five experts to check and comment The content validity was carried out to examine item objective congruence of the question items, which was at 0.75-1.00. 3. Revised questionnaire based on the recommendations of experts. 4. The reliability, questionnaire was tried out for sampling with 30 officials at the Ministry of Natural and Environment. Analyzed data by Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient, the reliability of the questionnaire used in exploratory analysis was at .96 and it was satisfactory to be used. Data Collection For data collection, the researcher collected all document related to the research from offices under the Ministry of Home Affairs. Before starting data collection, the researcher submitted permission letter to the head Department of Human and Community Resource Development under Faculty of Education and Development Science, Kasetsart University, Thailand to the director general cabinet of the Ministry of Home Affairs in order to ask permission for conducting data collection with technical officers in each of department under of the Ministry of Home Affairs. Data Analysis For data analysis, the researcher has collected the questionnaire and verification data for completion and reality, and accuracy. The completed data were analyzed by statistical package to calculate frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation.
Conclusion A study of Self Development of Personnel in Ministry of Home Affairs, Lao People’s Democratic Republic Summary as follows; 1. Personnel information The result showed that there were more male than female technical officers, a total of159 were male with a percentage of53.4. The highest group was between the age of 26-30 years totaling to 142 technical officers with a percentage 47.7. The highest group of officers who graduated for bachelor degree amounted to 228 officers with a percentage of 76.6. The highest group of officers that had worked for a duration of 1-5 years amounted to 202 officials with a percentage of 67.8.
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2. Level of self-development of Personnel in Ministry of Home Affairs, of Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The result were self-development technical officers in Ministry of Home Affairs, of Lao People’s Democratic Republic. High has level self-development (µ=4.20,=0.44) the detailed show table1. Table 1 level self – development.
(N=298) Self-development µ opinion knowledge 4.39 0.48 high Skills 4.01 0.58 high Attitudes 4.23 0.49 high Overall 4.20 0.44 high
Discussion The level of self-development of personnel in Ministry of Home Affairs, of Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The overall finding technical officers high has level self -development all of this knowledge skill and attitude. The indication of the staffs on self development has show that, they have more interest and active in study in higher level for improving their knowledge and capacity to be more professionally and apply to their work. In addition, they have seen the valuing of their personality development that able to contribute to reach their targets including internal exchange and withdraw the best practices among colleagues. They have practice in computerization to more expertise and they also pray the honesty to their work and organization. The finding from the research are conformity with the previous research by Siritip Tipthammakul (2010); Pracharat Tussananakajit (2007) which indicated that, the staffs are willing to learn in new things and their working environment and they all have their own self- development plan, internalization and exchange with their colleagues on their job and responsibilities including create an internalize relationship that consequence in improvement their work performance to more quality and leading to succeed, including monitoring the movements of their organization regularly which aligned with the previous research by which agreed with Chilaphone Tangkittiphaphone (2013); Lukanasarivat (2013) and Songsirivichiranon and team (2008) said that, the supplementation of the self- development of the staffs not only in library and internet, but also learning from experience, working environment and colleagues, Etc. They have their own value and capability for self-development. Therefore, they able to learn and practice to make change and development.
References Chilaphone Tangkittiphaphone. (2013). General psychology. 1st ed. Bangkok Chulalongkorn University Press. Lukanasarivat. (2013). Human relationship. 1st ed. Bangkok:osprinting.co.th. Maliny Juthopama. (2010). Psychology of life and self development. 1st ed. Buriram: Rewet printing.
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Pracharat Tussananakajit. (2007). Factors Relating to Self Development of Officials in Royal Irrigation Office 11, Royal Irrigation Department. Master of Arts (Political Science) ,major field: folitical science, department of political science and public administration, Kasetsart University. Songsirivichiranon and team. (2008). Life and social skills. 3rd ed. Bangkok: Triple ED. Siritip Tipthammakul. (2010). Factors Affecting Self-development on Employees of Five Stars Hotels in Prachuabkirikhan Province. master of business administration school of sanagement science, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University. Wanwipha Taweetanytrakul. (2014). Factors Affecting to the Identities of Students Majoring in Agricultural and Environmental Education, Kasetsart University. Veridian E-Journal.volum 7 number 3 september – secember 2014.
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Body of Knowledge and Ways of Practice toward Sustainable Agriculture: A Case Study of Integrated Farming in Central Thachin Basin
Nirun Yingyuada*, Prasong Tanpichaia, Sunti Srisuantanga and Weerachat Soopunyob 1Doctoral Program in Human and Community Resource Development, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University, KamphaengSaen Campus, NakhonPathom 73140, Thailand 2Department of Human and Community Resource Development, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University, KamphaengSaen Campus, NakhonPathom 73140, Thailand 3Department of Lifelong Education, Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. *Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract This qualitative research aimed 1) to codify academic knowledge about sustainable agriculture in Thai context, 2) to study a process of knowledge application in integrated farming practices of community and farmers in central Thachin basin, and 3) to analyze the congruence between academic knowledge and practical knowledge deriving from the application of knowledge on integrated farming practices toward sustainable agriculture in Thai context. Data were collected by documentary analysis, in-depth interview, and observation in an actual context. Research sample comprised 20 cases purposively selected as key informants. Qualitative data were analyzed through the processes of unitizing, categorizing, and template-based content analysis. The results showed that; 1) the main idea of body of knowledge on sustainable agriculture in Thai context was to create "balance" between ecosystems and experience-based practices in "complimentary" to natural ecosystems. The concept of sustainable agriculture has been disseminated in the forms of knowledge about methods, practical techniques, and five models of sustainable agriculture to be alternatives to environmentally friendly agriculture including new agricultural theory, organic agriculture, agro-forestry, natural agriculture, and integrated farming, 2) based on case studies, processes of knowledge application in integrated farming practices at a community level was a learning process aiming to solve agricultural problems with appropriate solutions. Community leaders had a major role in building up a learning process for developing integrated farming patterns appropriate to the community context. At an individual level, farmers used a “learning by doing process” for applying and extending knowledge in their integrated farming practices with intellect and greater carefulness in consistence with the context of farming areas, and 3) the body of knowledge and ways of practice toward sustainable agriculture of both farmers and academics were consistent with the target of natural ecosystems balance and compliment. The differences was found in the ways of the actual practice of farmers depending on experience and knowledge application process responsive to the specific context of each area. For human and community resource development in the agricultural dimension, an enhancement of research-based learning process to uplift farmers’ capacity as researcher was recommended. Additionally, linkage of
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 89 knowledge and practices to sustainable agriculture through educational systems at all levels should be addressed. Keywords: process of knowledge application, integrated farming, sustainable agriculture
Introduction The sustainable agriculture system is an agriculture productive concept based on the long-term balance of the farm environment. It is a production system that is integrated with the underlying philosophy of awareness on social value, environmental, and the supportive relationships in the ecosystem (Richard, 1990: 3-4; Rod MacRae, 2009: 1- 2). Sustainable agriculture is a learning process and adapting to life as a culture. Sustainable agriculture is not letting the nature take its course or rejecting external factors entirely. It is learning to adjust the way of life and agriculture to continue to exist in the society and the world transformation (Witoon Panyakul, 2008: 87). From the concept of development and sustainable agriculture expansion, it was found to cause confusion in the principles and practices because the definitions and forms of sustainable agriculture are too much of an abstract. This argument on forms and methods of sustainable agriculture is still unclear (Sustainable Agriculture Foundation, 2004: 3). The problem on definition to explain the meaning and common understanding of sustainable agriculture is a major problem that can cause communication problems, creating a common understanding, especially in communication between the government and private sectors (Buntoon Srethasirote, 2003: 20). In addition, the local wisdom and knowledge of sustainable agriculture spread is limited and still is disconnected with the policy for developing balance agriculture in all levels. Government organizations feel that alternative agriculture and sustainable agriculture are outside the mainstream system. Therefore, the government has no policy to seriously support or promote sustainable agriculture and still continues to focus on promoting the development of small and large agriculture businesses (Anuson Unnano, 2004: 49). The sustainable agricultural practices of the public and academic sector are still unclear, the farmer knowledge and practices are still limited and lack the synthetic connection that is comparable to academic knowledge. From the origin and significance of the problem, the researcher studied the use of knowledge and practices to sustainable farming practices formed from a group of farmers and communities, as well as a network of farmers in Central Thachin Basin, the on-site empirical case studies to help expand the knowledge on sustainable agriculture as a result of the actual practice making the sustainable agriculture apparent that would be useful in research and development to further knowledge in the field of human and community resource development in agricultural dimension, establishment of policy to be implemented to develop agriculture in a sustainable manner and to guide the development of sustainable agriculture based on the learning process in the context of the changes under globalization.
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Research Objectives 1) To codify academic knowledge about sustainable agriculture in Thai context. 2) To study a process of knowledge application in integrated farming practices of community and farmers in central Thachin basin. 3) To analyze the congruence between academic knowledge and practical knowledge deriving from the application of knowledge on integrated farming practices toward sustainable agriculture in Thai context.
Methodology comprises the following: 1. Codify Academic Knowledge about Sustainable Agriculture in Thai Context The researchers codified academic knowledge of sustainable agriculture in Thai context by document analysis from book, research, thesis, research of Sustainable Agriculture Foundation (Thailand) and knowledge of academic seminar. 2. Case Studies and Data Collection Methods The researchers studied the context of Central Thachin Basin and selected case studies in specific community in Nongkradonmon village, Nong Pho sub-district, Nong Yasai district, Suphanburi province because it is a community that is unique in concept- driven integrated agriculture through the learning process and the extension to farmers on an individual level having achieved a concrete result. The case study selection of farmers was done by using multiple case study examples. Data collection was done by using in-depth individual interviews and both participating and non-participating observation. Data providers were farmers who practice integrated farming for more than 10 years and has been regarded as the intellectual on agriculture who are constantly seeking knowledge with empirical work results in the area. The researchers selected a group of 20 key informants that meet the criteria set by the researcher in all respects and verified by the community leaders, state officials and checked against the community database. 3. Monitoring Data and Data Analysis Checking the accuracy of data collected using triangulation technique in different methods to verify the information, that is verifying data from interviews, document analysis, participated observation, returning information to the community to jointly verify the accuracy and to complete some of information from the key informants. Qualitative data were analyzed through the processes of unitizing, categorizing, and template-based content analysis, and presentation of descriptive analysis. Results and Discussion Academic Knowledge Related to Sustainable Agriculture in Thai Context Academic knowledge that appears in the writings of academics indicate that the transition to sustainable agriculture is from paradigm, belief, knowledge, and attributes of farmers who want to seek ways to support themselves. Most farmers achieving sustainability in agriculture are those having been affected by monoculture farming. Some farmers start with sustainable agriculture in the first place that may have been inherited from a parent or self-taught until becoming successful. The writings of academics have also helped to driven sustainable agriculture into the country policies.
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Knowledge and actual practices of farmers are presented by academics to spread sustainable agriculture based on academic, principles, and concepts, knowledge presented as defined in the abstract sense and concretely practices by successful farmers as an alternative to farmers, with the aim being the farmer ability to survive under the mainstream and the ability to sustainably practice environmental friendly farming. Consequently, sustainable agriculture knowledge in Thai context is the knowledge to create "balance" of the ecosystem and way of practical experience as "complementary" to natural ecosystems. The concept of sustainable agriculture has been disseminated in the forms of knowledge about methods, practical techniques, and five models of sustainable agriculture to be alternatives to environmentally friendly agriculture including new agricultural theory, organic agriculture, agro- forestry, natural agriculture, and integrated farming. Process of Knowledge Application in Integrated Farming Practices of Community and Farmers Nongkradonmon village was founded in 2514 BE due to numerous wide swamps in the community, people started calling it " Nongkradonmon " with an area of 4,500 rai. Most areas are wetlands with sandy loam in the area of Krasaew Dam Irrigation project. The majority of population is farmers, 125 households out of 442, according to the 2013 data. The houses are scattered in groups around the village. Nongkradonmon Village is a pilot project under indicators development project in the green zone of the Thachin basin by UNDP (UNDP: United Nation Development Program). It is also a sufficient way of life learning community. Having applied knowledge on integrated farming, it was found that the application at the community level is a learning process to solve problems and to seek an appropriate solution. Community leaders play a significant role in the learning process to develop a model appropriate for the context of the agricultural community at the farmer level with the actual practical learning process to apply the knowledge in farming with wisdom and prudence in practical ways that are in harmony with the context of the area. Integrated farming appropriate for the context of the community can lead to agriculture sustainability. The farmers took the knowledge and diligence in environment supportive farming to achieve self-reliance and stabilize the income and food security. This is consistent with Aphiphan Pookpakdi (2009: 204-206) that mentioned integrated agricultural system that is suitable for agriculture to farmers who earn less creating year-round revenue, food security, and the ability to control pest infestations. Meanwhile, the deployment of knowledge of farmers is important in the development of integrated agricultural system that is in harmony with the context of the changes so that farmers can live and environmental friendly. Knowledge deployment process for integrated farming in communities and farmers inaccordance with the theory of the social learning process of Thonphan Thani (1997 cited in Khanchit Buddhakosa, 2011: 25-26), namely the society learning process consists of recognizing issue, finding an alternative solution, deciding on approaches, learning to practice the Improvement and Evaluation indicating that the success of a community and farmers from deploying integrated agricultural knowledge in line with the context of the community being grounded from "Learning by doing" and "learning society" processes that seamlessly blend.
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The agricultural community that faced the difficulties due to monoculture patterns up to the point of learning process to solve problems of farmers and communities to seek appropriate agriculture patterns. It is consistent with the theory on adoption of Rogers and Shoemaker (1971, cited in Jureeporn Kanjanakaroon and Watsana Wongchaya, 2010) stating that the innovation adoption is deciding to fully use the innovation because the innovation is a good and useful method. The innovation acceptance is a process starting from individual or community experiencing and encouraging the innovation acceptance and compliance. The innovation acceptance is based on the characteristics of the individual, community, and innovation such as deploying knowledge on integrated farming by communities and farmers from the community leaders having gone to study the successful result to be published in the deployment of rapid adoption because it is consistent with the way agriculture is the foundation of the community. The knowledge deployment at the community level for agricultural practices appropriate to the context of the community is consistent with the research conducted by Kullatida Phu-khang and Phitak Siriwong (2013) found that the clearly seen phenomena of Nongkradonmon village community is the integration of learning , joint trial with the lifestyle practices on the basis of self-reliance based on the systematic community knowledge management, inside and outside the community learning networks, and applying local wisdom and traditional knowledge that communities receive from the outside to develop into agricultural patterns appropriate for the community. The structural functional theory explains that the society will have to adapt itself to solve the long-term with gradual change and society unity is achieved by the members contributing to maintain the stability, society is a system that consists of different parts coordination (Chamnong Adivadhanasit et. al, 2000: 8-9), such as the leader roles in driving the learning process in a community forum, studying group network, and practicing it as a role model. The roles of farmers are learning from one's own lifestyle, trial and error from actual practice, and some farmers already had been through the learning process with the community leaders and deploy the knowledge on integrated farming on their farmland. However, the farmer and leader role in the learning process being harmoniously synchronized shows the strength of the community together to create sustainable agriculture. Congruence between Academic Knowledge and Practical Knowledge Academic knowledge of sustainable agriculture in Thai context is farming to create a balanced ecosystem and complementary to the natural environment. While the practical knowledge in integrated farming under agricultural sustainability focuses on using experiences as a base to practice and learn on their own through the learning process for the deployment of environment complementary agriculture, academic knowledge on sustainable agriculture is the knowledge accumulated thourth life the practices of farmers from the truly successful. Integrated agriculture of scholars and real farmers in the area are consistent. The difference of integrated farming model is based on the context of the area and the actual deployment in line with Daycha Siriphat (2008) stating that there’s no exact model for integrated farming practice, but it can be adapted to the environment in each farmer’s capabilities and potential in accordance with the synthesis of research conducted by Suchint Simaraks (2014: 28) found that there are numerous patterns of
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 93 integrated agriculture depending on the physical and climatic conditions in the social practices of farmers. Thus, the concept of integrated farming is a way of farming that are associated with all aspects of a holistic approach consistent with the definition of SEARCA (1995) and J. Park and R. A. F. Seaton (1996) concluded that sustainable agriculture is a holistic dimension of social, cultural, economic and environmental. The goal is to create food security, human development, empowerment, and emancipation, as well as a better quality of life. Therefore, integrated farming contributes to sustainable agriculture. Knowledge and practices of sustainable agriculture by farmers and scholars is consistent with the goal to balance and complement the nature ecosystems. The differences in the farmer practices depend on the experience and the knowledge to deploy in specific context of a particular area. Conclusions and Recommendations Sustainable agriculture, based on human potential due to the ability to improve themselves by learning from practicality to create knowledge and diligence in farming under the terms and limitations of space, contributes to knowledge and wisdom accumulated in agriculture that is environmentally friendly. When an individual’s practice is successful, it would create knowledge sharing and disseminating, to develop a group, community, or organizations in order to strengthen self-reliance. However, the process of learning in real world practice requires academic knowledge that has been systematically gathered. Therefore, human and community resource development in the agricultural dimension, the capability of farmers and communities should be developed by focusing on "Practical Knowledge-based Principles" to lead to diversified agricultural activities causing a supportive and balanced nature. At the same time, farmers must be conscious of natural ecosystems and social responsibility. The goal of sustainable agriculture is in harmony with the approach of sustainable development, and relevant authorities should promote the learning process through the research on the capability development of farmers who practice a role as a researcher and connecting knowledge and practices leading to sustainable agriculture through the education system at all levels.
References
Adivadhanasit, J. et al. (2000). Sociology. Bangkok: Kasetsart University. Buddhakosa, K. (2011). Complete Handbook for Development of Learning Community. National Research Council of Thailand, Bangkok. Harwood, R. R. (1990). A History of Sustainable Agriculture. Sustainable Agricultural Systems, Edited by Clive A. Edward. et al. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa. Kanjanakarun, J. and Wongchaya, W. (2010). Adoption of Agricultural Innovation and Technology in Yonglae Village Community. Academic and Research Journal, Rajamangala University of Technology Phra Nakhon. 4 (1): 92-101. MacRae, R. (2009). Sustainable Agriculture. Ecological Agriculture Projects, McGill University. (Online) http://eap.mcgill.ca/sustain.htm, December 24, 2009.
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Panyakul, W. (2008). Local Community Development and Sustainable Agriculture. The Article on The Occasion of 20 Years of Local Community Development Foundation. Bangkok: Srimueng Printing. Park, J. and R. A. F. Seaton. (1996). Integrative Research and Sustainable Agriculture. Agricultural Systems, 50 (1996) 81-100 (Online). http://www.sciencedirect.com/, October 1, 2009. Phu-khang, K. and Siriwong, P. (2013). Discourse of Community Development Ban- Nong- Kradon- Mon, Nong-Ya-Sai District, Suphanburi: Decoding the Development of A Strong Community with Methodology Discourse Analysis. Veridian E-Journal, Cluster of Humanities and Social Sciences. Silpakorn University. 6(1): 719-734. Pookpakdi, A. (2009). The Green Revolution from Hunger toward Fullness. Bangkok: Kasetsart University. SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA). (1995). Sustainable Agriculture Indicators. SEAMEO- SEARCA. Simaraks, S. (2014). "Synthesizing Knowledge on Sustainable Agriculture from Research Reports." Journal of Area Development Research, Thailand Research Fund (TRF), 6 (4): 126-138. Siriphat, D. (2008). Route of Sustainable Agriculture. Nonthaburi: BIOTHAI Foundation. Srethasirote, B. (2003). Sustainable Agriculture and Agriculture for Health policy. Agriculture and Rural Policy Network, Health Systems Research Institute. Bangkok. Sustainable Agriculture Foundation (Thailand). (2004). Sustainable Agriculture Exhibition: Praised the Person Who Initiated Sustainable Agriculture. Bangkok: Wan-Angkan Co., Ltd. Unnano, A. (2014). Rights over public resources in Thailand movement: sustainable agricultural systems in the context of ownership over resources. Nonthaburi: Sustainable Agriculture Foundation.
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Changes in the Demand for Higher Education from 2000 to 2010: Evidence from the Population and Housing Census in Thailand
Pimprapa Yodtomorn Graduate School of Creative Cities, Osaka City University, Japan Corresponding author:[email protected]
Abstract The purpose of this paper is to study the changes of factors affecting provincial disparities regarding higher level of educational demand in Thailand using quantitative analysis. In this research, the models were estimated with cross-sectional data from the Population and Housing Census in 2000 and 2010 considering a wide range of economic, social and educational explanatory variables. The result shows that, firstly, the average of monthly income per household positively affects the demand for higher education for both 2000 and 2010. Secondly, the influence of parent educational background, also, has a positive effect the demand for higher education in 2000 but not in 2010. Therefore, it could be explained that, in 2010, other factors might have a higher impact on the level of educational demand compared to parent educational background. Third, university access has found to be the most influential factor in determining the number of university students per 10,000 in 2010. Finally, we derive some conclusions about determinants of the demand for higher education in Thailand, and propose some remarks for future research. Keyword: the demand for higher education, disparities, quantitative analysis
1. Introduction During the 1980s, Japanese, American and European companies moved vigorously into Thailand. At that time, Thailand had begun to develop the economic to be an industrial economy. However, Industrial workers in specialized or technical fields were in short supply. In 1985, share of labor force working in agriculture was 69%, in manufacturing industry was only 8%. Therefore, Thai government had increased the number of universities, especially in science for increasing the supply of engineers since the mid-1980s. As a result, access to higher education has been expanded, and the proportion of students who go to the university has been increased. According to the information provided in the UNESCO institute for statistics (UIS), the gross enrolment rate of higher education had jumped from about 21.2 percent in 1998 to 50 percent in 2010. Although the expansion of higher education in the local area outside Bangkok was great during those years, disparities in enrolment rates can be observed between regions. To raise the level of basic education of Thai people, in the 1997 constitution, basic education provided for 12 years that cover primary education, lower secondary education and upper secondary education in both general and vocational system. Nevertheless, according to 1999 National Education act, the compulsory education in Thailand is still only 9 years during primary school to lower secondary. People are required to enroll in basic education until the lower secondary education.
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The statistical record data from the Population and Housing Census between 2000 and 2010 shows an increasing trend in the demand for higher education and disparities between rural and urban areas (Figure 1). An analysis at the provincial level shows the same trend of increasing the number of university students aged 18-21 per 10,000. However, disparities still exist among the provinces. Moreover, the proportion of increase is different.
Figure1The number of university students per 10,000 by province Source: the Population and Housing Census (2000 and 2010)
Figure 1 shows that rural people have much less access to higher education than urban people. According to the above graph, Bangkok and surrounding provinces, which have a high income level, have a higher number of university students per 10,000. Also, Sakon Nakhon, Mae Hong Son, Nakhon Phanom, which have a low income provinces, have a lower number of university students per 10,000. 2. The objective and the importance of this research The objective of this research is to compare the factors that affect the demand for higher education in university education from the viewpoint of regional disparities between 76 provinces in Thailand between 2000 and 2010. From the previous research, people’s revenue in the city is the main factor affecting the demand for higher education. The difference of percentage of students enrolling in higher education institutions between cities is not from the difference of student’s ability but unequal education opportunity. That means we have to consider economic and social factors affecting demand in the higher education for the purpose of reducing the disparity of education opportunity. 3. Literature Review The literature review provides an understanding of the regional differences in the entrance behavior and analytical methods. Many researches on higher education enrolment are founded upon “the factors of regional disparities of the entry behavior by using provincial data”. To understand the demand for higher education according
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 97 to the previous studies, it is necessary to look at such factors as Social and Economic factors and educational environment factor. These traits are discussed below. Arai (1995) presented individual decisions on higher education in men and women’s university entrance behavior, and women’s college entrance behavior by using prefecture data in Japan. Explanatory variables are household income, proximity to a higher education institution, vocational school, father’s educational level, mother’s educational level, parents’ occupations, proportion of self-employed rate, big cities dummy. The empirical findings confirmed that father’s educational level, income, and occupation have an influence on university entrance behavior of men and women but have no influence on women’s college entrance behavior. However, the proximity to a higher educational institution has an influence only on women’s college entrance behavior. Ishikawa (2006) finds that large companies ratio, university capacity, the average salary of a high school graduated have an effect on university enrolment rate by using the internal rate of return approach in Japan. Tukhtamizaeva and Gamou (2014) focused on the factors affecting enrolment in primary education, secondary education and higher education in Uzbekistan. According to their research, as compared with primary education, GDP per capita has an effect on the enrolment rate in secondary education, and the average age of first marriage for women has an effect on the enrolment rate in higher education. Wongbhuddha (1971) examined the factors influencingchoice of work or post- compulsory level education of young people in rural areas by using provincial level data in Thailand. According to the result of factors analysis, household income, father’s occupation, the number of siblings have an effect on enrolment decision. 4. Data and Methodology 4.1 Data This research presents provincial data for 2000 and 2010 that show, a steadily increasing number of student among18-21 year-olds population who is studying in an university. The data used for dependent variables in this research originate from “Population and Housing Census”.
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Table1 Variable Definitions and Sources
Dependent Acronym Definitions Unit Source variable Numerical value obtained by dividing the number of The number of university students of 4 Population and university students UER person year program per 10,000 Housing Census per 10,000 people in the university- age population(18-21) The average of monthly National Income INC Baht income per household Statistical Office Manufacturing Manufacturing industry as National MNS % share a percentage of GDP Statistical Office Number of high school per National School access SPA school/area 10 km2 Statistical Office Number of national and Ministry of University access UNA private universities per school/area Education 100 km2 Rajabhat university in Rajabhat university Ministry of RAJ each province (Yes=1, - dummy Education No=0) average years of education National EDH of 40-59 year-olds year Parent’s education Statistical Office population Number of Number of students per Population and students per NST person classroom Housing Census teacher Tutoring center tutoring center in each Wannasorn TTC - dummy province (Yes=1, No=0) website the percentage of the Unemployment National UNE unemployed in the labor % rate Statistical Office force
The expected signs of the coefficients are as follows; (1) Economic factors a) Income In the previous studies, income is a strong factor of children’s well-being. Children from higher income parents are more likely to attend other activities such as language, computer classes, tutoring center outside of school than are children from lower income parents (Arai,1995). Therefore, we predicted that higher income parents spend a higher proportion of their expenditures on education, compared with lower income parents.
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 99 b) Manufacturing share Tukhtamizaeva and Gamou (2014) found that GPP is positively associated with higher education enrolment rate. In this section, using GPP per capita as an economic force, it has been pointed out that if GPP is rising, the economy is good and enrolment rate is moving forward. c) Unemployment rate We could not expect that the sign of unemployment rate coefficient will be plus or minus. However, high unemployment rate means that the excess supply occurs in the labor market. Therefore, students choose to go to higher education institutions, enrolment rate is expected to increase (Yano, 2006). (2) Educational facility factors a) Number of students per teacher Much of the previous research stated that the number of teacher or the class size could affect the student’s achievement. This research used the student/teacher ratio as the class size. If we assume that the number of teacher or the class size could affect the student’s achievement, the lower student/teacher ratio or the smaller size of class affect the student’s ability, we will be expected that number of students per classroom has an impact on demand for higher education. However, according to the study by Seno (2003), educational facilities such as school building area per student, class size had no effect on the national examination acceptance rate for medical school in Japan. In other word, the demand of medical education depends on other factors such as student’s performance or parents. b) School access and University access Arai (1995) reports that the proximity to college campus has positive effect on a student’s decision to attend college. However, it’s just only college attendance decision of women who are affected, but not for university attendance decision of men and women. However, students who have a house near the university, not only can reduce transportation cost but also have a more chance to understand the environment of university. It means environments can affect learners emotionally. Likewise, the more high school number has, the more demand of high school students who want to go to university raise. For this reason, university access, school access or the number of educational institution may have an effect on the demand of higher education. c) Rajabhat university dummy In Thailand, there were 64 universities offering education programs, forty of these are the faculties of education at Rajabhat universities (previously known as teachers’ college) (Atagi, 2011). Rajabhat dummy variable tend to have a positive sign like university access variable. After Rajabhat universities were upgraded from institute to university status in 2004, students living in rural areas have more chances to obtain a bachelor degree. d) Tutoring school dummy We predicted that Tutoring school dummy have a positive sign in estimation result. A province which has a lot of tutor schools is expected to have a high demand of higher education. The concept is the higher income parents earn, the more chance children can afford to study in tutor school. Moreover, the more children study in tutor school,
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 100 the more knowledge they gain (Konakayama and Matsui, 2008). If high school students need to study at tutor school in order to prepare for University entrance exam, the province which has a lot of tutor schools shows a lot of students having a strong desire to entrance to the University. (3) Others Many studies such as Arai (1995), Wongbuddha (1971) and Baharan (2006) concluded that the influence of parents on their children was an important factor. We predicted that parents with higher education not only tend to have higher earnings, but also give an advice or recommendation for their children. 4.2 Methodology The various statistical data have been applied to accomplish the objectives of this research. By using various variables as mentioned above, we examined the relevance of the number of university students per 10,000of each province and other variables by using cross-sectional data analysis (2000 and 2010) and panel data analysis. First, a standard cross-section model is used to examine the relationship between the number of university students per 10,000 and others variable in each year:
Y = α + β INC + β MNS + β SPA + β UNA + β RAJ + β EDH + β NST + β TTC + β UNE + ε
Where Y is the natural logarithm of the real value of the number of university students per 10,000 for the ith (i=1,…,n). The term of is the error term. 5. The results and analysis Table 2 reports descriptive statistics on the cross-sectional data that presented in a previous section with 76 provincial observations. The mean value of the number of university students is 669 persons in 2000 and 1,941 persons in 2010. The mean value of the average monthly income per household is 10,627.33 baht in 2000 and 20,845.95 baht in 2010.
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Table2- descriptive statistics for cross-sectional variables (2000 and 2010).
2000 2010 Variable mean sd min max mean sd min max The number of university students 668.60 553.40 152.29 3514.35 1940.71 1157.80 334.25 5034.87 per 10,000 Income 10627.33 4035.32 4826.46 26909.12 20845.95 6212.79 9024.46 48951.22 Manufacturing 18.36 17.87 2.24 67.84 21.50 18.35 2.01 80.03 share School access 0.96 0.07 0.18 4.08 0.96 0.82 0.18 6.11 University access 0.28 0.16 0.00 13.39 0.33 1.84 0.00 15.93 Rajabhat university 0.41 0.50 0 1 0.45 0.50 0 1 dummy Parent’s education 7.03 0.80 5.43 10.58 7.21 1.09 5.20 11.44 Number of students 20.61 2.67 15.00 27.00 20.73 4.97 12.00 42.00 per teacher Tutoring center 0.09 0.29 0 1 0.29 0.46 0 1 dummy Unemployment rate 1.72 0.75 0.50 3.80 0.75 0.48 0.10 2.20 ln(The number of university students 6.30 0.60 5.02 8.16 7.42 0.69 5.81 8.52 per 10,000) ln(income) 9.21 0.34 8.48 8.16 9.91 0.27 9.11 10.80 ln(manufacturing 2.52 0.88 0.81 4.22 2.76 0.79 0.72 4.39 share) ln(School access) -0.23 0.58 -1.70 1.41 -0.25 0.61 -1.72 1.81 ln(University -5.31 2.61 -6.91 2.59 -5.21 2.7 -6.91 2.77 access) Rajabhat university 0.41 0.50 0 1 0.45 0.50 0 1 dummy
ln(Parent’s 1.94 0.11 1.69 2.36 -0.47 0.61 -2.30 0.79 education) ln(Number of students per 3.02 0.13 2.71 3.30 3.01 0.23 2.48 3.74 teacher) Tutoring center 0.09 0.29 0 1 1.97 0.14 0 1 dummy ln(Unemployment 0.45 0.46 -0.69 1.34 0.29 0.46 1.65 2.44 rate) The number of 76 76 observations Table 3 shows the regression analysis results in which all 9 factors were regressed with the dependent variable of the number of university students per 10,000. Income per household has found to be the most influential factor in determining the number of university students per 10,000 in 2000. It means income would raise the demand for higher education. However, the average of monthly income per household has decreased significantly in the last 10 years. University access has a weak significant
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 102 positive on the demand for higher education in 2000, but has found to be a strong positive factor in 2010. Parent’s education is statistically significant factors in only the year of 2000.Likewise, School access and Rajabhat universities are found to be significantly influential in only 2010. Table3 cross-section estimation
2000 2010 Variable Coefficient p value coefficient p value Income 0.773*** 0.001 0.246** 0.018 Manufacturing 0.002 0.971 0.058 0.431 share School access 0.093 0.206 0.262** 0.036 University access 0.286* 0.059 0.306*** 0.009 Rajabhat university -0.072 0.701 0.388** 0.017 dummy Parent’s education 0.805* 0.087 -0.134 0.863 Number of students -0.289 0.941 -0.114 0.708 per teacher Tutoring center 0.243 0.311 0.198 0.237 dummy Unemployment -0.180 0.085 0.047 0.670 rate Constant term -2.577 0.093 6.264 0.001 R2 0.626 0.552 Note: ** p.01, * p.05, * p.1 From the above results, it could be concluded that the most influencing factors of the demand for higher are the average monthly income per household and expansion of educational facilities. Although in 2010 the average monthly income per household has decreased significantly, we found that almost educational facilities factors (university access, school access, Rajabhat University dummy) have a higher impact on the demand of higher education compared to 2000. 6. Concluding and Remarks Our study, based on the Population and Housing Census data, investigates those factors that affect the number of 2000 and 2010 university students per 10,000 to improving our understanding of the changes in the demand for higher education in the last 10 years. After analyzing the explanatory variables, among its findings are the following: First, as previously researched by Arai (1995), the average of monthly income per household factors, it was found that given the substantial increase in the demand for higher education: the income of parents rises, the chance of their children to afford higher education increases. However, the significance of income per household leads
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 103 to decrease the demand for higher education in 2010. It can suggest that in 2010,other factors, such as an expansion of higher education institution, become important. Second, almost educational facility factors are positive significant for the number of university students per 10,000 in 2010, but only university access has an effect on increasing the number of university student in 2000. We confirmed that university access, school access, and Rajabhat universities variables relate to the demand for higher education. According to The Rajabhat University Act (2004), it providesthe main guideline for every Rajabhat institute to become a new university. Nowadays, there are 40 universities in the Rajabhat university system. Consequently, access to the higher education in the provincial area has been expanded. Third, parent’s education factor tend to be similar to the average of monthly income per household factor. An average year of education of parents is increasingly assigned to the demand for higher education in only 2000. We can suggest that other factors, especially educational facility factors, become more important than parents education and monthly income. However, it is necessary to remark that the result of this research is difficult to understand in individual enrolment decision because this research used macro data. To understand people’s decision-making, we need to consider the micro prospective such as student or teacher’s opinions by using questionnaires or interview. Moreover, several data constraints and limitations are worth mentioning. An analysis of this paper is scoped in 2000 and 2010, it was carried out only individual effect, but time effect was ignored. However, it is possible to say that people’s preference or value can be changed overtimes by the economic structure. Therefore, we should construct a model that includes time effect dummy in the future. References [1] Alpha Research. (2013). Thailand in figures 16th Edition 2012-2013, Vol.2: Region and Province. [2] Asano, Seki. (2009). Econometrics, Yuhikaku (in Japanese). [3] Atagi, Rie. (2011). “Secondary Teachers in Thailand” Bangkok: UNESCO Bangkok, 2011.54 pp. [4]Baba, Hiroya. (2012). “Analysis of Male College Enrolment Ratio in Post-war Japan: Effects of the Supply-Side Constraints”, Japanese centre for economic research (67), 57-78, 2012-07 (in Japanese). [5] Baharan, R. (2002). “Identifying needs and wants of university students in Malaysia”, Malaysian Management Review, 39(2): 169-176. [6]Becker, Gary S. (1975). Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education, Second Edition: pp.45-117. [7]Greene, W.H. (2011). Econometric analysis, 7th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall: 41-60, pp.383-466. [8]Higeta,T., and Suetomi,K. (2013). “Do schools' education and teacher policies affect the long-term absenteeism rate of their junior high school students? Analysis of a questionnaire survey of education boards”, National Institute for Educational Policy Research, 142, 117-130, 2013-03 (in Japanese).
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[9] Ishikawa, Hideki. (2006). “A Study on the determinants of university enrolment rate: using the internal rate of return approaches according to prefecture-level panel data analysis”, Japan Consortium for Area Studies, 6:105-113(in Japanese). [10] Konakayama, Akira, and Matsui, Iebumi. (2008). “An empirical study on how extra school education affects academic achievement of Japanese high school students” Tokai University School of Political Science and Economics Bulletin, 131- 158, 2008(in Japanese). [11] Ministry Of Education. (2012). Educational Statistic in Brief .2012. [12] Ministry Of Education. (2013). Educational Statistic in Brief .2013. [13] National statistical office, Thailand. (2012). Statistical Yearbook Thailand.2012. [14] Office of the National Education Commission. (1999). “National Education Act of B.E. 2542 (1999)”. [15] Seno, Wataru. (2003). “An analysis of medical school’s education and the efficiency of research in Japan”, The Journal of Educational Sociology 5th (in Japanese). [16] Shima, Kazunori. (2003). “An analysis of the economics of education of college- going behavior: A study on macro data analysis by using micro data”,Center for National University Finance and Management (in Japanese). [17] Shima, Kazunori. (2010).“An analysis on economic model of college-going behavior of males”, Hiroshima University, University Journal, 41:97-108 (in Japanese). [18]Tukhtamizaeva, Mashkhurakhon, and Gamou Keiichi. (2014). “Educational Reform and the Change of the Enrollment Rate in the post-independent Uzbekistan: The Challenges of Uzbek Educational Reform”, Quadrant: Areas, cultures and position: 153-175, 2014-03 (in Japanese). [19]V. lynn, meek, and Charas Suwanwela. (2006). Higher Education, Research, and Knowledge in the Asia-Pacific Region, the UNESCO forum on higher education research and knowledge: 201-212. [20]Wongbuddha, Chupensri. (1971). “Factors Influencing The Rural Thai Adolescents” Choice Of Work Or Post-Compulsory Level Education,Chulalongkorn University thesis (in Thai).
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Downsizing and The Psychological Contract: A Study of The Ghanaian Insurance Industry
ANASTAS KABRAL NYAMIKEH, BSC ADMINISTRATION (INSURANCE) LECTURER IN INSURANCE AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES, FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION ,PENTECOST UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, SOWUTUOM, ACCRA, GHANA. Corresponding author: [email protected]([email protected]) P.O. BOX KN 1739, ACCRA. TEL: 0203041677
Abstract
The downsizing of employees has been ubiquitous in many industries in recent years with the aim of operating leanly. Management of organizations may be oblivious of the potential effects of this action on the morale of remaining workers. The research sought to ascertain the effect of downsizing on the morale of remaining employees. Using unstructured interview with line managers, human resources managers and union executives and focused interview with employees in various departments of ten insurance companies in the Ghanaian insurance industry, and found that downsizing is tantamount to a breach of the psychological contract employees have with management. Again, it results in a loss of employee trust in management, reduced employee morale, increased labour turnover and absenteeism, loss of job satisfaction and worsening employee performance. These findings contrast existing literature proclaiming that remnant employees display highness of morale.
Keywords: downsizing, psychological contract, employee morale, insurance industry
Introduction
The Insurance industry in Ghana has had a chequered history. It began in the colonial era- 1924, with the establishment of the Royal Guardian Enterprise now known as the Enterprise Insurance Company Ltd. The first indigenous private insurance company, the Gold Coast Insurance Company Ltd, was established in 1955. In 1962, the State Insurance Corporation was established. Eleven more were established in 1971 (Tsen, 1982:23) and five years later in 1976, seven more companies were established and one reinsurance company and insurance brokerage firm were established. The 1989 Insurance Law (PNDC Law 229) and the Insurance Act of 2006, Act 724 provides the statutory framework currently for the regulation of insurance business in Ghana. To date, there are 40 insurance companies, 20 brokerage firms, two firms of loss adjusters, two actuarial firms, four reinsurance firms and over 4000 insurance agents operating in the country.
The performance of an insurance industry is assessed on the basis of two results- the technical result or profit which shows the balance between products sold (principally premiums) and expenses directly associated with insurance per se principally claims
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 106 and administrative expenses; and financial result which represent the income generated by the investment of the collected insurance premium. Importantly, the time lag between the collection of insurance premium and the payment of claims gives rise to investment opportunities (Brilys and Varenne, 2001:2). A financially viable insurance company requires not only that overall profits be positive enough to allow for a fair risk-adjusted return on investment but also by implication, that both the underwriting and financial results should be separately profitable on a stand- alone basis (Brilys and Varenne, 2001).
A critical component in the determinant of profitability in all industries (the insurance industry inclusive) is overhead costs of which employees’ salaries constitute a major part. It is therefore not unexpected that in recent years firms are downsizing their employees in order to operate leanly, reduce labour costs and declare profits at all costs.
The employer-employee relationship is generally expressed in a contract of employment, the essence of which is considered as promises made by each party, (the employer and the employee) a promise to work in return for which payment is made (Rollinson, Broadfield and Edwards, 1998). This implies that the relationship between an organization and its employees can be congealed into an legal contract the terms of which may be explicitly expressed. However, this relationship is not a rigid one but one that evolves over time after the consummation of the initial contract of employment. This evolution makes the employer-employee relationship a complex one. A framework that captures some of the complexities is Homans (1961) and Blau (1964) social exchange theory. The concept of Psychological contract clearly expresses this view of the employer-employee relationship (Schein, 1980) as one of the three types of contract in an employment relationship in addition to formal and informal contracts.
In actuality, there are three types of contract in an employment relationship (Schein, 1980), the formal contract that reflects the economic aspects of the exchange and finds expression in the legal conception of a contract of employment, the informal contract, some of the components of which are derived from wider social norms about how people should treat each other and the psychological contract which largely consists of unvoiced expectations and obligations (Rollinson et al, 1998:701).
Defined as a theory that views all relationships as an exchange of social performances and acknowledges that the basic motivation for entering into a relationship with someone else is the expectation of obtaining rewards of some sort (Rollison et al, 1998), social exchange theory considers all relationships as an exchange of social performances, and admits that the that the process of social exchange is replete with unspecified expectations and obligations. Thus, for the relationship to be meaningful, each party must be prepared to provide a quid pro quo of value, meaning that both benefits and costs need be incurred by each party. Trust, which is the central oil of all ongoing relationships including the employer-employee relationship, is of the essence
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 107 here requiring both the employer and the employee to trust each other to play fair now and in the future.
Cost-benefits ratio computations constitute critical components in the evaluation of social exchange theory. The normal criteria parties apply is that their costs are balanced by the receipt of benefits. A corollary of this is that the social exchange process is replete with equivocal expectations and obligations. The continuity in the receipt of benefits after the consummation of a social relationship hinges on the initial belief or expectation that the exchange will continue to be fair. Thus, if the relationship is to continue, trust is of most importance. The hitch is that if the trusting person has no control over the behaviour of the trusted person, she or he is placed in a highly vulnerable position (Zand, 1972, Rollinson et al, 1998). Handy (1993) has argued that the mainstay of delegation is in the trust-control dilemma- that is an increase in control by the person in charge reduces the degree to which a subordinate is likely to perceive that he or she is trusted, whereas an increased degree of trust by the superior is usually accompanied by a reduction in control. Handy (1993) acknowledges that the dilemma is that control costs money, trust is cheap and breeds responsibility but it is risky. This underscores the essence of trust in all continual relationships. Both parties need to trust each other to be fair in the future and this trustworthiness is patently demonstrated by adhering to the rules that regulate how the parties have to behave toward each other. Thus, the employer and employee’s perception of one another’s adherence to the psychological contract, managers’ behavioral adherence to espoused values, mission statements and other short and long-term commitments to employees cement employee trust in management.
Seen as the willingness of a party to be vulnerable to the actions of another party based on the expectations that the other will perform a particular action important to the trustor, irrespective of the ability to monitor or control the other party’( Rousseau et al, 1998), the reliance upon voluntarily accepted duty by a person to recognize and protect the rights and interests of all others engaged in an economic exchange (Hosmer,1995:393), trust is weakened or even sloughed when there is a misalignment between a person’s words and deeds.
Lewicki and Bunker (1996) offer a longitudinal perspective for the role of behavioral integrity in the establishment of trust. They indicate that the calculus-based trust depends on the fact that the promisor will do exactly as promised and reneging on that promise prevents advancement to the next level of trust. When employees realize that their managers do not trust them, they tend in turn to mistrust those managers and reciprocity of mistrust emerges from an employee’s inference from management’s demonstration of mistrust that management must hold goals or values that are incompatible with those of the employee (Fox, 1974).
Psychological contract is an expression of permutations of convictions held by an employee and by his/her employer about what they expect from one another. It is concerned with assumptions, expectations, promises and mutual obligations (Guest,
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1996:605). Differing from a legalistic oriented employment contract by virtue of an employment contract spawning from mistrusts of one another and thus having to have the employment relationship written down in clear unambiguous language, the psychological contract does not have to be written down and there are no witnessed signatures.
There are differing views in literature as to whether the new psychological contract is replacing the old one. Whilst Coyle- Shapiro and Kessler (2000) note that there is reduced employee loyalty in the new psychological contract, Guest and Kessler (2001) have indicated that while some change has occurred in the public sector, perceptions closer to the old psychological contract remain a great deal more common than those associated with the new approach. The old psychological contract is characterized by employee promise of hard work and loyalty towards the employer in return for job security and opportunities for development and promotion, in contradistinction to the new one in which the employee promises to provide work effort and creativity in return for a remuneration commensurate with contribution and market worth, the employee promising to remain in so long as he or she receives developmental opportunities (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005). Guest and Conway (2001) have indicated that ‘while some change has occurred in the public sector, perceptions closer to the old psychological contract remain a great deal more common than those associated with the new approach’.
The new psychological contract offers a conceptual framework for this research as it specifies the theory used as a basis for this study, citing critical characteristics such as employee obligation of work effort and creativity in return for appropriate remuneration commensurate with employee contribution and market worth and developmental opportunities for career growth within a possibly short-term employment relationship. The employer, within this framework, is at liberty to downsize dammed the consequences in so long as it serves whatever purpose management may have. This research unearths the effect of this intervention on the trust employees have for management, their sense of job security, productivity, work attitude, job satisfaction, labour turnover as well as organizational commitment they may exhibit in the aftermath of a downsizing exercise.
The psychological contract has latent contents consisting of unvoiced expectations and obligations (Schein, 1980). The term refers to an individual’s beliefs regarding the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between that person and another party (Rousseau and Parks, 1993). Psychological contracts differ from general employee expectations in that psychological contracts must emerge from perceived explicit or implicit promises (Robinson, 1996). Typical employee expectations include pleasant working conditions, receipt of courteous and fair treatment, interesting and satisfying jobs, involvement and consultation in decisions that affect them, fair and equitable remuneration and benefits, equality of opportunity and fairness in selection and promotion and reasonable effort to provide job security (Rollinson et al, 1998). The employer’s unvoiced expectations include acceptance of
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 109 the main values of the organization by employees, trustworthiness and honesty, loyalty and willingness to tolerate a degree of personal inconvenience for the good of the organization (Rollinson et al. 1998). The psychological contract is the most important in the employment relationship in terms of integrating these reciprocal, unvoiced expectations and obligations within the organization. It is linked to trust, its discussion often throwing up the issue of trust (Robinson, 1996).
Torrington et al (2005:18) identify the shift from an old Psychological contract that entails unvoiced employee obligation of hard work and loyalty in return for job security and opportunities for development and promotion to a new psychological contract characterized by employee obligation of work effort and creativity in return for appropriate remuneration commensurate with employee contribution and market worth and developmental opportunities for career growth within a possibly short-term employment relationship. This shift involves employers giving less job security and receiving less loyalty from employees in return (Torrington et al, 2005).
Research supports the mutually beneficial nature of the new psychological contract to employers and employees with employees providing high productivity and total commitment and employers providing enhanced employability rather than long term employment. The provision of employability to employees enables them to develop skills that are in demand and allows them the opportunities to practice these and be abreast with changes. This prepares them for other appropriate jobs elsewhere when they are no longer needed by their current employers (Waterman et al, 1994).
Purpose of the study In their feverish desires to improve upon their financial performance, employers are increasingly devising ways of reducing their operational costs through inter alia, downsizing their workforce perhaps without regard to the potential impacts on their employees’ morale and performance. Employers may be oblivious of the effects of a downsizing programme on employees who may be fortunate to survive the downsizing programme. Would the morale and performance of these employees sink because they may consider themselves insecure, having witnessed the exit of their colleagues or would their motivations soar on account of they having been retained as core staff with perhaps increased remunerations, flexibility in work methods and working hours and multi-skilling or job enrichment programs? These are the critical issues that will inform this research ‘Thus, the general purpose of the study was to discover the strength of motivation and morale of remaining or surviving employees from a cross-section of insurance companies operating in the Ghanaian insurance industry after a downsizing exercise. Downsizing, a purposeful human resource intervention of reducing the number of people employed in organizations to create businesses that are lean, fit and flexible (Torrington et al, 1998) has been a common business practice with financial imperative in the twenty-first century. Specific and derivative objectives from the general objective of this study were, to: Ascertain the effects of downsizing on employee morale. Establish whether job satisfaction (their turnover, absenteeism, productivity) will change on the part of employees who survive a downsizing program.
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Find out whether downsizing affects employees’ perceptions of job security and commitment to the organization (that is their acceptance of the goals and values of the organization, their willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization and intention to stay with the organization).
METHOD
The researcher deemed it necessary in a project of this nature to talk to employees, local union officials and managers to obtain data on measures of morale, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and effectiveness before, during and after a downsizing exercise though semi-structured interviews with managers in human resources, underwriting, claims and marketing departments and focused interviews with employees in these departments of the ten insurance companies that have downsized over the past twenty-four months. The researcher is mindful of the fact that periodic personal interview is the best way to collect primary data in a study of this nature seeking investigate the influence of downsizing on the subjective variables employee morale, job satisfaction and organizational citizenship (or psychological contract) prior to, during and in the aftermath of the downsizing. In a semi-structured interview, the researcher has a list of questions on fairly specific topics to be covered, often referred to as an interview guide, but the interviewee has considerable latitude in how to reply (Bryman and Bell, 2007:474). Questions may not follow on exactly in the way outlined on the schedule questions that are not included in the guide and may be asked as the interviewer picks up on things said by the interviewee. All questions will eventually be asked, though. The focus group method, on the other hand, is a form of group interview in which there are several participants in addition to the moderator/facilitator. The emphasis in the questioning is on a particular fairly tightly defined topic and the accent is upon interactions within the group and the joint construction of meaning. Thus, the focus group contains elements of two methods, the group interview in which several people discuss a number of topics and focused interview in which interviewees are selected because they are known to have been involved in a particular situation (Merton et al, 1956) and are asked about that involvement.
An investigative research design was used in carrying out the research. This method was used since the collection of data could not be directly observed. They were based on respondents’ opinions on how downsizing influences the psychological contact in the Ghanaian insurance industry.
In all, a total of forty (40) human resources, underwriting, claims and marketing managers together with six local union representatives were interviewed using semi- structured since it was deemed flexible and offered opportunities for exploring any ideas which came up in the course of the investigation. These participants were from the ten companies purposively selected from the forty insurance companies in the industry which had downsized over the past two years. Apart from underwriting managers which each of the ten companies had, this was not the case with the other
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 111 categories of participants. These interviews (which preceded the focus group discussion with employees) covered issues such as the impact of downsizing on employees, reactions of survivors, survivors’ expectation, survivors’ attitudes and reasons for downsizing. The interview questions were carefully crafted in order to reduce boredom and fatigue on the target participants so that they did not exhaust their energy and time in answering the questions. The researcher believed that this approach elicited the best responses from the participants in terms of frankness, pointedness on key issues, originality and promptness of response. Each interview lasted fifteen minutes; the questions were mostly open-ended ones to allow for opinions from the respondents to enable the researcher obtain sincere information meant for proper analysis. Responses were tape-recorded and later transcribed for analysis.
Table 1- Distribution of respondents.
Department Number of managers # of surviving employees interviewed talked to
Human resources 7 23
Underwriting 10 54
Claims 8 47
Marketing 9 83
Union representatives 6 -
Total 40 207
The focus group method involved interviews and interactions with a total of two hundred and seven employees in the human resources management, underwriting, claims and marketing departments of the ten insurance companies selected for the study. These took place during the companies’ break periods (12 noon to 1.00pm) when the researcher/facilitator interacted and discussed with the surviving employees. The questions focused on the strengths of their morale, personal satisfaction with their respective organizations, work attitude and job satisfaction before, during and after their respective downsizing exercises. According to Obasi (1999), a sample must be large enough to meet the requirement for reliability but not too large as this will waste resources. He noted that a sample size of ten percent (10%) of a population is enough to obtain adequate confidence. Going by the 10% rule of Obasi (1999), a sample of ten percent from the total number of employees of two thousand and seventy, a sample size of 207 respondents were selected for the focus group interviews segment. Again, interviews covered issues such as the impact of downsizing on employees,
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The research complied with principles which aimed at protecting the privacy of every individual or subject of research interviewed. Before one became a subject of research, they were notified of the aims, methods, anticipated benefits and potential hazards, their rights to abstain from participating in the research issues of confidentiality were also strictly adhered to and no person became a subject of research under duress.
RESULTS
The responses from respondents on the issues covered in the interviews with managers, union representatives and employees, were tape –recorded, transcribed and analyzed using phenomenological analysis and with those from the focus discussions using approaches for analyzing focus group data. Schools of phenomenology have thrown up a variety of approaches to data analysis including the descriptive phenomenology method of Colaizzi (1978) which entails the description of the meaning of an experience often through the identification of common themes (such as, with respect to this study, survivor reactions, expectations and attitudes) shared by particular instances. Additionally, focus group data analysis involves a scrutiny of themes (survivor attitudes and the like), interactions and sequences within and between groups (Kidd and Parshall, 2000).
Survivor reactions
Four aspects of survivor reactions were taken cognizance of namely survivors’ personal satisfaction with the organization, levels of absenteeism, labour turnover and overall performance as demonstrated in the three-fold percentage component bar chart labeled figure 1. The first component bars indicate measures before downsizing, the second ones indicate measures in the immediate aftermath of downsizing and the third ones are distal measures after downsizing. The percentages were computed based on the proportions which the number of employees intimating a particular survivor reaction bore to the total number of surviving employees.
It is obvious from the graph that in order to keep or secure their jobs, survivors were working harder in the short term but in the long term, their motivations sunk thanks to perceived job insecurity, fear and mistrust of management. One notices, for instance, a ‘fake’ jump in personal satisfaction during the downsizing which was short-lived, survivors apparently putting up air of false personal satisfaction and commitment to the organization just so to escape ongoing downsizing or not be slated for ensuing downsizings. The levels of survivor absenteeism and labour turnover followed similar patterns.
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One of the managers interviewed remarked as follows:
I have in the wake of the reduction in our staff strength, noticed a marked latent apathy and masked loss of zeal on the part of the lucky surviving ones not only in my area(sales and marketing) but also in the workings of the company in its entirety.
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Figure 1- survivors’ performance
Attitudes of survivors
Responses on Survivors’ job satisfactions, specifically in relation to job security, loyalty, commitment to targets, stress and motivation received from respondents are summarized in the figure 2a.
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Figure 2a- survivors’ attitudes
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Figure 2b- survivors’ attitudes
Figure 2b provides a gloomy picture of atrophy of trust in management and the company to an eventual ebb of 5%. Contrary to management’s expectations and confirming the Noer’s (1993) ‘ motivational paradox’, creativity levels of survivors dropped to a low of 23% eventually after experiencing a momentary jump from57% to 67% immediately after downsizing.
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Also, the responses show reducing survivors’ perception of career opportunities in the companies (to 5% eventually). Survivors indicated that their negative work attitudes were attributed to (among other things) perceived lack of opportunities in the new and changing organizations since they were apprehensive of what the ‘next day’ promised to bring. They are at a loss as to how long they will be able to hold onto their jobs, and are disturbed that jobs are difficult to find in Ghana should one lose it. They no longer perceive themselves as belonging to the organization’s future and find no reasons to be concerned with the organization and cooperate with their bosses. This has affected adversely their relationship with their bosses characterized by pent-up anger, ambivalence and a predisposition to belligerence. Their work behaviour and attitudes are thus affected continually. Most of the employees felt that the downsizing was done without regard to their emotions and interests, and expressed their dissatisfactions, disgusts and anger at management.
Before this downsizing thing, we used to work our hearts out not even minding whether it was time to close for the day and were then under the joyous sense of job security and assurance from our managers that we could retire here. Now, are stay with this company hangs in the balance as management can do anything with our career prospects tomorrow. Quite frankly, some of us are looking elsewhere for other jobs. One leg in one leg out.
This was the response of one of the survivors interviewed in one of the insurance companies quoted verbatim and which speaks volumes of his perceptions and actions and potential action in the aftermath of downsizing.
Survivors’ expectations
Union representatives and survivors expressed their expectations in their relations with management on the basis of four attributes of psychological contracts covering the old and new namely long term employment relationship, paternalistic management, loyalty and lifetime employment offered by management.
Key outcomes pertaining to the old and new psychological contracts indicated that most surviving employees cherished expectations of long term employment (73%) and indicated that lifetime employment should be a critical part of the employment contract (65.7%) as in the Japanese approach to management. Also, 63% of the responses indicated that employees expected empowerment from their managers as opposed to a paternalistic management approach.
DISCUSSIONS
Firms that downsize often experience initial short-lived increases in productivity simply because employees in the immediate aftermath of downsizing work harder and competitively in attempts to keep their jobs. This is followed by reducing employee morale. Managers make the erroneous assumption that surviving employees will be content and grateful for staying and as such will exhibit highness of morale and
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 116 organizational citizenship behaviour. This is mistaken. The contrary happens, with supposed lucky survivors being de-motivated, disloyal, angry and distrustful of management and fearing that their turns will soon come since one downsizing exercise begets another.
The ‘people factor’ has to be considered throughout the downsizing process in connection with surviving employees since these suffer deleterious effects in the aftermath of downsizing, compounded by bitterness, anger and disgust that their colleagues were sacked and feelings of job insecurities. Managers are often oblivious of the feelings of survivors (who are supposed to be the hinges of profitability) before, during and after downsizing. Survivors experience emotionally wrenching and disgruntled situations in parallel with their colleagues who exit. Indeed, a critical determinant of the impact of downsizing on surviving employees’ productivity levels and organizational commitments is their assessment of the fairness of the intervention and how it was handled. If employees realize that performance and commitment are no indices for job retention, they will have no motivations to perform, neither will they be committed to the organization and their jobs.
In fact, managers downplay the deleterious effects of workforce pruning and are often unmindful of the morale of survivors who may be emotionally wrenched on seeing their workmates lose their jobs. They fail to recognize that job security is a matter of life and death to the average employee, and that downsizing is very agonizing for survivors.
But downsizing may engender proper organizational functioning and profitability devoid of rancor and abrasions if management seeks a delicate and strategic equilibrium between human resource factors and economic targets.
CONCLUSIONS
On the whole, the responses demonstrate that downsizing engenders a novel crop of surviving workers who are expected to work in a new and belligerent environment and as such creates what Noer (1993) terms ‘motivational paradox’: employees are expected to perform a series of new tasks, be more creative, flexible and innovative but at the same time work in an alien environment with work overload and with augmented job insecurity. Employees’ performance will certainly have a nose-dive under this circumstance by virtue of survivors’ anger, distrust, fear, depression and hurt. Torrington et al (2005:18) note in literature a change in employment relations caused by a shift from the old psychological contract to the new. This shift from old to new impacts deleteriously on job security, morale, career opportunities, and trust in management as indicated in literature review. The latent mar of relationship between surviving employees of after downsizing characterized by mistrust, job insecurity dissatisfaction culminates in long-term decline in productivity and morale.
In the short term, the management-employee relation may be a healthy, with survivors demonstrating appreciation for not having been laid off and reciprocating this with
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 117 short-lived boosts in morale and preparedness to go the extra mile in the interest of the organization. This will obviously be the case in Ghana where jobs are currently difficult to find and no employee would wish to lose their jobs. In the short term, employees demonstrate insincere boosted psychological contract and a willingness to ‘die for the firm’ borne of burning desires to keep their jobs only. It takes a savvy manager to unearth this.
In the long-term, however, the dawn on employees of job insecurity from looming downsizing exercise dwindles their interests in both job and company, causes a stick or reversion to the terms of the legalistic contract of employment and willingness to exit or find jobs elsewhere. This is patent in the findings of this research and rhymes with Torrington et al (2005) assertion of the shift in employment relations involving reciprocity of employers’ less job security for employees’ less loyalty.
Human resources management in their responses indicated that they would have expected surviving employee to have exhibited increased creativity, imagination and innovation at work but it was rather the contrary. This defeated the raison d’être of downsizing which is aimed at improving the creativity, effectiveness and efficiency of surviving employees through inter alia, multi-skilling.
RECOMMENDATIONS
A healthy employer-employee relation is central to the attainment of organizational goals. This relationship could be made sour by the actions, potential actions or inactions of either party. In a milieu of mistrusts, suspicions, poor communication, unilateralism and focus on short-termism, this relationship may be seriously injured with consequent detraction from the attainment of organizational goals. Management of organizations need to be cognizant of this in their human resource managent and drive towards the attainment of goals.
The process of downsizing has to be approached with considerable equity since survivors will be watching the whole process as to how it is being carried out and the fairness thereof. Having witnessed the exits of their own former colleagues, survivors would be unsure of their future careers in the organization and wonder whether it would be worthwhile working any harder. This means that trust of survivors in management must not be trifled with before, during and after downsizing. Managers must be approachable and must endeavor to explain the reasons for downsizing and the criteria used in deciding who was made to exit clearly articulated.
Again, for success, good communication is critical to downsizing as it prepares the minds of employees for the ‘new’ business reality and affords surviving employees a sense of belonging to the new and progressive organization. Employees need to be informed frequently, consistently and honestly of the downsizing process. Again, the implementation of downsizing must be done incrementally and not suddenly and drastically. Similar attention and support need be provided to both survivors and those
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 118 exiting; survivors need to be trained and re-trained ahead of the downsizing in preparedness for responsibilities in the new organization.
The study has implications for the practice human resource management and management in general. In their attempts to restructure their organizations to achieve efficiency and profitability, management of organizations need to be mindful of the impacts of this intervention on the motivation, morale and wok attitudes of surviving employees. If the actions of management are perceived by employees as bereft of strategic direction with an exclusive concern for future cash flows, the exercise will have limited chances of success as it may not receive the support of surviving employees.
As with all studies, I trust my findings ought to be adverted to circumspectly. I studied only ten companies in the insurance industry that had downsized in the last twenty- four months; these may not fully be reflective of the entire industry. Again, the interviews were over a relatively short span of time. Perhaps a longer longitudinal study based on ethnographic principles will unearth differing findings. Again, changing leadership styles in pre and post downsizing periods can have controlling effects on findings. Further research may be necessary in this connection.
References AMA, (1997). Corporate job creation, job elimination and downsizing survey American Management Association. 1-8. Blau, P, (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York. John Wiley. Bloisi, W, (2007). An introduction to human resource management. McGraw-Hill Education: 447. Brilys, E &Varenne, F, ( 2001). Insurance: From underwriting to derivatives-asset and liability management in insurance companies. West Sussex. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Bryman A & Bell E. (2007).Business research methods.2nd Ed. Oxford University Press. Cascio, W.F, (1993). Downsizing: What do we know? What have we learned? Academy of Management Executive. Vol. 7 no.1 February 1993:95-104. Coyle- Shapiro, J & Kessler, I, (2000). Consequences of the psychological contract for the employment relationship: a large scale survey. Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 37, no. 7. Cummings G, & Worley, C, (2001). Organization development and change. Ohio. South-West College Publishing. Dunham, K.J, (2001) .The Kinder, gentler way to lay off employees. The Wall Street Journal. March B1. Fox, A, (1974). Beyond Contract: Work, power and trust relationships. Faber Ltd. London. UK. Goss, D, (1997) . Human resource management: The Basics. International Thomson Business Press:6.
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Grobler, P.A, Warnich,S, Carrell, M,R, Elbert, N.R & Hartfield, R,D, (2006).Human resource management in South Africa.Thomson Learning. London. Guest,D.E,(1996) .Human resource management and industrial relations. Journal of Management Studies,24(5):605. Guest, D.E & Conway, N. (2001) .The psychological contract in the public sector. London. CIPD. Handy, C.B. (1993). Understanding Organizations 4th edn. Hammondworth: Penguin. Homans, G.C (1961) . Social behavior. New York. Harcourt Brace. Hoser, L.T (1995) .Trust: The connecting link between organizational theory and philosophic ethics. Academy of Management Review. 20(2): 379-403. Isabella, L.A. (1989). Downsizing: Survivors assessment. Business Horizons. Ma- June: 35-40. King, Z, (2003) . New or traditional careers? A study of UK graduates’ perceptions Human Resource Management Journal. Vol. 13, no. 1: 5-26. Lewicki,R.J B.B.Bunker(1996) . Developing and maintaining trust in work relationships. R. Kramer, T. Tyler (eds). Trust in Organizations: Frontiers of Theory and Research. Sage Publications. Thousand Oaks. CA: 114-139. Mathis, R.L & Jackson, J.H, (2004). Human resource management. Thomson. South- Western: 69. Merton, R.K, Fisk, M & Kendall, P.L (1956). The focused interview: A manual of problems and procedures. New York Free Press cited in Bryman A and Bell E (2007).Business Research Methods. 2nd Ed. Oxford University Press: 511. Noer, D. (1993).Healing the wounds- overcoming the trauma of layoffs and revitalizing downsized organizations. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco. Robinson, S.L, (1996) .Trust and breach of the psychological contract. Administrative Science Quarterly. 41: 574-599. Obasi, I .(!999). Research Methods in Political Science. Olorun Press. Ibadan. Rollnison, D, Broadfield, A & Edwards, D J, (1998) .Organizational behavior and analysis: An integrated approach. Pearson Education Ltd. Essex Rousseau, D. Sitkin,S.B. Burt, R.S, &Camerer, C.(1998) . Not so different after all: A cross-discipline view of trust. Acad. Management Rev. 23(3): 393-404 Rousseau, D, J Mclean Parks, (1993) .The contract of individuals and organizations. L. Cummins, B. Staw. Eds. Research in organization Behavior. Vol. 15 JAI Press. Greenwich CT1-43. Schein, E. H. (1980) .Organizational psychology. 3rdEd.Engelwood Cliff.: Prentice Hall. Simons, T. (2002). Behavioral Integrity: The perceived alignment between amanager.Words and deeds. Organization Science. Vol. 13, no. 1 January- February:18-35. Torrington, D, Hall, L & Taylor, S,( 2005). Human resource management. Prentice Hall:4
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Tsen, K (1982) .Ghana insurance today.Journal of insurance studies. May/June: 23. Waterman, R. H , Waterman, J.A & Collard, B.A. 1994 .Towards a career resilient workforce. Havard Business Review. July-August. Zand, D.E (1972).Trust & Managerial problem solving. Administrative Science Quarterly. 17(1):230.
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The Construction of an Intensive Communicative English Workshop Camp for Border Patrol Police Teachers
Anucha Charoenpo1*, Weerachat Soopunyo2 and Wipawan Tinnungwattana3
1 General News Section, Bangkok Post Newspaper, Bangkok 10110, Thailand. 2Department of Lifelong Education, Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10332, Thailand. 3 Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand. *Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The study was aimed to construct an intensive communicative English workshop camp for border patrol police teachers and evaluate the effects of attending an intensive communicative English workshop camp of border patrol police teachers. The target areas were Ban Khao Jao and Ban Tha Wang Hin border patrol police schools in Khao Jao sub-district of Pran Buri district in Prachuap Khiri Khan province. The target groups were 14 teachers from both schools. Data were collected through qualitative method. They were fieldwork, in-depth interview, group meetings and after active review. Content analysis and triangulation technique were used to analyze data.
The study found the construction of an intensive communicative English workshop camp for border patrol police teachers had to be made under an operation plan which consisted of 5 steps. They included; 1) defining issues that needed to be learnt in the camp, 2) defining activities that were proper for learning and basic English knowledge of the border patrol police teachers, 3) writing goals and objectives of each activity, 4) organizing those activities, and 5) gathering feedback from the attendees after attending the camp. The study also found the teachers were aware of self development. They realized that if they want to speak English more fluently, they must try to practice speaking English as often as possible. The teachers admitted that they had better attitudes and more confidence in English speaking. They agreed that the best way to learn English is to speak with native English speakers. An intensive communicative English camp for border patrol police teachers were designed following the needs of the teachers and could be applied with other teachers.
Keywords: construction, intensive communicative, English workshop camp, border patrol police teachers
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Introduction
Available data from a study in 2009 about problems and solutions in learning and teaching English conducted by the Office of the Education Council of the Education Ministry found most of the English language teachers in small and medium-sized schools nationwide did not graduate in English major or minor. The problem of English teacher shortage appears to be a key factor affecting learning English process of students because the non –English degree teachers admitted that they lacked basic knowledge of English, confidence in speaking English and good attitudes towards English.
As stated, a border patrol police teacher school is considered small and medium-sized school with no more than 200 students. According to information obtained from the Border Patrol Police Bureau, there were 294 border patrol police teachers at nationwide border patrol police schools between 2010-2011. Only 12 of them graduated in English major or minor while the rest of 282 neither held English major nor minor.
Ban Khao Jao and Ban Tha Wang Hin border patrol police schools in Pran Buri district of Prachuap Khiri Khan province are among those 179 border patrol police schools nationwide under the responsibility of the Border Patrol Police Bureau. Fourteen teachers there did not hold a bachelor degree in English but they had to teach English in a bid to solve the shortage of English degree teachers.
As a result, a research problem was found and stated. The researcher saw the importance of the teacher development, setting out questions how the border patrol police teachers who were teaching English would have better attitudes towards English and more confidence in speaking English as studies found if people have better attitudes towards English, they would be able to speak English more confidently and learn English themselves.
As stated, the researcher sought opinions from the 14 border patrol police teachers about their English development methods and one of the methods was the construction of an intensive communicative English workshop camp for them. They believed learning English with native speakers and wide variety of fun games would encourage them to speak English more comfortably. Moreover, learning English through the workshop camp plays a significant role in the process of learning English language.
Nur Salina Ismail and Izah Mohd Tahir (2011) agreed in their English Camp Activities. A Strategy to Enhance Students’ English Proficiency by saying that indoor or outdoor activities are part of the learning and teaching process. Activities can be of value added to students especially if they perceived positively and appreciated their contents. The evaluations of the activities are based on the course objectives, activities covered and facilitators. In addition the study also examines the benefits, types of improvement to be considered and the satisfaction level. The study was
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 123 carried out in May to June 2010. Of 114 students taking TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) from Semester Two and Four, 73 students participated in the survey giving a response rate of 64 percent.
Montha Songsiri (2007) conducted an action research study on promoting students’ confidence in speaking English, with an aim to improve Thai students’ motivation to speak English through a range of materials and activities. The study was conducted on a group of engineering students during one semester to use new student-centered techniques: self introduction, an English movie, a popular song, my favorite story, foreigner interview, and a coffee break discussion. The results were recorded to develop materials, activities, techniques and roles of teachers. Then the study was carried on for another semester with another group of students. She found that students perform better because of the teaching and learning strategies used. Students are able to speak when there is a positive atmosphere; they have positive attitudes and the activities are not threatening.
Objectives
1) To construct an intensive communicative English workshop camp for border patrol police teachers.
2) To evaluate the effects of attending an intensive communicative English workshop camp of border patrol police teachers.
Methodology
Area of Study
Ban Khao Jao and Ban Tha Wang Hin border patrol police schools in Khao Jao sub- district of Pran Buri district in Prachuap Khiri Khan province.
Research Participants
Fourteen teachers from Ban Khao Jao and Ban Tha Wang Hin border patrol police schools.
Data-Gathering Method
Data were collected through qualitative method. They were fieldwork, in-depth interview, group meetings and after active review.
On September 18 -20, 2012, the researcher travelled to both border patrol police schools to gather first- hand information on contexts, potentials and needs in developing English language from 14 border patrol police teachers.
On November 20-22, 2012, the researcher travelled again to both border patrol police schools to report contexts, potentials and needs in developing English language to 14 border patrol police teachers and concluded methods and needs that the teachers
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 124 wanted the researcher to provide for them One of the needs was the construction of an intensive communicative English workshop camp for border patrol police teachers. The teachers asked the researcher to come up with a plan about the construction of the English workshop camp.
On February 28 – March 1, 2013, the researcher held a meeting with the 14 border patrol police teachers at Tha Wang Hin border patrol police school to discuss the proposed plan about the construction of an intensive communicative English workshop camp and seek conclusion on it.
On December 20, 2014, the researcher organized an intensive communicative English workshop camp for the 14 border patrol police teachers at Bacchus Home Resort and Spa in tambon Pak Nam Pran of Pran Buri district in Prachuap Khiri Khan province. The camp was conducted under English environment by English native speakers.
On December 21, 2014, the researcher held a meeting to gather feedbacks from the 14 border patrol police teachers, asking them to help evaluate the effects of attending an intensive communicative English workshop camp.
Data Analysis
Content analysis and triangulation technique were used to analyze data.
Research Findings
Objective 1: The study found the construction of an intensive communicative English workshop camp for border patrol police teachers was made under an operation plan which consisted of five steps. They included; 1) defining issues that needed to be learnt in the camp, 2) defining activities that were proper for learning and basic English knowledge of the border patrol police teachers, 3) writing goals and objectives of each activity, 4) organizing those activities, and 5) gathering feedback from the attendees after attending the camp. Details for each of the six station activities are shown in Table 1.
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Table 1- details for each of the six station activities in the one-day camp.
Agenda
Time Activity Location Comment Target
9.00-10.00 Arrival and Check Reception Use English to Situational English in check in
10.00-10.30 Orientation and Meeting room All will introduce Descriptive language Introduction themselves in using details
10.30-10.45 Coffee Break
10.45-11.15 Occupations Meeting room Adrianne will Questioning skills Activity demonstrate the and listening and game and then all responding to will play questions
11.15-11.20 Toilet Break
11.20-12.00 Directional Meeting Room Adrianne will Directional language Language Game demonstrate the using game and the rules of the game. Concrete verbs and Play games with instruction sentences support of English format with verb in helpers initial position
12.00-1.30 Lunch and Break
1.30-2.30 Role Play Games Meeting Room Emergency Using natural and Hotel language related to Garden Police Station their occupations
Hair Salon Listening and responding using various verb tenses
2.30-2.40 Toilet Break
2.40-3.30 Phonic Lesson Meeting Room Whole Group Pronunciation activity Teaching 44 and full explanation sounds in English of the English phonemic alphabet
3.30-3.45 Coffee Break
3.45-5.30 English Scavenger Outside Hotel See List of Tasks To use language in Hunt real life situations
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Objective 2: The study also found the teachers were aware of self development. They realized that if they want to speak English more fluently, they must try to practice speaking English as often as possible. The teachers admitted that they had better attitudes and more confidence in English speaking. They agreed that the best way to learn English is to speak with native English speakers and they promised they will find a chance of speaking English to native speakers as well as practicing the use of English language themselves. An intensive communicative English camp for border patrol police teachers was designed following the needs of the teachers. The teachers reflected that the camp was held to really encourage them to speak English and they believed English activities designed under the camp can be applied with other teachers in other schools. Remarks of border patrol police teachers after attending the activities are shown in Table 2.
Table 2- remarks of border patrol police teachers after attending the activities.
Activity Remarks
Orientation and “I am having so much fun here with this activity.’’ introduction “ I think I am able to speak English better than the past.”
“ Now I dare to speak English.”
“ I am not shy to talk to a farang.”
Occupations “Now I know many English words about occupations “ I have so much fun with this game.”
“Now I know how hairdresser and barber differ.”
“ I have got so many words and have better attitudes towards English .”
Directional language “ I will use this game with my students.” game “ The game gives me so much fun.”
“ I learnt a lot of words about directions.”
“ The English teacher told me to speak and my English will improve.”
Role play game “I am so much happy that I learned English from real situations.”
“I am happy that I can speak English to a native speaker.”
“I have never learned English like this before when I can take on the roles of other people.”
“I love learning English from game.”
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Table 2- remarks of border patrol police teachers after attending the activities.
Activity Remarks
Phonic lesson “I have never learnt such a lesson before.”
“ It is a new thing and useful to me.”
“I will try to practice it every day.”
“ It teaches me how to pronounce English words correctly.”
English scavenger hunt “I will find chance of speaking English to native speakers.”
“ When I see foreigners, I am not shy anymore. I walk to ask them.”
“I think I am not afraid of foreigners after this activity.”
“ I want to have a chance of attending such the camp again.”
“ The camp can be applied with other teachers.”
Conclusion
The researcher conducted this study in order to help border patrol police teachers who did not graduate with a degree in English but were assigned to teach English due to English teacher shortage to have better attitudes towards English and more confidence in speaking English. The similar study was also conducted by Mahidol University study in 2009. It conducted a survey about attitudes of English teachers at secondary schools in Sai Yok district of Kanchanaburi and found most English teachers lacked confidence in speaking and teaching English because they did not graduate in English major or minor. These teachers admitted they feared of speaking English as they did not want to incorrectly pronounce words. It is a factor affecting English learning of Thai students (Naewna, 2009, cited in the Mental Health Department, 2011).
The findings of the study above were used as a base for the researcher to seek ways to solve the problem of using English of non-English degree border patrol police teachers. An intensive communicative English workshop camp was proposed and designed as a tool to help border patrol police teachers improve their English. According to a research article written by Warisara Yangklang of Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Nakhon Ratchasima Rajabhat University, the article namely Organizing Developmental English Camp Activities for Students in Local Areas in Preparation for the ASEAN Community found English camp activities are designed to encourage, develop language learning as well as construct the students’ attitudes through various experiences outside the classroom. Besides it enhances content learning, language communication skills and teamwork. It also said English camp activities can provide a lot of benefits for the campers, staff schools educational areas and the community.
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The article written by Ms. Warisara appears to support what is found in the study of the researcher, saying having attended an intensive communicative English workshop camp, the border patrol police teachers were aware of self development. They realized that if they want to speak English more fluently, they must try to practice speaking English as often as possible. They said they had better attitudes and more confidence in English speaking. They agreed that the best way to learn English is to speak with native English speakers and they promised they will find a chance of speaking English to native speakers as well as practicing the use of English language themselves. An intensive communicative English camp for border patrol police teachers was designed following the needs of the teachers. The teachers reflected that the camp was held to really encourage them to speak English and they believed English activities designed under the camp can be applied with other teachers in other schools.
Suggestions
1) The Border Patrol Police Bureau should join hands with the Education Ministry in organizing an intensive communicative English workshop camp for border patrol police teachers at least once a year so that the teachers will have a platform to practice speaking English.
2) The Border Patrol Police Bureau should join hands with the Education Ministry in providing English native speakers for border patrol police schools so that the teachers will have a chance of speaking English as much as possible.
3) Both Ban Khao Jao and Ban Tha Wang Hin border patrol police schools should set up their own networks with English native speakers residing in Pran Buri district of Prachuap Khiri Khan province, a tourist attraction, so that their teachers will have a chance of learning English speaking and listening from them.
References Ismail, N. (2011). English Camp Activities: A Strategy to Enhance Students’ English Proficiency. Studies in Literature and Language. Rangabthuk. W. (2008). Strategies for the development of English language learning and teaching. (np) Songsiri, M. (2007). An action research study of promoting students’ confidence in speaking English. Other Degree thesis thesis, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. The Education Ministry. (2009). Research report on problem status and guidances for solving learning and teaching towards the development of learners in the basic education level. Bangkok: VTC Communication. Yangklang, W. (2013). Organizing Developmental English Camp Activities for Students in Local Areas in Preparation for the ASEAN Community. Journal of Faculty of Education, Prince of Songkla University Pattani Campus, January-December 2013.
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POSTER PRESENTATION
ICHCRD-14
Encouraging Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Science Student Teachers through Microteaching Activities
Thanawit Tongmai / Phuket Rajabhat University
ICHCRD-15
A Structural Equation Model for Sustainable Leadership of a Secondary School Administratorsin Northeast of Thailand
Wilaiporn Techa / Roi et Rajabhat University
ICHCRD-16
The Study of Needs to Develop an Extra-Curricular Activity Model for enhancing the 21st Century Skills of Mathematics Education Students, Kasetsart University
Kanitha Choawatthanakul / Kasetsart University
ICHCRD-17
The Study and Design of Supervision Strategies for Student Teachers in English Education Program
Tassanee Juntiya / Kasetsart University
ICHCRD-18
The Development of Undergraduate Student Identities of Srinakharinwirot University through Recreational Activities
Sumate Noklanga / Kasetsart University
ICHCRD-19
Assessing the Social Dimension of Organic Agriculture to Enhance Resilience of Women to Climate Change in Tayabas, Quezon Province, Philippines and Sansai, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand
Edna Luisa A. Matienzo / University of the Philippines Los Baños
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Encouraging Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Science Student Teachers through Microteaching Activities
Thanawit Tongmaia and Sakchai Rachniyoma aGeneral Science Department, Faculty of Education, Phuket Rajabhat University, Thailand Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract This study is to investigate the promotion of science students teacher on their pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) through microteaching activities. The research was conducted in teaching media in science course. The qualitative and quantitative designs were used as research methodology. A case study was interpreted and to illustrated the data. There were thirty students teacher participated in this study. All were selected by purposive sampling. The criteria is third year students teacher who enrolled in geology for teacher course. The increasing to students teacher’s PCK were evaluated by observing their microteaching practices in any topics within a subject of science for primary students. The data was divided into two parts; which are Content knowledge (CK) and Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). CK was assessed by the science content test and PCK was assessed by the microteaching observation; along with semi-structured interview and self- reflection. The results showed that PCK of the research participant increased when they practiced with micro teaching activities. In the future, following up students practice in school site is needed. Keywords: PCK, student teacher, geology, microteaching 1. Introduction Today, numerous teaching and learning theories have been introduced to the world of education. Obviously, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is one of them that designed by Shulman in 1983. As, he declared at Texas University “Where the teacher cognition program has clearly fallen short is in the elucidation of teachers’ cognitive understanding of the subject matter content and the relationship between such understanding and the instruction teacher provide for students.”(Shulman, 1987). In 1985, American Educational Research Association distinguished the domain of content knowledge into three categories which are subject matter knowledge, curriculum knowledge and a new categories that called PCK (Vanet al., 2001). This is the first time that PCK was mentioned. The PCK includes in a knowledge base for teaching that consists of seven categories – content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, curriculum knowledge, PCK, knowledge of learner and their characteristics, knowledge of educational context and knowledge of educational end (Shulman, 1987). The PCK is a unique knowledge domain and refer to specific topic. The PCK concerns about the teaching in specific topics which is different from subject matter knowledge. In previous studies, PCK is widely used as the; 1) PCK is experimental knowledge and skill gained through teaching practice, and 2) PCK is the integrated structure of knowledge, concepts, beliefs and values developed by teachers during teaching practices (Tezcan, 2012). While in this study, PCK was integrated the content knowledge and the pedagogy knowledge to represent the science concept for students.
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Researcher employed the microteaching activities – short term to teach in short time – to promote PCK for science students teacher. General science department, Faculty of education, Phuket Rajabhat University has a high responsible to build science teachers. We aim to create professional sciences teacher who are filled of pedagogy, scientific skill and content knowledge. PCK is used within “Principle Teaching and Learning” course to promoting the student teachers to use PCK in their teaching. Science is a special subject that is very important for primary school students because science includes origin of earth, water, rock, soil, mountains, element cycle, life, environment, genetics, movement, heat, chemistry and disaster from natural source – earth quake, tsunami and etc. Therefore Thai ministry of Education added science content for all students in of all levels; including grade 7 to grade 12. Hereupon, science teachers are required to comprehend the content of science. The teaching media in science is one important subject of general science education curriculum. The third year students teacher must take this course in a second semester. For the study, the researcher developed the course by adding up microteaching lesson study as learning activity. The main purpose of this course was to develop and enhance PCK knowledge of science students teacher.
2. Research methodology The participants consisted of 30 prospective science student teachers who enrolled teaching media in science subject in second semester, in academic year 2014 that consists of fourteen weeks for studying and two weeks for the examination. The subject is teaching by general science department, faculty of education, Phuket Rajabhat University. In this research, the researcher developed “Teaching media in science” course to promote PCK for science students teacher. Thus, this course is divided into two part 1) study in science media contents and 2) microteaching in the science topic. The participant were required to choose any topics that they wished to teach for 30 minuets – including introduction, instruction and conclusion. Microteaching observation form was designed by faculty of education, Phuket Rajabhat University. The form was used to collect data. The microteaching evaluated by three groups; 1) teacher, 2) classmates, and 3) students teacher. After microteaching, the student teachers were reflected by the course instructor and students’ reflection. The content knowledge was assessed by the examination.
3. Research finding
In this research, the researcher focuses on two dimensions that were content knowledge and pedagogy knowledge. The scores from the examination – pretest, during test and posttest– were analyzed by computer software to show the enhancing of content knowledge. The pedagogy knowledge are checked from the mean of scores that are from microteaching observation form. The developing of PCK is synthesis from data that collected with deep interview technique.
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Table 1 Score of content knowledge in teaching media in science.
Examination N mean S.D. S.E. p value
Pretest 30 12.20 2.13 0.39 -
During test 30 13.70 1.53 0.28 0.38*
Posttest 30 18.90 1.18 0.22 0.25*
* p ≤ 0.05 (significantly difference 95%)
Table 1 shows the enhancing of content knowledge of science students teacher who attended in “teaching media in science” course. The results show that the students teacher reached the higher significant of during test and posttest when comparing with the pretest, p value are 0.38 and 0.25 respectively. Their achievement of content knowledge were increasing in each of examination.
Table 2 Percentage of participants’ teaching score.
Teaching ability Number of participant Meaning
≥ 80 18 best
≥70‹80 7 better
≥60‹70 5 good
* N = 30 participants
Table 2 illustrates the participants’ teaching score. It shows that the three level scores – 60 to 69, 70 to 79 and more than 80 – in table 2 shown that most of participants (18 people) obtained high teaching scores, more than 80. They could present high skill of the pedagogy content knowledge. The data from deep-interview method show that all of participants appreciate in microteaching activity. They believe that the activity can promote their PCK knowledge and their confidence. Most of participants (82.74%) support to use this activity for developing students teacher in every major. The use of microteaching activities in the “teaching media in science” course show that the participants reached the high level of teaching skill due to the results. In the semi-deep interview, most of participant also indicated that microteaching is the best activities for science students teacher. Therefore, they prefer to be taught by using this approach.
1“Microteaching is the best activity for us”
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In addition, they could gain more confidence in teaching skill as they mentioned that
2“I have more confidence to teach in school because I could pass the microteaching activities in this subject”
It can be concluded that the microteaching activities effectively enhanced the pedagogical content knowledge for science students teacher. The result of this research can be applied in other subjects for students teacher in all major. Moreover, the microteaching is another way to approach that can be fulfilled the teaching profession for students teacher and increased their confidence in the long term.
4. Discussion and recommendation
Microteaching activities is appropriate to develop science students teacher on their teaching skill. Many researches show that microteaching can promote teaching skill and adding more confident is students teacher (Cruickshank,1985; Funmi, 2005). Moreover, microteaching is very popular in many country to used for build students teacher (Funmi, 2005). In Thailand, we should to use this activity for every major of the faculty of education because it can promote teaching skill of our students teacher.
References Cruickshank, D. R. (1985).Uses and benefits of reflective teaching, Phi Delta Kappan. 66, 704-706. Funmi, A. A. (2005) Preservice teachers’ reflectivity on the sequence and consequences of teaching actions in a microteaching experience.Teacher Education Quarterly, Winter, 115 – 130. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge of Teaching : Foundation of The New Reform, Harvard Education Review, 57, 1 Tezcan, K. (2012). Developing pedagogical content knowledge in preservice science teachers through microteaching lesson study. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 2753 – 2758. Van Driel, J. H., Bijarad, D., and Verloop, N. (2001). Professional development and reform in science education : The role of teachers’ practice and knowledge. Journal of research in science teaching, 38, 137 – 158.
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A Structural Equation Model for Sustainable Leadership of a Secondary School Administrators in Northeast of Thailand
Wilaiporn Techa* Doctor Philosophy in Educational Program Administration, Graduate School, Roi Et Rajabhat University. Thanyaporn Nualsingh, Ph.D., Advisor** Kriangsak Srisombut, Ph.D., Co Advisor** Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract The objectives of the study are divided into 2 main topics. Firstly, causal factors and components were studied for sustainable leadership of secondary school administrators. Secondly, relationship between causal factors and variable factors of hypothesis model were developed for sustainable leadership of secondary school administrators. The research data were recorded in academic year of 2015-2016.All data recorded including secondary school location and populations were selected from the Northeast of Thailand. The results are show that the important data for hypothesis model based on 4 factors i.e.; empowerment, depth knowledge, responsibility, and justice. Sustainable leadership can be expressed following factor i.e.; environment, success, resourcefulness, and breadth. The output data will be used for hypothesis’s model including quantitative research and static method using computer programming to identify suitability condition. Keyword: sustainable leadership, educational for sustainable development
Background and Rationale of the Study
The essence of sustainability leadership is responding urgently and effectively to the world’s most pressing social, education, environmental and ethical challenges. Sustainable leadership develops does not deplete material and human resources. Sustainable leadership recognizes and rewards the organization’s leadership talent in earlier rather than later career. It takes care of its leaders by encouraging them to take care of themselves. It renews people’s energy. It does not drain its leaders dry through innovation overload or unrealistic timelines for change. Sustainable leadership is very important to enhance academic success and affects to work performances of education, leaders, students and school’s community. Sustainable leadership is believed to support school and students’ achievement. A key element to the success of this agenda and the productive advancement of society in this century are leadership, thus making sustainable leadership. When instruction is planned, when problems are solved, when dialogue is shared in community rather than in isolation, it is the principal who shoulder the responsibility for creating an environment that sustain a true learning community. These actions encourage leaders to replace control over with support for the teaching and learning process (Andy Hargreaves, 2007). Thus, I would like to investigate perceptions of leaders and staffs on schools of secondary education schools in Northeast of Thailand.
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The objectives of the study The objectives of this research including: 1) To study the effect of causal factors and components on sustainable leadership of a secondary school administrators in northeast of Thailand. 2) To study the relationship between causal factors and developed the hypothesis model on sustainable leadership of a secondary school administrators in northeast of Thailand.
Research hypothesis The research hypotheses of this research are: 1) The causal factors and component of sustainable leadership of a secondary school administrators in northeastern are multiple factors. 2) The relationship between causal factors and sustainable leadership of a secondary school administrators in northeast of Thailand is positive relationship and output data will be used for the hypothesis model of the research. Scope of the study 1. The population in this study is secondary school administrators in northeastern of Thailand. The sample sizes are 500 administrators derived by multi- stage random sampling. 2. The input information will be used only for each school. 3. Variables of this study: 3.1 The exogenous variables are Depth knowledge, Responsibility. 3.2 The Endogenous variables are Empowerment, Justice, and Sustainable Leadership. Operational term definitions Administrator is defined as principle or administrator for secondary school of secondary educational service area in northeastern of Thailand. Secondary school is defined as a school that provides basics education for student in grade 7-12, and belongs to secondary school of secondary educational service area in northeastern of Thailand. A Structural equation model for sustainable leadership of a secondary school administrators in northeastern is defined as model that shows a causal relationship between the factors that influence the sustainability of the executive leadership school in the northeast by writing a set of equations as a linear relationship diagram model. Latent variable refers to a variable that cannot be measured directly, but can estimate from observed each of the latent variables. Measurement variable of each variable used in the research latent variable that refers to the outside is the beginning of the influence or arrowhead in structural equation models. No other variables that influence these variables. Latent within the means of the variables in the structural equation model to all. Latent variables except the external a variable that is influenced by other variables. Or
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 136 influence other variables influence the path before or after as a theory or research support. Measurement variable refers to a variable that can be measured. Duration of the research: During 2015-2016
Methodology of the Research These researches are behavior sciences. The methodology consist of 2 parts, Firstly, document analysis methodology from theory and literature review for identify suitable hypothesis model for predict the effective sustainable leadership on the secondary administrators school. The secondly part will be focused on qualitative research and statistic methodology using computer programing for approve the hypothesis model following below steps: 1) Specification of the model 2) Identification of the model 3) Parameter estimation from the model 4) Goodness of the fit measure (If not fit model modification indexes: MI) 5) Data conclusion 6) Report the model : A structural equation model of sustainable leadership
These researches defines a framework about sustainable leadership. Research is shows as diagram below:
Phase 1 Phase 2
Qualitative Research Methodology
and
Statistic Methodology
Hypothesis Model’s test
Population and A Structural Sampling Group Equation Model Measurement Of Sustainable Collecting data Leadership Document Hypothesis model Data analysis by Analysis statistic methodology SEM
Figure 1 Chart Operations
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Conceptual framework
Endogenous variables - the causal factors that result from 3 endogenous factors include sustainability leadership, empowerment and Exogenous variables- the causal justice. Manifest endogenous variables of factors that result from two exogenous Sustainable Leadership include environment, variables include in-depth knowledge and success, resourcefulness and breadth. social responsibility. Empowerme nt Depth knowledge Sustainable leadership
Responsibilit y Justice
Figure 2Conceptual framework
Manifest endogenous variables of Manifest exogenous variables of in- Empowerment include self-decision, impact, depthThe knowledgeresult of document are experience, analysis: expertise work importance and work competency. and skills. Manifest exogenous variables of Manifest endogenous variables of Justice The results in first phase shown that factors affected on sustainable leadership social responsibility are good governance, include process, treat, outcome and yield. consist of 4factors i.e. Empowerment, Depth knowledge, Responsibility and Justice. create a positive impact and sustainability issues.
Moreover, Sustainable Leadership composts of 4 components i.e. Environment, Success, Resourcefulness and Breadth. From the first phase, figure 3 shows the Hypothesis Model for Sustainable Leadership of the Secondary School Administrators.
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Figure 3 The Hypothesis model was developed by researcher.
Causal factors in this Research Model or Hypothesis Model of Sustainable Leadership include: 1) Exogenous variables- the causal factors that result from two exogenous variables include in-depth knowledge and social responsibility. Manifest exogenous variables of in-depth knowledge are experience, expertise and skills. Manifest exogenous variables of social responsibility are good governance, create a positive impact and sustainability issues. 2) Endogenous variables - the causal factors that result from 3 endogenous factors Include sustainability leadership, empowerment and justice. Manifest endogenous variables of Sustainable Leadership include environment, success, resourcefulness and breadth. Manifest endogenous variables of Empowerment include self-decision, impact, work importance and work competency. Manifest endogenous variables of Justice include process, treat, outcome and yield.
Conclusion The document analysis in first phase, there have 4 factors affected on sustainable leadership i.e. empowerment, depth knowledge, responsibility and justice. The theoretical framework of sustainable leadership for secondary school administrators in Northeast of Thailand are developed by researcher. The data shown that only 4 components were explained i.e. Environment, Success, Resourcefulness and Breadth. The hypothesis model of sustainable leadership for secondary school administrators in Northeast of Thailand, developed by researcher can be fitted by methodology of
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The benefits of the research The objective of the research 1. The keys factor which lead to sustainable leadership of the school director in the northeast of Thailand will be studied for development sustainable leadership guideline of the school director. 2. The model appropriate to the context of the education offered at high school in the northeast of Thailand. The office of education, academic and executive education will be developed with the guideline for sustainable development. 3. Stakeholder raises awareness about the influence of the causal factors of school director sustainability leadership, executive education which is led to a policy for dealing with variable critical point. Strategic planning and human resource development of school director has been fit for the academic, executive education and other interested parties to develop in the future such as grounded theory study, participatory action and research with volunteer.
References [1] Bass, B. M., &Avolio, B. J. (1990). Developing transformational leadership: 1992 and beyond. Journal of European industrial training, 14(5). [2] Clark, B. R. (1998). Creating entrepreneurial universities: Organizational pathways of transformation (No. 378 CLA). [3] Conger, J. A., &Kanungo, R. N. (1987). Toward a behavioral theory of charismatic leadership in organizational settings. Academy of management review, 12(4), 637-647. [4] Dinham, S., &Crowther, F. (2011). Sustainable school capacity building-one step back, two steps forward?. Journal of Educational Administration, 49(6), 616- 623. [5] Ertesvåg, S. K., Roland, P., Vaaland, G. S., Størksen, S., &Veland, J. (2010). The challenge of continuation: Schools’ continuation of the Respect program. Journal of educational change, 11(4), 323-344. [6] Fink, D. (2005). Leadership for mortals: Developing and sustaining leaders of learning. Sage. [7] Grooms, L. D., & Reid-Martinez, K. (2011). Sustainable Leadership Development: A Conceptual Model of a Cross-Cultural Blended Learning Program. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 6(3), 412-429. [8] Hargreaves, A. (2007). Sustainable leadership and development in education: Creating the future, conserving the past. European Journal of Education, 42(2), 223-233. [9] Hargreaves, A., & Fink, D. (2012). Sustainable leadership (Vol. 6). John Wiley & Sons. [10] Hargreaves, A., & Fink, D. (2008). Distributed leadership: Democracy or delivery?. Journal of Educational Administration, 46(2), 229-240.
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[11] Henriksen, L., &Swetnam, D. Innovation Management in practice. [12] Kantabutra, S. (2011). Sustainable leadership in a Thai healthcare services provider. International Journal of Health Care Quality Assurance, 24(1), 67- 80. [13] Kantabutra, S., & Avery, G. C. (2011). Sustainable leadership at Siam Cement Group. Journal of Business Strategy, 32(4), 32-41. [14] McCann, J. T., & Holt, R. A. (2011). Sustainable leadership: a manufacturing employee perspective. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 76(4), 4. [15] Scheme, P. P. S. L., & Atkinson, L. How Do Exemplary Principals Manage and Sustain Change in Order to Enhance Student Learning Outcomes?. [16] Wolford, D. W. (2011). Effective Leadership Practices in the Sustainability of Professional Learning Communities in Two Elementary Schools.
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The Study of Needs to Develop an Extra-Curricular Activity Model for enhancing the 21st Century Skills of Mathematics Education Students, Kasetsart University
Kanitha Chaowatthanakuna*,Tassanee Juntiyaaand Pawarit Nantharatkunb aDepartment of Teacher Education, Kasetsart University, Thailand bQueen College, Ratchaburi, Thailand *Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract This research aims were to study needs to develop an extra-curricular activities model for enhancing students to learn 21st century skills and to study currently conditions in the 21st Century learning skills of mathematics education students, Kasetsart University. The instruments for collecting data consisted of the interview of faculty staffs in mathematics education, the group discussion of students to develop skills in the 21st century and evaluation skills of the 21st century. The current population in this research included five instructors who teach mathematics education students and 145 students in year 1-4 of mathematics education, academic year 2558. Analysis of the data was used by percentage, average, standard deviation. The findings showed that teachers and students in mathematics education demanded models of students in extra-curricular activities to promote 21st century skills in students of mathematics education, teacher education department. The communication skills were the skills that were needed to develop for the highest-curricular activities. Keywords: 21st Century Skills, a model of extra-curricular activities. Preface The rapid growth of the economy, politics, and education makes a mention to skills for the 21st century. Nowadays, the skills are not new for the development of the students (Angrew, J.,& Daniel,T.W., 2010)) but if the development of cognitive skills needed in the 21st century is a process that requires teachers to cultivate the students through practical experience. The development of such skills can be developed and cultivated both in the classroom and outside the classroom, as Vijarn Panit (2555) states that the learning manager of teachers must upgrade from the original. By providing students learn to think through problems in a systematic way, through a collaborative process. This will be caused by the interaction of teachers to exchange acting together experiences that help to develop the knowledge and skills of each student. Teaching and learning in higher education is an education to prepare individuals to the real world of work. Therefore, the development of skills in the 21st century should be educated and developed to occur in higher education. The skills of the 21st century, considering the profile of skills that should be developed to each individual student. Showing that how the skills can be developed to occur in the education system, including learning skills and innovation, including critical thinking skills, creative skills, team working skills and communication skills. The learning skills can develop from extra-curricular activities of students in higher education. The extra-curricular activities will play an important role in promoting and supporting learning both academic and vocational, to students as well. (Vocational and Professional Standards Bureau, 2548). In the extra-curricular activities in the right form and direction will help to increase 21st century skills of students as well.
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Researchers want to study the learning skills of students in the 21st century of students in mathematics education today and the need to develop a program of activities to increase students' 21st century skills of students in mathematics education, Kasetsart University, to serve as the basis for designing the model for further activities.
Research Objectives 1. To study the needs for developing a model of extra-curricular activities to encourage students to learn 21st century skills for students in mathematics education, Kasetsart University. 2. To study current conditions in the 21st Century learning skills of mathematics education students, Kasetsart University. . Methodology The researcher, conducted as follows: 1. Study concepts related to the research. The data used to create and develop a form of extra-curricular activities and skills development and learning in the 21st century, which analyzes document (Documentary Analysis). 2. Interview the opinions of professors who teach students in the field of mathematics education of five people to the need to develop skills for learning in the 21st century, students in mathematics education and current conditions found in the student's skills in mathematics education today. The results of the interview were brought to analysis the content (Content Analysis). 3. Focus groups representing students on the issue of student opinion and the need to develop forms of extra-curricular activities and the development of 21st century learning skills by the student group discussion who are the agent of students in mathematics education, year 1-4, in academic year 2558, 3 people in each year and of the total 12 people. 4. Assessment of 21st Century learning skills of students in mathematics education. By allowing students in mathematics education year 1-4 did self- assessment. The assessment analyzed the current skills of the students. Presented the data by statistical data, the mean, and standard deviation (S.D.).
Target Group included 1. The informants in Focus Group Discussion included 5 professors who teach students in the field of mathematics education, and 3 students in mathematics education in each year, year 1-4, in academic year 2558, 2. The informants responding Questionnaire included students in mathematics education year 1-4, total of informants responding Questionnaire = 128 persons. Instruments using for data collection There were 3 kinds of research instruments: 1) the items of Focus Group Discussion to study opinion of professors who teach students in the field of mathematics education, 2) the items of Focus Group Discussion to study opinion of 3 students in
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 143 mathematics education in each year, and 3) the Questionnaire constructed by the researcher to study 21st Century learning skills of students in mathematics education.
The instrument used to collect data. The researcher developed the instruments used in the research. 1. Interview teachers in mathematics education. It is a type of structured interview (Structured Interview) consists of the two episodes, including the first episode is the status and general information, consisting Name - gender, age and experience of teaching and student care at four issues. The second episode of the interviews, comments on current conditions and the need to develop 21st century skills of the four issues. 2. The discussion group, the discussion group is intended to study the need to develop 21st century skills in students of mathematics teacher education. And study of 21st century skills, as well as the conditions of extracurricular activities of students in mathematics education, faculty of education and development sciences, Kasetsart University. 3. The self-evaluation skills in the 21st century as a modern 21st century skills assessment of students in the field of mathematics. The look on the checklist (Check List) and open-ended questions divided into two parts: Part 1, Overview of student and Part 2, evaluation skills of students in the 21st century. It was divided into four sections, including assessment of its ability to think critically (Critical thinking), the ability to communicate (Communication), the ability to work with others (Collaboration) and the ability to be creative (Creativity). The researcher creates and checks quality monitoring instruments below; Step 1 Study of concepts, principles, theories from books and research that related to the development of extra-curricular activities and the development of the 21st century skills. Step 2 Data from the study to process for specifying the purpose. Step 3 Building the interview, the discussion group, the questions in the skills assessment from the scope of content by specifying the objectives. Then bring the developed instruments to review by 5 experts to examine the content validity, language assessments and correct assessment by the IOC (Index of Item Objective Congruence: IOC) which give each expert to consider the comments and ratings. As a result, the third instrument edition of the IOC is between 0.67 to 1.00, which is greater than or equal to 0.50, the third instrument edition was appropriate or consistent with the purpose or with the behavior needed. (Mariam Ninpun, 2553).
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Results Education needs to develop a model of extra-curricular activities for students to enhance the 21st century learning skills for student in mathematics education, Kasetsart University. Based on teachers’ interviews and students’ group discussion in mathematics education, faculty of education and development sciences, Kasetsart University, it is shown that both teachers and students have congruently with the learning skills in the 21st century. The skills that are much needed for the development of students especially the students in the teaching profession, which is supposed to know how to seek knowledge helpful and how to collaborate with others to develop student. Along with students should have the skills to communicate; the spoken language and written language. These skills can help students understand more. All of the 21st century skills are very important for students in the teaching professional. But as being a teacher, it is important to gain knowledge from teacher to student understanding of content that they want to teach to the ultimate goal of education is the quality of the learners. In addition, the suitable communication can help students develop skills. The 21st century skills are something that should always happen and develop continuously. So it is something that should be developed for students in Mathematics Education. The most skills that found in mathematics education students is the collaborative skills. And skills of mathematics education students that is least found are the critical thinking skills and the communication skills. Extra-curricular activities to help students develop 21st century skills should be focused on the real action that let everyone has a clear role to work. And activities should be formed by the interest of the students. The project of extra-curricular activities should occur from the conduct of students in every step on the advice of the experiencer in that area. In addition, the extra-curricular activities of students in the field of mathematics education today were run. It was found that the students will carry out various projects under the agency of students’ club, gathering of students and their major. Students did not creative new activity. They arranged the activities in the same manner every year and write a project or implementation projects which performed like their seniors did. In addition, students also gave some interesting information that the overall assessment in mathematics education from years 1 to 4 were fairly communication and understanding in the same way but their purpose and awareness did not the same. The technology skills are available on the basis of lessons learned. They can use more advanced technology, when it was learned but cannot be serious. For the critical thinking skills, students are thought to ponder a solution and to solve the problems sometimes unpleasantly but they can survive. If they get more experience, the ability to resolve will be more. The students in mathematics education will have skills that are good in solving problems (urgently), and think with a judgment (critical thinking). Results of the current conditions in the 21st century learning skills of students in Mathematics Education, Kasetsart University. The researcher collected data using a self-assessment of the student's learning skills in the 21st century of the students. The data were collected with the 139 students year 1- 4, the result of self-assessment of the skills in21st Century are shown in Table 1.
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Table 1 shows the analyzed results of the skills in 21st century of mathematics education students. Order Behavior of students mean S.D. 1 The ability to work with others. (Collaboration) 4.14 0.74 - Students accept the decision of the majority in the group. 4.42 0.69 - Students intend to do the group work until it is achieved. 4.33 0.61 - When the friend did not understand or cannot do assignments 4.24 0.63 work. Students will help willingly - If there is a chance that let students will be a leader, they will 4.15 0.67 have a good leadership. - In the run-time work, students were good followers. 4.10 0.73 - Students will not critic their friends who work wrong. 4.10 0.84 - Students are willing to work together with a group of friends in 4.05 0.85 class. - There will be a division of labor based on ability and suitability 3.99 0.78 when they were in a group work. - Students focus on their work group rather than their individual. 3.92 0.73 2 The ability to think critically (Critical thinking) 3.88 0.69 - Students recognize the results of what happened from their own 4.18 0.67 solution. - Students can choose to receive or not receive information 4.09 0.66 reasonably. - Students can review what they have learned through deliberate 3.95 0.56 rationally. - Students can evaluate the reliability of information and ideas, or 3.91 0.66 choose the right choice. - When students have problems, they can identify problem issues 3.91 0.66 properly. 2 The ability to think critically (Critical thinking) 3.88 0.69 - Students can summary and evaluate the summary from their 3.83 0.69 operations. - Students can link the relationship between ideas correctly and 3.80 0.62 reasonably. - When a problem occurs. Students can choose the solution with 3.76 0.65 appropriate information. - When students have problems, they can identify the source of the 3.75 0.77 problem clearly. - When students have problems, they can solve it carefully. 3.65 0.75
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Table 1 (continued)
3 The ability to be creative. (Creativity) 3.72 0.75 - Students always spend time carefully to submit a teacher’s work. 3.90 0.71 - Students learn how to think; they can do in many aspects and can 3.88 0.72 solve the problem successfully. - Students can link the relationship of studying and apply in their 3.83 0.71 everyday life. - Students can figure out how to find answers from the problems 3.75 0.75 of life in many ways. - When the students presented their works to the class, they can do 3.50 0.76 it very interesting. - Students will create new job when the instructor commands. 3.44 0.75 4 Communication skills (Communication) 3.71 0.69 - Students can convey their ideas, wills and attitudes. 3.93 0.68 - Students can choose the communication method that suits in 3.92 0.61 different situations. - Students can follow the orders when someone told them. 3.90 0.71 - When the teacher assign students to read, listen to or watch, 3.78 0.63 students can write to show their knowledge and understanding from it. - Students can write ideas, feelings and perceptions of their own 3.78 0.69 from reading material, listening or watching. - Students understand the content clearly that has been conveyed 3.75 0.67 by reading. - Students can negotiate appropriately according to the situation, to 3.71 0.72 eliminate and minimize conflicts. - Students persistent search and receive useful information. 3.71 0.72 - Students have an understanding of what they have been listening 3.70 0.66 clearly. 4 Communication skills (Communication) 3.71 0.69 - Students comprehend of what they heard in its entirety. 3.68 0.65 - When the teacher assigns to read, listen to or watch something. 3.67 0.64 Students can speak to show their knowledge and understanding. - Students can say or explain in various academic contents 3.40 0.59 optimally. - Students can speak in public with confident and fluent. 3.32 0.76
Table 1 shows that the self-assessment about 21st century skills of students in mathematics education. Students find that they have skills in working with others in the class (Collaboration) highly. Second is the ability to think critically (Critical thinking), but the skills that students have the lowest is the communication skills (Communication). This is consistent with qualitative data from the teaching staff in
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 147 the field of mathematics education interviews and group discussion of students as mentioned above. Summary and discussion of findings The study revealed that teachers and students in the field of mathematics education, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences want to develop skills in the 21st century. The skills that are sorely needed and needs to be developed urgently is communication skills. Perhaps the communication skills are an important skill for students, teachers. Since they are basic skills that transfer knowledge from the teacher to the students as Pornchai Reupan (2551) said, teacher’s talks are the transfer of knowledge from teacher to students for them to be able to operate their work properly. The importance of communication is the teachers teach students on the subject (content). If teachers have problems of interpretation on communicating of meaning to students, it may affect the students’ learning. This is related to a research of Patcharaporn Rattanawaropas (2555) found that the problem of being able to handle the instruction of teacher, one is using language appropriately to the students’ age, making students understand the content, being an error broadcast. And according to Renurat Prasittikate (2554) said that how teachers teach in class is an important part to stimulate students' thinking. These will support the students’ learning that consists of verbal and nonverbal language. The teacher has to learn through the process of drilling, considering the results of the students’ self-evaluation of the 21st century skills. The students have skills in working with others in the class. Second is the ability to think critically. But the skill that students have the lowest skill is communication. From students’ self-evaluation in communication found that the ability to speak or explain various academic contents, the public speaking fluently and confidently are at the lowest level. This may assume that the teaching has not been able to reassure the students as they should be. The data from students’ group discussion should have organized activities for them to practice speaking in front of the academic conference.
References [1] Angrew J. Rotherhamand Daniel T. Willingham.(2010). "The 21st-Century" Skills Not new, but a Worthy Challenge. American Educator, Spring. [2] Vijarn Panit.(2555). Way of learning for students in the 21st century. Sonsri- SaritWong Foundation. Bangkok. [3] Office of Vocational and professional standards.(2548). thebest practices in program activities. document duplication. [4] Mariam Ninlapan. (2553). Research methods in education.Silpakorn University. [5] Pornchai Papan. (2559). Arts of professional teachers. Access in http://www.myfirst brain.com/teacher_view.aspx?id=75550, accessed on 27 January 2559. [6] Patcharaporn Rattanawaropas.(2555). The Current Instructional Practices and Problems of ENG321 English for Communication Arts field of study English for business communication Faculty of Bachelor of Arts, Sripratum University.
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[7] Renurat Prasittikat. (2554). how to learn thinking as a child How to plan a lesson to develop the students' thinking skills. Journal Sri Nakarin Princess Ubon research and development. (Humanities and Social Sciences) Year 3 No. 5 January to June 2554.
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The Study and Design of Supervision Strategies for Student Teachers in English Education Program
Tassanee Juntiyaa, Jiraporn Kakeawa, Kanitha Chaowatthanakuna, and Orawan Thongperma aDepartment of Teacher Education, Kasetsart University, Thailand Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract The purposes of this research were to study and design supervision strategies for student teachers in English Education program. The presentation focused on the initial phase of the development of supervision strategies which was divided into two steps: professional development needs analysis and design of supervision strategies. The first step was a professional development needs analysis of student teachers in English Education program. Twenty-eight students responded to questionnaires consistent with the standards of knowledge and professional experience. Analysis of data using descriptive statistics revealed that the top three professional development training needs of students were strategies for creating activities of integrated communications, positive reinforcement techniques in the classroom, and classroom language for English teachers. The second step was to develop strategies for supervising student teachers in English Education program. Such tactics came from content analysis of extensive literature review and a focus group discussion with experts in the field. The outcome was an integrated model of supervision which was a combination of three supervising strategies: 1) coaching strategy, 2) mentoring strategy, and 3) reflective thinking strategy. The design developed from this study will be implemented in the second phase of the development to further develop professionalism in the student teachers. Keyword: supervision strategies, student teachers, English education
Introduction Supervision strategies were believed to improve the quality of supervision which will eventually lead to quality education. A teacher who directly influences the teaching and learning activities in classroom was identified as one of the key factors influencing the quality of education. Supervision provided support and assists classroom teachers to improve their teaching performances. In addition, it offered structural supports and recommendations to principals and other education staff on changes required to enhance the quality of education (Kittiratchadanon, 2007). Supervision strategies advance the quality of education by providing a framework for supervision. A supervising process helped teachers analyze problems in their actual teaching and educational contexts. This allowed supervisors to continuously respond to the problems of individual teacher and educational institution. Thus, the supervising process enabled supports and encouragement for staff and institutions to successfully develop the quality education (Sungpraphai, 2002).
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There was no perfect model of supervision. A supervisor must be able to adapt to contextual changes to help teachers to improve their teaching standards and realize their full potential. The improved standards of teaching would, in turn, lead to learning growth and intellectual prosperity in students (Dhammaprasert, 2004). From review of literature, researchers as supervisors of student teachers in English Education program, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, Kasetsart University KamphaengSaen Campus recognize the importance of identifying supervision strategies that were suitable for student teachers in the program. It was expected that the newly developed supervision strategies would result in a more effective supervisory procedure
Research Objectives The research aimed to study professional development needs analysis of student teachers in English Education program and to design supervision strategies for student teachers in English Education program.
Methodology The research is divided into two steps. 1. Professional development needs analysis of student teachers in English Education program. 2. Development of supervision strategies for student teachers in English Education program.
Data collection and data analysis tools in each step were as follows: 1. Study of professional development needs analysis of student teachers in English Education program. 1.1 Data collection Questionnaires used to collect data on professional development needs were divided into three parts. The first part was a checklist to gather general demographic information such as gender, age and past experiences in English Education. The second part was a five point rating scale to identify the level of needs with five being the highest needs and one being the lowest needs. Questions in the second part were consistent with eight standards of knowledge and professional experience stipulated by the Teachers’ Council of Thailand (2013). They were; 1) curriculum and lesson planning, 2) new knowledge in the 21st century, 3) learner- centered classroom, 4) educational psychology, 5) assessment and evaluation, 6) educational technology, 7) classroom research, and 8) personality development. The last part of the questionnaires was an open ended question for students to suggest any topics of professional development in which they are interested. The questionnaires were self-administrated by researchers. 1.2 Data Analysis Data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage.
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2. Development of supervision strategies for student teachers in English Education program 2.1 Data collection A focus group discussion question guide was used to gather ideas regarding student teacher supervision from experts in the field. Data collection was conducted through document research, literature review and a focus group discussion with experts in the field. Data from professional development needs analysis of student teachers in English Education program was also included. 2.2 Data Analysis The data analysis of this step was conducted using content analysis.
Conclusion There were two main research outcomes from this study: 1) professional development needs analysis report for student teachers in English Education program, and 2) report on supervision strategies and preliminary design of supervision strategies for student teacher in English Education program. Followings were the details summary of the reports. 1. Professional development needs analysis report for student teachers in English Education program.
Results from questionnaires were reported in three sections. Section 1 described an overview demographic of student teachers in English Education program in academic year 2014. There were a total of 28 respondents to the questionnaires. Seven of the respondents or 25 percent were male while 21 of them or 75 percent were female. Their average age was 22.14 and they had on average 16 years of experience of learning English.
Section 2 summarized the training needs felt by student teachers in English Education program. Followings were the demands for training from the highest rank to the lowest. 1) strategies for creating activities of integrated communications (average score 4.61) 2) positive reinforcement techniques in the classroom with the students to increase motivation and positive attitudes (average score 4.46) 3) classroom language for English teachers (average score 4.43) 4) new knowledge in the 21st century (average score 4.39) 5) types of language test and test construction strategies for different language skills (average score 4.36) 6) authentic assessment techniques (average score 4.32) 7) techniques in teaching creativity and critical thinking (average score 4.32) 8) applications of multimedia in classroom (average score 4.18) 9) curriculum and lesson planning (average score 4.14) 10) the personality development of teachers (average score 4.14) 11) classroom research (average score 4.11)
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12) Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) (average score 3.75)
Section 3 summarized other recommendations suggested by respondents. For example, a student suggested a vocabulary teaching technique which promoted long term memory.
The above was the knowledge contents that student teachers in English education would like to develop as professional teachers. Researchers who also served as supervisors will incorporate information from this step of the study into next step of development. 2. Report on supervision strategies and preliminary design of supervision strategies for student teacher in English Education program. Analysis of document research, literature review and the focus group with experts resulted in an integrated model of supervision from coaching strategy, mentoring strategy, and reflective thinking strategy (Figure 1).
Figure 1 Integrated model of strategies used in supervising student teachers in English Education.
Discussion and summary The study found that there were several professional development needs among student teachers in English Education, Faculty of Education and Development Sciences. It was crucial that these needs were considered when supervisors design strategies for supervising student teachers. This study had developed an integrated model of supervision consisting of coaching strategy, mentoring strategy and reflective thinking strategy. These supervision strategies were vital in providing frameworks for student teachers to deal with problems in actual teaching contexts (Department of Curriculum and Instruction Development, 2002). Supervision strategies would also change student teachers’ behaviors and improve qualities of
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References Department of Curriculum and Instruction Development. (2002). Basic Education Core Curriculum B.E. 2545. Ministry of Education. Dhammaprasert. T (2004). Master Teachers and Outstanding Teachers ofNan Educational Service Area 1. Master's thesis. Department of Education Administration, Graduate School, Uttaradit Rajabhat University . Kittiratchadanon, S. (2007). Development of the teaching supervision. Journal of Education ,Naraesuan University. Peedeedilok, K. (1989). Introduction to educational management and supervision. Bangkok: Aksarapipat. Sungprapai, S. (2002). Supervision process of school administrators and teachers in mainstream school in learning process reform under the Office of Primary Education Ayutthaya. Master's thesis, Department of Education Administration, Education Administration major.
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The Development of Undergraduate Student Identities of Srinakharinwirot University through Recreational Activities Sumate Noklanga* Saravudh Chaivichitb aInnovative Learning Center, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand bFaculty of Physical Education, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand *Corresponding Author: [email protected] Abstract The purpose of this quasi experimental research on nonequivalent control group design was to study the effect of recreational activities on the undergraduate student identities of Srinakharinwirot University. The samples were 60 undergraduate students in Srinakharinwirot University during the 2nd semester, 2014 academic year. They were divided into 2 groups; the experimental group which consisted of 30 students who successfully enrolled in SWU366 (Social Psychology) course in the 2nd semester, 2014 academic year and the control group which consisted of other 30 students who wanted to but could not enroll in that same course. The research tools were: 1) the recreational activities that were designed for the development of undergraduate student identities of Srinakharinwirot University and were validated for face validity by 5 experts; and 2) the questionaire especially constructed to assess identities of Srinakharinwirot University students and were also approved of the content validity by 5 experts with the index of congruence within 0.80-1.0 and the coefficient of reliability by using Cronbach’s Alpha method at 0.81. The collected data were then analyzed by using frequencies, percentage, mean, standard deviation and t-test. After the experiment, it was found that: 1) the experimental group also improved their overall scores with the statistical significant level of .05; 2) the experimental group improved their scores in overall identities of Srinakharinwirot University student higher than that of the control group with the statistical significant level of .05; and 3) The control group improved their scores in overall identities of Srinakharinwirot University student without statistical significance. Keyword: student identities, undergraduate student, recreational activities
Introduction
Srinakharinwirot University is the academic institution with the social mission to produce graduates who are well-educated and can contribute to the society. The university is aware of the importance of producing graduates into society under the belief that students are the future of the nation and the owner of the society and when the moral values are imparted to students, they will make the society thrive. Therefore, the university has announced 9 identities every Srinakharinwirot University student should have; life-long learner, able to think and act, diligent, sense of propriety, public mind, communication skill, humble, positive personality, and well-rounded (Srinakharinwirot University, 2011). These 9 identities were announced in 2003 as a part of the strategic plan to develop students’ potential with the strong determination to produce quality graduates with moral values that Srinakharinwirot University students should have both during and after the education to serve society (Srinakharinwirot University, 2010).
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Due to the announcement above, some scholars conducted research as a guideline to develop student identities as Choomsai Na Ayuthaya, J. et al. (2011: 72) suggested that there should be an experimental study to develop a teaching model that could promote the identities of Srinakharinwirot University students. It was in line with Taweetangtrakul, W. et al. (2014) findings which studied the identities of Kasetsart University students in the Agriculture and Environmental Education program and suggested that the university should employ the proper teaching method that could develop each identity for their students, so that they are able to meet the expectations of the society. The researcher therefore chose recreational activities as a method to develop student identities because individuals can participation creates the positive and supportive atmosphere for participants to receive and enjoy the physical, mental, emotional, and social benefits by interacting with others (Tangsujjpoj, S. 2010 ; Dudsdeemaytha, J. et al, 2015). Besides, recreational activities are well accepted by the society and have variety of forms such as hobbies, arts & crafts, dancing and other rhythmic activities, sports, drama activities, volunteering, outdoor activities, and group dynamic activities (Stumbo, N. J. & Peterson, C.A., 2004). Moreover, Edginton, C. R. et al. (2002) emphasized that recreation plays the positive effects and helps enhancing human mind. Recreation leads to a positive attitude and results in the satisfactory experience. Recreation can also restore, remediate or rehabilitate mental conditions, reduce stress and anxiety, and lower the negative views of their work. For the reason stated above, the researcher had an idea of introducing recreational activities to develop identities of Srinakharinwirot University students in the hope that it could be a guideline to cultivate students’ moral and ethical values and fulfill society expectations.
Research Objectives To study the effect of recreational activities on the undergraduate student identities of Srinakharinwirot University.
Methodology
Research Model This research is the quasi experimental research with nonequivalent control group design due to the limitation in performing the complete randomization on the course enrollment of students and the number of students at the completion of the experiment could not be estimated. The research model is as follows;
O1………………….X1………………....O2
O1………………….X2………………....O2
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where X1 is the recreational activities
X2 is the normal activity from the university
O1 is the evaluation before the recreational activities in SWU366
O2 is the evaluation after the recreational activities in SWU366
Research Variables 1. The independent variable is recreational activities 2. The dependent variable is the identity of Srinakharinwirot University students Framework Research
Population and Samples The population in this study consisted of 19,336 Srinakharinwirot University students, both female and male, who enrolled in the 2014 academic year (Registration for Student, Services Division of Statistics. Srinakharinwirot University, 2014). The samples were 60 Srinakharinwirot University students, both male and female, as described below. 1. The experimental group was the students who wanted to and could successfully enroll in SWU366 (Social Psychology) course in the 2nd semester of 2014 academic year, Section B04. These students were then asked to complete the identity test to identify students whose identities were still not aligned with that of Srinakharinwirot University students. Those with the overall average score ( X ) less than 2.51 were subject to improvement and 30 students were selected in the end. 2. The control group was the students who also wanted to enroll in SWU366 (Social Psychology) course in the 2nd semester of 2014 academic year, Section B04, but they were unable to since the class had been filled up. This control group attended regular activities organized by Srinakharinwirot University. These students were also asked to complete the same identity test as the experiment. Those with the overall average score ( X ) less than 2.51 were subject to improvement and 30 students were selected in the end as well.
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Tools and Tools Quality The tools used in this research include recreational activities and the identity test. The details are as follows; 1. The recreational activities to promote identities of Srinakharinwirot University student were developed by the researcher for SWU366 (Social Psychology) course and required 1 day per week, with 8 weeks to complete. They were validated for face validity by 5 experts and went through the pilot study which reaffirmed that they could be put to practical use. 2. The identity test was developed from the Srinakharinwirot University student’s identity test of Choomsai Na Ayuthaya, J. et al. (2011). It was divided into 9 main sections; life-long learner, able to think and act, diligent, sense of propriety, public mind, communication skill, humble, positive personality, and well-rounded. The test had 50 questions with the rating scale of 5 levels; strongly agree, agree, partly agree, neutral, and disagree. Its content validity was examined by 5 experts and had the IOC in the range of 0.8-1.0. Then, the researcher tried out the revised version of the identity test on similar population and determined the reliability coefficient with Cronbach’s Alpha at 0.81.
Data Analysis In order to answer the objectives of this study, the researcher performed data analysis by using frequencies, mean, standard deviation and t-test on the 5 rating scale.
Results and Discussions
Results After carrying out the recreational activities to promote identities of Srinakharinwirot University student on the undergraduate students, the findings were summarized as follows. 1) The experimental group also improved their overall scores with the statistical significant level of .05, as shown on Table 1.
Table 1
Per-test Post-test Experimental Group t p-value x s.d. x s.d.
Student Identities 1.75 0.12 4.68 0.10 -113.395 .000* * P < .05
2) The control group improved their scores in overall identities of Srinakharinwirot University student without statistical significance, as shown in Table 2.
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Table 2
Per-test Post-test Control Group t p-value x s.d. x s.d. Student Identities 1.70 0.13 1.72 0.15 -0.51 0.62* * P < .05
3) The experimental group improved their scores in overall identities of Srinakharinwirot University student higher than that of the control group with the statistical significant level of .05, as shown in Table 3.
Table 3
experimental control Student Identities group group t p-value x s.d. x s.d. Recreation Activities 4.68 0.10 1.72 0.15 88.61 0.000* * P < .05
Discussions 1. The successful use of the recreational activities to develop undergraduate students’ identities into alignment with the identities of Srinakharinwirot University student; as the university proclaimed that its students should be valuable citizens who could contribute to society both during and after the education (Srinakharinwirot University, 2010), was the result of learning process and corresponded to the findings of Choomsai Na Ayuthaya, J. et al. (2011). Thus, it can be concluded that when students receive innovative learning that facilitates their understanding of Srinakharinwirot University student’s identities, they adopt and improve their identities impressively. However, the researcher also needed to understand the nature of late adolescents as they focus less on themselves, accept individual differences, build relationship with others, and adapt to the society (Rithakananone, P. 2007). Therefore, in order to support these undergraduates who are in late adolescence to grow into adults who can adapt in the future, the activities must enhance learning experience and meet their needs as Noklang, S. (2014) stated that recreational activities could promote the development of students because they enhanced students’ experience and by organizing the activities that meet students’ needs and interests, the goals would be achieved. 2. The implementation of this research was done by revising and developing the recreational activities for students who participated to enjoy, uplift the spirits, and improve by providing them with the opportunities to learn (Henderson, K. A., 2014). This is consistent with the findings of Mathieu, S. (2004) that conducted the quasi experimental research on therapeutic recreation programs to examine the behavioral changes, interpersonal relationship, and the ability to manage themselves including emotional and stress control in 18 abused male teenagers living in South California. The results indicated that teens in the experimental group could develop changes in behaviors, interpersonal relationship, and were able to manage themselves better.
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This demonstrated that if the recreational activities were designed to correlate with the ages and stages of development, they could enhance the progress. This agreed with Tangsujjpoj, S. (2010) who suggested that the recreational activities should be reminded of the uniqueness of the each age group, especially teenagers as they are interested in the activities that allow them to explore and express their abilities not only in sports. Thus, the diversity of activities designed for the youth should be broad in order to attract interests. This claim is consistent with the findings of Apiwattananun, T. (2010) that studied the development of learners by using the integrated learning which provided a variety of activities and the results showed that students improved in team-working skill, self-awareness, thinking skills with method and thinking analysis, and learning achievement.
References Apiwattananun, T. (2010). Developing Students’ Competency through Learning Activities Focused on Integrated Learning Program in General Psychology course, North Eastern University. Journal of Behavioral Science. 16(2): 83-95. Choomsai Na Ayuthaya J., N. Tangmankongworakoon, S. Sukasem, K. Na-Nan & K. K. Klaykaew (2011). The research report titled THE 1st year the students identities of Srinakharinwirot University. Bangkok. Srinakharinwirot University. Dudsdeemaytha J., S. Noklang & W. Benjaphong. (2015). The research report titled Development of Recreation Therapy Program for Aging Happiness. Bangkok: The Secretariat of the Senate. Edginton, C.R., D.J. Jordan, D.G. DeGraaf, & S.R. Edginton. (2002). Leisure and life satisfaction foundational perspectives. Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Communication Inc. Henderson, K. A. (2014). Introduction recreation services sustainability for a changing world. Pennsylvania: Venture Publishing. Mathieu, S. (2004). The Effect of Therapeutic Recreation on Interpersonal and Self- Management Skills of Abused Adolescent Males. World Leisure. 46(1): 32- 37. Noklnag, S. (2014). The Development of Adversity Quotient on Teacher Student through Participatory Leisure-Oriented Program in a Self-Directed Learning Process. Doctoral Thesis the Field of Human and Community Resource Development, Kasetsart University. Registration for Student, Services Division of Statistics, Srinakharinwirot University. (2014). The number of undergraduate student academic year 2014. On 1 June 2015. From http://edservice.oop.swu.ac.th/Default.aspx?tabid=7689. Rithakananone P. (2007). Human Development. Bangkok: Thammada Press. Srinakharinwirot University. (2010). 15-year strategic plan (2553-2567 BC). Bangkok. Srinakharinwirot University. Srinakharinwirot University. (2011, March 23). Student identity SWU 9 aspect. SWU Weekly, p.3.
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Stumbo, N.J. & Peterson, C.A. (2004). Therapeutic recreation program design principles and procedures. California: Benjamin Cummings. Tangsujjpoj S. (2010). Recreation & Leisure. Bangkok: Edison Press Products. Thaweetangtrakul W., P.Tanpichai & S. Srisuantang, (2014). Factors Affecting to the Identities of Students Majoring in Agricultural and Environmental Education, Kasetsart University. Veridian E-Journal 7(3), 754-769.
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Assessing the Social Dimension of Organic Agriculture to Enhance Resilience of Women to Climate Change in Tayabas, Quezon Province, Philippines and Sansai, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand
Edna Luisa A. Matienzoa and Tiemtip Kitibutb aUniversity of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines bThailand Education Foundation, Inc., Thailand Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract Organic agriculture is both a mitigation and adaptation strategy to climate change. The project assessed the social dimension of organic agriculture in enhancing women’s ability to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Total respondents were 101, 52 male farmers and 49 female farmers from organic farmers’ organizations and key stakeholders from Tayabas, Quezon and San Pa Pao, San Sai District, Chiang Mai. Participatory workshops/ interviews were conducted and data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Farmers use organic farming technologies, and participated in projects and trainings on organic agriculture. Organic farming improved their health, income, food security, confidence level, participation in community activities and social value. Communities became united and knowledge is shared. Women farmers know organic farming can mitigate effects of climate change and they can help mitigate. Participatory tools revealed farmers practice diversification. In general, women farmers spend more time for family obligations, and men spend more time in farm work. Women farmers spend less time than men for community and social activities. Life histories revealed organic farming has minimized problems due to climate variability. Female farmers became active in farming and decision making. Several agencies provide technical assistance, farm inputs and credit. However, female farmers have limited access to sources of new information and support. Vulnerability is aggravated by lack of knowledge, quality seeds, poor market price, decrease in yield, limited capital and weak policies and programs. Training, adequate information, community policies and programs will help farmers cope with climate change. Moreso, a good plan and strong community support are essential in organic farming. Keywords: organic agriculture, climate change, women, resilience
Introduction Impacts of climate change to agriculture and food security are inevitable. Farmers seek improved production techniques such as organic farming to increase yield and farm income. When their farming system is affected by climate change, the entire farm family including the women farmers suffers. Organic agriculture is an agricultural system that has three non-negotiables, i.e non-use of; 1) chemical pesticides, 2) synthetic fertilizers, and 3) genetically modified organisms or genetically engineered products. Organic agriculture offers the advantage of both a mitigation and adaptation strategy that can be used by farmers to cope with the effects of climate change.
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Most often women’s role in farming has been unrecognized, yet considered as the vulnerable group during climate change. Women can be a source of local and traditional knowledge which can be used as strategies to adapt to climate change. They are important producers of food and they secure safe and healthy food for the family. When both men and women farmers are given the same opportunities to contribute to mitigation and adaptation to climate change, then organic agriculture will be more sustainable and farmers will be able to build their capacities to develop more resilient coping mechanisms. The potential of organic agriculture to build the resilience of women to climate change has not been fully understood. The complex and dynamic nature of organic agriculture, climate change and gender calls for more research to understand better the intersection of these three concepts. There might be a need to transform development agenda to pursue a unified structural and policy environment for a more resilient organic community. Objectives The general objective was to assess the social dimension of organic agriculture in enhancing women’s ability to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Specifically it sought to: 1) ascertain how women can be change agents in the face of climate change; 2) establish how organic farmers differ by gender in responding and coping with climate change; 3) identify contributory and limiting factors in organic agriculture in developing resiliency of women to climate change; and 4) determine the capacity building needs of women and men farmers in organic agriculture as it relates to climate change. Methods The SEAGA or the Socio economic and gender analysis approach was a useful framework for integrating gender issues into climate change and organic agriculture because it examines the social dynamics that may shape how different members of a community and a household experience and respond to climate change. PRA tools used were the village resource map, farming systems diagram, seasonal calendar, capacity and vulnerability analysis, and strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threat analysis. Key informant and life history interviews were also conducted. Data obtained were gender disaggregated. Descriptive statistics and qualitative analysis were used for this research. Results and Discussion Organic farmers in Tayabas, Quezon province, Philippines were around 45 years old, married, most male farmers completed secondary education and most female farmers completed College education. Organic farmers in San Sai, Chiang Mai were older about 56 years old, married, completed primary education with few farmers having College education. Most male farmers in Tayabas had more than 30 years of farming experience and most female farmers had 1-5 years of experience. Farmers in Chiang Mai had less than 5 years of experience in organic farming. Majority of the trainings attended by farmers in Tayabas were provided by the UPLB DA BAR Organic Vegetable Project. Farmers in Chiang Mai attended trainings and learned organic farming from experience or from their parents who taught them natural farming.
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Both farmers are active members of local organizations and participate in community activities whether agriculture related or not. Main organic commodity in San Sai is vegetables and they started doing natural farming so it was not difficult for the farmers to convert to organic farming. Farmers practice diversified and integrated farming systems in small scale operation. Female farmers are involved in all farming activities especially in light activities and mostly in marketing. When they started their organic farming, male farmers in Tayabas made use of new technologies but female farmers made use more of indigenous knowledge and practices. Female farmers from San Pa Pao group made use of their knowledge from the sufficiency economy principles promoted by the King of Thailand and from their training at the Local Wisdom Center. Their organic farming practices help farmers adapt to changes in climate Life Histories Life histories of two old farmers one male and one female revealed they have experienced climatic changes over time. According to the female farmer in Tayabas, the erratic weather nowadays had brought problems in their crop production but with organic farming, they had improved income, more food for the family and was able to send children to school. The male farmer believes that if crops are damaged, one just have to plant again. Coping strategies to climate change of male and female farmers are the same like planting locally adapted varieties to drought or from too much rainfall. The male farmer listens to the news, observe the changes in climate and store rice grains to ensure food is available during bad weather. Meanwhile, the wife supports her husband when their crops are destroyed by bad weather. The female farmer immediately plant again and apply compost to recover the soils’ fertility. This shows they differ in how they prepare and cope from the effects of climate change. However, both said that they are coping much better now because of the new organic farming technologies and more income from low production input cost. In the life histories of two old farmers in San Pa Pao, they have witnessed the ill effects of climate change causing reduction in yield, debt, and poor human and environmental health. They changed their production system from conventional to integrated/organic farming to better cope with changes in climate. With new technologies and advanced knowledge from scientist, they are able to cope better now with the effects of climate change. The women farmers are confident that they are prepared and united because they learn and share information in the Organic Farming Group. She believes that organic farming practices can be used as mitigation and adaptation strategies for climate change. The two old farmers in San Pao believes that limited access to new technology, information, services and capital and food insecurity make men and women farmers vulnerable to climate change. Participatory and Visualization Tools for Gender Analysis Farming Systems Diagram The farming systems diagram also referred to as resource flow diagram illustrated the typical diversified organic farming system of smallholder farmers in Tayabas. Usually the farmers’ sources of income were from rice, vegetables, coconut or mango, fish/swine, carabao and poultry. They practice nutrient recycling with substrates for vermicompost are farm generated resources and organic fertilizer produced is used in their crop production. Farmers are engaged in non-farm activities to augment the farm income. The farming systems diagram show the interrelationships among the different
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HUMAN AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, VOL.1 NO.1 (MAY 2016-APRIL 2017 164 commodities and its purpose in the farming system whether as source of food or income for the farm family. The gender role in the different farming activities was also illustrated. Similarly, the diagram prepared by the San Pa Pao farmers showed how farmers are maximizing farm resources from waste recycling for compost, vermicompost and mulching. It also reflected the various agencies assisting the group on the aspect of technical assistance, training and farm inputs. Farmers are engaged also in non-farm activities. Village Resource Map The village resource map of Tayabas compared the development of the municipality 30 years ago and at present. The map elucidated the economic and agricultural development as a result of modernization and population growth and changes in the livelihood of the farmers. From mono-cropping, farmers now are practicing diversified farming system with the integration of livestock. Along with this development, is the degradation of natural resources like the forest area which has to be protected to preserve its biodiversity. Same with the village resources map of San Pa Pao, modernization brought about the intensive use of farm inputs and the availability of commercial seeds. The impact of which include the loss of local biodiversity like the freshwater fishes, bees, shrimps, native vegetables and fruits, and local seeds. Agricultural land is converted to business establishments, reducing the farm areas and farmer population. Old age and disinterest in farming to favor faster and high paying jobs in the city decrease the farming population. Farm labor is replaced by modern machinery. However, from backyard vegetable production, farmers now plant more high value commercial crops. The female farmers are now more active in the farm, in attending trainings due to media influence and opportunities provided by the government. Seasonal Calendar This tool on seasonal calendar showed the seasonal variation in Tayabas and the major activities per commodity including the non-farming activities of both the male and female farmers. It illustrated the incidence of pests and diseases during the rainy months, including human diseases. This reflects the periods of the year when the farmers have income during harvest time of rice in March-April and September- October. Income however is reduced during festivities, and during land preparation, planting and harvesting where they hire labor and to pay for school fees. The seasonal calendar of male and female farmers in San Pa Pao indicated the variety of activities being done by the farmers in one year period. Rice planting is twice a year, January and July, and harvest in February and November. Vegetable planting is all year round. Fruit farming like mangoes are harvested in April and May. Lemon is planted in August and can be harvested all year round. Fish, chicken and frog farming are throughout the year. Both have non-farming activities like value-adding for the female farmers, sewing, knitting and school bus driver for the male farmers. Female farmers plant for home consumption, to pay for school fees, household expenses, savings and additional income, while the male farmers will buy wood to fix their homes. The temperature and rainfall in Chiang Mai has increased for the past 15 years. This has affected organic farming and caused farmers to change their crop, plant in raised beds, practice roof planting and prepare small drainage system to prevent flooding.
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Capacity and Vulnerability Analysis (CVA) The CVA is used to understand the resources and needs of men and women. In this study, different agricultural resources were evaluated as to the farmers’ capacities and vulnerabilities to climate change according to the season and by gender. Agricultural resources/topics include: 1. Seeds; 2. Soil; 3. Water; 4. Organic fertilizer and pesticides; 5. Crop pests and diseases; 6. Human disease; 7. Conservation of biodiversity; and 8. Attitude on organic farming. Both gender among farmers in Tayabas combine traditional knowledge with new technology like organic farming to counter the effects of climate change. Male farmers rely more on external sources for new information and support while the female farmers depend mostly on their own knowledge and experience in farming. In San Pa Pao, this analysis included topics on animal disease and animal health. Similar to farmers in Tayabas, both gender experienced the same farming problems during the different seasons, and combine organic and natural methods to overcome the effects of climate change. Both farmers care for the environment and female farmers strongly believed that organic farming methods can solve the problems of pest and disease outbreaks, poor ecosystem, declining crop yields and human disease. They both seek information and support from outside source (university, local government unit, extension officers, mass media, training) and rely at the same time on their own knowledge, family, and co-farmers. In both sites, gender become vulnerable to climate change because of the unreliability of some organic farming technologies that require more research, limited knowledge on organic farming, lack of quality seeds, low crop yields, low market price of products, and insufficient capital to sustain their organic farming operation. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) This tool was used to assess the internal strengths and weaknesses, and opportunities and threats external to the organization or the community. SWOT by gender was done for several aspects namely: Organic farming production, Marketing, Local government policy, Management of Organic Farming against Climate Change, Access to Information on Climate Change and Organic Agriculture and Organizational Operations and Management. In general, farmers in Tayabas were similar in their identified strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in most of the aspects. Male farmers consider lack of capital/farm inputs as their weakness, while female farmers consider lack of information/technologies and agencies to request assistance as their weakness. Both gender consider legal framework like the Organic agriculture and Climate Change Act as opportunities. Reduced production was considered a threat by male farmers but for the female farmers a threat would be people who does not care about the ill effects of climate change. Moreso, female farmers differ with male farmers when they feel weak in terms of not being prepared during climate change, lack of knowledge on organic agriculture and climate change, and lack of funds to train/educate interested individuals on organic agriculture. As for organizational operations and management, female farmers consider as threat the distrust among members which can lead to disunity and weaken the organization. Male farmers looked at external assistance and inputs as opportunity but for female farmers improving their capacities on the technical aspect and leadership were opportunities for them.
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For the organic farmers group in San Pa Pao, female farmers highlighted food security and reduction in household expenses because of producing own organic and safe food for the family as their strengths. Family support and source of knowledge were also considered strengths by the farmers. A common weakness were low production because of natural disasters, pest damage, lack knowledge in organic farming among others. However, male farmers mentioned unclear local policies, poor project coordination, and communities not benefitting from projects that come and go as constraining factors for organic farmers. But female farmers consider the poor attendance in meetings and seminars as their weakness since they also have other jobs aside from farming. Opportunities for the farmers include the good morale from organic farming, good income, continuous seminars/ trainings, fund support from different agencies, market demand and new information on organic farming and climate change and many others. Among the threats mentioned were limited knowledge and experience of some government officials, poor health, old age and illiteracy, lack traditional values/ideologies and do not understand the importance of information among others. Female farmers consider information and traditional values/ideologies as necessary ingredients in the successful adoption of organic farming. While for the male farmers some of the threats are the limited water resource, land ownership, no area for expansion, competitive market, lack capital and unclear policies among others. Daily Activity Clock In the daily activity clock, farmers were asked by gender and season their activities in a normal day from the time they wake up in the morning to the time they sleep. Activities were divided into the productive activities referring to those which provide economic benefits; reproductive activities or assigned roles of the wife and mother in the family and social/community activities refer to organization meetings, volunteer, tree planting and social activities like drinking, shopping, grooming and resting. Time allotted to the different activities by both gender slightly differ in season. Same trend was observed for organic farmers in both sites, more time is devoted to reproductive work by female farmers, men spends less time. Male farmers spend more time for productive work compared to female farmers. Male farmers have more time for community and social activities while female farmers spend less time for these activities. Seasonal variation would also depend on the crops to be planted. For vegetable production, female farmers spend more time in productive activities to ensure the farm is not flooded during rainy season. For planting high value commercial crops during the winter season, the male farmers devote more time in productive activities. For both gender, they prefer to do activities in the home during the dry season when water is limited. Same during the winter time, female farmers have more time to stay at home. Conclusion Female farmers who practice organic farming can cope and adapt their farming system to climate change similar to male farmers. Life histories and other participatory tools conducted in the Philippines and Thailand elucidated the capacities and vulnerabilities of farmers to climate change. It gave the farmers the chance to assess their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in organic farming amidst climate change. Farmers adapt to climate change by combining new organic farming technologies with traditional and local farming practices. Female farmers rely on local knowledge
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and experience and building their capacities are important to them. Their perseverance and knowledge of the importance of a healthy soil are necessary in coping with changes in climate. Thus, if female farmers are given the opportunity to share their wisdom, knowledge and experience in organic farming as coping strategies to climate change, then they can be effective change agents in the community. Local knowledge and practices can be enhanced with research and new technologies in organic farming. Female farmers differ in responding and coping with climate change by performing multiple roles i.e. reproductive or attending to the family’s needs and securing safe food; productive or earning for the family and community/social activities. The complementary role of female farmers (wife) in providing moral support to the husband (male farmer) to help him recover from the effects of climate change to his farm is highlighted in developing resilient families. Farmers cope better because of new technologies and improved income from organic farming. Agencies and support groups assist them during climatic events. There are programs, policies and funding that do not directly prepare the farmers and their farms during calamities since they are not well coordinated and do not have clear impact to the communities. Provision of seeds and farm implements will help them start again, but a long term program that will be more sustainable is necessary like training farmers how to prepare their organic farms if a strong typhoon or drought is expected. Hence, strengthening the organic program anchored to the climate change program and mainstreaming it in the local agricultural development plans and programs as suggested by key informants should be considered. Female farmers are prepared and united to solve this problem of climate change through organic farming. The Organic Farming Groups as a social network empowers them through sharing and learning together of farmers. Female farmers become more vulnerable to climate change if there are limited access to technology, knowledge, information, services and capital. Overall, farmers become vulnerable to climate change if they lack quality seeds, farm inputs, market price is low and poor crop yields due to changes in climate. Furthermore, some organic farming technologies which are not confirmed by research makes farmers uncertain in using these technologies. Instead they used the tried and reliable local farming technologies or they can revert back to conventional farming. Finally, organic agriculture can be used as a mitigation and adaptation strategy by female farmers. Resilience of women to climate change is developed through social networks and farmers’ organizations, trainings, participation in decision making and access to agricultural resources and services. They use organic farming technologies like diversified farming, crop rotation, composting and many others, and they know that climate change is a threat to their farming, but they are not aware that their farming practice is a mitigation strategy. Thus, a specific need to be addressed immediately is making farmers understand the interrelationship of climate change and organic agriculture. The key informants suggested programs and policies to reduce the vulnerability of farmers like continuous capacity building program, local policies, political will, livelihood projects, crop insurance, capital loan, social preparation, IEC materials and awareness raising among others.
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References Aguilar, L., (2008). Is there a connection between gender and climate change?. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Office of the Senior Gender Adviser. Paper for presentation at the 3rd Global Congress of Women in Politics and Governance, Manila, Philippines, 19-22 October. Baladad, E.M. nd. A working paper on the struggle of rural women to beat the odds brought about by climate change. Results of the Focus Group Discussions on the UNDEF Project Entitled Promoting Gender- Responsive Governance for Rural, Indigenous and Muslim Women in the Philippines. p19. Eisses, R. and J. Chaikam. (2002). Organic farming and gender roles in Northern Thailand. LEISA India , December, 20 02 pp 25-26. Encabo, Shiela Marie E. (2011).The MDG-F 1656 Joint Programme- Strengthening the Philippines’ Institutional Capacity to Adapt to Climate Change. Side Event – COP1718:30--‐20:00,2 December 2011, Apies Rm, Durban, South Africa. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). (2013). Training Guide: Gender and Climate Change Research in Agriculture and Food Security for Rural Development. IFOAM. (2009).The Contribution of Organic Agriculture to Climate Change Mitigation. Prepared by Rodale Institute, FiBL and Agro Eco Louis Bolk Institute. Printed by the European Community, DG Environment. p16. Limnirankul, B. and Gipmantasiri, P. (2011). Agriculture Innovation in Supporting Organic Rice Production System of Small Holder Farmers in Northern Thailand, Agricultural Faculty, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) Executive Summary. (2011). Climate Change Commission, Office of the President, Malacanang, Metro Manila. DILG-Resources 2012116 d7b649faf.pdf. Pattanapant, A. and G.P. Shivakoti. (2014). Factors influencing the adoption of organic agriculture in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.12 (1) :132 - 139 . 2014. www.world- food.net . WFL Publisher .Science and Technology, Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI- 00980, Helsinki, Finland. Pipitsombat, N. (nd).Thailand Climate Policy: Perspectives Beyond. (2012).The Office of Climate Change Coordination. The Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. Rudinas JS, EC. Godilano and AG. Ilaga. (2013). Implementing Climate Smart Agriculture Ridge - River - Reef: The Philippine Adaptation and Mitigation Initiative for Agriculture. Paper presented to the ASEAN – FAO - GIZ Regional Expert Forum on Climate Change: Agriculture and Food Security in ASEAN. Organized jointly by the ASEAN Secretariat, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and German International Cooperation (GlZ). 2-3 May 2013. Nai Lert Hotel, Bangkok, Thailand. p18.
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Participatory workshops conducted with organic farmers
Information market of workshop output and plenary session, Tayabas, Quezon, Philippines
Participatory workshop with farmer group, San Sai, Chiang Mai, Thailand
This work was carried out with the aid of a grant from the Global Development Network (GDN) administered by the Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) as EADN Secretariat.
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REFERENCES
[15] Hung, T. W., A Data Mining Case Study in the Underwear Industry for CRM Applications, Proceedings of the 2006 International Conference on Business and Information, CD-Format, Singapore, July 12-14, 2006. [16] Lo, S. K., Wang, C. C. and Fang, W. 2005. Physical Interpersonal Relationships and Social Anxiety among Online Game Players”, CyberPsychology and Behavior, 8 (1), 15-20. [17] Schierholz, R., Glissmann, S., Kolbe, L. M., and Brenner, W. 2006. Don’t call us, we’ll call you – Performance Measurement in Multi-Channel Environments, Journal of Information Science and Technology, 3 (2), 44-61. [18] Yu, C. S. and Lin, Y. W., Differentiating Strategy of online banking Service Quality, Proceedings of the 7th Annual Global Information Technology Management Association World Conference, CD-Format, Orlando, Florida, USA, June 11-13 2006. APPENDIX
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Department of Human and Community Resource Development: HCRD Faculty of Education and Development Sciences, KASETSART UNIVERSITY, KAMPHAENG SAEN CAMPUS 1 Moo 6 Kamphaeng Saen Sub-district, Kamphaeng Saen District, Nakhon Prathom Province, THAILAND 73140 Tel. (+66) 034-281081, Fax. (+66) 034-281081 Website: http://hcrd.edu.kps.ku.ac.th/thai/index.php
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