Volume 4, Issue 11(5), November 2015 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-21-4,Saraswathi Nivas,Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Vice Chancellor Founder and President Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Research Lima Peru Mumbai Prof. Igor Kondrashin Prof.Y.C. Simhadri The Member of The Russian Philosophical Vice Chancellor, Patna University Society Former Director The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Rector Nagarjuna University, Patna University St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute
Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater
Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Russian Philosophical Society Department of Mechanical Engineering Moscow, Russia GITAM University –Visakhapatnam
N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam) Department of Philosophy Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Andhra University Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education Visakhapatnam University of Education, VNU, Hanoi
Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Prof. Chanakya Kumar Coordinator Department of Computer Science A.P State Resource Center University of Pune,Pune Visakhapatnam Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Dr.S.Kannan Department for Production Engineering Department of History University of Novi Sad, Serbia Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Prof.Shobha V Huilgol Department of Pharmacology Dr. Barada Prasad Bhol Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Registrar, Purushottam Institute of Engineering & Technology Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Sundargarh, Odisha Department of English GITAM University Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Hyderabad Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences Dr.K.Chaitanya University of Sapienza, Rome Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Technology Al-Mustansiriyah University People’s Republic of China College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V University of Calcutta, Calcutta Librarian Kalasalingam University Prof. N Kanakaratnam Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Andhra Pradesh Assistant Professor Department of Sahitya Dr. K. John Babu Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir
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IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought. C O N T E N T S Volume 4 Issue 11(5) November 2015 S. Page
No No 1. Confusion and Bewilderment in Paul Scott’s the Day of 1 the Scorpion S. Rajeswari and G.Chenna Reddy
2. Practice: Sati - The Afire of the Widow 12 N.Kanakaratnam
3. Protection and Promotion of Child Rights 21 B.Venkataiah
4. Knowledge and Attitude Towards HIV/AIDS among 34 Higher Secondary School Students in Thiruvananthapuram District of Kerala Mercy Xavier and T.K.Vimalakumary
5. Intelligence, Personality and Achievement of School 45 Students K. Naga Raju and Digumarti Bhaskara Rao
6. An Analytical Study of Achievement of IX Class 80 Students in Physical Sciences P.Madhusudhana Reddy & T.V.Sheshadri Naidu
7. Pallavas in Early Medieval Pallava 92 N.Kanakaratnam
8. A Study of Teacher Effectiveness and Stress Among 106 Junior College Lecturers Working in Chittoor District S.Ravi
9. Assessment of Personal Hygiene Practice of Food 122 Handlers in Food Serving Establishments of Afar Region: A Case in Samara-Logia City Administration, North East Ethiopia Chalachew Genet Akal, Tizazu Zenebe Zelelie and Abdu Mohammed Asfaw 10. Synthesis and Studies on Tungsten Bronze Lead Based 137 Ceramic Materials Vemuri Raghavendra, Y.Ramesh Babu,
B.Suryanarayana, K.Ramanjaneyulu and
K.Chandra Mouli 11. Analysis of Senior Secondary Environmental Education 147 Text Book Anshu Narad
12. Lifelong Learning and Skill Development 172 Rahul Yadav
13. An Introduction to the Tribal Identity Movement in 176 Assam Overview of the Missing Samir Pegu
14. The Assessment of Objectives and Crucial Importance of 186 Sport Training Principle on Sports Men Abdu Mohammed Asfaw
15. Pallavas and their Bowl 204 N.Kanakaratnam
Dr. K. VICTOR BABU ISSN : 2277 – 7881 M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Impact Factor :3.318(2015) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial……
You will be happy to know that we have entered the fourth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it.
We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharita Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor – in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
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CONFUSION AND BEWILDERMENT IN PAUL SCOTT’S THE DAY OF THE SCORPION
Ms. S. Rajeswari Dr.G.Chenna Reddy Associate Professor Assistant Professor M.L.R Institute of Technology Department of English Hyderabad Acharya Nagarjuna University Guntur Dist., A.P.
Introduction:
The first novel, The Jewel in the Crown, describes the doomed love between an Indian boy and an English girl, Hari Kumar and Daphne Manners. The affair touches the lives of other characters in three subsequent volumes, most of them unknown to Hari and Daphne. Involved in the larger social and political conflicts the characters destroy the lovers. As the scorpion, encircled by a ring of fire, will sting itself to death, so does the British raj hasten its own destruction when threatened by the flames of Indian independence. In The Day of the Scorpion, a sadistic policeman, Ronald Merrick who arrests and prosecutes Hari, insinuates himself into an aristocratic British family as World War II escalates.
Scott recreates both private ambition and perversity and the politics of an entire subcontinent at a turning point in history. In The Day of the Scorpion, to put the case behind him Merrick sees an opportunity in the Second World War. To enjoy a certain superiority and potential to rise even further in social rank Merrick seeks an opportunity through Teddie meeting Layton family. Scott takes the title The Day of the Scorpion from the haunting childhood memory of Sarah Layton, the novel’s main character. Sarah recalls the day a scorpion surrounded with a circle of fire. While the Layton sisters watched the scorpion arched its back and appeared to sting itself with
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its deadly tail before the flames could spread. The image of the scorpion’s suicide becomes a metaphor for the English within India’s circle of fire.
Confusion and Bewilderment:
Mohammed Ali Kasim’s incarceration is a symptom of the growing deterioration of Anglo-Indian relations. The Laytons, the long serving British family struggle to come to terms with their Anglo- Indian past. With growing confusion and bewilderment the British are forced to challenge the violent and brutal years that lie ahead of them. Literature reflects the spirit of the age and therefore in the literary history of prose, the style of every period is the outcome of various complexes and influences. Anil Kumar Verma in Paul Scott: A Critical Study of His Novels analyses Scott’s writing that
Paul Scott produces not the novel, but a highly furnished, perhaps even over-crowded room with a view of all outdoors. Such a method is based upon the piling up of background triva. These details create the world of histories. It is as if he were insisting that—in this place, at this time, under these precise circumstances, his people lived and acted, and in no other place or time or environment of races could the same events have led to the same end. The portrayal of the social background emerges as one of Scott’s major values as a writer. He is a historian to an era(p.158).
Scott’s novels are like a motion picture depicting on a grand scale the vast socio-political terminals of an age of Indian struggle for freedom.
Characters like Reactive Chemicals:
Scott often seems to use his characters like reactive chemicals, placing them in careful opposition to each other to produce a calculated effect. The meetings between Sarah and Merrick particularly through
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the way in which they react to each other reveals about both characters. Certain phrase Merrick uses at the Mirat guest house makes Sarah conscious of their different social backgrounds and she is frightened to realize “that she could respond, as automatically as Aunt Fenny, to the subtler promptings of the class- instinct” (p.219-20). This kind of sobering self- discovery is all part of the terrible dissatisfaction she feels, both about her own character and the social situation of which she is a part. An irony of her position is that no matter how hard she fights against the pressure of the situation, there is the danger of appearing to be what Sarah calls “a hard-bitten little memsahib interfering in other people’s lives to stop herself shrieking with the boredom and frustration of her own” (p.380). This kind of fear leads Sarah to adopt a more defensive stance for her own protection and self respect. Sarah worries a lot about becoming like her mother, and fights against the physical manifestations of this tendency. Even her way of sitting is becoming noticeably like that of Mildred, and the positive decision to change the angle of her body serves only to accentuate the similarity: “She had sat up, put her glass down, leant forward and folded her arms, but that was becoming a habitual attitude too, and just as defensive” (p.118).
In opinions and meditations of other characters, especially Nigel Rowan and Guy Perron Paul Scott utilize the same technique for revealing certain angles of Sarah’s character as he uses for Merrick. Rowan first sees Sarah while in the company of Bronowsky in the Nawab’s private railway-carriage, and makes an observation that seems to invite comparison between the girl in front of him and old Lady Manners: “Her face had to be studied before it revealed its natural and incontrovertible logic, and then one left instinctively that it would endure, that in old age it would be marked by the serenity of understood experience and the vitality of undiminished appetite” (p.147). The astute observation is an indication of Rowan’s assessment.
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Scott achieves the double benefit of throwing light on both characters in the same situation with one narrative progression. His technique is scientific in approach. His works display his mastery of language.
Susan, the younger sister of Sarah Layton, is of a more superficial character and sees herself only as reflected in the eyes of others. She is astute in the needs of others. She is engaged to be married to Captain Edward Arthur David Bingham (Teddie). Bingham is a young officer in the Muzzy Guides. Though a bit of scattered brained he is honorable and possesses the sense of chivalry expected of him. Miss Susan, being born under scorpio, is herself a scorpion symbolically.
The typical meeting between the Indians and the British reveals the mindless behavior of the English. The ‘net’, one of Scott’s recurrent symbols for imprisonment, gives out the implication of Susan having been caught up. The word ‘effigy’ indicates her total listlessness about the whole ceremony. The appearance of a Hindu widow (i.e. Hari’s aunt Shalini) and her prostration before Merrick with a plea for alleviating the suffering of her nephew is ominous. It foreshadows Susan’s widowhood, after Teddie’s death in war. Their disastrous marriage is a part and parcel of the Raj’s history.
Ronald Merrick’s madness and a virulent brand of racism are more intensely depicted than Mrs. Bingham’s. Count Dmitri Bronowsky, a lame émigré Russian who serves as the wazir to the Nawab of Mirat explains that Merrick, in his last days, develops fear and becomes acutely conscious of a dangerous threat from the other side of the racial boundary. When Merrick falls down incidentally from horseback in the nullah while keeping watch on Ahmed Kasim and Sarah, he complains of an ‘imaginary enemy’ throwing stone at him.
The condition of British Raj at the time of World War II is described as emerging from the twilight and sweeping down the hills with flattering swords. The short span of friendship of Sarah and Major
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Clark and their dance symbolizes like that of Hari and Daphne. The very presence of the “Furies” in the sky indicates that Sarah is heading herself to self-destruction. The dance of Sarah and Major Clark symbolizes, like that of Hari and Daphne, the harmony that arises out of the short span of their friendship. Major Clark forces Sarah to get into a car and abducts her without informing her as to where they are going. The gutter slang used by him in conversation is guessed by Sarah to be part of ‘the process of seduction’ (p.440). Although they do not like Indian music, they still attend a musical concert. She feels enchanted by the exotic as well as erotic atmosphere of the house. The scene of Sarah being caught up in the dimly-lit room is described vividly:
(She) started down at the soiled expensive briefs, those meshes of mysterious and complex cellular imprisonment. She closed the lid knowing that both bath and bedroom were tainted by his casual presence and the ludicrous talent he had for casual contemptuous excitement. Momentarily she was without a sense of direction. She felt along one wall, searching for another switch (p.434-435).
He continues:
Her elongated shadow probed the slant of bath room light across the floor and up a blank wall. There was no switch…over there, she told herself; and was rewarded then by the suddenly visible pale strip of light marking the boundary of the bed room and gallery. She walked towards it, and stopped…’you’re going the wrong way’ he said.’ I’ am over here; his voice came from behind, from some intensely organized, centralised point of reference. She turned and walked towards the silt of light, anticipated the driver home lock and absent key. She jerked the handle. Nothing looked sillier than trying to open a door the person watching you knew was locked (p.434-435).
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The seduction of Miss Sarah by Major Clark takes place in the locker room, a sort of prison in which the ‘daughter of the Raj’ is caught up. Like Susan, Sarah too works in the Pankot Rifles office. The event of seduction takes place during her stay in Calcutta for the purpose of meeting the wounded and hospitalized Merrick. While going up in the lift of the Grand Hotel, she visualizes the Furies:
The Furies were riding across an uninhabited sky, to their own and no one else’s destruction. The real world was a tame, repetitious place of it, when you really looked, was much like another, a chemical accident, a mine of raw material for the creation of random artifacts to house and warm or satisfy the need for sensual pleasure or creation comfort. The lift was one such. It jerked to a stop (p.404).
The very presence of the ‘Furies’ in the sky indicates that Sarah is heading herself to self-destruction.
Captain Bingham and Susan Layton’s romance was short and their engagement and wedding plans came swiftly. The outbreak of war and setbacks in the East mean Teddie is expected to be sent to the front soon. It was Susan’s elder sister, Sarah, that Teddie had met first and shown an interest in. Teddie is not the first man to have found Sarah to be too plain, too blandly intelligent to keep pursuing. Susan, by contrast, is prettier, fun and affable.
Merrick was not Teddie’s first choice as best man, rather a last minute arrangement. They met recently when they became roommates in the army. But Merrick is pleased at the opportunity to ingratiate himself with his social betters. Teddie has no idea of Merrick’s past and, if he had known, it is unlikely he would have chosen someone as controversial to be his best man. When he learns of Merrick’s past, Teddie finds he cannot trust Merrick to treat Indians justly, which leads to disaster after the wedding when both are sent to the front to
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halt the Japanese advance. Scott created the characters supremely detailed. Many unforgettable characters destinies are shaped by the British rule in India. Paul Scott weaves together by dehistorisising the incidents and the people as well. Sarah’s romantic life stands at a crossroad with limited opportunities for a woman of the master race.
The owner of Rose Cottage:
The owner of Rose Cottage in Pankot, Mabel Layton is the stepmother of Colonel Layton. Mabel’s stepson and his daughters address her as ‘Aunty Mabel’. Mabel offers Barbie Batchelor, the retired missionary schoolteacher as houseguest and companion. Mildred, mother of Sarah and Susan resents for occupying Rose Cottage and bringing the working-class Miss Batchelor into their lives. After the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre in Amritsar most of the British in India contributed to fund the retirement of Reginald Dyer. Mabel contributed money for the Indian victims of the massacre. Mildred sees Mabel as a traitor to her own people. This seems to be a source of friction between step-mother and step-daughter.
On a deeper level, Scott exploited the imagination in balancing the clarity with illusion. The imagination is needed to bring the characters, the historical background and the landscape to life. The Quartet works on suggesting a balance that has been successfully achieved. Paul Scott has earned a world-wide recognition for his realism and naturalism in his style and attitude. Scott’s prose style includes copious details and explanations of his situations. His works display his mastery of language and technique.
The first words of The Jewel in the Crown are in the form of peremptory command: “Imagine, then…..”This is mirrored in The Day of the Scorpion (at the end of the passage describing Lady Manners) with the further command, “Picture her then” making the reader aware that he is being made party to a hidden contract.
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In the context of a wider history Scott was determined to engage with the world of 1942 to1947. “There are the action, the people, and the place”, he writes on the first page of The Jewel in the Crown. The action, the people and the place are inter-related but in their totality incommunicable in isolation from the moral continuum of human affairs. This ‘moral continuum’ represents the state of British moral responsibility to India as occupying power which is ambiguous. Scott demands throughout the flights of imaginative fancy by dehistorisising literature to measure the events of The Quartet.
Guy Perron is the character with an integral part of the illusion through his contact with Merric, Kumar, Rowan, and Sarah, but tries to maintain his position as an outsider. He refuses to accept an army commission to take the burden of becoming a conventional sahib. Scott’s obsessive concerns are the idea of possession and the distinction between idea and realty. The circumstance conspires against Perron. Perron tries to avoid being caught up in the machinations of the British raj with objective rationality. Merrick chooses him as an assistant and caught between involvement and detachment from Sarah. Perron’s character proves an ideal medium for Scott’s own thoughts on the insoluble predicament. Scott represents the slow gathering of events that lead to the independence and partition of India.
The immediate threat of rape only disappears when Miss Crane is left at the side of the road with the body of the Indian school teacher in her arms. All the individual members of the British Raj find themselves in one or other absurd situation such as marriage, thwarted love, loss of position and power and a longing for death. Most of them suffer and die miserably. Their death signifies the death of the Raj. Scott’s view of the Raj must be seen in the larger perspective. Scott is endowed with an extraordinary talent of creating “Convincing pictures of man at work, subjected to the strain of conflicting responsibilities” (Swinden, p.6).
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Social and Political Scenario:
Scott’s description of Miss Crane’s background and the raising unrest of Daphne’s rape in Mayapur serve the dual purpose of establishing the social and political scenario. The blood-shed and the violence in the case of Miss Crane that took place represent the death of an India. The revelation is found in The Day of the Scorpion and is seen through Lady Manners eyes from the safety of the observation room. The same situation in the last novel is recounted to Perron. This technique is used by Paul Scott with the meeting of Bronowsky, Sarah and Rowan in the nawab of Mirat’s special railway carriage. This technique is again used from Sarah and Bronowsky’s viewpoint in the second novel, but over five hundred pages later, in the last novel, through Rowan’s eyes. The addition of an extra dimension enriches the situation under analysis by exploring more of its possibilities, adding to the fullness of the developing picture. This shaped the structural integration of separate novels into one literary concept. The novelist creates an opulent gallery of imagined characters and of the relationship between the two races. His novels offer interesting studies of India at a period which was crucial for both the rulers and the ruled. Scott as a master of his craft portrays the social background that emerged during British Raj. The writer set out some ten years after independence to write four novels on the British in India. The narrator captures the events, people, places, etc.
Scott had found his peculiar theme overflowing into other and wider channels all the time. Throughout the novels Scott reflects his awareness of the vulgarity and obsolescence of the English middle class. Naik, M.K., in The Image of India in Western creative Writing states on Paul Scott’s style of writing that “They go on the continent or stay at home, but everything his Englishmen and women display that philistinism and complacency which ultimately becomes an inverted shyness,--harness or cold taciturnity as of death itself” (p.23).
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Paul Scott follows the intertwining lives and thoughts of several people through a period of massive turbulence and upheaval in The Day of the Scorpion. It is described that “the crumbling of an empire and the changing attitudes discernible in those who—some of them for generations have served it as soldiers and administrators. England is still in command in India, but the war and its outcome are all that have to be lived through before the final with drawl” (The Times Literary Supplement, p.975). Language has an important bearing upon literature. The fact is that thought and expressions are inseparable; the one is made to suit the other.
For the long-serving British family, the Laytons, the political and social ramifications are immediate, disturbing and tragic. Some, like Ronald Merrick, believe that true intimacy between the races is impossible; others such as Sarah Layton, struggle to come to terms with their Anglo-Indian past. With growing confusion and bewilderment, the British are forced to confront the violent and often brutal years that lie ahead of them.
Conclusion:
The Bibighar case was at the centre of The Jewel in the Crown, the first novel in Paul Scott’s The Raj Quartet. In The Day of the Scorpion, Ronald Merrick sees opportunity in World War II to put the case behind him and try to reinvent him by joining the army. Despite of setbacks, his Merrick’s ruthless ambition to rise above humble origins has not eased. He still sees in colonial India the opportunity for someone like himself to enjoy certain superiority and the potential to rise even further in social rank. Merrick takes the opportunity meeting Teddie, and through him the Layton family. The members of the Raj’s like Sarah, Susan, Mohammed Ali Kasim, Captain Teddie, Colonel Layton, Ronald Merrick and Sarah Layton are all caught up in their
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circles of fire. As a symbol of creation (i.e. love) as well as of destruction (i.e. death) the archetypal image of fire is used by the author.
The title of the novel comes from a memory from the sister’s childhood, being shown a scorpion placed within a ring of fire. The scorpion appeared to sting itself to death. They saw this event differently; perhaps its fate was something else. As the scorpion encircled by a ring of fire stings itself to death, so does the British raj hasten its own destruction when threatened by the flames of Indian independence. His imaginative stamina copes unlaboriously with a very large enterprise.
References:
1. Anil Kumar Verma, Paul Scott: A Critical Study of His Novels, South Asia Books, 1999.
2. Mighty Opposition, ‘The Times Literary Supplement’, 1968.
3. Naik.M.K., The Image of India in Western Creative Writing , Karnatak University, Dharwar,1970.
4. Paul Scott, The Day of the Scorpion, Heinemann, 1968.
5. Paul Scott, The Jewel in the Crown, Heinemann, 1966.
6. Swinden,P. Paul Scott:Images of India,The Macmillan, London,1980.
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PRACTICE: SATI - THE AFIRE OF THE WIDOW
Prof. N Kanakaratnam Head Dept. of History, Archaeology and Culture Dravidian University Kuppam, Andhra Pradesh
Sati is declared as a Hindu custom in India in which the added was burnt to ashes on her asleep husband's pyre. Basically the custom of Sati was believed to be a autonomous Hindu act in which the woman autonomous decides to end her activity with her bedmate afterwards his death. But there were abounding incidences in which the women were affected to accomplish Sati, sometimes even abject adjoin her ambition to the afire pyre.
Though Sati is advised a Hindu custom, the women, accustomed as Sati in Hindu religious literature, did not accomplish suicide on their asleep husband's pyre. The aboriginal woman accustomed as Sati was the accompaniment of Lord Shiva. She burnt herself in blaze as beef adjoin her ancestor who did not accord her accompaniment Shiva the account she anticipation he deserved, while afire herself she prayed to reborn afresh as the new accompaniment of Shiva, which she became and her name in the new apotheosis was Parvati.1
Other acclaimed woman in Hindu abstract blue-blooded Sati was Savitri. If Savitri's bedmate Satyavan died, the Lord of death, Yama accustomed to yield his soul. Savitri begged Yama to restore Satyavan and yield her activity instead, which he could not do. So Savitri followed Lord Yama a continued way. Afterwards a continued way in which Yama noticed that Savitri was accident backbone but was still afterward him and her asleep husband, Yama offered Savitri a boon, annihilation added than her husband's life. Savitri asked to
1 Encyclopedia of Hinduism (2007) Constance A. Jones. Facts on File Inc.
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acquire accouchement from Satyavan. In adjustment to accord Savitri her boon, Lord Yama had no best but to restore Satyavan to activity and so Savitri acquired her bedmate back.
These two women forth with added women in Hindu belief who were awfully adherent to their husbands adumbrated the accurate Indian wife who would do aggregate for their bedmate and they were alleged Sati. The acceptation of the chat sati is righteous. But as accounting beforehand the women alleged Sati, in Hindu religious literature, did not accomplish suicide on their asleep husband's pyre. Accordingly the custom of afire the added on her asleep husband's blaze apparently did not advance from religious accomplishments but from amusing background.
There are altered theories about the origins of Sati. One approach says that Sati was alien to anticipate wives from contagion their affluent husbands and ally their absolute lovers. Added approach says that Sati began with a anxious queen who heard that asleep kings were accustomed in heaven by hundreds of admirable women, alleged Apsaras. And accordingly if her bedmate died, she accustomed to be burnt on her asleep husband's blaze and so to access with him to heaven and this way to anticipate the Apsaras from consorting with her husband. There are aswell added theories about the origins of Sati.2
Even admitting Sati is advised an Indian custom or a Hindu custom it was not accomplished all over India by all Hindus but alone a allotment of assertive communities of India. On the added hand, sacrificing the added in her asleep husband's burial or blaze was not altered alone to India. In abounding age-old communities it was an adequate feature. This custom was accustomed a allotment of
2 Bremmer, Jan (ed.); Van Den Bosch, Lourens P. (ed. and auth.) (2002). "The Ultimate Journey". Between Poverty and the Pyre: Moments in the History of Widowhood. London: Routledge. p. 184
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Egyptians, Greek, Goths, Scythians and others. A allotment of these communities it was a custom to coffin the asleep baron with his mistresses or wives, agents and added things so that they could abide to serve him in the next world.
Another approach claims that Sati was apparently brought to India by the Scythians invaders of India. If these Scythians accustomed in India, they adopted the Indian arrangement of funeral, which was cremating the dead. And so instead of burying their kings and his servers they started cremating their asleep with his actual lovers. The Scythians were warrior tribes and they were accustomed a cachet of warrior castes in Hindu religious hierarchy. Abounding of the Rajput clans are believed to arise from the Scythians. Afterwards on added castes who claimed warrior cachet or college aswell adopted this custom.
This custom was added ascendant a allotment of the warrior communities in arctic India, abnormally in Rajasthan and aswell a allotment of the college castes in Bengal in east India. A allotment of the Rajputs of Rajasthan, who gave lot of accent to backbone and cocky sacrifice, wives and concubines of the nobles even committed suicide, if they came to apperceive that their admired died in battlefield. In added locations of India it was analogously low. And a allotment of the majority of Indian communities it did not abide at all.
A few rulers of India approved to ban this custom. The Mughals approved to ban it. The British, due to the efforts of Hindu reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy banned this custom in 1829.
There aren't exact abstracts about the amount of Sati incidences. In general, afore this custom was banned in 1829, there were a few hundred clearly recorded incidences anniversary year. Even afterwards the custom was outlawed, this custom did not vanish completely. It took few decades afore this custom about vanished. But
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still there are attenuate incidences in which the added demands to autonomous accomplish Sati. In 1987 an eighteen years old added committed Sati in a apple of Rajasthan with the absolution of her ancestors members. In this accident the villagers took allotment in the ceremony, praising and acknowledging the added for her act. In October 1999 a woman absurdly jumped on her husband's blaze hasty everyone. But this accident was declared suicide and not Sati, because this woman was not compelled, affected or accustomed to accomplish this act.3
In altered communities of India, Sati was performed for altered affidavit and altered manners. In communities area the man was affiliated to one wife, the wife put an end to her activity on the pyre. But even in these communities not all widows committed Sati. Those women who committed Sati were awful accustomed and their families were accustomed lot of respect. It was believed that the woman who committed Sati adored her ancestors for seven ancestors afterwards her. Temples or added religious shrines were congenital to account the Sati.
In communities were the adjudicator was affiliated to added than one wife; in some cases alone one wife was accustomed to accomplish Sati. This wife was commonly the adopted wife of the husband. This was some affectionate of account for the alleged wife and some affectionate of abasement for the added wives. In added communities some or all of the wives and mistresses were immolated with the husband. And in some cases even macho agents were immolated with the kings. This affectionate of Sati in which the wives and agents were advised as the ruler's acreage intensifies the approach that Sati was alien to India by the Scythian invaders of India.
3 On this idea of discontuation, see Altekar, Anant S. (1956). The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Pub. p. 118.
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In some actual attenuate incidences mothers committed Sati on their son's blaze and in even added attenuate cases husbands committed Sati on their wives pyres.
Caste arrangement in avant-garde India
The leaders of absolute India absitively that India will be democratic, left-wing and civil country. According to this action there is a break amid adoration and state. Practicing untouchability or acute a getting based on his degree is accurately forbidden. Forth with this law the government allows absolute bigotry of the depressed classes of India.
The Indians acquire aswell become added adjustable in their degree arrangement customs. In accustomed the burghal humans in India are beneath austere about the degree arrangement than the rural. In cities one can see altered degree humans assortment with anniversary other, while in some rural areas there is still bigotry based on castes and sometimes aswell on untouchability. Sometimes in villages or in the cities there are agitated clashes which, are affiliated to degree tensions. Sometimes the top castes bang the lower castes who cartel to boost their status. Sometimes the lower degree get aback on the college castes.4
In avant-garde India the appellation degree is acclimated for Jat and aswell for Varna. The term, degree was acclimated by the British who disqualified India until 1947. The British who capital to aphorism India calmly fabricated lists of Indian communities. They acclimated two agreement to alarm Indian communities. Castes and Tribes. The appellation degree was acclimated for Jats and aswell for Varnas.
4 Finishing writing in April 1853, John William Kaye says Jodhpur is the most recent important state to have banned the rite. Kaye, John W. (1853). The Administration of the East India Company: A History of Indian Progress. London: R. Bentley. p. 543.
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Tribes were those communities who lived abysmal in jungles, forests and mountains far abroad from the capital citizenry and aswell communities who were harder to be authentic as castes for archetype communities who fabricated a active from burglary or robbery. These lists, which the British made, were acclimated afterwards on by the Indian governments to actualize lists of communities who were advantaged for absolute discrimination.
The castes, which were the aristocratic of the Indian society, were classified as top castes. The added communities were classified as lower castes or lower classes. The lower classes were listed in three categories. The aboriginal class is alleged Scheduled Castes. This class includes in it communities who were untouchables. In avant-garde India, untouchability exists at a actual low extent. The untouchables alarm themselves Dalit, acceptation depressed. Until the backward 1980s they were alleged Harijan, acceptation accouchement of God. This appellation was accustomed to them by Mahatma Gandhi who capital the association to acquire untouchables aural them.
The additional class is Scheduled Tribes. This class includes in it those communities who did not acquire the degree arrangement and adopted to abide abysmal in the jungles, forests and mountains of India, abroad from the capital population. The Scheduled Tribes are aswell alleged Adivasi, acceptation aboriginals.
The third class is alleged sometimes Added Backward Classes or Backward Classes. This class includes in it castes who accord to Sudra Varna and aswell above untouchables who adapted from Hinduism to added religions. This class aswell includes in it nomads and tribes who fabricated a active from bent acts.
According to the axial government action these three categories are advantaged for absolute discrimination. Sometimes these three categories are authentic calm as Backward Classes. 15% of India's
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citizenry are Scheduled Castes. According to axial government action 15% of the government jobs and 15% of the acceptance accustomed to universities acquire to be from Scheduled Castes. For the Scheduled Tribes about 7.5% places are aloof which is their admeasurement in Indian population. The Added Backwards Classes are about 50% of India's population, but alone 27% of government jobs are aloof for them.
Along with the axial government, the accompaniment governments of India aswell chase a absolute bigotry policy. Altered states acquire altered abstracts of communities advantaged for absolute bigotry based on the citizenry of anniversary state. Altered accompaniment governments acquire altered lists of communities advantaged for absolute discrimination. Sometimes a specific association is advantaged for rights in a accurate accompaniment but not in addition accompaniment of India.5
In avant-garde India new tensions were created because of these absolute bigotry policies. The top degree communities feel discriminated by the government action to assets positions for the Backward Classes. In abounding cases a ample amount of top degree associates attempt for a few places aloof for them. While the Backward Classes associates do not acquire to attempt at all because of the ample amount of aloof places for them compared to the candidates. Sometimes in adjustment to ample the quota, candidates from the lower classes are accustomed even admitting they are not suitable. Sometimes some aloof positions abide unmanned because there were few candidates from the lower classes causing added astriction amid the castes. Amid the lower castes there are aswell tensions over reservation.
5 Brick, David (April–June 2010). "The Dharmasastric Debate on Widow Burning". Journal of the American Oriental Society 130 (2): 214.
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In the adjustment of antecedence for a aloof abode of the Backward Classes, applicant from the Scheduled castes is adopted over a applicant from the Scheduled Tribes who is adopted over a applicant from the added Backward Classes. As declared beforehand Added Backward Classes are about 50% of India's citizenry but alone 27% of the Added Backward Classes are advantaged for absolute bigotry according to axial government policy. Some Added Backward Classes communities are acclimation politically to be accustomed as Backward Classes advantaged for absolute discrimination.
The Scheduled Tribes who are apparent as the aborigins of India got buying and assertive rights over Indian land. Abounding communities in India affirmation aswell to be aborigins of India and they are claiming the aforementioned rights as the Scheduled Tribes.6
The degree character has become a accountable of political, amusing and acknowledged interpretation. Communities who get listed as advantaged for absolute bigotry do not get out of this account even if their amusing and political altitude get better. In abounding cases the acknowledged arrangement is complex to adjudge if a assertive getting is advantaged for absolute discrimination.
But with all this absolute bigotry policy, a lot of of the communities who were low in the degree bureaucracy abide low in the amusing adjustment even today. And communities who were top in the amusing bureaucracy abide even today top in the amusing hierarchy. A lot of of the aspersing jobs are even today done by the Dalits, while the Brahmans abide at the top of the bureaucracy by getting the doctors, engineers and attorneys of India.
6 Kane, M. P. V. (1953). History of Dharmashastra IV. Bhandarkar Oriental Research INSTITUTE.
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References
1. Mani, L. (1987). Contentious traditions: the debate on sati in colonial India. Cultural Critique, (7), 119-156.
2. Mani, L. (1998). Contentious traditions: The debate on sati in colonial India. University of California Press.
3. Sangari, K., & Vaid, S. (1981). Sati in Modern India: a report. Economic and Political Weekly, 1284-1288.
4. Zechenter, E. M. (1997). In the name of culture: Cultural relativism and the abuse of the individual. Journal of Anthropological Research, 319-347.
5. Garzilli, Enrica (August 1997). "First Greek and Latin Documents on Sahagamana and Some Connected Problems (Part 1)". Indo-Iranian Journal 40 (3).
6. Garzilli, Enrica (October 1997). "First Greek and Latin Documents on Sahagamana and Some Connected Problems (Part 2)". Indo-Iranian Journal 40 (4).
7. Hawley, John Stratton, ed. (1994). Sati, the blessing and the curse: the burning of wives in India. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507774-2.
8. Kane, M. P. V. (1953). History of Dharmash astra IV. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.
9. Nand, L. C. (1989). Women in Delhi Sultanate. Allahabad: Vohra Publishers and Distributors.
10. Singh, Nagendra Kr. (2000). Ambedkar on religion. New Delhi: Anmol Publications.
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PROTECTION AND PROMOTION OF CHILD RIGHTS
Dr.B.Venkataiah Department of Human Rights & Social Development S.V. University, Tirupati
1. INTRODUCTION
Children are considered as a gift of the God by all the cultures around the world. India’s copious concern and commitment to the cause of children is as old as its civilization. Ancient texts like Vedas, epics and religious scriptures amply provided the details of upbringing children and prescribed the roles and responsibilities of parents, families and societies towards children. These ancient texts are highly valued and respected by majority of Indians. India is a part of the UN declaration on the Rights of the Child, 1959. Accordingly, it adopted a National Policy on Children in 1974. The policy reaffirmed the constitutional provisions for adequate services to children, both before and after birth and through the period of growth to ensure their full physical, mental and social development. Accordingly, the government is taking action to review the national and state legislation and bring it in line with the provisions of the convention. It has also developed appropriate monitoring measures to assess progress in implementing the conventional involving various stakeholders in the society. Children constitute principal asset of any country. Children’s development is as immensely important as the development of material resources and the best way to develop national human resources to take care of children. India has the largest child population in the world. Concrete efforts are being made by India for the development and welfare of children. Significant progress has been made in many fields in assuring children and their basic rights. However, much remains to be done. The country renews its commitment and determination to give the highest priority
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to the basic needs and rights of all the children. Children are most vulnerable to merciless exploitation and abuse. Moreover, child labour is rampant in India it is retribution of the children. A lot more has to be done for the health, nutrition and education of children. It is unfortunate that girls in particular face debilitating discrimination at all the stages. Therefore, concentration is being given to the efforts to improve the life and opportunities of the Rights of Children.
2. DEFINITION OF CHILDREN
In India there is no single definition for a child. A child is defined differently for different purposes under various laws. Article 21A of the Constitution of India provides free and compulsory education to all the children of the age of 6 to 14 years and Article 45 provides early childhood care and education for all the children until they complete the age of six years. The following statutes define child differently.
The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929, defines a child as a person who, if a male, has not completed 21 years of age, and if a female, has not completed 18 years of age.
Under the Child Labour Prohibition and Regulation Act, 1986, a child is a person who has not completed 14 years of age.
But for the purposes of criminal responsibility, the age limit is 7 years and 12 years under the Indian Penal Code, 1860. For purposes of protection against kidnapping, abduction and related offences, it is 18 years for boys and 16 years for girls. For special treatment under the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2000, the age is 18 years for both boys and girls.
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The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 defines a child as any person below the age of 18 years and includes an adopted step or foster child.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 defines a child as a person under the age of 18 years.
3. CHILDREN IN INDIA
India is a signatory to all the major human rights instruments and the Constitution makes a commitment to establish an egalitarian society, though there is a yawning difference between theory and practice. The girl child in India is discriminated socially, psychologically, economically and in violation of laws. She is considered a transitory member of family and a burden as she is to be married with huge dowry. In spite of enactment of a number of enactments for the protection of children, still the discrimination prevails at all the levels.
4. BASIC RIGHTS OF CHILDREN IN INDIA
Some of the most important basic rights of children in India are presented below.
The Right to Education and Cultural Development
About 50 per cent of Indian children aged 6-18 do not go to school; Dropout rates increased alarmingly in class III to V, and it is 50 per cent for boys and 58 per cent for girls. Every child has the right to development that lets the child explore her/his full potential. Pathetic and ufavourable living conditions of underprivileged children prevent them from growing in a free and uninhibited way.
The Right to Expression and Thought
Every child has a right to express himself freely in whichever way he likes. Majority of children, however, are mercilessly exploited by
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their elders and not allowed to express.
The Right to Information and Participation
Every child has a right to know his basic rights and his position in the society. High incidence of illiteracy and ignorance among the deprived and underprivileged children prevents them from having access to information about them and their society.
The Right to Nutrition
More than 50 per cent of India's children are malnourished. While one in every five adolescent boys is malnourished, one in every two girls in India is undernourished.
The Right to Health and Care
About 58 per cent of India's children below the age of 2 years are not fully vaccinated. And 24 per cent of these children do not receive any form of vaccination. Over 60 per cent of children in India are anaemic. 95 in every 1000 children born in India do not see their fifth birthday and 70 in every 1000 children born in India do not see their first birthday.
The Right to Protection from Abuse
There are approximately 2 million girl children involved in commercial sex work who are between the age of 5 and 15 years and about 3.3 million between 15 and 18 years. They form 40 per cent of the total population of commercial sex workers in India. 500,000 children are forced into this trade every year.
The Right to Protection from Exploitation
About 17 million children in India are exploited in work as per official estimates. A study found that children were sent to work by compulsion and not by choice, mostly by parents, but with recruiter playing a crucial role in influencing decision. When working outside the
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family, children put in an average of 21 hours of labour per week. Poor and bonded families often "sell" their children to contractors who promise lucrative jobs in the cities and the children end up being employed in brothels, hotels and domestic work. Many flee and find a life on the cross-roads and streets.
The Right to Protection from Neglect
Every child has a right to lead a well protected and secure life away from neglect. However, children working under exploitative and inhuman conditions get neglected badly.
The Right to Recreation
Every child has a right to spend some time on recreational pursuits like sports, entertainment and hobbies to explore and develop. Majority of poor children in India do not get time to spend on recreational activities.
The Right to Name, Identity and Nationality
Every child has a right to identify himself with a nation. A vast majority of underprivileged children in India are treated like commodities and exported to other countries as labour or prostitutes.
The Right to Survival
Of the 12 million children born in India, 3 million do not see their fifteenth birthday, and a million of them are unable to survive even their first birthday. Every sixth child's death is in India.
4.1 Rights of the Children Guaranteed by Indian Constitution and Statutes
The Constitution of India guarantees all the children certain rights, which have been specially included for them. These include
Right to free and compulsory elementary education for all the
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children in the 6-14 years of age group (Article 21-A).
Right to be protected from any hazardous employment till the age of 14 years (Article 24).
Right to be protected from being abused and forced by economic necessity to enter occupations unsuited to their age or strength (Article 39(e)).
Right to equal opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and guaranteed protection of childhood and youth against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment (Article 39 (f)).
Besides, they also have rights as equal citizens of India, just as any other adult male or female:
Right to equality (Article 14).
Right against discrimination (Article 15).
Right to personal liberty and due process of law (Article 21).
Right to being protected from being trafficked and forced into bonded labour(Article 23).
Right of weaker sections of the people to be protected from social injustice and all forms of the exploitation (Article 46).
Despite Constitutional guarantees of opportunity and civil rights, millions of children face wide-spread deprivation and discrimination. There are several Legislations pertaining to children. These include the following:
The Guardian and Wards Act, 1890.
The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929.
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956.
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The Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act, 1956.
The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986.
The Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 1992.
The Pre-Conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Technique (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994.
The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995.
The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000.
The Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005. 4.2 The National Commission for Protection and Promotion of Child Rights
The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) was set up in March 2007 under the Commission for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005, an Act of Parliament (December 2005). The Commission mandates to ensure that all Laws, Policies, Programmes and Administrative Mechanisms are in consonance with the Child Rights perspective as enshrined in the Constitution of India and also the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. The child is defined as a person in the 0 to 18 years age group. The Commission visualises a rights-based perspective flowing into National Policies and Programmes, along with nuanced responses at the State, District and Block levels, taking care of specificities and strengths of each region. In order to touch every child, it seeks a deeper penetration into communities and households and expects that the ground experiences inform the support the field receives from all the authorities at the higher level.
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5. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In order to understand the historical background of the child rights and the present position and studied the following text books.
S.P. Singh and K.P. Pothero (1982) in their study on “Slum Children of India” appraised that slum is known as the cancer on the body of the city. Among slum dwellers that worst affected are the children because the slum environment has an adverse impact on the child, its socialisation and personality development. If children are neglected like this, slums are likely to become breeding ground for juvenile delinquents and criminals.
Paras Diwan (1992) in his book on “Children and Legal Protection”, a master piece, covered all the legal provisions, relating to children including convention on child labour adopted by I.L.O.
R.K.Tandon and K.N.Sudarshan (1997) focused mainly on slavery and sexual exploitation of children. This study has helped the researcher to assess the gravity of exploitation of child labour including Juvenile Prostitution.
Chandragupta S. Sanon (1998) in his book, “Working Children: A Sociological Analysis” attempted to clarify the nature and extent of working children their conditions, selected from slums in Ahmadabad. This study is quite an exhaustive.
Mishra, L. (1998) in his book, “Policy and programme for the Rehabilitation of Working Children”, a recent compendium, made reference to planners, policy formulators, programme implementers and research scholars.
Ratna Sarkar (2002) in his study on ‘Gender inequality in India’, opined that the gender inequality is a global phenomena and it has its roots in religion and social customs. This gender discrimination emerged as a result of patriarchal society where women have low or
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lack of inheritance share and special disabilities in relation to agriculture land.
Yatindra Singh Sisodia’s work on ‘Girl’s Literacy in Rural India’ (2003) projected the educational status of the girls of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. According to the study, literacy for girls has very far reaching implications both for society as well as the recipient girl. As far as the individual recipient girl is concerned, education equips her to enjoy the fruits of social justice, social culture and of social, political and economic rights. By this, it can be realized that in India, the girl child occupies a far more inferior position to that of a boy child. India has one of the lowest mean ages at marriage in the world. In 1981, it was 17.9 years for girls and 23.3 for boys. However the national average hides the fact that a sizeable proportion of female marriages take place below the legal age.
Asish Kumar Das(2004) in his book on “Human Rights in India” described that convention on the Rights of the Child (1990). This convention is a powerful instrument for the children and affirms that children are not simply objects of concern or beneficiaries of services. They are entitled to the action of states, institutions and individuals and for their rights to be fully realized we all need to support the cause of realizing the human right does children for the benefit of all.
Thorsten Volberg (2005) in his book “Right to Health and Children in India” explained that India has 400 million children below the age of 18 years, which is the largest child population in the world. The State considers it “a matter of utmost priority that its children grow and develop in health and happiness so that they can realize their complete potential and effectively and participate and contribute to the social, cultural and economic life of the nation.
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S.N.Debadutta Tripathy Chaudhary(2005) in his book ‘Girl Child and human rights’ presented information on the social status of the girl child in India including child labour and child prostitution. It discusses the various laws enacted to secure the rights of the girl child in India. It deals with declining sex ratio, under nourishment, child marriage, female foeticide. The SAARC Plan of Action and the Government of India's initiative improved the status of girl children. The volume promises to be valuable to social researchers as well as for planners and policy makers.
Sreenath Lalitha (2006) in her book ‘Victimisation of Girl- child in the Home’ describes that Indian society is still plagued by victimisation of girl child through performance of child marriage despite the forthcoming Beijing Summit focusing on women's right and the affirmation in the UN Declaration of 1989 to which India is a signatory. There is a dire need for law reform to protect the status and rights of child brides in India. The author points out that the male-chauvinist traditions of patriarchal societies still hold sway over the minds of the judges in courts.
Asha Bajpai (2006) in her book Child Rights in India: Law, Policy and Practice described that child rights is an important area of scholarship the world over and is gaining great significance as an area of research in the first decade of 21st century. Protection of child rights is now considered an integral part of human rights. The recent years have witnessed a shift in the orientation and perspective of child rights. The book addresses the issue of child rights from an interdisciplinary perspective and covers a wide gamut of issues such as right to family environment, rights to parental care, right against sexual and economic exploitation, right to development and survival. The author critically examined the recent national and international initiatives, the present laws, court decisions, the recent amendments and the law reforms suggested by the law commission for setting an agenda towards
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protection of child rights and their empowerment. This book attracts a wide range of readers including lawyers, social workers, sociologists, child welfare agencies, civil liberty groups, policy makers, NGOs, and institutions like UNICEF and ILO.
G. Guruswami (2007) in his book ‘Girl Child’ highlights the status of the girl child in socio-economic set up with reference to rural girls. In rural India, the girl child suffers from parent’s bias as the daughters are treated as liabilities while the sons are treated as assets. The girls are also facing several discriminations with regard to nutrition, health care and education.
D. Sarada (2009) in her book “Child Rights and Young Lives: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies” explained about the information related child rights, problems and state of children in India. The research articles based on empirical studies are useful for people working in the area of child welfare as they reflect present scenario in India. It is a valuable reference book.
Vibha Chaturvedi and Nilima Srivastava (2010) in their book, ‘Girl Child Changing Perceptions’, described the children prostitution. It deals with almost all relevant issues from prevention of child prostitution, to rescue and rehabilitation, awareness and social mobilization, health care, housing and civic amenities, economic empowerment, legal reform, law enforcement trafficking and other human rights issues.
The main purpose of the study is to know whether the children of 6 – 16 years have awareness on child rights and how they are implemented by the government. A general survey is conducted on the children of 6 – 16 years and appraised the child rights, viz. right to living, right to education, right for food, precautions to be taken while working in hazardous places, whether the measures for children development are being implemented, right to educations is being
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implemented, sending of drop-out children to schools, measures to be taken either by the parents or the government. Moreover, whether the children availing right to protection, education, health, food etc. Further information is elicited whether child marriages are taking place, if yes, what types of measure are taken to check them.
Objectives
1.To know whether the the rights of education, medical, health and protection are being implemented
2. To know whether the child rights provided by the Indian constitution are promulgated properly
References
1. Singh S.D. and Pother, K.P. (1982), Slum Children in India, New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications.
2. Paras Diwan (1992), Children and Legal Protection, New Delhi, Deep and Deep Publications.
3. Tandon¸R.K. and Sudarshan, K.N. (1997), Child Prostitution, New Delhi, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi.
4. Chandragupta S. Saron (1998), Working Children: A Sociological Analysis, New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi.
5. Mishra, L. (1998), Policy and Programme for the Rehabilitation of Working Children, New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of Labour.
6. Rathna Sarkar (2002), Gender Inequality in India, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi.
7. Yatindra Singh Sisodia (2003), Girls Literacy in Rural India, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi.
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8. Ashish Kumar Das (2004) Human Rights in India, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi.
9. Thorsten Volberg (2005), Right to Health of Women and Children in India, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.
10. S.N.Debadutta Tripathy Chaudhary (2005), Girl Child and Human Rights, Anmol Publications, New Delhi.
11. Sreenath Lalitha (2006), Victimisation of Girl Child in the Home, Indian Law Institute, New Delhi.
12. Asha Bajpai (2006), Child Rights in India: Law, Policy and Practice, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
13. G.Guruswami (2007), Girl Child, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.
14. D. Sarada (2009), Child Rights and Young Lives: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi.
15. Vibha Chaturvedi and Nilima Srivatsava (2010), Girl Child Changing Perceptions, The Womens Press, New Delhi.
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KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS HIV/AIDS AMONG HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THIRUVANANTHAPURAM DISTRICT OF KERALA
Mercy Xavier Dr.T.K.Vimalakumary Assistant Professor Associate Professor Health Education Statistics and Demography Government Medical College Government Medical College Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram
INTRODUCTION
The Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a chronic and progressive pandemic caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). AIDS being one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality, informed awareness of risk is essential in making positive decisions regarding preventive measures.
Worldwide, two million people have been infected with HIV in 2014, the adult victims are 1.8 million. Young people aged 15-24 years represent 34% of the newly infected adults (UNAIDS 2015).
With 20.89 lakhs HIV infected persons, India occupy the third highest position in the world. The young adults (15-24 years) accounts for 31% of the AIDS burden (NACO 2009). This shows that they are at higher risk of getting the infection.
Youth in general and adolescents in particular may not consider themselves vulnerable to become infected, and believes that HIV won’t happen to them. The knowledge level among the youth is inadequate and they have a lot of misconceptions regarding the modes of transmission and preventive measures. The gap in the knowledge level can create a negative attitude and shame in the minds of the young people.
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Adolescence is a sensitive phase in life. They are in a transition phase of their life, always tend to experiment with risky situations especially the don’ts. They have strong likes and dislikes and are more influenced by the peer group than the parents and teachers. They usually ignore the risks involved in their behavior, when the immediate benefits are highly attractive (Coleman and Hagell 2007).
Awareness being the key to prevention, our youth and adolescents has to be empowered with correct knowledge about the high risk behavior and its ominous relation with HIV/AIDS (Bhalwar R, 2003). Increase in awareness can create positive attitude and thus reduce the stigma and discrimination towards people living with HIV/AIDS.
OBJECTIVE:
To assess the knowledge and attitude of higher secondary school students regarding HIV/AIDS.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
A school based cross-sectional study is conducted among higher secondary school students, in an aided school in Thiruvananthapuram city, which was selected from the school list using convenience sampling. Permission was obtained from the school authorities. Informed consent was also taken from the participants. Data was collected in July 2015.
There are 400 students studying in plus one and plus two classes together. Data was collected from all the students who were present on that day and willing to participate in the study. Thus 317 students (188 males and 129 females) comprised as the sample size of the study. Data collected from the males and females separately and from both science and humanities streams.
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A pre-tested semi structured questionnaire was administered to the students. The level of knowledge is measured by a series of questions by assigning scores to various options. The level of knowledge was categorized into poor, average and good based on the scores. Mean, standard deviation and percentages are used to summarize the data. Chi-square test was also done to find out the association between attitude and the level of knowledge.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Socio-demographic characteristics:
The age of the respondents ranged from 15 to 18 years with mean age of 16.57 years (S.D=0.17). Among the respondents 59.3% are males and 40.7% are females. 75.4% are Hindus (76.1% males and 74.4% females), 19.9% are Christians (20.2% males and 19.9% females), and 4.7% constitute Muslims (3.7% males and 6.2% females). 70.7% of the participants are from the urban area and the rest 29.3% are from rural area (Table 1).
Table 1: socio –demographic characteristics of the respondents
Demographic variables sex Male Female Total N N N % Age 15 9 11 20 6.3 16 63 53 116 36.6 17 99 61 160 50.5 18 17 4 21 6.6 Religion Hindu 143 96 239 75.4 Christian 38 25 63 19.9 Muslim 7 8 15 4.7 Place of residence Urban 128 96 224 70.7 Rural 60 33 93 29.3 Total 188 129 317 100
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KNOWLEDGE REGARDING HIV/AIDS
Table 2: Sources of information about HIV/AIDS
Source of information N % Television 253 79.8 Newspaper 130 41.0 Friends 91 28.7 Health workers 60 18.9 Radio 39 12.3
300 253 250
200
150 130
100 91 60 50 39
0 Television Newspaper Friends Health Radio workers Chart-1 source of information about HIV/AIDS
All the participants in the study had heard about HIV/AIDS. Major source of information is Television (79.8%), followed by Newspaper (41.0%), Friends (28.7%), Health workers (18.9%) and Radio (12.3%) (Table 2).
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Table 3: Knowledge regarding modes of transmission of HIV/AIDS
Knowledge regarding modes of Male Female transmission
N % N %
Sexual intercourse with infected person 183 97.3 127 98.4
Through infected blood &blood 171 91 122 94.6 products
Through used syringes and needles 172 91.5 120 93
From mother to child 147 78.2 112 86.8
By sharing razors 87 46.3 59 45.7
Through breast milk 105 55.9 90 69.8
Misconceptions about modes of transmission
Through mosquito bite 43 22.9 26 20.2
Giving shake hands 11 5.9 7 5.4
By sharing food 13 7 23 18
Using common room /toilet 30 16 27 20.9
Regarding the modes of transmission of HIV/AIDS, 97.8% of the students know that HIV/AIDS can be transmitted through sexual intercourse with an infected person, 92.4% know that transmission can take place through infected blood and blood products, 92.1% know about the chance for getting infection through used syringes and needles, 81.7% know about mother to child transmission and 61.5% know about the transmission of the virus through breast milk.
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Misconceptions regarding the modes of transmission of HIV are also present among the participants. 21.8% opined mosquito bite as a mode of transmission, 5.7% said HIV can be transmitted to others by giving shake hand, 11.4% have the opinion that through sharing of meals there is chance for getting HIV infection. Another 18% shared their opinion that by using common room HIV can be transmitted to others.
Table 4: Knowledge regarding preventive measures
Knowledge about preventive measures N % Avoid multiple sexual partners 216 79.4 Use condom 175 64.3 Use sterile needles and syringes 105 38.6 Screening of blood & blood products 79 29.1 Awareness classes 37 13.6 Vaccination 46 16.9 Knowledge about treatment and testing facilities Availability of testing centers 197 62.1 Availability of treatment 214 67.5
Among the 317 respondents, 85.5% are aware about the various preventive measures against HIV/AIDS. 79.4% have the opinion of avoiding multiple sexual partners as a preventive measure, 64.3% know that condom is a preventive measure, 38.6% shared their knowledge that by using sterilized syringes and needles HIV/AIDS can be prevented, 29.1% opined that blood and blood products should be screened before using, and 13.6% suggested awareness programs as a preventive measure, and 16.9% shared their opinion that HIV can be prevented through vaccination.
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Out of the 317 participants, 62.1% are aware about the testing facilities in their areas, and 67.5% know about the availability of treatment for HIV/AIDS (Table 4).
Table 5: Distribution of respondents according to the correct responses regarding their knowledge about HIV/AIDS
Responses of the Male (%) Female Total respondents (n=188) (%) (%) (n=129) (n=317) Full form of HIV 143 98 241 (76.1) (75.9) (76.02) Full form of AIDS 168 102 270 (89.4) (79.1) (85.2) Virus as the causative 171 122 293 organism (91) (94.6) (92.4) Symbol of HIV/AIDS as red 169 121 290 ribbon (89.9) (93.8) (91.5) No vaccine for HIV/AIDS 142 101 243 (75.5) (78.3) (76.6) HIV/AIDS is not curable 155 105 260 (82.4) (81.1) (81.75) Blood as specimen for 154 103 257 detecting HIV virus (81.9) (79.8) (81.1) Healthy looking infected 133 80 213 person can transmit HIV (70.7) (62.01) (67.2)
Among the respondents 76.1% males and 75.9% females had written correct full form of HIV and 89.4% males and 79.1% females had written the correct full form of AIDS. 91% of the males and 94.6% of the females know that virus is the causative organism of HIV/AIDS. 89.9% males and 93.8% females stated red ribbon as the symbol of HIV/AIDS, 75.5% males and 78.3% females know that there is no vaccine for HIV, 82.4% males and 81.4% females said it is not a curable disease. 81.9% males and 79.8% females know that HIV virus
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can be detected by testing blood and 70.7% males and 62.01% females shared their opinion that a healthy looking infected person can transmit HIV infection to others.
Table 6: Overall awareness regarding HIV/AIDS among the respondents
Awareness Frequency Percent Poor 7 2.2 Average 92 29.0 Good 218 68.8 Total 317 100.0
Poor Average Good
Chart-2 overall awareness regarding HIV/AIDS
Out of the 317 participants, 68.8% have good knowledge, 29.0% have average knowledge, and only 2.2% have poor knowledge regarding HIV/AIDS. In nutshell nearly one third of the respondents are not fully aware about the various aspects of HIV/AIDS.
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ATTITUDE TOWARDS HIV INFECTED PERSONS
Table 7: Attitude of respondents towards HIV infected colleague
Awareness Sitting Total Poor Moderate Good together N % N % N % N % Yes 1 14.3 34 37.0 144 66.1 179 56.5 No 6 85.7 58 63.0 74 33.9 138 43.5 Total 7 100.0 92 100.0 218 100.0 317 100.0
2 χ = 27.466 df=2 p<0.001 Table 8: Attitude of respondents towards HIV infected family member
Awareness Accepted Total Poor Moderate Good in family N % N % N % N %
Yes 3 42.9 45 48.9 146 67.0 194 61.2
No 4 57.1 47 51.1 72 33.0 123 38.8
Total 7 100.0 92 100.0 218 100.0 317 100.0
2 χ = 9.900 df=2 p=0.007 Table 7 shows that 56.5% of the respondents are comfortable with sitting together in class room with HIV infected colleagues. 61.2% have the opinion that the infected person should be accepted in the family (Table 8). The p value shows a clear association between the level of knowledge and their attitude towards infected persons.
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CONCLUSION:
Overall knowledge regarding HIV/AIDS among the respondents is good. Though the overall awareness regarding HIV/AIDS is good among the adolescents, a considerable proportion (nearly 1/3rd of them) is not fully aware about the various aspects related to HIV/AIDS. Regarding the various modes of transmission, more than 90% of the respondents know almost all the important modes of transmission. Awareness regarding mother to child transmission and transmission through breast milk was high among the girls. Misconceptions about modes of transmission such as sharing of food, healthy looking infected person cannot transmit HIV were also high among the girls. Comparing with the modes of transmission the participants have less awareness regarding preventive measures, treatment and testing facilities. This indicates the need for focusing more on the adolescents to improve their level of awareness regarding HIV/AIDS at the school level itself.
SUGESTIONS:
School education is considered as social vaccine, the adolescents should be empowered with adequate knowledge regarding HIV/AIDS. For this
1. Awareness programs in connection with world AIDS day can be organized in collaboration with the State AIDS Control society and the Health Centre of the locality.
2. Teachers have to be trained adequately to handle the sensitive queries from the students.
3. Adolescence education and life skill education should be included in the curriculum.
4. Proper functioning of the Red Ribbon club and Teens club in the schools.
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5. Periodical evaluation and monitoring of the awareness programs. References:
1. Bhalwar R, Jayaram B J. Community Based Study of AIDS Awareness and Attitudes among School and College going Teenagers from Rural Background, MJAFI 2003; 59: 7-11
2. Coleman. J, & Hagell, A .2007). Adolescence, risk and resilience against the odds Chichester: Wiley.
3. National AIDS Control Organization Annual report 2009-10
4. National AIDS Control Organization Annual report 2013-14
5. UNAIDS Executive summary How AIDS changed everything 2015
6. UNAIDS Fact Sheet, 2014 Global Statistics.
7. UNAIDS (2014) ‘Global AIDS response progress reporting 2014’
8. WHO (2014) ‘Adolescents: health risks and solutions’
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INTELLIGENCE, PERSONALITY AND ACHIEVMENT OF SCHOOL STUDENTS
Mr. K. Naga Raju Prof. Digumarti Bhaskara Rao Principal Professor Hannamma Christian College of RVR College of Education Education Guntur , Andhra Pradesh Proddatur, Kadapa District AP, India
Introduction Education plays an important role in shaping the future of a nation. Education has an immense effect on the political, economic and social development with the increasing recognition by all the countries. It is a well fact that a nation, however rich in national resources, cannot prosper unless its human resources are properly developed and, such a development is essentially, a function of education. Intelligence is a native capacity and not an acquired one. It is manifested in different mental activities. It is the ability to learn to make use of acquired knowledge in new and complex situations. It is the ability to think abstractly, to solve problems, to perceive relationship and to profit from experience. The personality is the integration of internal and external activities. It includes the external appearance, qualities, aptitude, capacities, etc. It is the result of the interaction of the individual with the environment. It is not a collection of the traits, but a particular organization of them. It is the total quality of the individual’s behaviour. Individual affects other individuals through his personality. Thus, personality is manifested in his various activities. In short, personality is the total quality of the behaviour, attitudes, interests, capacities, aptitudes and behaviour patterns, which are manifested in his relation with the environment. Achievement is a function of personal as well as environmental factors, individuals tend to mainly attribute their behaviour or level of performance ·more to one than the other of these two factors. Applied to education, it is an attempt to explain individual differences as the causes of their failures and successes in academic task and the effects of such beliefs.
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The present study is confined to the intelligence, personality and achievement of secondary school students. The sample selected for the study was studying in secondary schools of Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh. The variables chosen for the study were Gender, Locality, School Management, Type of School, Medium of Instruction, Caste Reservation, Religion, Parental Education, and Economic Status of the Family. Objectives of the Study The objectives proposed for the present study were: (1) To find out the intelligence of secondary school students. (2) To find out the intelligence of male and female secondary school students. (3) To find out the intelligence of rural and urban secondary school students. (4) To find out the intelligence of government and private secondary school students. (5) To find out the intelligence of residential and day-scholar secondary school students. (6) To find out the intelligence of Telugu medium and English medium secondary school students. (7) To find out the intelligence of reserved and unreserved secondary school students. (8) To find out the intelligence of Hindu and non-Hindu secondary school students. (9) To find out the intelligence of secondary school students of literate parents and illiterate parents. (10) To find out the intelligence of secondary school students of parents with an annual income below Rs. 1,00,000 and above Rs. 1,00,000. (11) To find out the personality of secondary school students. (12) To find out the personality of male and female secondary school students. (13) To find out the personality of rural and urban secondary school students. (14) To find out the personality of government and private secondary school students. (15) To find out the personality of residential and day-scholar secondary school students. (16) To find out the personality of Telugu medium and English medium secondary school students. (17) To find out the personality of reserved and unreserved secondary school students. (18) To find out the personality of Hindu and non-Hindu secondary school students. (19) To find out the personality of secondary school students of literate parents and illiterate parents. (20) To find out the personality of secondary school students of parents with an annual income below Rs. 1,00,000 and above Rs. 1,00,000. (21) To find out the achievement of secondary school students. (22) To find out the achievement of male and female secondary school students. (23) To find out the achievement of rural and urban secondary school students. (24) To find out the achievement of government and private secondary
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school students. (25) To find out the achievement of residential and day-scholar secondary school students. (26) To find out the achievement of Telugu medium and English medium secondary school students. (27) To find out the achievement of reserved and unreserved secondary school students. (28) To find out the achievement of Hindu and non-Hindu secondary school students. (29) To find out the achievement of secondary school students of literate parents and illiterate parents. (30) To find out the achievement of secondary school students of parents with an annual income below Rs. 1,00,000 and above Rs. 1,00,000. (31) To find out the correlation between intelligence and personality of secondary school students. (32) To find out the correlation between intelligence and achievement of secondary school students. (33) To find out the correlation between personality and achievement of secondary school students. Method of the Study The normative survey method was used. This method investigates into the conditions and relationships that exist at present in the context of intelligence, personality and achievement of secondary school students. Variables of the Study Variable is a condition or characteristic which the experimenter manipulates, controls or observes. For the present study, the variables chosen were: (1) Gender: Male and Female Secondary School Students, (2) Locality: Rural and Urban Secondary School Students, (3) School Management: Government and Private Secondary School Students, (4) Type of the School: Residential and Day-Scholar Secondary School Students, (5) Medium of Instruction: English and Telugu Medium Secondary School Students, (6) Caste Reservation: Reserved and Unreserved Secondary School Students, (7) Religion: Hindu and Non- Hindu Secondary School Students, (8) Parental Education: Literate Parents and Illiterate Parents of Secondary School Students and (9) Economic Status of the family: Annual Income of Parents Below Rs. 1,00,000 and Above Rs. 1,00,000. Hypotheses of the Study Hypotheses are guesses or tentative generalizations which provide basis to the whole study to be tested by facts. For the present study, the hypotheses framed were (1) There is no high intelligence in secondary school students. (2) There is no significant difference in the intelligence of male and female secondary school students. (3) There is
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no significant difference in the intelligence of rural and urban secondary school students. (4) There is no significant difference in the intelligence of government and private secondary school students. (5) There is no significant difference in the intelligence of residential and day-scholar secondary school students. (6) There is no significant difference in the intelligence of Telugu medium and English medium secondary school students. (7) There is no significant difference in the intelligence of reserved and unreserved secondary school students. (8) There is no significant difference in the intelligence of Hindu and non- Hindu secondary school students. (9) There is no significant difference in the intelligence of secondary school students of literate parents and illiterate parents. (10) There is no significant difference in the intelligence of secondary school students of parents with an annual income below Rs. 1,00,000 and above Rs. 1,00,000. (11) There is no emotionally well balanced personality in secondary school students. (12) There is no significant difference in the personality of male and female secondary school students. (13) There is no significant difference in the personality of rural and urban secondary school students. (14) There is no significant difference in the personality of government and private secondary school students. (15) There is no significant difference in the personality of residential and day-scholar secondary school students. (16) There is no significant difference in the personality of Telugu medium and English medium secondary school students. (17) There is no significant difference in the personality of reserved and unreserved secondary school students. (18) There is no significant difference in the personality of Hindu and non-Hindu secondary school students. (19) There is no significant difference in the personality of secondary school students of literate parents and illiterate parents. (20) There is no significant difference in the personality of secondary school students of parents with an annual income below Rs. 1,00,000 and above Rs. 1,00,000. (21) There is no high achievement in secondary school students. (22) There is no significant difference in the achievement of male and female secondary school students. (23) There is no significant difference in the achievement of rural and urban secondary school students. (24) There is no significant difference in the achievement of government and private secondary school students. (25) There is no significant difference in the achievement of residential and day-scholar secondary school students. (26) There is no significant difference in the achievement of Telugu
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medium and English medium secondary school students. (27) There is no significant difference in the achievement of reserved and unreserved secondary school students. (28) There is no significant difference in the achievement of Hindu and non-Hindu secondary school students. (29) There is no significant difference in the achievement of secondary school students of literate parents and illiterate parents. (30) There is no significant difference in the achievement of secondary school students of parents with an annual income below Rs. 1,00,000 and above Rs. 1,00,000. (31) There is no correlation between intelligence and personality of secondary school students. (32) There is no correlation between intelligence and achievement of secondary school students. (33) There is no correlation between personality and achievement of secondary school students. Sample of the Study A sample is a small group which represents all the traits and characteristics of the population. The secondary school students studying in Kadapa district were selected as population. The stratified random sampling technique was used in selecting the sample. The sample size was 1000 (one thousand) tenth class studying in secondary schools. Tools of the Study A research tool is a tool used for the purpose of data collection. The research tools used in the present study were the ‘Mixed Type Group Test of Intelligence’ (MGTI) standardized by P.N. Mehrotra, ‘Personality Inventory Scale’ (PIS) standardized by Eysenck, and the half-yearly examination marks of all subjects. For the analysis of the data, suitable statistical techniques like mean, standard deviation, critical ratio, correlation, etc., were used. Conclusions of the Study From the analysis of data, the following conclusions are drawn and these are followed by necessary discussion. 1. The secondary school students are holding bright average intelligence. Table 1: Intelligence of Secondary School Students
Sample Size Mean Standard Deviation
Whole 1000 60.74 7.35
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The intelligence of the secondary school students is at an average level since the genetic factors and the surrounding environment in which the students are being brought up plays a very important role. The parents, the school, the teachers, the peer groups, and the environment to which the students adjust have a vital impact on the intelligence of the students. As the intelligence of the students can (not) be enhanced by any means, it can be nourished better teaching-learning strategies and suitable adjustment techniques by which they can better perform in their further educational world. 2. The male and female secondary school students are having bright average intelligence with significant difference between them. The female secondary school students are with more intelligence than male secondary school students. Table 2: Comparison of Intelligence of Male and Female Secondary School Students
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Male 500 59.85 7.38 1.78 0.45 3.87+ Female 500 61.63 7.21 + Significant at 0.05 level Though male and female secondary school students hold bright average intelligence, the female students are with more intelligence than the male students. Panda, S. (1991), Selwyn, S. and Ben, Sam W. (2004), and Tripathi, R.C. (1986) reported that female students had more intelligence than male students. Bhattacharya (1989), Fazia Nazir (2013), Gupta, K.L. (1977), Kar, S.B. (1961), Lie and Lynn (2010), Sahai, S.K. (1985), and Singh, K.K. (1985) found that male students had more intelligence than female students. Ajwani (1979), Dei, S.L. (1991), Gupta, Jyothika and Ram, Sukhjinder (2006), Kumar, D. (1981), Pandey, S.N. and Md. Faiz Ahmad (2008), Ray, Mrinmarji (1988), and Sharma (1982) reported no significant difference in the intelligence of male and female students.
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The presence of females is found in almost areas of public life due to the change in the attitude of elders regarding the education of women. The intelligence of male and female students can be enhanced by showing no differentiation in the activities provided to males and females in the school and providing more and better facilities to all the students to come upto the expected levels. 3. The rural and urban secondary school students are having bright average intelligence with significant difference between them. The urban secondary school students are with more intelligence than their counter parts. Table 3: Comparison of Intelligence among Rural of Urban Secondary School Students
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Rural 500 59.71 7.64 2.06 0.45 4.49+ Urban 500 61.77 6.89 + Significant at 0.05 level The urban students were found to be more intelligent than the rural secondary school students, though all the students hold bright average intelligence. Bhattacharya (1989) Fazia Nazir (2013), Ramesh, M. (2007), and Tripathi, R.C. (1986) found a significant difference in the intelligence of male and female students. Aruna (2006), Gupta, K.L. (1977), Manoranjan, Panda (2005), and Sharma (1982) reported no significant difference in the intelligence of male and female students. The urban secondary school students are with more intelligence since the genetic and social factors play a very important role in determining the intelligence. The environment in which the students are brought up and the facilities available in the surroundings influence the students a lot. The facilities and the equipments provided in the schools also influence them. The intelligence of rural and urban students can be utilized further by providing the latest facilities, equipments and technologies
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available. A small percentage increase in intelligence can lay a better foundation for the students for their further future study. 4. The government and private secondary school students are possessing bright average intelligence with significant difference between them. The private secondary school students are with high intelligence than government secondary school students. Table 4: Comparison of Intelligence of Government and Private Secondary School Students
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Government 496 60.29 7.30 0.92 0.46 1.98+ Private 504 61.21 7.39 + Significant at 0.05 level The intelligence of private secondary school students was found to be more than their counter parts, though all of them possessed bright average intelligence. Pareek (1990) found that the private school students were with more intelligence than the government school teachers. Aruna (2006), Manoranjan, Panda (2005), and Sharma (1982) found no significant difference in the intelligence. The more intelligence of the private secondary school students may be due the family background, as the socially advantaged and financially sound parents can afford the private education and provide the facilities suitable to private education. The government should take necessary steps to provide more suitable facilities in the schools so that the intelligence of the students can be utilized optimally. Well trained teachers need be recruited in schools since they can better handle the intelligence of students and divert it towards meeting the educational needs and goals. 5. The residential and day-scholar secondary school students are having bright average intelligence with significant difference between them. The day-scholar secondary school
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students are with more intelligence than the residential secondary school students. Table 5: Comparison of Intelligence of Residential and Day-Scholar Secondary School Students
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Residential 500 59.90 7.38 Day 1.71 0.46 3.71+ 500 61.61 7.23 Scholar + Significant at 0.05 level The mean intelligence score of secondary school day-scholar students is found to be more than the residential secondary school students, though both of them posses bright average intelligence. Kailash (1973) is supporting the result of the present study. Madhava Rao (2013) noticed no significant difference in the intelligence of students. The difference may be due to the facilities available at residential and day-scholar secondary schools and the guidance got from the teachers of these schools. Feeling of physical safety and emotional security are vitally important for normal development of the child’s intelligence. When these are present, children feel free to express themselves and explore the physical, intellectual and social environments. When these are absent, the child’s ability to grow physically, intellectually and emotionally is suppressed. So, intelligence highly depends on the characteristics of the type of the school where the students are brought up and educated. Hence, the schools should see that the intelligence of the students be nourished properly. 6. The Telugu medium and English medium secondary school students have bright average intelligence without any significant difference between them. Table 6: Comparison of Intelligence of Telugu Medium and English Medium Secondary School Students Standard Sample Mean Critical Variable Mean S.D. Error of Size Difference Ratio Means Telugu 504 60.52 7.46 0.47 0.46 1.01*
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Medium English 496 60.99 7.24 Medium * Not Significant at 0.05 level No significant difference in the intelligence of Telugu and English medium secondary school students, though both of them possess bright average intelligence, is a good sign because students of these media have different cultures at home as well at school. Teachers should put necessary efforts on nurturing the students intellectually with right action and behaviour to make them lead a better life in every walk of life, including education. 7. The reserved and unreserved secondary school students are having bright average intelligence without any significant difference between them. Table 7: Comparison of Intelligence of Reserved and Unreserved Secondary School Students
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Reserved 512 60.96 7.10 0.42 0.46 0.90* Unreserved 488 60.54 7.61 * Not Significant at 0.05 level The intelligence of reserved and unreserved secondary school students was not significant though both of them possess bright average intelligence. Choudary and Sinha (1959) found no difference in t h e concrete intelligence of tribal and non-tribal students. Intelligence of a person largely depends on the agents that are influential for the effective socialization of a person. Intelligence is to some extent predisposed by culture of the society in which the individual belongs. Efforts need be made to develop strategic plans for improving the use of intelligence of students in the field of education. 8. The Hindu and non-Hindu secondary school students are possessing bright average intelligence with significant difference between them. The non-Hindu secondary school
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students are with more intelligence than the Hindu secondary school students. Table 8: Comparison of Intelligence of Hindu and Non-Hindu Secondary School Students
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Hindus 512 60.20 7.42 Non- 1.14 0.46 2.46+ 488 61.34 7.24 Hindus + Significant at 0.05 level The intelligence of non-Hindu students was found more than the Hindu secondary school students, though both of them possess bright average intelligence. The study of Balakrishna (1986) found that Christian (non- Hindu) students possessed more intelligence and better reasoning ability than non-Christian tribal students. Sharma, K. (1981) noticed no significant difference in the intelligence of Hindu and other students. Moral and religious knowledge forms part of any school programme in any secular country as the curriculum imparts a minimum information about all the religions of the society. High ideals of life, ethical values and moral principles will also guide the students become wise and use their intelligence to the fullest extent to have better education and to lead quality life. The teachers should be religion-friendly and do their best in making use of the knowledge by the students. 9. The secondary school students of literate parents and illiterate parents have bright average intelligence without any significant difference between them. Table 9: Comparison of Intelligence of Secondary School Students of Literate parents and Illiterate parents
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference
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Literate 512 60.85 7.20 Parents 0.20 0.46 0.43* Illiterate 488 60.65 7.52 Parents * Not Significant at 0.05 level The intelligence of secondary school students of literate parents and illiterate parents was bright average with no significant difference between both the categories. Gakhar, S.C. (2003) found a significant difference in the emotional intelligence of secondary school students of literate parents and illiterate parents. The parental education has a vital impact on the intellectual development of the child. If parents are well educated, their children may also be intellectually developed and excel in studies since the students are provided with the required facilities and necessary guidance. 10. The secondary school students of parents with an annual income below Rs.1,00,000 and above Rs.1,00,000 are possessing bright average intelligence without any significant difference between them. Table 10: Comparison of Intelligence of Secondary School Students parents of with Annual Income Below Rs.1,00,000 and Above Rs.1,00,000
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Below Rs. 512 60.51 7.41 1,00,000 0.5 0.46 1.07* Above Rs. 488 61.01 7.29 1,00,000 * Not Significant at 0.05 level The intelligence of secondary school students of parents with an annual income below Rs. 1,00,000 and above Rs. 1,00,000 was with bright average level with no difference between the groups.
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Basavanna (1984) and Sharma, K. (1981) noticed no significant difference in the intelligence of students based on the income of the parents. Sharma, M. (1980) found a significant difference in the intelligence of students of parents with varied income. The students need be encouraged to do their best in education with their existing intelligence without bothering much about the income of their parents. Guidance programmes may be organized to the parents to provide them knowledge about the intellectual characteristics of their children and how to parent their children. 11. The secondary school students are holding extrovert personality. Table 11: Personality of Secondary School Students
Sample Size Mean Standard Deviation
Whole 1000 41.99 5.16
Most of the students now-a-days are open-minded. The environmental conditions in which the students are being brought up, the adjustment, the family and home background all have an important impact on the personality of the students. The personalities of great people can be brought in front of the students so that they can take them as their role models and excel in their student life. Students must be given adequate opportunities to develop themselves so that they can understand themselves and others and develop a balanced personality. The society, the school, the parents, the teachers and the peers. 12. The male and female secondary school students are holding extrovert personality with significant difference between them. The female secondary school students are more extroverts than male secondary school students. Table 12: Comparison of Personality of Male and Female Secondary School Students
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference
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Male 500 41.53 5.28 0.93 0.32 2.87+ Female 500 42.46 5.01 + Significant at 0.05 level The female secondary school students were with more extrovert personality than male secondary school students, though both male and female students hold extrovert personality. Chandresekhar, K. (2006), Gupta, K.L. (1977), Jain, Jayanti R. (1990), Joshi, Renuka (1989), Kohili and Om, Prakash (1989), Krishna, K.P. (1973), Singh, B.K. (1980), Uchat, D.A. (1979), and Vidhu, M. (1968) found a significant difference in the personality of male and female students. Bhoj, A.N.T. (1992), Chandra, Sekhar, P. (2003), Dagaur, B.S. (1988), Gakhar, S.C. and Manhas, K.D. (2005), Poulose, P.J. (1988), Madhava, Kale (2007), Mian, Shamshada (1988), Naik, Ramesh H. (2006), Sharma, C.S. (1986), Subramonian, G. and Muthaiah, N. (2009), Usha, P. and Sasi, Kumar (2007), Venkata, Rao (2004), and Yahaya, A. (2009) observed no significant difference in the personality of male and female students. The female secondary school students may be with high extrovert personality due to the differences in the physical and psychological maturities of male and female adolescents. Today, the female students are excelling in all areas of education with an all round development of their personality. It is a welcome since the view point of parents, teachers and society is rapidly changing towards positive side of girl child education. There should be no differentiation in the gender when education is being imparted in schools. Each and every student should be treated equally and equal opportunities must be given to all for the full development of their personality. Then only they can excel in one’s own life and become role models to others. 13. The rural and urban secondary school students are holding extrovert personality with significant difference between them. The urban secondary school students are more extroverts than rural secondary school students. Table 13: Comparison of Personality of Rural and Urban Secondary School Students
Sample Mean Standard Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Error of Ratio
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Mean Difference Rural 500 41.65 5.36 0.69 0.32 2.12+ Urban 500 42.34 4.94 + Significant at 0.05 level Though the urban and rural secondary school students hold extrovert personality, the urban students are with more extrovert personality than their counterparts. Dwivedy and Om, Prakash (2002), Sudhir, M.A. and Khaiangte (1977) observed that urban students are more extroverts than rural students. Srivastava, R.K. (1988), Subramonian, G. and Muthaiah, N. (2009) found a significant difference in the personality of rural and urban students. Chandra, Sekhar (2003), Gakhar, S.C. and Manhas, K.D. (2005), Madhava, Kale (2007), Sharma, C.S. (1986), Venkata, Rao (2004) and Vijayalakshmi, G. and Lavanya, P. (2006) noticed no significant difference in the personality of rural and urban students. The urban students are with high extrovert personality since the students’ brought up, the family background, the home environment and the local facilities have some influence on the personality of urban students. Since there are better facilities in urban areas, students get better opportunities for the development of their personality. Schools should provide better opportunities for both rural and urban secondary school students to interact with the society by conducting camps, rallies and other voluntary activities so that they can better understand the society and in modify their personality as per the needs of the society as well as their own self. 14. The government and private secondary school students are holding extrovert personality without any significant difference between them. Table 14: Comparison of Personality of Government and Private Secondary School Students
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference
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Government 496 41.74 5.24 0.51 0.32 1.56* Private 504 42.25 5.08 * Not Significant at 0.05 level
There is no significant difference in the personality of government and private secondary school students, though all of them had extrovert personality. Gakhar, S.C. and Manhas, K.D. (2005) found a significant difference in the personality of government and private school students. It is a good indication that there is no significant difference in the personality of government and private secondary school students. This result may be due to the participation of students in the activities of school and society. The personality of private and government secondary school students can be further enhanced towards a balanced one by conducting quizzes, elocutions, debates, essay-writing competitions, etc., and organizing talks, lectures, discussions, etc., on the personalities of great people, so that students come to know about the best personalities and, in turn, develop their own personalities for the well being of their own and for the others. 15. The residential and day-scholar secondary school students are holding extrovert personality without any significant difference between them. Table 15: Comparison of Personality of Residential and Day-Scholar Secondary School Students Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Residential 500 41.87 5.14 Day 0.25 0.32 0.77* 500 42.12 5.19 Scholar * Not Significant at 0.05 level
Having extrovert personality by the residential and day-scholar students of secondary schools with no difference between them is a welcome sign as the instructional programmes are different in these schools. Better adjustment strategies and providing equal opportunities to the students to explore themselves to the present conditions of study
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and living will lead to the better development of personality in the students. 16. The Telugu medium and English medium secondary school students are holding extrovert personality without any significant difference between them. Table 16: Comparison of Personality of Telugu Medium and English Medium Secondary School Students Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Telugu 504 42.16 5.12 Medium 0.33 0.32 1.01* English 496 41.83 5.21 Medium * Not Significant at 0.05 level There is no significant difference in the personality of Telugu and English medium students though both of them hold extrovert personality. This result is in opposition to the popular opinion that English medium schools contain high culture and other sophisticated ideas to develop people for high society. All round development of students’ personality need be given priority both in English and Telugu medium schools. State level and national level programmes may be conducted in order to develop in the students the way of becoming responsible citizens with a balanced personality. 17. The reserved and unreserved secondary school students are holding extrovert personality without any significant difference between them. Table 17: Comparison of Personality of Reserved and Unreserved Secondary School Students
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Reserved 512 41.89 5.04 0.2 0.32 0.61* Unreserved 488 42.09 5.29 * Not Significant at 0.05 level
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The caste has no influence on the personality of reserved and unreserved secondary school students, though the caste has much importance in several personal and public activities and social welfare schemes of the government. Konwar, L.N. (1989) found similar result, no difference in the personality of reserved and unreserved caste students. Jayanthi, N.L.N. and Padmanabhan, T. (2008) observed a significant difference in the personality of reserved and unreserved category students. In the society, majority of the unreserved caste students along with their families are enjoying high financial and social status when compared to reserved caste students. With this background only, the caste reservations are in force in the society to bring forth the reserved caste communities on par with unreserved caste communities by providing reservations in admissions and in employment and by providing financial support and other benefits through various welfare schemes and programmes. The reserved community students should utilize the free facilities and opportunities provided by the government and other agencies to march ahead of anyone. Also, both reserved and unreserved caste students should make use of all available opportunities and facilities in making their personality a comprehensive one. 18. The Hindu and non-Hindu secondary school students are holding highly personality without any significant difference between them. Table 18: Comparison of Personality of Hindu and Non-Hindu Secondary School Students Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Hindus 512 41.82 5.15 Non- 0.36 0.32 1.11* 488 42.18 5.18 Hindus * Not Significant at 0.05 level There is no significant difference in the personality of Hindu and non-Hindu students though all of them equally hold extrovert personality.
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Singh, Tirath and Kaur, Parminder (2008) has got the similar result with the Hindu and non-Hindu students. Hussain, M.Q. (1963) and Leela, A.V.S. (1988) found a significant difference in the personality of Hindu and non-Hindu students. The behaviour of an individual can differ due to the motivational drives to which he/she is exposed to environmental and cultural factors in the school life. These factors will strongly influence an individual’s behaviour in spite of his own intrinsic motives for success. The secondary school students can modify their personality to the requirement by respecting each other’s cultural life and respecting each one’s individuality. 19. The secondary school students of literate parents and illiterate parents are holding extrovert personality without any significant difference between them. Table 19: Comparison of Personality of Secondary School Students of Literate parents and Illiterate parents
Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Literate 512 41.92 5.25 Parents 0.14 0.32 0.43* Illiterate 488 42.06 5.08 Parents * Not Significant at 0.05 level There is no significant difference in the personality of secondary school students of literate and illiterate parents, though both of them hold extrovert personality. Arunima (1989), Ramiah, L. (1990), and Vijayalakshmi, G. and Lavanya, P. (2006) noticed a significant difference in the personality of secondary school students of literate and illiterate parents. The teachers and parents should see that the literacy of the parents should have a bearing on the formation of personality in the students. Decent behaviour of parents, literate and/or illiterate, helps in the development of a balanced personality in their children. Parents should be very cautious while dealing their children and/or behaving before their wards. The teachers should never talk about the parents’
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socio-economic status as this will have an effect on the development of the personality of school students. 20. The secondary school students of parents with an annual income below Rs.1,00,000 and above Rs. 1,00,000 are holding extrovert personality without any significant difference between them. Table 20: Comparison of Personality of Secondary School Students of parents with an Annual Income Below Rs.1,00,000 and Above Rs.1,00,000 Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Below Rs. 512 41.74 5.19 1,00,000 0.51 0.32 1.57* Above Rs. 488 42.25 5.13 1,00,000 * Not Significant at 0.05 level
The secondary school students hold an extrovert personality irrespective of their financial position at home. This may be due to the availability of various welfare benefits to the students of different financial positions of their families. Asthana, Anju (1989), Bharathi, L. (1988), and Santosh and Kaur, Ravdeep (2009) noticed no significant difference in the personality of secondary school students of parents with different financial positions. Hussain, M.Q. (1963), Kumari, Shiv (1990) and Sharma, R.K. (1978) showed a significant difference in the personality of secondary school students of parents with varied incomes. The school and the teachers should extend all possible support to the students of different financial positions to develop balanced personality in them, which will help them settle well in life and career. 21. The secondary school students are holding average achievement. Table 21: Achievement of Secondary School Students
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Sample Size Mean Standard Deviation
Whole 1000 60.65 7.37
The present state of average achievement of secondary school students may be due to the nature of new course content developed by the government to meet the requirements of students as well as society, the new academic standards prescribed the government to transact the course content effectively, the new/innovative learning experiences provided by the teachers, and also the new assessment procedures such as formative and summative assessment/evaluation to assess the realisation of the set academic standards. The mastery of course contents help in getting good scores in examinations, which are considered as the outcomes of the abilities of the students. The secondary school students need to learn and work more when compared to their previous elementary education so as to meet the requirements of course content, academic standards and assessment procedures. The secondary school students may enhance their achievement by having better achievement motivation, by developing suitable study habits, by participating intensively in all academic activities, by extensively interacting with the teachers to clarify their doubts, by understanding and trying to realize the academic standards, by meeting the challenging needs of formative and summative assessment/evaluation, etc. The achievement of secondary school students can also be improved through cooperative learning, collaborative learning, e-learning, computer assisted learning, etc., which can be utilized as and when it is possible 22. The male and female secondary school students are having average achievement with significant difference between them. The female secondary school students are with more achievement than their counter parts. Table 22: Comparison of Achievement of Male and Female Secondary School Students Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Male 500 59.64 7.01 2.01 0.46 4.36+
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Female 500 61.65 7.58 + Significant at 0.05 level
The female secondary school students are with more achievement than their counter parts though both of them hold average achievement. Gurubasappa, H.D. (2009), and Singh, Amit and Kumar, Dinesh (2011) found a significant difference in the achievement of boys and girls. Pal, Anitha (1988) reported that girls were more competitive than boys. Patil, I. (1982), Reddy, O.R. (1983) and Subramanyam K. and Rao, K. Srinivasa (2008) noticed no significant difference in the achievement of male and female students. The high achievement possessed by the female secondary school students is really an important aspect as this will help them go further in education and in life. The secondary school students, irrespective of their gender, need to improve their achievement levels so as to reach the higher levels of learning. 23. The rural and urban secondary school students have average achievement with significant difference between them. The urban secondary school students are with more achievement than their counter parts. Table 23: Comparison of Achievement of Rural and Urban Secondary School Students Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Rural 500 59.99 7.28 1.31 0.46 2.83+ Urban 500 61.30 7.40 + Significant at 0.05 level The urban secondary school students are with more achievement than rural students, though both of them hold average achievement. Bhattacharya, Anjana (1989), and Gurubasappa, H.D. (2009) found a significant difference in the achievement of rural and urban school students.
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Kanwar, L.N. (1989) noticed no significant difference in the achievement of rural and urban school students. The physical atmosphere along with academic atmosphere of the rural and urban secondary schools differs significantly and this might have been the reason for the difference in the achievement of rural and urban students. The schools of both urban and rural locations need to have the same infrastructure and instructional facilities to facilitate the students to achieve more in examinations. The teachers of rural schools should take more care as the rural students do not get much academic support when compared to urban students after the school work is over to help the rural students achieve well. 24. The government and private secondary school students are having average achievement without any significant difference between them. Table 24: Comparison of Achievement of Government and Private Secondary School Students Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Government 496 60.56 7.33 0.17 0.46 0.36* Private 504 60.73 7.40 * Not Significant at 0.05 level The students studying in government and private secondary schools are with average achievement with no difference between them. Sundararajan, S, and Dhandapani, B. (1991) noticed no significant difference in the academic achievement of government and private schools. Gakhar, S.C. (1982) and Krishna Reddy, D. (2008) found a significant difference in the achievement of students of government and private schools. There difference in the infrastructure and instructional facilities present in the government and private secondary school students might have been contributed for this result in the present sample as the private schools possess better, good financial position, committed management, motivated faculty and access to teaching-leaning material (TLM) than government schools.
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The government and private schools should enhance the academic attainment of their students by providing the varied needs of the students. 25. The residential and day-scholar secondary school students are having average achievement without any significant difference between them. Table 25: Comparison of Achievement of Residential and Day- Scholar Secondary School Students Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Residential 500 60.21 7.37 Day 0.87 0.46 1.87* 500 61.08 7.34 Scholar * Not Significant at 0.05 level The students of residential and day schools possess average achievement with no significant difference between them. Gurubasappa H.D. (2009) and Kalpana, Mallela (2003) observed a significant difference in the academic achievement of students studying in different kinds of schools. Kumar, Pramod N. (2004) noticed no significant difference in the academic achievement of students of various schools. An environment of discipline is created in the residential schools to make students feel at home do well in their studies as the stay in the schools itself all the time. The students of the day-scholar schools go home after the instructional periods and do as they wish. Even then, the achievement of these two categories is similar. The teacher of both kinds of schools need to enhance the achievement of the students to move further as the responsibility of the students is to learn better and achieve well in education. 26. The Telugu medium and English medium secondary school students are possessing average achievement without any significant difference between them. Table 26: Comparison of Achievement of Telugu Medium and English Medium Secondary School Students Standard Sample Mean Critical Variable Mean S.D. Error of Size Difference Ratio Mean
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Difference Telugu 504 60.61 7.51 Medium 0.08 0.46 0.17* English 496 60.69 7.22 Medium * Not Significant at 0.05 level The medium of instruction has no impact on the achievement of the students of Telugu medium and English medium secondary schools. Reddy, O.R. (1983) and Gurubasappa, H.D. (2009) found significant difference in the academic achievement of students studying with different media of instruction. Language is the best medium of communication and one should master it to communicate well what he knows and what he wants to inform to others and because of this everyone has acquire the required efficiency in the language in which he wish to communicate. Hence, irrespective of the medium of instruction, the students should have the basic knowledge skills in the medium of instruction in order to learn well and do better in examinations. 27. The reserved and unreserved secondary school students have average achievement without any significant difference between them. Table 27: Comparison of Achievement of Reserved and Unreserved Secondary School Students Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Reserved 512 60.79 7.35 0.3 0.46 0.64* Unreserved 488 60.49 7.38 * Not Significant at 0.05 level The caste has no role play in the achievement of secondary school students. The secondary school students, irrespective of their caste background, learn the subject matter sincerely to achieve good scores in examinations as these are helpful in getting higher education. The welfare measures linked to the caste may also be utilized to do well in education.
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28. The Hindu and non-Hindu secondary school students are possessing average achievement without any significant difference between them. Table 28: Comparison of Achievement of Hindu and Non-Hindu Secondary School Students Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Hindus 512 60.27 7.40 Non- 0.78 0.46 1.68* 488 61.05 7.31 Hindus * Not Significant at 0.05 level The religion did not influence the achievement of the secondary school students. The religion is the part of the life of any individual and no student has any exception as he is part of the family and the society. Of course, all religions advocate education to every human individual. The secondary school students should enhance their academic achievement as the achievement is the indicator if the student learning in schools and the way to proceed further by taking the help of parents and teachers. 29. The secondary school students of literate parents and illiterate parents have average achievement without any significant difference between them. Table 29: Comparison of Achievement of Secondary School Students of Literate parents and Illiterate parents Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Literate 512 60.77 7.29 Parents 0.25 0.46 0.53* Illiterate 488 60.52 7.45 Parents * Not Significant at 0.05 level The education of parents did not have any bearing on the achievement of the secondary school students though they can
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influence the achievement of their children through their education and experience. The parents, irrespective of their educational status, should take care of the education of their children as the children need to be settled well in life and career in future. The education of the children is a way an investment and it reflects on the achievement of the children. As better qualified people earn better, the students should get motivation of this and excel in the examinations. 30. The secondary school students of parents with an annual income below Rs. 1,00,000 and above Rs. 1,00,000 are possessing average achievement without any significant difference between them. Table 30: Comparison of Achievement of Secondary School Students of parents with an Annual Income Below Rs.1,00,000 and Above Rs.1,00,000 Standard Sample Mean Error of Critical Variable Mean S.D. Size Difference Mean Ratio Difference Below Rs. 512 60.76 7.25 1,00,000 0.25 0.46 0.53* Above Rs. 488 60.51 7.49 1,00,000 * Not Significant at 0.05 level The income of the parents did not show any influence of the achievement of the secondary school students. Chatterji, et al (1971), and Rajput, A.S. (1984) observed no significant difference between the academic achievement and socio- economic status, which includes financial position of the family of the students. Gurubasappa, H.D. (2009) found significant difference between academic achievement and socio-economic status of students. Now-a-days, financial position is not at all a major constraint for getting education as the school education is free to every child and there are several welfare schemes to the poor people to avail the facilities of education. Hence, all the students should improve their academic achievement ignoring the financial problems, if at all any that come in the way of education.
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31. The secondary school students are holding very low positive correlation between intelligence and personality. Table 31: Correlation between Intelligence and Personality of Secondary School Students Variable Sample Size Mean S.D. Correlation Intelligence 1000 60.74 7.35 Personality 1000 41.99 5.16 0.04
The teachers should plan to bring correlation between intelligence and personality as both are interrelated and influence each other. If the teachers and parents work together for the development of personality, then both personality and intelligence work together to do good to the child. 32. There is very low positive correlation between intelligence and achievement of secondary school students. Table 32: Correlation between Intelligence and Achievement of Secondary School Students Variable Sample Size Mean S.D. Correlation Intelligence 1000 60.74 7.35 Achievement 1000 60.65 7.37 0.09
The teachers of the secondary schools should try to enhance the achievement of the students by making use of the intelligence of the students to bring more correlation between intelligence and achievement.
33. There is very low positive correlation between personality and achievement of secondary school students. Table 33: Correlation between Personality and Achievement of Secondary School Students Variable Sample Mean S.D. Correlation Size Personality 1000 41.99 5.16 0.06 Achievement 1000 60.65 7.37
Abraham, P.A. (1969), Anuradha, Joshi (1990), Arora, R.K. (1992), Asthana and Usha (1990), Cattell and Sweeney (1966),
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Chatterji, P.S. (1983), Govinda Reddy (2002), Koteswara, Narayana and Ramachandra, Reddy (1998), Krishna Reddy, D. (2008), Padmini (2010), Prakash, S. (2003), Rao, D. Gopala (1965), Ravi, S. (2014), Sangwan, Sheela, Nitasha and Krishna, (2002), Sekhar, K (2012), and Srivastava and Saxena (1979), Sujatha (2011) found positive correlation between personality ad achievement I their studies. Bhargava, K. (1980), Jantli, R.T. (1988), and Vidhu, M. (1968) observed negative correlation between personality and achievement. Anca, Munteanu and Iuliana, Coatea (2010), Natesan and Susila (2000), Sharma, N.K. (1981), and Siddi, Raju (2010) noticed no correlation between personality and achievement. The secondary school students should develop balanced personality and also achieve well in examinations to do well in life and career ignoring the negative factors that contribute to the personality development and high achievement. The teachers, the parents and the society should provide all the facilities to the students to utilize their intelligence, to nourish their personality and to promote their achievement. Then the students will flourish in every dimension of life and living. Suggestions for Further Research The present study, A Study of Intelligence, Personality and Achievement of Secondary School Students, brings to light a number of new areas to be studied by future researchers. The areas and variables that are not covered by this study may be put to test to enlighten the other associated factors. So, the researchers may think of the following few areas of study in detail. 1. Studies may be taken up to study the effective use of existing intelligence of students in their education and their academic achievement. 2. Studies may be taken up to identify the factors that make the students use their intelligence more intelligently in education. 3. Studies may be taken up on experimental basis to inculcate, nourish and promote a balanced personality in students. 4. Studies can be undertaken to find out the influence of school environment, home environment, teachers and co-students on intelligence, personality and achievement of students. 5. Studies can be taken up to know the influence of academic adjustment and achievement motivation on the personality of students.
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AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF ACHIEVEMENT OF IX CLASS STUDENTS IN PHYSICAL SCIENCES
P.Madhusudhana Reddy T.V.Sheshadri Naidu Research Scholar Academic Consultant Dept. of Education Dept. of Education S.V University, Tirupati, AP. Rayalaseema University
INTRODUCTION :
The revolutionary developments in the field of science in the twentieth century have had a profound influence on the ultimate objectives of education also. E. J. Furst said that physical science objectives are directed towards building of scientific precision, scientific attitudes and science process skill like measurement of Achievement etc. physical science can develop experiences which are child-centered. Thus the teaching of physical science can supplement the other subjects in the all round developments of the child Achievement.
Science can justify its place in curriculum only when it produce important changes in pupils their ways of thinking in their Achievement and in the values they assigns to what they have and what they do. In the early days science teachers were primarily interested in teaching their pupils the facts of science. But science teaching is more than the presentation of facts. Teaching is the development of new ways of thinking a development that reveals itself increased skills.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM :
The problem taken by the investigator for investigation is “AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF ACHIEVEMENT OF IX CLASS STUDENTS IN PHYSICAL SCIENCES”.
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SCOPE OF THE STUDY :
The main intention of the study is to find the relation of achievement in physical sciences of IX class students with management, locality, Father occupation and academic achievement.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY :
The following are the main objectives of the present study.
1. To study the influence of management on the achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
2. To study the influence of locality on the achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
3. To study the influence of father occupation on the achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
4. To study the influence of academic achievement in biological sciences on the achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY :
1. There would be no significant influence of management on the achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
2. There would be no significant influence of locality on the achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
3. There would be no significant influence of father occupation on the achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
4. There would be no significant influence of academic achievement in biological sciences on the achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
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VARIABLES STUDIED :
Independent Variables : Management, Locality, Father Occupation and Academic achievement.
Dependent Variable : Academic achievement
TOOLS USED :
The following tools were used in the study
1. Physical sciences achievement test
2. The half yearly examinations marks were taken as the indices of the level of academic achievement of the IX class students.
3. Socio – Demographic scale SAMPLE SELECTED :
The sample for the investigation consisted of 300 IX class students in Kurnool district. The stratified random sampling was applied in three stages. The first stage is locality i.e. rural and urban (150 + 150), the second stage is management i.e. Government, Private and Aided schools (100 + 100 + 100) and third stage is sex i.e. Boys and girls (150 + 150). It is a 2X3X2 factorial design with 300 sample subjects.
COLLECTION OF DATA :
The investigator personally visited secondary schools with the permission of the head masters of the schools. The students who attended to the school on the day of collection of data are considered for the purpose of the investigation. It was provided to the concerned students of the school. The students were given necessary instructions about the instruments and motivated to respond genuinely to all the items. Academic achievement test in physical sciences (OAT) and personal data sheet were administered.
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The data on each variable in the investigation is properly coded to suit for computer analysis.
The analysis was carried out on the basis of objectives of the investigation and hypotheses formulated by employing appropriate statistical techniques.
Frequency distribution table was prepared for the total sample. Measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion, skewness, kurtosis and standard error of mean were computed wherever necessary. The inferential statistical techniques such as ‘t’ test (critical ratio) and ‘F’ test were employed to test different hypotheses. The obtained numerical results are adumbrated by graphical representations.
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA :
1. Management : The relationship of academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students with their management is studied in the present investigation. On the basis of management, the IX class students are divided into three groups. The Government school students form with the Group – I, Group – II forms with the Private school students and Group – III forms with the Aided students. The corresponding academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students of the three groups were analyzed accordingly. The mean values of academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students for the three groups were tested for significance by employing ‘F’ - test. The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis – 1
There would be no significant impact of ‘management’ on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
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The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘F’ - test. The results are presented in Table – 1.
Table-1:Influence of management on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students
S. Management N Mean S.D. ‘F’ – Test No.
1. Government 100 38.82 9.75
2. Private 100 35.53 7.81 5.546**
3. Aided 100 39.53 9.38
* Indicates significant at 0.01 level
It is found from the Table – 1 that the computed value of ‘F’ (5.546) is greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (4.680) for 2 and 297 df at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the Hypothesis – 1 is rejected at 0.01 level. Therefore it is concluded that the management has significant influence on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
2. Locality : The relationship of academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students with their locality is studied in the present investigation. On the basis of locality, the IX class students are divided into two groups. The rural students form with the Group – I and Group – II forms with the urban students. The academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students of the two groups were analyzed accordingly. The academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students for the two groups were tested for significance by employing ‘t’ - test. The following hypothesis is framed.
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Hypothesis – 2
There would be no significant impact of ‘locality’ on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘t’ - test. The results are presented in Table – 2.
Table – 2
Influence of locality on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students
S. Locality N Mean S.D. ‘t’ - Test No.
1. Rural 150 37.49 8.58 0.881@ 2. Urban 150 38.43 9.73
@ Indicates not significant at 0.05 level
It is found from the Table – 2 that the computed value of ‘t’ (0.881) is less than the critical value of ‘t’ (1.97) for 1 and 298 df at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the Hypothesis – 2 is accepted at 0.05 level. Therefore it is concluded that the locality has not significant influence on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
3. Father occupation : The relationship of academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students with their father occupation is studied in the present investigation. On the basis of father occupation, the students are divided into three groups. On the basis of father’s occupation, the students are divided into three groups. Group – I is formed with students of unemployed and labour fathers. Group – II formed with fathers of caste occupation / small business / cultivation / clerk /
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elementary teacher. Group – III is formed with fathers of high school teacher / technician / equal cadre employees and fathers of high Government official / land lord / professor. The corresponding academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students of the three groups were analyzed accordingly. The mean values of academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students for the three groups were tested for significance by employing ‘F’ - test. The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis – 3
There would be no significant impact of ‘father occupation’ on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students. The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘F’ - test. The results are presented in Table – 3.
Table – 3
Influence of father occupation on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students
S. No. Father occupation N Mean S.D. ‘F’ - Test
1. Group – I 67 39.48 9.14
2. Group – II 142 35.67 8.90 9.022**
3. Group – III 91 40.42 8.77
** Indicates significant at 0.01level
It is found from the Table – 3 that the computed value of ‘F’ (9.022) is greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (4.680) for 2 and 297 df at 0.01 level of significance. Hence the Hypothesis – 3 is rejected at 0.01 level. Therefore it is concluded that the father occupation has significant influence on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
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4. Academic achievement : The relationship of academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students with their academic achievement is studied in the present investigation. On the basis of academic achievement, the students are divided into three groups. Group – I is formed with Academic achievement is up to 49%. Group – II formed with Academic achievement is 50% to 59%. Group – III is formed with Academic achievement is 60% and above. The corresponding academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students of the three groups were analyzed accordingly. The mean values of academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students for the three groups were tested for significance by employing ‘F’ - test. The following hypothesis is framed.
Hypothesis – 4
There would be no significant impact of ‘academic achievement’ on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
The above hypothesis is tested by employing ‘F’ - test. The results are presented in Table – 4.
Table – 4:Influence of academic achievement on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students
S. No. Academic achievement N Mean S.D. ‘F’ - Test
1. Group – I 134 39.28 39.28
2. Group – II 78 36.12 36.12 3.072*
3. Group – III 88 37.58 37.58
* Indicates significant at 0.05 level
It is found from the Table – 4 that the computed value of ‘F’ (3.072) is greater than the critical value of ‘F’ (3.03) for 2 and 297 df at
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0.05 level of significance. Hence the Hypothesis – 4 is rejected at 0.05 level. Therefore it is concluded that the academic achievement has significant influence on the academic achievement in physical sciences of IX class students.
CONCLUSIONS :
In the light of the findings presented in preceding pages, the following conclusions are drawn.
1. Management has significant influence on the academic achievement of IX class students in physical sciences.
2. Locality has not significant influence on the academic achievement of IX class students in physical sciences.
3. Father occupation has significant influence on the academic achievement of IX class students in physical sciences.
4. Academic achievement has significant influence on the academic achievement of IX class students in physical sciences.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS :
The findings of the present research have raised some important questions related to the educational needs of the students with special reference to their achievement in physical sciences.
1. Management is highly influence on the achievement in physical science of IX class students. Aided school students have better achievement in physical science than the Private school students. The administrators to provide physical facilities for various types of managements.
2. Father occupation is highly influence on the achievement in physical science of IX class students. High occupational group students have better achievement in physical science than the
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low occupational group students. The administrators to provide occupational facilities for fathers.
3. Academic achievement is highly influence on the achievement in physical science of IX class students. Low achievement students have better achievement in physical science than the high achievement students. The administrators to provide extra coaching facilities for low achievement students.
4. The physical Science teachers should create interest in students thorough their effective teaching.
5. All the physical science teachers have to create an attractive atmosphere in the class rooms by displaying colorful charts, models, relevant to the topics of biology.
6. The teachers should encourage the students on doing practical in physical science by giving sufficient number of demonstrations.
7. The school management should take care in providing proper infrastructure sufficient materials for the physical Science laboratories etc.
8. The students should be given correct and proper knowledge about the objectives of learning physical science.
9. Relevant physical science books and reference books should be purchased for the school library for ready reference.
10. The teacher should train the students in developing an aquarium in physical science department he should take care that each and every student should take proper part in maintenance. This type of work will diffidently create much interest in students to study physical science.
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11. In this computer world much importance is being given to study computer education with this majority of students attracting towards that field neglecter the physical sciences. The teachers should be trained in teaching physical science using computer, internet and LCD Projectors, so that one can attract and divert their attention towards the study of physical science.
12. Physical science exhibitions should be conducted at school level district level and state level to inculcate creative ability and interest in students in physical science field.
13. For proper understanding to turn impossibilities into possibilities we must develop the right attitude towards physical science among the students.
References :
1. Amith Kumar (2004): “Teaching of Physical Sciences” A text book Deep and Deep publication Pvt, Ltd.
2. Aswirvadam(1983): “A study of certain factors influencing low reading achievement in Telugu of VIII class students in high school” unpublished M.Ed Dissertation S.V.University, Tirupati.
th 3. Danial.M (2009): achievement of 9 class pupils in physical science
4. Eswara Kumar (1997): “Problems of Teaching New physical Science syllabus for X class in A.P. and their impact on pupils achievement” unpublished Ph.D. thesis. S.V.University, Tirupati.
5. Grarrett, H.E. (1989) : “Statistics in psychology and Education” 10th Indian Re Print, Published by Mr. Shaikh for Vikils refer and Sinoms Ltd., Bombay. P 339.
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6. Jane Butler kahle (1982): “Can positive minority attitudes lead to achievement gains in science analysis of the 1977 national assessment of educational progress attitude toward science education” Vol.6(4). P 539-546.
7. John Richardson. S (1985) : “Science teaching in secondary school” A text book 5th edition.
8. Karunakara Reddy T. (1988): “A study relationship between reading comprehension and science achievement of VII class pupils, unpublished M.Ed. Dissertation. S.V.University, Tirupati.
9. Naveen Kumar (2010); “A study academic achievement of IX class students in physical sciences”, M.Ed. dissertation, S.V.University, Tirupati.
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PALLAVAS IN EARLY MEDIEVAL PALLAVA
Prof. N Kanakaratnam Head Department of History, Archaeology and Culture Dravidian University Kuppam,Andhra Pradesh
We accept discussed the change in Hindu ritual which took abode as a aftereffect of Buddhist access on the cloister ritual and ideologies of aggressive kings and emperors. Now we will yield a hardly altered access and attending at alms from the point of appearance of both acceptable accent in Hindu community and accepted developments in accompaniment accumulation during the classical and aboriginal medieval periods.
For this we about-face to peninsular India and contempo analysis by Nicholas Dirks on accompaniment accumulation in Tamil Country. We focus on Tamil Country because this breadth set the arrangement for abundant religious and political change in peninsular India, but aswell because this breadth has been the focus for abundant avant-garde and important analysis in the endure twenty years. Here we will appraise the implications in agreement of political anatomy of the about-face in cloister ritual from the lst and 2nd centuries BC to the acceleration of the Chola commonwealth in the 10th aeon AD.1
The amplification of the Mauryan ascendancy had resulted, as mentioned earlier, in processes of accompaniment accumulation all over the subcontinent. In the Deccan the Satavahana ascendancy began to be of above acceptation age-old during the aboriginal aeon BC. Accession almost abreast absolutism was the Cedis of Kalinga. If
1 A.Krishnaswami. Topics in South Indian history: from early times upto 1565 A.D. Krishnaswami, 1975. pp. 89–90
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the Satavahanas colapsed age-old about the end of the additional or the alpha of the third aeon AD, a amount of almsman states appeared. Abounding of these arise to accept ahead been political units accessory to the Satavahanas or one or accession of their accessory branches.
A allotment of the Tamils, the Pallava absolutism can aswell be anticipation of as a almsman accompaniment to the Satavahanas. The origins of this cardinal abode are obscure, but several Indian advisers accept allegedly appropriate that the Pallavas arose in affiliation with the web of alliances centring on the Satavahanas. According to these advisers the Pallavas emerged in or abreast the breadth with which they were afterwards associated, Tontaimantalam, in what is now the northeastern breadth of Tamil Nadu. The Pallavas played a arresting role in the development of political systems in south India during the aboriginal millenium AD.
It is appropriate of accompaniment accumulation in the endure bisected of the aboriginal millenium BC that the Pallavas were not afflicted in their best of a aristocratic credo by their built-in Tamil traditions. These we apperceive about from the arresting poetry, Sangam poetry, which we still accept today and which is anachronous from the aboriginal to third centuries A.D. The Pallavas looked alfresco their breadth to the greater political ascendancy of the almsman states of the Mauryans in the Deccan. The arctic Indian kingdoms provided the models, either Buddhist or Hindu, of what a able aristocratic abode should attending like and how it should behave in agreement of ritual and political symbolism. The Pallavas were accordingly access added by the Deccan dynasties of the additional aeon B.C. through to the third aeon A.D. than by the forms of chiefly community represented in the Sangam literature. The Sangam balladry board no references to the Pallavas, nor do the Pallavas accredit to any of the kings mentioned in the poems. The a lot of believable theories about the origins of the Pallavas advance that they had initially been a ruler-cum-warrior
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accumulation which had entered into accessory relations with the Satavahanas. The ritual performances of the Pallavas are bigger explained by searching north, not south.2
Back they were a southern dynasty, however, we accept to activate by searching at their actual political environment. The Pallava inscriptions accord abounding references to battles--military confrontations with abroad adverse dynasties as able-bodied as adjacent encounters with chieftains who resisted control. Back the inscriptions themselves accord us few data of the agreement and alignment of Pallava armies, we accept to attending to the war balladry of the Sangam authors. Here we acquisition that in south India there was no kin arrangement like the Rajput warrior clans and lineages in arctic India. Arctic Indian aggressive alignment was based on this affiliated association and birth anatomy of amusing organization. In the Tamil Country the generals were usually Velala men, advancing from the accomplished baronial agronomical caste. Abounding of the warriors, however, came from castes and tribes which were primarily warriors, like the maravar and the kallar. The Sangam balladry accept abounding references to the atrocity and valour of these warriors, abounding of whom allegedly acceptable their acceptability in bands of robbers and plunderers. They were accepted as citizenry of the hills and the forests. The balladry advance abiding and abysmal astriction and abhorrence amid these amorous acropolis folk and the acclimatized agronomical groups. The armies of these aboriginal kings attempted to attenuate the blackmail of the acropolis humans by amalgam and acculterating the acropolis groups and by application their aggressive abilities in accommodating enterprises. The developing political systems in south India, then, played a able role in accouterment opportunities and structures for accommodating alliances a allotment of altered amusing groups. We accept apparent
2 Rev. H Heras, SJ (1931) Pallava Genealogy: An attempt to unify the Pallava Pedigrees of the Inscriptions, Indian Historical Research Institute
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how the varna arrangement developed as a accommodating and commutual amusing anatomy during the Vedic period.
In the Tamil Country, however, altered amusing groups had able access to their territorial bases. This is partly because of the top amount of territorial analysis in the south. We will altercate this in added detail afterwards on, but at this point we can accredit to the actuality that in Sangam balladry the poets advance 5 ecotypes anniversary with its own allegorical meanings in the poetry. These ecotypes, alleged tinnai, included the mountains, the forests and brushlands, the dry and arid lands, the river valleys and the coast. It appears that Tamil amusing units were groups of humans deeply affiliated to a aggregate belt who also, it appears, affiliated aural that locality. This is in activity to the abundant beyond distances over which arctic Indian clansmen commonly approved their brides.3
Pallava history has commonly been disconnected into three periods according to the accent of the inscriptions. The age-old inscribed plates were in a accent accompanying to Sanskrit alleged Prakrit and accept been assigned to the aeon 250-350 A.D. The agent period, affirmation for which has been begin in Sanskrit plates, has been put at almost 350-600 AD. Stone and chestnut plates in both Sanskrit and Tamil circumscribe the final aeon from the alpha of the seventh aeon to the aboriginal tenth century. During this aeon of about 650 years, historian Nicholas Dirks argues, a above about-face took abode in Pallava polity.
I will abridge the altercation aboriginal and again present affirmation to actualize it. Initially in the Pallava ideology, the absolute ascendancy of a baron stemmed from his achievement of aristocratic sacrifices based on Vedic models. In the afterwards Pallava aeon the cede became beneath important and the aristocratic abode and its
3 KR Subramanian. (1989). Buddhist remains in Āndhra and the history of Āndhra between 224 & 610 A.D, p.106-109
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priests produced geneaologies which gave Pallava kings a all-powerful ancestry, as a abject for the ascendancy of the aristocratic family. Aristocratic alms had consistently been important, but now it became a appointed appointment for proclaiming and cogent aristocratic authority. These brainy accouterment activated with changes in the political anatomy of south Indian kingdoms, in their ambit of organization, their accommodation for the assimilation of new elites, and their abutment of accurate families with appropriate geneaologies.
The aristocratic cede was important in south Indian history from the alpha of the aeon beneath consideration, the 2nd aeon B.C.,to the 6th and 7th centuries A.D. The achievement of these aristocratic sacrifices was the a lot of important amphitheatre of baronial apologue for aggressive chiefs. Through a aristocratic sacrifice, the sacrificer-- the getting who ordered and paid for the sacrifice, the patron-- attempted to transform both his own political appearance and that of his domain. He attempted to arise from the cachet arch or princeling to a top cachet baron who could accomplish stronger claims on the men and assets of his domain. It was through the aristocratic sacrifices that a baron became articular with the gods. The codes of Manu, conceivably the a lot of acclaimed Brahminic acknowledged text, expresses the all-powerful appearance of a baron thus: "A baron is an apotheosis of the eight guardian deities of the world, the Moon, the Fire, the Sun, the Wind, Indra, the Lords of abundance and baptize (Kubera and Varuna) and Yama, the god of death."
The abundant European Sanskritist Gonda as explain the all- powerful attributes of a Hindu baron thus: the baron is a deva in the sens that he is one of a 'class of able beings, admired as possessing astonishing accessories and as accurate a administration of attributes or activity in the animal sphere.' Hindu kingship, therefore, accept to
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be beheld both from the point of religious acceptation and from the point of a king's applied access in his domain.4
With this in apperception we can assay the adequation of the baron with the eight guardian deities in agreement of both his activities and descriptive, religious qualities, according to the ideology. As Dirks put the case:
The baron is the sun in that he is luminous, he dispells darkness, is baroque and majestic yet afire and scorching; he is the moon (king of the planets) because he is gentle, beneficent, a could cause of frondescence and fruitfulness; he is the wind in that he is unbound, wift and violent; he is blaze in that he is beneficent, a protector, the dispeller or demons, cleansing, purifying, as able-bodied as a advocate amid the humans and the gods; he is Kubera (the aristocrat of the north) because he is the barometer of abundant weath, who is affiliated with Rddhi (prosperity) and a almsman of Sri (a goddess of abundance and fertility); the baron is Varuna in that he protects rta (the moral and accustomed adjustment of the Vedas) and the apostle of dharma on earth, and of the adjustment of the seasons and of nature; he is Yama in that he is a controller, a judge, a punisher, and a gatherer of people.
Conceivably a lot of chiefly the baron is Indra, the god who archetypically represents ascendancy in the Vedic period. Indra is a god of growth, vitality, rainfall, vegetation, fertility, in short, of alive activity in nature. Moreover, Indra is associated with war, and is best accepted for his adventurous battles adjoin the angry admiral and enemies of the gods and of mankind. A baron was accepted to defended the abundance of his humans in Indra-like manner, by acclimation the admiral of abundance and of nature, and by vanquishing the enemies of the people. A amount of age-old Indian festivals centring about
4 Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History And Civilization. New Age International. p. 445.
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Indra accurate the god's affiliation to abundance and prosperity. In the amount of Indra we acquisition the best announcement of the attributes of sacrificial kingship.
We will attending briefly at the rajasuya, the ritual achievement of the approbation of a king. By its actual attributes the ritual created a new political appearance for the sacrificer: in ritual the sacrificer became, in a sense, reborn, as a baron and in that way became aswell articular with the world. As the anthropologist Hocart wrote: "The baron at his approbation is dressed in apparel that represent the abyss and the placenta from which he is to be reborn. In adjustment to complete his identification with the apple he is accustomed a billy which stands for the arrow (the attribute of Indra); a gold disc is placed on his arch to represent the sun." The Sanskritist Heesterman has aswell advised the rajasuya and notes, "...the amphitheatre of annointment is a replica of the universe: the baron continuing in the centermost and accession his accoutrements to the sky impersonates...the catholic pillar; annular him the apostolic officiants are continuing and advise on him his new physique from the four credibility of the compass, aswell anniversary officiant...imparts to the baron the above of one of the gods mentioned the annointment formula: Soma's glory, Agni's brilliance, etc...." Thus the commonwealth is the 'universe' of accustomed and moral relations which centre on the baron in the ritual.5
However, the baron is not the alone political focus in the ritual: chiefs and the above supporters of the baron aswell accept a appropriate role in the ritual. Through appropriate rituals twelve of these abstracts are symbolically apprenticed to the king. They are declared to augment the ability of the king. The king, therefore, is not artlessly a baron in his own right, but he is godly because he aswell
5 Rajan K. (Jan-Feb 2008). Situating the Beginning of Early Historic Times in Tamil Nadu: Some Issues and Reflections, Social Scientist, Vol. 36, Number 1/2, pp. 40-78
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incorporates the godly attributes of his capital supporters-- including his arch general, the arch priest, the aristocratic prince, the arch queen, the chamberlain, the broker and the tax collector. The baron in his person, therefore, represents the accumulation of the political system. The apperception of the baron as apery the eight guardian deities and the apperception of him as accumulation the arch supporters both advance a localized, territorial set of relations. The ritual expresses in religious agreement the accommodation of the ascendancy of a baron in aboriginal South Asian association and polity. The asvamedha horse cede bidding territoriality, but aswell acerb articular the baron with the abundance of his realm: a baron was declared to accomplish abundance for his commonwealth by breeding it for himself. He was the attribute of abundance and affluence who should be abundant and affluent himself. The aboriginal history of ascendancy in south India can be apparent as a sacrificial arrangement in which the role of kings was to act as ritual performers with the ambition of breeding prosperity. In inscriptions, moreover, sacrifices were usually mentioned in agency which portrayed them as breeding prosperity, embodied in the abundance and abundant ability of the king. For instance, acknowledgment of the sacrifices of the Iksvaku baron in 3rd aeon inscriptions were anon followed by phrases such as "...whose gold was abundant in quantity, the giver of hundred bags of ploughs (refering to acreage land) and beasts and the giver of abounding bags of pieces of gold." We acquisition these aforementioned accommodation of ability as a attribute of affluence and as abundant in its generosity in two Sangam balladry from this period. Obviously the Pallava aristocratic abode played aloft accepted ethics in the population.
Numerous Vedic sacrifices were performed by kings of the aboriginal Deccan states, from about 100 BC to about 250 AD. For instance, one of the aboriginal Satavahana kings performed the rajasuy, two asvamedhas, and fifteen added kinds of Vdeic sacrifices.
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Sacrifices, in accurate aristocratic sacrifices such as the rajasuya, asvamedha and the vajapeya, were generally performed at the admission of a dynasty, usually afterwards some ample aggressive success had apparent the ascendant ability of a baron and his cardinal group. The descendents of a new baron would abide to accomplish these sacrifices to bank up their claims to baronial status. This was important because there was no absolute academy for advertence all- powerful agent to a baron and his descendents. Neither the genealogies nor the academic titles of a baron gave him sacred, all-powerful qualities. Nor, in south India, did chiefs and kings accept a abject in a varna arrangement as kshatriyas, which they could address to as a antecedent for the actuality of kingship. The south Indians adopted amount organization, but not the varna arrangement of amount divisions.6
Sacrifice, then, was important as the defining appearance of ascendancy during this period. In the inscriptions, kings generally proclaimed their ascendancy primarily in agreement of the sacrifices they performed, and secondarily in agreement of the ability they made, ability which were generally accustomed as offerings for ritual casework in the sacrifices. Afterwards ancestors of Pallava kings affiliated to abject their ascendancy on the sacrifices performed by the age-old Pallavas. For example, a admission of the baron Visnugopavarman, allegedly of the backward 5th century, begns with a blueprint that is begin in abounding Pallava charters of the 5th through the 7th centuries:
Victory has been accomplished by the angelic one! From the august and arrive belt of Palakkada, at the command of Sri-Visnugopavarma, the pious Yuvamaharaja of the Pallavas, who are the receptacles of the aristocratic celebrity of the added kings that accept been affected by
6 S.Krishnaswami Aiyangar. Some Contributions Of South India To Indian Culture. Early History of the Pallavas
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their/Pallava/ valour, and who accept able for anniversary horse- sacrifices according to the able rites....
Ability (danas) were usually accustomed as offerings in the sacrificial context, but they were sometimes accustomed apart as well. In affiliation with his abounding sacrifices, Baron Satakarni of the Satavahanas fabricated abundant gifts, including villages, cows, horses and elephants. Alfresco of the sacrifice, his breed affiliated abundantly to admission ability to brahmanas. Aristocratic ability were fabricated allusive in agreement of a apperception of ascendancy which was at its base affiliated with the achievement of aristocratic sacrifices. Not alone were ability generally associated with sacrificial contexts, however, but they had a alongside religious significance. In one Iksvaku inscription, for example, an award for the architecture of a altar is said to accept the aftereffect of dharma. Grants by aristocratic personages of the Iksvakus are said to aftereffect the accomplishment of welfare, beatitude and beatitude for the alone donors and for the world. In Pallava inscrioptions of the aboriginal period, ability are accompanied by phrases which accredit to them as "means of the access of the merit, longevity, power, and acclaim of the /Pallava/ ancestors and race."7
During this period, however, the inscriptions advance that ability of above political acceptation were alone fabricated by associates of aristocratic families, men and women, daughters and wives. The allowances of the Pallava ability are said to accumulate alone to the ancestors of the Pallavas. It was through the cede that first, the Pallava ancestors became kingly, then, second, they were in a position to accord aristocratic gifts.
The accurate appearance of the aboriginal Pallava aeon for the a lot of allotment appears not to accept been actual complex, and it was almost small-scale in its ambit of activities. There were "chiefly" types
7 Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. pp. 41– 42.
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in the system--people with ample bounded ability and influence--but their accent in the academic anatomy of aphorism was not yet major, nor were they consistently singled out in inscriptions. The administration of aristocratic sovereignty--illustrated both by the address of the inscriptions and by the accommodation to accord aristocratic gifts--was allegedly bound to kin accompanying both by claret and alliance to the sacrificial king. The political system, however, was to advance new styles of assimilation with new actors.
The transformation of Pallava ascendancy had primarily to do with a change in the apperception of what constituted sovereignty. In the backward 7th aeon two incriptions proclaimed that the Pallava kings traced their coast from Brahman, Brihaspati, Drona (from the Mahabhartha), and added all-powerful characters. The about-face was not brusque back both the issuers of these two grants, two Pallava kings, issued added grants as able-bodied which were abundant added like the beforehand charters in their accepted appearance of agreement and in their references to Pallava sacrfices. But the trend was durably accustomed with the accretion of Nandivarman Pallavamalla about 731 AD, afterwards which no grants of the beforehand appearance accept been found.
References to the performances of aristocratic sacrifices did not arise in inscriptions which began with these allegorical charters. Instead the affirmation to ascendancy of the Pallava band was based on all- powerful agent and on identification with the abundant abstracts of their affiliated past. The assorted Pallava kings were accustomed names such as su-racita, the antecedent of prosperity, and they were declared as beaming with splendour, abounding of learning, able with blue-blooded conduct and so on.8
8 International Tamil Language Foundation (2000). The Handbook of Tamil Culture and Heritage. Chicago: International Tamil Language Foundation. p. 877.
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The Pallava kings affiliated to call themselves as munificent givers. However, the kings no best articular the accurate purpose of anniversary grant, as they did beforehand if the proclaimed that the ability would add to the welfare, merit, and accepted abundance of their chase and family. Rather, their abundance and abundance was asserted to appear principally from their all-powerful agent and their inherent blue-blooded conduct. The accurate admission now appeared added as an announcement of their ascendancy that as the abundant assumption of it, and yet as an announcement it was still anticipation to advance prosperity.
Because of this the aristocratic dana took on a new and altered character. It was no best a accustomed addendum of the sacrificial system, in which the dana was either accustomed as a affectionate of transaction for ritual casework or in the anecdotic framework of the sacrifice. Rather, the allowance itself became an announcement of sovereignty, in which the able academy or individuals became themselves expressions of sovereignty. The identification of a baron with his allowance was not new, but the arrangement of equivalences was bidding in a new way, in agreement of a new apperception of sovereignty.
This apperception was associated with the new accent of shrines from about 400 AD and their change into beyond and added circuitous temple structures. These temples developed a allegorical anatomy which gave them something of the religious and catholic acceptation of sacrifices. For example, the axial antibacterial ritual of temples-- signifying their rebirth--consists of an annoinment of the temple towers, allegory the annointment of the baron in the rajasuya sacrifice. The temple bidding the ascendancy of the cardinal divinity, since, as we accept seen, the above gods were kings themselves. The appellation of a temple-donor is yajamana, the aforementioned appellation as that affected by a sacrificer. The temple, like the sacrifice, created
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prosperity; however, the allowance of a temple or of a brahmadeya (endowment for the abutment of brahmins) did not advise ascendancy in the faculty that the achievement of a aristocratic cede had.
The Pallava charters accomplished their fullest announcement during the administration of Nandivarman Pallavamalla (c. 731-796). In two of his important charters, Visnu appears as the basic antecedent of the Pallava race, admitting afore they had amorphous with Brahma. In one set of plates, the ancestry begins with a account of admiration to Sri, wife of Vishnu and goddess of prosperity. The abounding ancestry (vamsa) begins:
"First from the lotus which rose from the axis of Visnu, was built-in the creator, whose agent is in the absolute Brahman; who is self- existent; who absolutely knowns the meanings of the angelic texts; (and) who has performed the conception of the accomplished world." From there the ancestry gain to analyze six gods who are adumbrated to be the ancestors of the present king. These are followed by the aboriginal and august Pallava baron who gave his name to the line. This Pallava, admitting built-in from a chase of brahmans, as we saw, is said to acquire "in the accomplished amount the valour /heroism/ of the kshatriyas." The Tamils had not adopted the kshatriya varna category, but it gave the Pallavas added ascendancy to advance that they were as adventurous a kshatriyas.9
References
1. Avari, Burjor (2007). India: The Ancient Past. New York: Routledge.
2. Hermann, Kulke; Rothermund D (2001) [2000]. A History of India. Routledge.
3. Minakshi, Cadambi (1938). Administration and Social Life Under the Pallavas. Madras: University of Madras.
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4. Prasad, Durga (1988). History of the Andhras up to 1565 A.D. Guntur, India: P.G. Publishers.
5. Raghava Iyengar, R (1949). Perumbanarruppatai, a commentary. Chidambaram, India: Annamalai University Press.
9 Kulke and Rothermund, pp121–122
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A STUDY OF TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS AND STRESS AMONG JUNIOR COLLEGE LECTURERS WORKING IN CHITTOOR DISTRICT
Dr.S.Ravi Research Scholar Dept. of Education S.V.University, Tirupati
INTRODUCTION
“EDUCATION” is derived from “Edu care” which means “To lead out”, “To draw out”, “To bring out”, “To train”, “To mold” into desirable form.
Education is a sort of thing that almost all of us got, are still getting or are actually giving in approved schools, colleges and universities or other similar places. In this sense, education refers to formal institutionalized education or to those living experiences that are provided by or sanctioned by the state. Its central concern is that students will now certain things that they do not know.
In true sense, education of man does not begin at school. It begins at birth. It ends, not when he graduates from the university, but on his death. Hence education is a lifelong process. Any modification brought about in the behavior of an individual as a result of his interaction with the environment constituted learning.
The concept of education is dynamic. It has passed through many ages and stages in the process of evolution and at every stage it has had a different meaning according to their existing Social Conditions. The concept of education is still in the process of evolution and this process will never come to an end. Changing times will always demand a revision of the prevailing educational ideals.
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The word education is like a diamond which appears to be of a different color when seen from different t angles. In India the concept of education is and always has been different from the western concept of education such difference is due to the differences in social value prevailing norms of the society and the concept of personality. Hindu personalities in education and Hindu Scriptures have defined the term education.
RIGVEDA: “Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless.”
SHANKARACHARYA: “Education is the realization of self”.
VIVEKANANDA: “Education means the manifestation of the divine perfection, already existing in man”.
GANDHI: “By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the child and man-body, mind and spirit”.
TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS:
The importance of a teacher in the educational process is unquestionable. An Effective teacher is amongst the foremost factors contributing factors contributing to educational improvement, which we are trying hard to achieve. After independence crores have been spent to open new educational institutions and provide them with adequate equipment and other facilities. Lakhs of rupees have been spent on committees and commissions to deliberate and recommended methods by bringing qualitative improvement in education. As a result, workers in the education field have endeavored to develop better curriculum, text books and teaching aids.
The importance of an Effective teacher in the educational process is indeed indisputable. Improved physical facilities, teaching techniques, etc., no doubt supplement teacher’s efficiency but they cannot be substituted for an Effective teacher considerable effort has
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been made to devise better means of assessing student’s achievement and techniques of teaching. But all this is of no use and the developmental targets are bound to remain unachieved unless schools are staffed with Effective teachers. It is they who influence and shape the competence and character of students.
In the words of Ryan’s, if competent teachers can be obtained, likelihood of attaining desirable educational outcomes is sustainable. On the other hand, although colleges may have excellent material resources in the form of equipment, building and text books and although curricula may be appropriated adapted to community requirements, the whole programme is likely to be ineffective and largely wasted.
{Ryan, David G., “Characteristics of Teacher- Their description comparison and appraisal”, American council of education, 1960 P.10}.
WHAT IS EFFECTIVENESS AND WHO IS AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER?
This is a perplexing question that has eluded an answer even in the countries where educational research has greatly developed. In spite of universal recognition of the importance of Effective teaching or specifying the distinguishing characteristics of Effective teacher. Educational literature is replete with material attempting to describe an Effective teacher. Volumes have been written on the subject. They are based on philosophy, principles, logic and some merely on opinion often founded on observation and institution. Literally, thousands of studies have been conducted on the subject and it has attracted probably more research than any other research in education. In 1953, the committee on the criteria of Teacher Effectiveness of the American Educational Research Association observed: The simple fact of the matter is that after 40 years of research on Teacher Effectiveness during which a vast number of studies have been carried out, one can
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point to few outcomes that a superintendent of schools can safely employ in hiring a teacher or granting his venture. {Remmesetal, second report of teaching Teacher Effectiveness, Journal of Education Research 46:61-657, 1953}.
The commission on Teacher Education wrote: “what kind of persons is needed as teachers for the schools called for our country’s development? Who should determine to enter the profession? What quality should be the teachers seek to develop? What should school authorities is look for in candidates for teaching and what in direction should they encourage teachers on the job to grow? These questions all point to the need for some means for judging excellence for a teacher……..
CONCEPT OF EFFECTIVE TEACHER:
The foundation of democracy will be laid in the educational institution by the teacher so the teacher may be considered as the National builder. The quality of education mainly depends upon the efficiency of the teacher teaching is not an easy profession. It needs some special skills and techniques and is considered as a program which is based on two persons- teacher and pupil. Through his teaching the teacher has to create interest about the subject.
Effective teaching mainly depends upon the special skills and teaching techniques of the teacher .today education became child centered. Through education, the teacher has to develop certain skills, attitudes among the students. The teacher should bring out the inherit talents of the students into light .so that the student may be trained on correct lines.
An Effective teacher always keeps in his mind the following elements and principles in the teaching learning process.
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1. The teacher should first know the child psychology so that he is able to know how to motivate the child for learning process.
2. Teacher should select good methods and techniques for an effective teaching.
3. Schools are established by the society for its development. So class room teaching should be suitable to the charging conditions of the society.
4. Motivating the students to the various types of curricular and co-curricular activities.
5. Teachers through their teaching should fulfill the needs of the society.
MEANINIG AND NATURE OF STRESS:
Stress is usually thought of in negative terms. It is thought to be caused be something bad. This is a form of Stress. But there is also a positive and pleasant side of Stress caused by good things; for example an employee is offered a job promotio0n at another place. This is a form of “Eu Stress”. The pioneers of Stress research coined this term, from the Greek ‘Eu’ which means good. In other works, Stress can be viewed in a number of different ways and has been described as the most in precise word in the scientific dictionary.
Concern about the impact of Stress on people as its roots in medicine and specially the pioneering work of Hans selye, the recognize father of Stress while searching for a new sex hormone, he serendipitously discovered that tissue damage is a non-specific response to vitality all noxious stimuli. He called the phenomenon the ‘General Adaptation Syndrome’ in his writings. The three stages of “Gas” are alarm, resistance and exhaustion. The “Gas” model represented the physiological approach to Stress but later, attention is also being given
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to psychological and behavioral dimensions of Stress are important to the understanding of job Stress.
All though there are numerous definitions and many debates about Stress. Invancerich and Matteson defined Stress simply as ‘the interaction of the individual with environment: But then they go on to give a more detailed working definition as follows:
“An adaptive response, mediated by individual differences and for psychological process, i.e., a consequence of any external (environmental) action, situation or even the places excessive psychological and / or physical demands upon a person”. Butcher and Newman defined job Stress as “A condition arising from the interaction of pupil and their jobs and characterized by change with in people that force them to deviate from their normal functioning”.
A more general definition of Stress may be given as “An adaptive response to an external situation that results in physical, psychological and/or behavioral deviations for organization participants”.
Depending upon the Stress factors and the nature of its effects various types of Stresses are commonly classified as
(1) Physiological Stress and
(2) Psychological Stress.
Physiological Stress factors involve excess physical loads, high and low temperatures, pain stimuli difficult etc.
Physiological Stress is subdivided into informational and emotional factors. Informational Stress occurs in situations involving informational over loads, when a person fails to cope with the problem, or is slow in making correct decisions or when his responsibility for the results in high. Emotional Stress appears in situations involving threat, danger, offence etc.
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SOURCES OF STRESS OR STRESS CREATORS:
These are technically called “Stressors”. They come from both outside and inside the organization from the groups that employees are influenced by and groom employees themselves. The common Stressors affecting to-day’s employees can be categorized with in to
(1) Extra-organizational (2) Organizational (3) Group Stressors (4) Individual Stressors. In combination or singly they represent a tremendous amount of potential Stress impinging upon to-day’s job holder at every level, and in every type of organization of profession. The effects of such Stress can create not only physical problem, (Heart diseases, ulcers, arthritis and even cancer) but also social problems tardiness, absenteeism, turnover and accidents). To cope with these Stresses induced problems a number of individuals and organizational strategies are developed. Exercise, relaxation, behavior, self-control technique, cognitive therapy technique and not working are sum of the potentially useful combining strategies that individuals can apply to help combat existing Stress. Organizational coping strategies to prevent or reduce job Stress include the measure such as making performance reviews, removal of safety hazards, improving lighting noise and temperature and improving lighting communication and information, clarifying ambiguous or conflicting role etc….
In addition to these more general strategies might include creating a supportive organization role and planning career paths and provide counseling.
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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Balachandran (1981) had taken up study on Teacher Effectiveness and student evaluation of teaching. The findings were
(1) The evaluate feedback based on students ratings helped Teachers significantly improve their Teacher Effectiveness. Irrespective of sex or subject of teaching.
(2) Students rating and self- rating of teachers were positively and significantly related but the self-rating was significantly higher than student ratings.
(3) The lowest performance of teachers on an average with respect to causing discussions the class and the best was with respect to punctuality.
Bhagoliwal (1982) found that more Effective teacher was characterized by a fairly high level of differentiation and integration. In their cognitive and perceptual functioning. They had a superior capacity for imagination and original thinking. The affection needs of more Effective teachers had a well-developed value system and Ego organization they had a narrow gap between their level of aspiration and inner resources.
Kiran Rao, subba Krishna and prabhu (1990) conducted study on “ Locus of controlling relation to Stress and coping” this study reveals that locus of control orientation was found to determine, use of specific coping behaviors, but did not play a significant role in determining the experience and preparation of Stressful life events. Taken to gather, the studies revels that students and teachers are experiencing Stresses and strain in the present educational system Panda (1991) by presenting a trend report of research in psychology of education views that, “Life Stress and burdened out consequent coping of behavior influence teacher behavior, teachers teaching styles and anxiety have
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become a major concerned while planning for Teacher Effectiveness”. Stress studies in India are not significantly found superior to 1980’s. It is only after 1980 some research studies are attempted this area.
Mutha (1980) conducted an attitudinal and personal study of effective teacher in his study revealed that professional training nature of schooling and income levels. Were the significantly associated with the Teacher Effectiveness similarly personality traits like A-S, anxiety material adjustment extraversion, neurotic job satisfaction and teaching attitude were found to be predicting Teacher Effectiveness significantly. Thus the Effective Teacher has significantly higher scores on neurotism than ineffective.
Pachauri (1983 )found that reserved ,relaxed, adjusted and controlled teachers were more proficient in teaching the those who were outgoing tense and possessed more anxiety further less intelligent imaginative and trusted teachers were high aggression were better in teaching .
Prakasham (1986) studied Teacher Effectiveness as a function of school organizational climate and teaching competency. He observed that
1. Teachers working schools situated in urban areas were better than teachers of all other areas on both teaching competency as well as Teacher Effectiveness.
2. No significant difference was found in the teaching competency and Teacher Effectiveness of the teachers working in the Government and non-Government schools in global terms. However teachers working in schools run by local bodies were found better in Teacher Effectiveness and teacher competency than those working in Government schools Christian schools and non-Christian schools.
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Singh (1987) in his study of the extent and patterns of reaction of frustration and professional adjustment that the teacher of the upper age group were found to be more frustrated than the teacher of lower age. SCOPE OF THE STUDY: The present study is designed for the study on Teacher Effectiveness and Stress among college Lecturers and the effect of probable intervening variables such as sex, locality, professional qualification, age, experience, marital status, type of management of college on it. It is also intended to study the influence of intervening variables on Teacher Effectiveness and Stress. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: The present investigation is made on the Junior College Lecturers of Chittoor District is to study the Teacher Effectiveness and Stress. TOOLS FOR THE STUDY The Teacher Effectiveness tool constructed by smt.Kamala Arora and Stress tool was constructed by Dr. B. Indira for the purpose of their research study. The Teacher Effectiveness tool is consists of 30 items, with 3point scale wise high, moderate, low. The weightages will be awarded from 3 to 1 and award will be in reverse order while in the case of negative statements. Hence the range of the tool will be in between 30 – 90. Similarly the Stress tool consists of 40 items. In the tool 4 alternatives are provided viz...Little or No Stress, Mild Stress, Moderate Stress and Great Stress. Weightage will be given to each statement 1 to 4 Marks for positive statements and the weightage will be awarded in the reverse order that 4 to 1 in the case of negative statements. Hence the range of the total score will be in between 40 to 160.
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DATA COLLECTION The sample for the investigation consisted of 150 lecturers in Chittoor district. The stratified random sampling was applied in three stages. The first stage is management i.e. Government (45) and private (105) the second stage is locality i.e. Rural (80) and Urban (70) and third stage is gender i.e. male (118) and female (32). It is a 2X2X2 factorial design with 150 sample subjects. The investigator personally visited colleges with the permission of the principals of the colleges. The lecturers who attended to the college on the day of collection of data are considered for the purpose of the investigation. I gave the instructions about the instrument and motivated to respond genuinely to all the items. The data on each variable in the investigation is properly coded to suit for computer analysis. The analysis was carried out on the basis of objectives of the investigation and hypotheses formulated by employing appropriate statistical techniques. The inferential statistical techniques such as’t’ test (critical ratio) and ‘F test were employed to test different hypothesis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Gender Hypothesis-1 1. There is no significant difference between Male lecturers and Female lecturers working in Junior Colleges of Chittoor District in their Teacher Effectiveness.
TABLE SHOWING THE COMPARASION BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE LECTURERS IN THEIR TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS. S.No Category A.M S.D N C.R 1 Male lecturers 64.79 6.4 118 1.29@ 2 Female lecturers 66.37 7.97 32 @ Not Significant
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The above table reveals the difference between Male and Female lecturers working in Junior Colleges of Chittoor District in their Teacher Effectiveness. It can be concluded there is no significant difference between the above two categories. As the obtained critical ratio value 1.29 is less than the 1.96 which is not significant at both levels.
Hence, the null hypothesis NO-1, i.e. “There is no significant difference between the Male and Female Lecturers working in Junior Colleges of Chittoor District in their Teacher Effectiveness” is accepted.
GRAPH SHOWING THE COMPARISION BETWEEN MALE LECTURERS AND FEMALE LECTURERS OF JUNIOR COLLEGES IN THEIR TEACHEREFFECTIVENESS
66.37 66.5
66
65.5 1 2 64.79 c 65
64.5
64 1 2
Hypothesis-2
There is no significant difference between rural area lecturers and urban area lecturers working in Junior College of Chittoor District in their Teacher Effectiveness
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TABLE SHOWING THE COMPARASION BETWEEN URBAN AND RURAL AREA LECTURERS IN THEIR TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS. S.No Category A.M S.D N C.R
1 Rural area lecturers 66.6 6.9 80 1.11@
2 Urban area lecturers 66.08 6.73 70
@ Not Significant
The above table reveals the difference between Rural and Urban area Lecturers working in Junior Colleges of Chittoor District in their Teacher Effectiveness. It can be concluded there is no significant difference between the above two categories. The obtained critical ratio value 1.11 is less than 1.96 which is not significant at 0.05 level.
Hence, the null hypothesis NO-2 i.e., “There is no significant difference between Rural and Urban locality lecturers working in Junior Colleges of Chittoor District in their Teacher Effectiveness” is accepted
GRAPH SHOWING THE COMPARASION BETWEEN URBAN AND RURAL AREA LECTURERS IN THEIR TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS.
66.6 66.6 66.4 66.2 66.08 1 66 65.8 1 2
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3. Management
Hypothesis-3 There is no significant difference between Govt. lecturers and Private lecturers working in Junior colleges of Chittoor District in their Teacher Effectiveness
TABLE SHOWING THE COMPARISION BETWEEN PRIVATE COLLEGE LECTURERS AND GOVERNMENT COLLEGE LECTUERERS IN THEIR TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS.
S.No Category A.M S.D N C.R
1 Govt. lecturers 68 6.94 45 2.07**
2 Private lecturers 65.62 6.84 105
@ Significant at 0.05 level
The above table reveals the difference between Government Lecturers and Private Lecturers working in Junior Colleges of Chittoor District in their Teacher Effectiveness. It can be concluded there is significant difference between the above two categories. The obtained critical ratio value 2.07 is greater than 1.96 which is significant at 0.05 level.
Hence, the null hypothesis NO-3 i.e., “There is no significant difference between Government Lecturers and Private Lecturers working in Junior Colleges of Chittoor District in their Teacher Effectiveness” is rejected
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GRAPH SHOWING THE COMPARISION BETWEEN PRIVATE COLLEGE LECTURERS AND GOVERNMENT COLLEGE LECTUERERS IN THEIR TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS.
68 68 67.5 67 66.5 1 66 65.62 65.5 65 64.5 64 1 2 GOVT LECTURERS PRIVATE LECTURERS
Findings
Findings
The male lecturers had significant higher teacher effectiveness scores compared to Female Lecturers
The Rural area lecturers had significant higher teacher effectiveness scores compared to urban area lecturers
The government college lecturers had significant higher teacher effectiveness scores compared to private college lecturers.
Conclusions
In the light of the findings, the following conclusions are drawn. Gender, locality, are no significant influence on the teacher effectiveness among junior college lecturers and there is significant
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influence of Government management at 0.05 level on the teacher effectiveness among junior college lecturers.
References
1. Brookover,W.G.:- The relation of Social factors to Teaching ability’, Journal of Elementary Education,1945,13,194-205 2. Cosgrove, D.J:- ‘Diagnostic rating of Teacher Performance’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 1959, 59,200-204 3. Dash, B.N.:- ‘Teacher and Education in the Emerging Indian society’, Vol-1, Ist Education, Neelkamal Publications Pvt.Ltd, Hyderabad, AP, India, 2002. 4. Herda:-‘ Hand book of Research on Training’, N.L Gage (Ed), Rand.Mc. Wally, Chicago, 1963, p.725 5. Jensen, A, C.:- Determining critical requirement for the analysis of Teacher ffectiveness’, Journal of Experimental Education, 1955, 20, 79-85 6. Mitzel, H.E.:- ‘A Behavioral approach to the assumption of Teacher Effectiveness’, division of teacher education college of city ofNew York (Mimeographed).
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ASSESSMENT OF PERSONAL HYGIENE PRACTICE OF FOOD HANDLERS IN FOOD SERVING ESTABLISHMENTS OF AFAR REGION: A CASE IN SAMARA-LOGIA CITY ADMINISTRATION, NORTH EAST ETHIOPIA
Chalachew Genet Akal Tizazu Zenebe Zelelie College of Health Sciences College of Health Sciences Samara University, Samara, Samara University, Samara, Ethiopia Ethiopia
Abdu Mohammed Asfaw College of Natural Sciences Samara University, Samara, Ethiopia
1. Background
Food borne illness is major public health problem and an important cause of reduced economic growth globally. But it is reported that the illness has a profound impact in developing countries because of poverty, low sanitation and health care facility access. Food borne illness occurs when a healthy individual take food or drinks contaminated with different micro organisms or/and its toxic product capable of causing food borne illness or chemical hazards. Food bore illnesses can be acquired through taking contaminated food or drink [1, 2].
Food contamination may occur at any point during its journey through production, processing and distribution. The contamination can be caused by many factors which include food handlers (any person who handles food, regardless whether s/he actually prepares or serves it) who are ill/carrier of disease, have poor personal Hygiene and food safety practice as well as improper environmental sanitation. FHs with poor personal hygienic practice or/and with illness/carrier of microorganisms are the common direct sources for the transfer of microorganisms to the food from their skin, nose, hair, fingers, nails,
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cloths and others. FHs can also transfer indirectly from other sources into the food prepared and/or served by them. As a result of these, WHO recommends food handlers should maintain proper personal hygiene [3, 4, 5].
Thus FHs should wear suitable personal protective cloths (gown, head covering and foot wear) and always wash their hands immediately after using the toilet, at the start of food handling as well as after handling raw food or any contaminated material. Moreover diseased or carriers FHs should not be allowed to work or access any food handling area [5, 2].
For FHs to keep their personal hygiene, there should be hygiene facilities like wash basins, water, soap, adequate changing facilities for personnel in FSEs. In addition to appropriate personal hygienic practices and availability of hygiene facilities, FHs should also abstain from behavior like smoking, chewing, spitting, sneezing or coughing over unprotected food which could result in contamination of food. Moreover WHO also recommends that FHs should not wear personal effects such as jewelries, watches and other items. Training of FHs on personal hygiene and/or food safety is fundamentally important [5].
Different studies in different parts of the world are conducted in personal hygienic practices of FHs. A study conducted in Turkey indicated that there was a good hand washing practice (> 78%) of FHs after touching and before touching unwrapped raw food. Moreover 75% of FHs wear appropriate personal barriers [6]. On the other hand a study in Pakistan (2010) indicated that only one third of FHs wash their hands regularly before or after activity. The study also reported that none of FHs in low class restaurants had taken either in service training or supervision [7].
Though studies in Ethiopia on personal hygienic practice of FHs are limited, few related studies are conducted in different towns. A study in
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Mekelle indicated that high proportion (>77%) of FHs never made medical cheek up but wear personal protective gowns (>72%) [13]. Another study in Dangila and Zeway towns indicated that majority of FHs (>64%) work in FSEs having hand washing basins. But high portion of FHs (>89%) in Dangila town never take food handling/preparation trainings [8, 9].
The presence of poor personal hygienic practice of FHs together with incorrect food handling, lack of sanitation, running water, washing facilities, refrigeration as well as disinfection will lead to substandard hygiene of most foods [10]. Though the study area (Samara-Logia city administration) is the regional capital and highly populated town of Afar regional state (one of the nine regional state of Ethiopia), there was no any study conducted to asses personal hygienic practice of FHs the city administration.
2. Methods
2.1. Study design and period
A cross sectional study design was conducted from March to June 2004 E.C.
2.2. Study area
The study was conducted in Samara-Logia city administration, which is one of the two city administrations in Afar regional state of Ethiopia and host the main Ethiopia-Djibouti road, is established by joining the two cities of the region namely Samara and Logia. Samara is the capital city of Afar regional state, which is one of the nine regional states of Ethiopia, and is located around 588 Km away from the country capital: Addis Ababa. Afar regional state, which is mostly inhabited by pastoral and agro pastoral community, is administratively divided in to five zones where zone one (which include our study area) having the highest population. The region, including the study area, has hot
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weather condition and is the home of the Dallol depression and Erta- Ale volcano [11].
2.3. Source population
The source population was all food handlers working in all food serving establishments of Samara-Logia city administration.
2.4. Inclusion criteria
All food handlers working in the food serving establishments of city administration was included
2.5. Exclusion criteria
Those food handlers who are not willing to participate (who don’t give verbal consent) as well as those who were hospitalized at the time of data collection was excluded
2.6. Sample size
Since the city administration is newly established but rapidly growing, there are few restaurants, cafeterias and butchers. As a result all FHs who give verbal consent were included in the study. Thus, data were collected from a total of 89 FHs working in restaurants (37 FHs), cafeteria (38 FHs) and butcher houses (14 FHs).
2.7. Operational definition
Food Handlers (FHs): Individuals who are in charge of preparing and/or handling food in food serving establishments
Food serving establishments: Establishments involved in food preparing and/or serving for the community regularly in Samara- Logia city administration which include restaurants, cafeterias and butcher houses.
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2.8. Data collection
Data was collected using a pretested structured questionnaire which was taken from different literatures [6, 7, 8] and modified based on WHO Five Keys to Safer Food check list [2]. The questionnaire contains demographic information, personal hygiene practices, availability of facility and other related questions of FHs working in FSEs. Data collection, supervised by principal investigators, was done by four diploma environmental health graduates. . 2.9. Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 16.0 soft ware program. During the data analysis, different percentage and frequency comparisons were made and the finding was presented using texts, tables and graphs. 2.10. Quality assurance
The questionnaire was first developed in English and then translated to Amharic language. It was also back translated into English to cheek the consistency. After recruiting the data collector, one day training was given for data collectors. The questionnaire was also pre-tested. During data collection, each questioner was cheeked for completeness by principal investigators. 2.11. Ethical considerations
By submitting the study protocol, ethical clearance was obtained from Samara University College of Health Sciences ethical review committee. Moreover a permission letter was also obtained from Samara-Logia city administration health office. Using this permission letter, consent was obtained from owners/managers of FSEs to interviewing FHs. 3. RESULTS
The socio demographic characteristics of 89 FHs included in the study, with a 100% response rate, are presented on Table-1. Among 89 FHs, 51.7% were females and 48.3% were males. The mean age of FHs was 23.0 years (standard deviation ±6.7 years) and 67.4% of them worked for less than 1 year. Moreover more than 20.2% of FHs working in FSEs were children less than 18 years. Moreover 60 (67.4%) of FHs
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were Muslims in religion and 12 (13.5%) of FHs reported to have at least 1 addictions (Table-1) Table-1: Socio-demographic findings of food handlers working in FSEs of Samara-Logia city Administration; March-June 2012
No Variables Frequency Percent (%) (n=89) 1 Age [10-18) 18 20.2 [18-25] 51 57.3 >25 20 22.5 2 Sex Male 43 48.3 Female 46 51.7 3 Educational level Illiterate 22 24.7 Primary 18 20.2 Secondary 45 50.6 > Secondary 4 4.5 4 Year of service Less than 1 month 27 30.3 1 month-1 year 33 37.1 1 year-5 year 29 32.6 5 Addiction Yes 12 13.5 Cigarette smoking & 1 8.3 drinking alcohols 2 16.7 Drinking alcohol only 8 66.7 Chat chewing only 1 8.3 Drinking & chewing 0 0 Drinking, chewing & 77 86.5 smoking No
Among 89 food handlers, only 27 (30.3%) and 21 (23.6%) use gowns and hair covers respectively. But among those FHs who use gowns and hear covers, 74.1% and 95.2% wear it for one day in two or more day interval
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respectively. Moreover there was no any FH reported to use gloves. The following graph shows the distribution of protective barrier (gown & hair cover) usage in different food serving establishments (Figure-1).
40 97.3%
35 81.1% 30
25 FHWOG food handlers 52.6% 52.6% 20 47.4% 47.4% FHWG FHWOHC 15 100% 100% FHWHC Number of 10 18.9% 5 2.7% 0 0 0 Restaurant Cafteria Butcher Figure-1: Usage of protective barrier (gown and hair cover) of food handlers working in FSEs of Samara-Logia city administration; March- June 2012
Keys:
FHWOG Food Handlers without Gown FHWOHC Food Handlers without Hair Cover
FHWG Food Handlers with Gown FHWHC Food Handlers with Hair Cover
All food handlers replied that they wash their hands after using toilets of which 78.8 % of them reported to wash their hands using water only. But none of food handlers wash their hand after touching uncooked food and before starting food preparations. In the study, 9 (10.1%) food
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handlers cut their nails using their teeth. 36 (40.4%) food handlers use at least one type of jewelry at work of which 8 (22.2%) of them wash their jewelry intentionally (Table-2). The study also revealed that all food handlers don’t take any health education on food safety and/or personal hygienic practices. Moreover, all FHs never made medical screening.
Table-2: Self reported personal hygienic practice and jewelry usage of food handlers working in FSEs of
Samara-Logia city administration; March-June 2012
No Number (%) of FHs
Restaurant Cafeteria Butcher
1 Hand wash
Using water only 23 (62.2) 27 (71.1) 13 (92.9)
Using water & soap 14 (37.8) 11 (29.9) 1 (7.1)
Using water & ash 0 0 0
2 Body wash
2 or 3 times per day 34 (91.9) 33 (86.8) 14 (100)
1 times per day 3 (8.1) 5 (13.2) 0
3 Cloth washing
Daily 4 (10.8) 7 (18.4) 0
Twice per week 18 (48.7) 15 (39.5) 6 (42.9)
Once per week 15 (40.5) 16 (42.1) 8(57.1)
4 Nail cutting frequency
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Two times per week 6 (16.2) 7 (18.4) 0
One times per week 18 (48.7) 21 (55.3) 11 (78.6)
One times per 2 weeks 13 (35.1) 10 (26.3) 3 (21.4)
5 Nail cutting device
Nail cutting device 22 (59.5) 26 (68.4) 8 (57.1)
Blade 12 (32.4) 6 (15.8) 6 (42.9)
Teeth 3 (8.1) 6 (15.8) 0
6 Jewelry¥
Yes 20 (54.1) 21 (55.3) 4 (28.6)
Use at work 17 (85) 15 (71.4) 4 (100)
Intentionally 2 (11.8) 6 (40) 0 wash
Do not use at work 3 (15) 6 (28.6) 0
No 17 (45.9) 17 (44.7) 10 (71.4)
Keys:
¥: Jewelry includes finger rings, different ornaments in the hands and neck of FHs
In this study, 41.6 % of FSEs don’t have full water access of which restaurants being the highest (39.5%) followed by butcher houses (36.8%) and cafeterias (23.7%). Among FSEs who don’t have full water access, only 29.7% of them have container (any container either closed or open) to store water. The study also indicated that all butcher houses and 68.4% of cafeterias don’t have showers. Even though 91.9% of restaurants have showers, 26.5% of them don’t allow food handlers
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to wash freely unless they pay for the service. In the study, 95.5 % of FSEs don’t employ workers responsible for cleaning the establishments. The establishments are cleaned by waiters or/and kitchen workers in a rotation base. Moreover, 93.3% of FSEs use dry mopping to clean. In the study, it is also indicated that 94.7% of FSEs don’t have hand washing basin in their toilet (Table-3).
Table-3: Cleaning practice and availability of facilities in food serving establishments of Samara-Logia
City administration; March-June 2012
No Food establishment type; % of FSEs♠ Restaurant Cafeteria Butcher 1 Cleaning of establishment floor¥ Yes 100 100 100 No 0 0 0 2 Assigned individual for cleaning Yes 5.4 5.3 0 No 94.6 94.7 100 3 Cleaning frequency 1 times per day 8.1 5.3 35.7 2 times per day 56.8 44.7 0 3 times per day 35.1 44.7 0 2-3 times per week 0 5.3 64.3 4 Cleaning agent Dry moping 91.9 92.1 100 Moping with water 8.1 7.9 0
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Moping with water & 0 0 1 detergent 5 Toilet availability Available 100 97.4 7.1 Toilet with hand 5.4 0 0 washing basin Toilet without hand 94.6 100 100 washing basin Not available 0 2.6 92.9 Keys:
♠: FSEs Food Serving Establishments ¥: Food establishment floor is to mean floor of the kitchens & the floor where customers use the service
4. Discussion
In this study, none of food handlers wash their hands after touching unwrapped raw food and 76.4% never wears cap (hair cover) as well as none of FHs wear protective gloves. These results goes in contrary to the study conducted in Turkey which indicates that 87.7 % & 78.9% of FHs wash their hands after touching and before touching unwrapped raw food respectively. On the other hand 38.4% of FHs never wear cap when touching or distributing unwrapped foods and 25.1 % never wear protective gloves. These differences may be due to the study populations differences in education & work experience where 46.7% & 51.3% of the participants have completed primary level of education & have 10 or more years of work experience respectively compared to this study where only 20.2% of them completed their primary level of education and 67.4% of FHs have less than one year work experience [6].
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Moreover in this study, none of FHs take food safety or personal hygiene trainings unlike the study in Turkey where 52.2 % of them take food safety trainings [6]. On the other hand, the result of this study goes in line with a study conducted in Pakistan (in 2010) by Rubeena Gul with respect to food safety trainings where none of food handlers working in low class restaurants had taken either in-service training or supervision. These differences may be due to socioeconomic differences of study subjects [7].
This study also indicated that 27 (30.3%) wear gowns. This finding was lower than a finding in North West Ethiopia where 78.6% of FHs wear gowns. This difference may be due to, in this study, design of the gown doesn’t consider the hot weather temperature and no trainings given for FHs unlike the study in Dangila where 10.8% of FHs take trainings [9]. Moreover this study indicated that all FHs never made medical cheek up. This finding is inconsistent with a study done in Mekelle town of North Ethiopia where 22.7% of FHs had made medical cheek up in the last year. This difference may be because of the differences in health system strength of Mekelle town and Samara-Logia city administration [13].
The availability of most facilities in this study, which are important for FHs to keep their personal hygiene [2], was limited. Availability of showers (which does not include shower taking by hand pouring) and hand washing basins (for example) was 51.7 % and 2.2 % respectively unlike a study done in Dangila, North West Ethiopia where 64.5% of FHs work in FSEs having toilet with hand washing basin [9]. This difference may be explained with socio demographic and cultural differences of the two communities who have different water usage habit in using toilets.
In this study, 98.9 % and 47.2 % of FSEs have some kind of latrine and water reservoirs. This study has high latrine access and water reservoir
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when compared to a study conducted in Zeway, Southern Ethiopia (in 2001) where only 59% and 20% of FSEs have some kind of latrines and water reservoirs access respectively. This difference may be the study in Zeway includes other FSEs like Bars, Grocery, recreation center (locally called “Menafesha bet”) and Pastry which were not included in this study as well as this study was conducted 11 years later than the study in Zeway. On the other hand, the availability of hand washing basins in FSEs is extremely low which is only 2.2% compared to a study in Zeway which is 71% [8]. This high difference may be due to most of FSEs use local hand washing facilities (barrel type) as it is indicated in the study conducted in 2003 by Abera K., et al in Awash-Sebat Kilo (Afar regional state) where 96.4% of FSEs use local type of hand washing facilities [12].
5. Conclusion
The personal hygienic practices of FHs were poor. Protective barrier usage was limited and is not designed to fit hot temperature of the area making FHs not to use them regularly. Though there is good practice in body and cloth washing practice of FHs, high proportion of them never washes hands and their jewelries properly. Availability of facilities in FSE was also low and is less accessible for FHs. Moreover FHs never made any medical screening and takes health education and/or trainings on personal hygienic practice which needs to be considered by the administration health office.
6. List of abbreviations
FHs: Food Handlers
FSEs: Food Serving Establishments
WHO: World Health Organization 7. Competing interests
We, outers, declare that there is no any competing interest.
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8. Authors contribution
TZZ was involved in designing, acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation of data. CGA was also involved in designing, acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation of data as well as in developing this manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
9. Acknowledgment
We would like to thank our study participants, Samara-Logia city administration health office as, food establishment owners as well as data collectors for their positive contribution of this work. Moreover, we also want to acknowledge Samara University for funding this research.
10. References
1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Assuring Food Safety and Quality: Guidelines for Strengthening National Food Control Systems. WHO.
2. WHO: Five keys to safer food (manual). Geneva: WHO; 2006.
3. Green L, Selman C., et al: Food service workers self reported food preparation practices: An EHS-Net study. International Journal of Hygiene Environmental health 2005, 208: 27-35.
4. Mead PS, Slutsker L., et al: Food related illness and death in the United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases 1999, 5: 607-25.
5. WHO (Eastern Mediterranean Regional office): Hazard analysis and critical control point generic models for some traditional foods: A manual for the Eastern Mediterranean Region: WHO; 2008.
6. Murat B., Azmi S. E. and Go¨khan K: The evaluation of food hygiene knowledge, attitudes, and practices of food handlers in food businesses in Turkey. Food Control 2006, 17: 317-22.
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7. Rubeena G.: Hand washing practices of food handlers in the hospitality establishments of Peshawar city. J Med Sci 2012, 20: 22- 5.
8. Abera K., Kalkidan G., Helina W., et al: The sanitary conditions of public food and drink establishments in the district town of Zeway, Southern Ethiopia. Ethiop J Health Dev 2002, 16: 95-104
9. Tessema AG, Gelaye KA and Chercos DH: Factors affecting food handling Practices among food handlers of Dangila town food and drink establishments, North West Ethiopia. BMC Public Health 2014, 14:571.
10. WHO (Regional office for Africa). Food safety and health: a strategy for the WHO African region: WHO; 2007.
11. Central Statistical Authority (CSA): Demographic and health survey, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. Ethiopia: Central Statistical Authority (CSA); 2007.
12. Abera K., Ashebir M., Aderajew A., et al: the sanitary condition of food and drink establishments in Awash-Sebat kilo town, Afar region, Ethiopia (brief communication). Ethiop J Health Dev 2006, 20: 201-03.
13. Zeru K and Abera K: Sanitary condition of food establishments in Mekelle town, Tigray, North Ethiopia. Ethiop J Health Dev 2007, 21 (1): 1-9.
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SYNTHESIS AND STUDIES ON TUNGSTEN BRONZE LEAD BASED CERAMIC MATERIALS
1 2 1 Vemuri Raghavendra , Y. Ramesh Babu , B.Suryanarayana 3 1 K.Ramanjaneyulu and K. Chandra Mouli
1Solid State Physics and Materials Research Laboratory Department of Engineering Physics, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. 2G.Pullareddy Engineering College, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh. 3Sankethika Vidyasparishad Engineering College, P.M.Palem, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.
Abstract : Tungsten Bronze ferroelectrics are found to be technologically important materials for various device applications due to their high dielectric constant and other electrical properties. In the present study lead barium niobate ceramics with using the stoichiometric formula were synthesized to identify the dielectric nature of these ceramic materials. The influence of Sm3+ dopant on these materials are established. The changes in dielectric constant, ferroelectric phase transition temperature with increase of sm dopant are carried out. Significant change in Tc with dopant content is observed
Keywords: Tungsten bronze, Lead,Ceramic, Ferroelectrics
1. INTRODUCTION:
Lead niobate is the first discovered ferroelectric consisting tungsten bronze structure and lead niobate is considered to be an excellent ferroelectric for applications in high temperature conditions due to its unique piezoelectric properties including high curie temperature [1, 2]. In order to obtain the lead niobate ceramics with improved dielectric and piezoelectric properties, many dopants have been explored [3- 7].This lead barium niobate is a promising tungsten bronze ceramic system which exhibits a morphotropic phase boundary between orthorhombic and tetragonal phases at x=0.63.Tungsten bronze
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structured ferroelectrics are a large class of technically important ferroelectric materials. A large number of oxygen octahedral ferroelectric crystallize with tungsten bronze structure. Lines and Glass[8] pointed out that all ferroelectric tungsten bronzes that are known to be stable at room temperature are solid solutions of at least two components in which neither of the components has a stable tungsten bronze structure at room temperature. It also mentioned that in ferroelectric tungsten bronzes, charge compensation take place by ionic rearrangements. It is classified ferroelectric tungsten bronzes into
three formulae depending on site occupancies of A1, A2 and C sites [8].If
both A1 and A2 are alkaline earth ions and C sites are empty, the structure may be described as (A1)X(A2)5-XNb10O30.If A1 is an alkaline
earth and A2 is an alkaline ion with C sites empty. The structure is
described by (A1)4+x + x(A2)2-2x Nb10O30.If both A1 and A2 are alkali ions, the structure is completely filled with the similar ions like lithium in the c-sites.The general formula for the Tungsten bronze structural
ferroelectric ceramics is represented by (A1)2 (A2)4 (C)4 (B1)2 (B2)8 O30, in
which A1,A2,B1,B2 and C are the 12-, 15-, 6-, 6-, 9- fold coordinates sites respectively in the crystal structure surrounded by oxygen anions and
the A1, A2, B1, B2 and C will be filled by different valancy cations or
may be partially empty.The BO6 octahedra are linked by their corners in such a manner so as to form three different types of tunnels running
through the structure parallel to the c-axis, in Pbx Ba1-x Nb2 O6,Pb 5+ occupies A1, Ba occupies A2, B1 and B2 are filled by Nb ions and C are generally empty. Investigations on these tungsten bronze lead barium niobates are important due to their applications such as SAW devices, capacitors and ferroelectric random access memories [9-13].
2. Synthesis of ceramic compositions
The fabrication of ferroelectric ceramic involves several stages namely, raw material evaluation, wet mixing, calcinations, grinding, processing, sintering and polishing. Raw materials are evaluated on the basis of
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According to sallow and jordan1 the presintering is crucial for the following reasons.
Fig 1: Flow chart for the preparation of Ferroelectric ceramics
1. It decomposes the carbonates or higher oxides present in the mixture, thereby reducing evaluation of unwanted gases in the final sintering. 2. It effects thermodynamical reaction among the constituent oxides to form the desired solid solution. 3. It helps in controlling the shrinkage occurring during the final sintering. 4. It also helps in controlling the particle size of the presintered product on grinding. After wet mixing, the slurry was dried in an oven and the resulting mixture was placed in a platinum crucible and heated in high temperature furnace in air atmosphere at 9000C for 3 hours. The
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heating and cooling rates were about 2000C per hour. In order to reduce the particle size the calcined mixture was reground for few hours. In the present work, the conventional ceramic method of dry pressing in a die punch assembly using a hydraulic press was employed to compress the powder into disc shape. To ensure good flow of the powder and a reproducible filling of the die, the powder was sieved and granulated using 5% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).The granule were then pressed into discs at a pressure of 3-4 tonnes per sq.inch.The pressed discs were then placed on a platinum foil and closed with a crucible and the sintered in a silicon carbide heated furnace in air for a sintering period of 2 to 5 hours for the preparation of different ceramic compositions. The ceramic compositions for present investigations processed as described in fig1.The synthesized samples are
(1) Pb Ba Nb O 0.65 0.35 2 6 (2) Pb Ba Sm Nb O 0.62 0.35 0.02 2 6 (3) Pb Ba Sm Nb O . 0.59 0.35 0.04 2 6 3 Experimental, Results and Discussion
A two terminal sample holder has been indigeneously fabricated for the measurement of dielectric constant. It is designed to measure the dielectric constant and dielectric loss at high temperature. The schematic diagram of the fabricated cell is shown in the Fig.2.The outer casing of the sample holder is made up of thick brass block. The upper electrode is also of brass with 4 mm diameter. The lower electrode is much larger in area with a diameter of 10 mm.The upper electrode is insulated from the brass cell by using Teflon at the neck of the cell. The upper electrode is kept in contact with lower electrode under light spring tension. The model 2300 is a precision environmental test chamber having a stainless steel interior, aluminium outer case and fiber glass insulation. The closed in air circulation is provided by 140 CFM blower. The chamber in heated by applying a full wave powder to
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pair of bobbin wound nichrome 20 heating elements. The type v controller is a high precision microcomputer based controller which utilizes digital techniques to provide control action for the temperature system. The controller has the capability to change the controlling parameter automatically thereby allowing the controlling action to adopt a particular chamber and its unique thermal response characteristics. The controller microprocessor automatically performs the regulation of both heat and/or coolant of the temperature system. The coaxial connector from the measuring cell is connected to the BNC female connector of the Hewlett Packard LF impedance analyser model 4192A through an intermediary accessory model 16095A.Then the capacitance measurements were taken at 1 khz from room temperature to 4500C.Then the dielectric constant is calculated from the relation
= Cd / A Є ЄO Where C is the capacitance of the sample d is the thickness of the sample A is the surface of the sample is the free space permittivity (8.85 x10-12 F/m). ЄO The sample was kept on the bottom of the electrode of the cell and the lid with the upper electrode is kept over the sample and the screws were tightened to ensure good electrical contact between the sample and the electrodes. The tension of the spring always keeps the sample in close contact with the electrodes. The output of the cell is connected to capacitance Bridge through a coaxial connector. The sintered samples were polished and then air drying silver paint was applied to the polished faces. Then the samples were fired at 5000C for 1 hour. The sample was placed between the upper and lower electrodes of the sample cell and the dielectric constant at different temperatures is calculated by measuring the capacitance of the sample at different temperatures. The variation of the temperature of the sample is
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accomplished by introducing the measuring cell into delta design test chamber. The delta design model 2300 is a precision environmental test chamber in which temperature with accuracy ± 0.10C can be obtained. In this model the temperature is controlled by means of Delta design’s solid state controller which can be operated either manually or through external programmer. The curie temperature is determined from the peak of the dielectric constant vs temperature curve. The dielectric loss tangent, tanδ, can also read directly from the HPModel 4192A displays along with the capacitance.
FIG 2: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF MEASURING CELL
Dielectric behaviour: Ferroelectric materials are non linear dielectrics. For most applications of ferroelectric materials, the dielectric properties provide a great deal of information for understanding the molecular structure and the mechanism of electric polarization in ferroelectric materials. Dielectrics have been primarily used in capacitors and as electric insulation. The polarisation effect is
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important in dielectric which occurs due to displacement of charge within the material through the progressive orientation of permanent or induced dipoles when subjected to electric field. In the present studies the variation of dielectric constant as a function of temperature are carried out as shown in fig(3).
10000
9000
8000 ------2 7000 ------3
6000 ------1
5000
4000
3000 Dielectric constant
2000
1000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Temperature(0C)
Fig (3): Dielectric constant Vs Temperature
It is clear that from the fig (3) that the dielectric constant changes with temperature. In this studies as shown in figure,it is observed that the dielectric constant increases upto a certain temperature and then decreases and this temperature is called ferroelectric phase transition temperature, where this material become paraelectric. This plot indicating the temperature variation of dielectric constant of lead barium niobate and Sm substituted lead niobates.The concentration of Ba is kept at 35 mole % and the Sm concentration changed upto 0.04 which resulted the dielectric broadening[14] which can be observed from fig(3).This broadening of the phase transition is due to disorders and the compositional fluctuations in the solid solutions[8].The ferroelectric-para electric phase transtition temperature Tc is obtained 3500C for undoped lead barium niobate, which is reported in the earlier
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investigations[15,16].The ferroelectric transition temperature, room temperature dielectric constant and dielectric constant at transition temperature are shown in Table-I.
Table-I: Dielectric Parameters
S.No Sample Room Dielectric Transition temperature constant at temperature Dielectric transition (Tc0C) constant( ) temperature( ) ЄRT ЄTc
0 01 Pb0.65 774 8226 350 C
Ba0.35
Nb2O6 0 02 Pb0.62 785 8552 340 C
Ba0.35 Sm
0.02Nb2O6 0 03 Pb0.59 902 8820 320 C
Ba0.35 Sm
0.04Nb2O6
It is clear that from the table-I that the ferroelectric transition temperature decreases with the increase of Sm content, in which curie temperature to 3200C from 3500C.Another important observation in this studies is that the room temperature dielectric constant increased from774 to 902 and also peak dielectric constant increased from 8226 to 8820 with the increase of Sm upto 0.04 content.
4 Conclusions: The dielectric peaks were broadened with the increase of Sm substitution. High dielectric constant materials were obtained. Both room temperature dielectric constant and dielectric constant at ferroelectric phase transition temperature increased with the increase of Sm content.
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References:
[1] G.Goodman. J.Am.Ceram.Soc, 36(1953) 368 [2] Yue-Ming Li, Liang cheng, Xing-Yong Gu,Yu-Ping Zhang, Run- Hua Liao, J.Mater.Pro.Tech.197 (2008) 170. [3] S.Ray, E.Gunther, H.J.Ritzhaupt-kleissl, J.Mater.Sci, 35(2000) 6221. [4] M.Venet, A.Vendramini, F.L Zabotto.F.Guerrero, D.Garcia, J.A.Eiras.J.Eur.Ceram.Soc, 25(2005)2443. [5] J.M.Xue, S.Ezhilvalavan, X.S.Gao, J.Wang, APPL.Phys.Lett 81(2002)877. [6] M.Venet, F.L.Zabotto, J.A.Eiras, M.Rincon, P.S.Pizani,D.Garcia, Ferroelectrcs,337(2006) 213. [7] Yun-Yun Liu, Xiao-mingchen, Han-Li Lian, Jian-Ping zhou, Peng Liu, J.Meter.Sci: Mater Electron 015(2015)3813. [8]. M.E.Lines and A.M.Glass “principles and applications of ferroelectrics and related to materials” (oxford university press, oxford) 1977. [9] Nuergaonkar.R, Hall W.F, Oliver J.R., HO.W.W and Cory.W.K, J.Ferroelectrics, 87(1988) 167. [10] Tribotte.B, Haussone and Desgardin.G, J.Euro .Cerm.Soc, 19(1999)1105. [11] N.Wakiya, J.K.Wang, A.Saiki, K.Shinozaki and N.Mizutani. J.Euro.Cerm.Soc, 19(1999)1071 [12] K.Lebbou, H.Itagaki, A.Yoshikawa, T.Fukuda, G.Boulon and A.Brenier, J.Crystal Growth, 224(2001) 59. [13] W.H.Jiang, W.W.Cao, X.J.Yi, H.C.Chen, J.Appl.Phys, 97(2005)11. [14] V.E.Yurkevich and B.N.Rolo, J.Ferroelectrics 68(1986) 265. [15] P.Baxter and N.J.Hellicar, J.Am.Cer.Soc 43(1960) 578. [16] K.Nagata,Y.Kawatai and K.Okazaki, Jpn.J.Appl.phys.22(1983)22.
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ANALYSIS OF SENIOR SECONDARY ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION TEXT BOOK
Dr. (Mrs.) Anshu Narad Assistant Professor Lovely School of Education Lovely Professional University Phagwara,Punjab Introduction
There was a time when people thought of the environment, thought of its beauty; but now as the natural beauty of the earth is disappearing, many people around the world have awoken to the realities of just how fragile our earth actually is. The natural environment includes the magnificent mountains, vast seacoast, baron and fertile land, lush green forests, the deserts, the azure sky, the blue lagoons and lakes, the starry night’s marvelous reservoirs of underground wealth, the rolling waves, the trees, the flowers, the insects, the bewildering varieties of animal, the breeze, the brooks as well as the massive earthquake, the nimbus the awful floods, tiny and invisible microorganism etc. All these components of natural environment are awe-inspiring and breathtaking.
Man is the product of both heredity and environment. Heredity is a genetic factor that determines the individual characteristic responsible for resemblance between parents and off springs. But the environment is external condition of surroundings, especially, in which organism exists and interacts with it. Every organism makes use of natural environment for their existence. All these creatures including humans get their food and other family comforts only in the natural environment. Environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation that the individual receives from conception until death. It covers all those circumstances, which assert their influence on the individual
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since conception to death. The term environment may cover whatever found around the individual.
Man, ever since he appeared on the surface of the earth, became a part of environment. Awareness of physical environment was not something new for him, observed and enjoyed nature. Today he no longer thinks of nature as a personified being. Man thought himself to be a master, not a slave, and he started utilizing his environmental resources to meet his ever-increasing wants for a better living. But now he has trespassed too far, to the extent of causing serious ecological and environmental imbalances.
One little change in our environment is enough to determine the course of mankind. The world can only be preserved when we take action to study and save it. Studying the cycles of the world and discerning the cause and effects of our actions will allow us to keep a healthy environment and to live an enjoyable life. Environment is the physical and biotic habitat that surrounds us. Environmental issues affect, and are affected by, all our activities to varying degrees. The need to have a working knowledge of environmental issues is not confined to environmental scientists, engineers and policy makers. In our society, all educated citizens need to have a working understanding of the fundamental principles involved for environmentally responsible decision- making. The only way tomake our present and coming generations’ environment sensitive is through the introduction of environment education as an essential component of school education. Environment Education makes students understand the concept of sustainable development which is the need of today. The subject develops the skill of observation and analysis in the students with respect to environment.The term environmental education was for the first used in the environmental conference held at Keele University, Britain in 1965. Since then both at national and international level it is
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being used to deal with environmental problems. At International level, Stockholm conference (1971) and Belgrade Workshop (1977) focused on the environmental education at all levels. The conferences considered the training of personnel, including pre- service, in service teachers and all others connected with education and environmentally linked matter as a priority activity so as not to create economic, social & ecological debts for future generations. Leal (2011) acknowledged that sustainable development is a long-term goal, which both individuals and institutions (and countries!) need to pursue.
Environmental education is an essential part of every pupil's learning developing awareness of the environment, leading to informed concern for active participation in resolving environmental problems. Environmental Education considers environment in its totality-natural and manmade, ecological, political, economic, technological, social, legislative, cultural and aesthetic. Environment Education is a way of implementing and attaining the goals of environment protection. According to UNESCO- UNEP (1975), the five most important goals of environment education are: Awareness to help social groups and individuals acquire an awareness of and sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems. Knowledge to help social groups and individuals gain a variety of experience, and acquire a basic understanding of the environment and its associated problems. Attitude to help social groups and individuals acquire a set of values and feeling of concerns for the environment and motivation directly participating in its improvement and problems skills to help social group and individuals acquire the skills for identifying and solving environment problems. Participation to provide social groups and individuals with an opportunity to be directly involved at all levels in working towards the resolution of environmental problems. Gilbertson et al (1990) studied the effect of environmental awareness training
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program on the knowledge and attitude of 2nd standard students in Minnesota and found significant difference in the environmental and control group. Gill (1994) studied the effects of outdoor educational programs on attitude and awareness about environment of the students and found a significant effect of these programs on the environmental attitude and awareness of the students.
In 1964-66, Kothari Commission suggested that basic education had to offer environment education and relate it to the life needs and aspirations of the people and the nation. At the primary stage, the report recommended that " the aims of teaching science in the primary schools should be to develop proper understanding of the main facts, concepts, principles and processes in physical and biological environment.” Further, National Policy on Education (1986) emphasized environmental education to become an integral component of curriculum and stated that, there is a need to create consciousness of the environment which must permeate all ages and all sections of the society beginning with the child. Environmental consciousness should be integrated in the entire education process.
`On 18th Dec 2003, the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India ordered, “We also direct the NCERT…to prepare a module (model) syllabus”, and directed that through the medium of education, awareness and problems related to pollution should be taught as a compulsory subject. The University Grants Commission will take appropriate steps immediately to give effect to what we have said, i.e. requiring the Universities to prescribe a course on Environment. So far as education up to the college level is concerned, we would require every State Government and every Education Board connected with Education up to the matriculation stage or even intermediate college to immediately take steps to enforce compulsory education on environment in a graded way.” Further on 13th July 2004, the
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Supreme Court directed that “the syllabus prepared by the NCERT for class 1 to 12th shall be adopted by every state in their respective schools”. It further directed that NCERT be appointed as a nodal agency to supervise the implementation of this Court order”. Compliance to Supreme Court order is mandatory and desirable, and applies to all states and Union Territories. Sahoo (1992) researched to renovate the concept of environmental education and found that the concept of the environment is broadly divided as natural and manmade and the relationship between man and environment is symbolic in nature. Gopalkrishan and Sarojini (1992) studied the impact of environmental education on primary school children and found that environmental education had a very good impact on the children, analysis of the environmental education test score area wise revealed that the children of Madras scored better when compared to that of the Coimbatore and the Nilgiris, and that could be due to better exposure of Madras children. The educational process helps in the development of different structures of society on one hand, the quality on environment on the other hand. Boersema, et al (2001) conducted an analysis of the content and scope of textbooks in environmental science, and found that the content of these books reflects somehow what is thought to be relevant to the teaching and knowledge of environmental sciences. McComas (2003) examined the nature of the ideal curriculum in K-12 environmental science education and found that ecology content was included in every major current secondary school textbook summarized along with recommendations for education from one of the principal environmental advocacy groups. Lewis and Humphrey (2005) used content analysis, to examine the impact of the first 25 years of environmental sociology research on current introductory sociology textbooks and searched the texts for 40 key concepts in environmental sociology and for the inclusion of works by 20 award-winning environmental sociologists and found that on an average, the texts cited
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7 of the 40 key concepts, the texts, however, omitted some of the most central, unique concepts in the field. The texts typically treated environmental issues as social problems rather than as the by-products of institutionalized behaviors or practices. Cheng (2008) undertook an analysis of an environmental education program and found that the program was effective among students' from different socio-economic background. Moreover, teachers and parents indicate that the program positively influenced the students and are supportive of it. Jannah et al. (2013) studied the impact of Environmental Education Kit on Students' Environmental Literacy and found that there was a significant difference in the level of environmental literacy based on gender, whereas for class stream revealed no significant difference. It also was found that knowledge of and about the environment is at low level as compared to environment attitude, behavior, awareness and environment participation. It appears that perception and students practice related to positive behavior towards environment exist despite the lack of knowledge in and on environment. Human being is a product of organic evolution and natural environment. His very existence survival and progress on earth depend on the quality of the environment.
For spreading awareness, providing all kinds of information there are number of mediums like newspaper, magazines, journals, television, radio, internet, books, pamphlets etc. But out of these various media, the most important and reliable source of providing information, knowledge and awareness about any issue is the textbook, prescribed by one or the other boards. In fact what mankind had done thought and gained is lying in magical presentation of books. Books are our common heritage to gain information. School textbooks are crucial organs in the process of constructing legitimated ideologies and beliefs and are a reflection of the history, knowledge and values considered
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important by powerful groups in society. School textbooks are the dominant definition of the curriculum in schools and are a representation of political, cultural, economic and political battles and compromises. Textbooks are ‘… conceived, designed and authored by real people with real interests’ and are ‘… published within the political and economic constraints of market, resources and power’. Textbooks function as a disseminator of knowledge and instrument for unity of mankind. It works as instrument for improvement and for means of public relations. The textbooks are authentic source of knowledge because these textbooks are designed keeping in view the educational goals and objectives. The information, knowledge, concepts and activities included in textbooks help in the achievement of our wider educational goals. Out of the numerous educational goals, the most important goal is the Environmental Sustainability. So in order to ensure the achievement of this goal, Environmental Education was introduced as an important and essential course in the curriculum. In the present study Environmental Education textbookof class 12th of Punjab School Education Board has been analyzed with respect to organizational features, content, teachers’ edition/supplementary material and content in compliance with the goals of Environmental Education (UNESCO-UNCEF 1975). Mutaqui et. al. (1981) developed a curriculum in biology for secondary school of Bangladesh and found that the curriculum was effective in developing positive attitude among students of 5th, 6th and 7th grade towards environment. Bhargava (1981) studied the effect of instructional material on developing environmental attitude of the students and found a significant and positive co-relationship between instructional material and environmental attitude of the students. Kidwai (1991) developed environmentally centered curriculum in geography at secondary stage and the outcome of the study was a suggested a framework for an environmentally oriented geography curriculum at secondary stage.
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Wilson (2000) analyzed biology textbooks to determine the extent of the inclusion of ecology topics and found that the level of environmental science included in the average high school biology texts at approximately 10%. Dhiman (2002) evaluated textbooks of social science and environment at the high school level and found out that get up wise, the books of these subjects were satisfactory but content and presentation wise they were very poor and did not cover the syllabus adequately. Tracana, Ferreira, &Carvalho (2014) analyzed textbooks of primary and secondary school about Environmental Studies, Natural Sciences, Biology, Geology and Geography, from the Portuguese Educational System, and even Social Studies, Chemistry, Biology, Natural Sciences, Geology, Geography and Ecology and focused that how to include environmental education skills in textbooks so that they might be transmitted to future generations, and thus contribute to a better quality of life on Earth.The present study was an endeavor on the part of investigator to analyze the senior secondary environmental education text book of Punjab School Education Board of class 12th and to search out whether the textbook was in compliance with the environmental education goals.
Significance of the Problem
Tomorrow's leaders need to be equipped for tomorrow's challenges, and we must adequately prepare our children for the future they will inherit. That requires a commitment to providing children with environmental education that helps them become the educated thoughtful leaders of tomorrow.Schools are a place to teach students about complex environmental issues, preparing them to be good stewards for the environment.
Environment is degrading at a much faster pace than our imagination. Most of this mess is caused by human activities. The damage is both at global and regional level. Depletion of ozone layer
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and increase in the emission of greenhouse gas are the examples of the damage at global level whereas groundwater pollution, soil erosion are some of the regional consequences of human activities and their impact on environment. Therefore whatsoever wrong has been done by us must be rectified by us only. To protect and manage environment it is imperative to have a sound environmental education. It is a way to teach people and societies on how to use the present and future resources optimally. Through environmental education they can gain knowledge to handle the fundamental issues related to environment. The way natural environment works and how humans should behave to manage ecosystem to sustain environment is part of the environmental education. It imparts the required skills and expertise to handle the associated challenges.
The key to successful environment education in the classroom is the teacher, and the instructional material. If teachers do not have the awareness, skills, commitment and a friendly attitude towards environment, it is unlikely that environmentally literate students will be produced. Further apart from teachers, appropriate content, incorporating all the essential components of environment and maintenance of high standard in the textbooks at senior secondary level is necessary to build awareness, required skills and attitude among students. Textbooks shall contain the knowledge about the causes of environmental degradation; its effects and the very consequences of it. Environment Textbooks help to know about the various environmental conservation strategies which shall be employed by an individual for his good and happy future.
Environmental Education is an integral part of the education. It makes the students aware of the various environmental problems. It not only brings out the various environmental problems but also suggests the means to solve these problems. It helps in fostering the
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positive attitude and environmental friendly habits among students. The students are able to identify the local environments. At the same time it also makes students aware of environmental issues at national and global level. Fast increasing population and industrialization must keep pace with the environment. Resources are fast depleting, agriculture practices are becoming ineffective, growth of slums etc. are various concerns that make environmental education an essential subject at school level. This subject makes students realize that it is man who depends on nature and not vice versa. Further, in India the study of environment is more essential. It is a developing country where rocketing population growth has resulted into over-urbanization leading to varied pollution and environmental degradation.
The questions which have emerged in contemporary environmental education are related to the most effective ways to integrate environmental education in the larger life of educational institutions, especially the schools. The effectiveness of instructional approaches for introducing students to the various dimensions of environmental problems, the effectiveness of instructional material for inculcating understanding of environmental education in students, the perception of teachers towards the prescribed instructional material. So, in order to answer these questions the investigator attempted to analyze the Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12thprescribed by Punjab School Education Board. Thus the significance of research work and related literature shows that though work has been done on environmental education textbooks with respect to different variables like impact of Environment Education of primary children, analysis of environmental education programme, environmental education kit, scope of environmental science textbook, framing of environmental centered curriculum in geography, development of environmental value and responsibilities among
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students and teachers, but to the best of the knowledge of investigator no study has been conducted with respect to analysis of senior secondary environmental education textbook of class 12.Hence it became necessary to analyze the textbook in a systematic manner to ascertain the extent to which the components of environmental education incorporated, are in compliance with the goals of environmental education. Along with this, the greater concern for the present and future generation regarding the environmental sustainability inspired the investigator to take up the present study.
Objectives
1. To analyze the organizational features of Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board.
2. To analyze the content of Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board.
3. To assess the effectiveness of teacher’s edition/ supplementary materials provided with Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board.
4. To analyze the Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board with respect to compliance with the goals of Environmental Education (UNESCO- UNEP 1975).
5. To examine the views of Environmental Education Teachers with respect to the Organization Features of Senior Secondary Environmental Education Textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board.
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6. To examine the views of Environmental Education Teachers with respect to the Content of the Senior Secondary Environmental Education Textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board.
7.To examine the views of Environmental Education Teachers with respect to the Effectiveness of Teacher’s Edition/Supplementary Materials provided with the Environmental Education Textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board .
8. To examine the views of Environmental Education teachers regarding Senior Secondary Environment Textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board with respect to compliance with the goals of Environmental Education (UNESCO- UNEP 1975).
Research Questions
1. Is the Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board adequately organized with respect to various organizational features?”
2. Is the content of Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board adequate?
3. Is the teacher’s edition or supplementary material provided with the Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board relevant to the subject matter being discussed?
4. How far the Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education
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Board is in compliance with the goals of Environmental Education (UNESCO-UNEP 1975)?
5. What are the views of Environmental Education teachers with respect to organizational features of Senior Secondary Environmental Education of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board?”
6. What are the views of Environmental Education teachers with respect to content of Senior Secondary Environmental Education Textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board?
7. What are the views of Environmental Education Teachers with respect to teacher’s edition/ supplementary materials provided with Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board?
8. What are the views of Environmental Education teachers regarding Senior Secondary Environment Textbook of class12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board regarding compliance with the Goals of Environmental Education (UNESCO-UNEP 1975)?
Methodology
The present study was qualitative in nature, so for analysis of qualitative data, content analysis method was employed. Content analysis is concerned with classification, organization and comparison of the content of communication or document. The communication may be in the form of responses to open ended questionnaire. It is concerned with studying the organized material in order to discover the inherent facts. In the present study, mainly four areas regarding textbook of environmental education of class 12th i.e. Organization Features,
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Content, Teacher’s Edition/Supplementary Materials and Goals of Environmental Education (UNESCO-UNEP 1975) were analyzed on the basis of number of topics covering the areas as well as type of content related to these areas in Environment Education Textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board.
In the present study, a sample of 100 teachers of Environmental Education of class 12th of Punjab School Education Board was selected from Hoshiarpur district of Punjab by employing purposive sampling.
For the collection of data, self-constructed text book analysis scale related to Environmental Education Textbook of class 12th, was prepared. Keeping in mind the objectives of the present study, the scale was prepared. For constructing the scale, the investigator consulted the textbook of class 12th of Environmental Education and also took experts’ advice. The scale was prepared by keeping in view four different areas, namely, Organization Features, Content, Teacher’s Edition/ Supplementary Materials and Goals of Environmental Education (UNESCO-UNEP 1975) for which content analysis was done. There were total 45 items in the Environment Education Scale. Each item has 5 alternatives namely strongly agree, agree, neutral, strongly disagree and disagree. The content validity of the scale was ascertained by modifying the statement of the scale, after the consultation with experts.
The present study was of qualitative nature, the statistical analysis was done by computing the percentage of the responses given by the Environmental Education teachers on the Environmental Education Textbook Analysis Scale.
Results and Discussion
The results and discussion related to the content analysis of textbook of Environmental Education of Punjab School Education
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Board as well as analysis of viewpoints of Environmental Education teachers regarding the Environmental Education textbook are as follows:
The first research question i.e. “Is the Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board adequately organized with respect to various organizational features?”Through the content analysis of Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board it was found that the textbook provided a useful table of contents. But there was no glossary and index in the textbook. All of the chapters were arranged logically and the layout was consistent. The chapters contained clear and comprehensive introductions but the content was not summarized in the textbook. Textbook contained no references, bibliographies and resources while the information provided in the textbook was accurate and current. Along with this the reading level was appropriate for age/grade level of students. Further, size and format of print in the textbook was appropriate.
The second research question i.e. “Is the content of Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board adequate?”Through the content analysis Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board it was found that in the textbook real life applications were given. Information and directions were clearly written and explained in the textbook. Activities were developmentally appropriate in the textbook and encouraged the development of higher– level thinking skills. Non text content (maps, graphs, pictures) was not accurate and clear in the textbook. The lessons/activities were interdisciplinary in the textbook. The activities catered to a diversity of student abilities, interests and learning styles.
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The third research question i.e. “Is the teacher’s edition or supplementary material provided with the Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board relevant to the subject matter given in textbook?”Through the content analysis it was found that Environment education textbook did not provided a separate teacher’s edition with resource package. No supplementary materials (Transparencies/prepared kits/workbook/videos) were provided.
By keeping in mind the fourth research question i.e. “How far the Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board is in compliance with the goals of Environmental Education (UNESCO-UNEP 1975)?” Through the content analysis of Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board it was found that textbook provided awareness and knowledge about the biodiversity. The textbook provided information related to causes of loss of biodiversity, preventive measures to be taken to protect the existing biodiversity. Textbook developed positive attitude towards preservation of biodiversity and also provided information regarding various environmental measures to be taken for conservation of biodiversity. Textbook provided awareness regarding various environmental management strategies. Textbook provided information about all the components of the bio-physical environment, both biotic as well as abiotic. Further, textbook provided information regarding legal provisions which helps to develop environmental friendly attitude and skills. Textbook also provided information about sustainable consumption and its challenges as population, literacy and poverty, further aimed at developing appropriate attitudes and skills by providing information about individual and community participation towards environment sustainability. Textbook provided information
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related to various programmes and projects regarding sustainable development to help individuals to evaluate environmental measures, information regarding three main goals of sustainable development i.e. environmental health, economic profitability and economic equity. Textbook provided information regarding the effects of green revolution, importance of soil for crop and irrigation system, methods of food preservation, role of biotechnology for crop improvement and various types of farming. Along with this awareness about various environmental actions like Van Mahasava, Chipko Movement, Silent Valley Project Tiger, Ganga Action Plan, etc., action strategies like for meeting human needs, population, and consumerism etc. was provided through textbook.
The fifth research question i.e. “What are the views of Environmental Education teachers with respect to organizational features of Senior Secondary Environmental Education of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board?” Through Textbook Analysis Scale, opinion of teachers was taken regarding organizational features of Senior Secondary Environmental Education of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board. It was found that 49% of teachers agreed, on the viewpoint that the environmental education textbook of class 12th provided a useful table of contents, glossary and index. The layout was consistent and chapters were arranged logically. Chapters contained clear and comprehensive introductions and summaries. The environmental textbook contained references, bibliography and resources. Information was accurate and current. Reading level was appropriate for age / grade. Size and format of print was appropriate. While 36% of teachers strongly agreed, 12% of teachers were of neutral viewpoint, 0.8% of teachers disagree and 0% of teachers strongly disagreed.
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By keeping in mind the sixth research question i.e. “What are the views of Environmental Education teachers with respect to content of Senior Secondary Environmental Education Textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board?” Through Textbook Analysis Scale, opinions of teachers were taken regarding content of Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board. It was found that 49% 0f teachers agree on the viewpoint that in the environmental education textbookreal life applications were given. Information and directions were clearly written and explained. Activities were developmentally appropriate. Non text content (maps, graphs, pictures) were accurate and well integrated into the text. Lessons/ activities were interdisciplinary. Activities were applied to a diversity of student abilities, interests and learning styles. Activities included guiding questions which encourage the development of higher – level thinking skills. While 31% of teachers strongly agreed, 17% of teachers were of neutral viewpoint, 3.40% of teachers disagree and 0% of teachers strongly disagreed.
The seventh research question i.e. “What are the views of Environmental Education Teachers with respect to effectiveness of teacher’s edition/ supplementary materials provided with the Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board?” Through Textbook Analysis Scale, opinion of teachers was taken regarding effectiveness of teacher’s edition/ supplementary materials provided with Senior Secondary Environmental Education of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board. It was found that 100% of teachers agreed, on the viewpoint that the environmental education textbook did not provide a separate teacher’s edition with resource package.
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The eighth research question i.e. “What are the views of Environmental Education teachers regarding Senior Secondary Environment Education Textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board regarding compliance with the Goals of Environmental Education (UNESCO-UNEP 1975)?” Through Textbook Analysis Scale, opinion of teachers was taken regarding Senior Secondary Environment Textbook of class12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board regarding compliance with the Goals of Environmental Education (UNESCO-UNEP 1975). It was found that 50% of teachers agreed, on the viewpoint that the environmental education textbook of class 12th, provided information about the impact of over-population on environment. The content of textbook was extensive as well as intensive enough to cover all the necessary dimensions of environment. Information regarding ill effects of pollution was provided. Information about various movements related to environment like Van Mahasava, Chipko Movement, Silent Valley Project, Tiger Project, Ganga Action Plan, National Environment Policy 2006 which emphasized on our national commitment to clean environment was provided. Textbook provided information regarding preventive and protective measures to improve the environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife. Further, provided information regarding the consequences related to violation of environmental protection Acts and Laws. Along with this provided information regarding the latest events (conference, seminar, and summits etc.) related to environment protection. Information regarding the recycling of waste products, reuse of resource as source of energy, sustainable management of natural resources, major challenges for sustainable development with respect to the world was provided through textbook, importance of sustainable development as local, national and global level. Along with this, textbook also emphasized the role of individual and community towards sustainable development.
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Content of textbook was good enough for imparting environmental awareness regarding various aspects like biodiversity, extinct and endangered of species and its effect on ecological balance. The knowledge regarding usefulness of flora and fauna was provided through textbook. Textbook provided information regarding the bad effects of environment degradation on man and society, promoting preventive measures in people regarding environment degradation. Textbook provided knowledge to students regarding the diseases caused due to pollution, judicious use of different chemical fertilizers and pesticides to the rural people. Textbook provided information related to national resources and its exploitation, ways to control population. While 39% of teachers strongly agreed, 8.3% of teachers were of neutral viewpoint, 0.3% of teachers disagree and 1% of teachers strongly disagreed with respect to these aspects.
Conclusions
The conclusions of study are as follows:
Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board provided table of content, and the layout was compatible and logically arranged. Information provided was accurate and current. Size and information of print was appropriate and the reading level was in accordance with the age/grade. Chapters contain clear and comprehensive introductions of Environmental Education textbook.
Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board provided information and directions which were clearly written and activities were also developmentally appropriate. All the activities were according to the students’ abilities and interest
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and encouraged the development of higher level thinking skills of students.
Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board did not provide a separate teacher’s edition with resource package. No supplementary material (Transparencies/prepared kits/workbook/videos) was provided.
Senior Secondary Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board showed that the Environmental Education textbook covers various areas as biodiversity, environmental acts and laws, sustainable development, natural resources, etc. Environmental textbook aimed at developing awareness and sensitivity towards environment, knowledge related to basic understanding of environment, strong feeling of concern for environmental protection, skills for solving environmental problems, sense of responsibility towards environmental problems and responsible environmental behavior among students.
Majority of teachers agreed that Senior Secondary Environmental education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board provided a useful table of contents, glossary & index. The layout was consistent and chapters were arranged logically. Chapters contained clear and comprehensive introductions and summaries. The environmental textbook contained references, bibliography and resources. Information was accurate and current. Reading level was appropriate for age / grade. Size and format of print was appropriate.
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Majority of the teachers agreed that in Senior Secondary Environmental education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board, real life applications were given. Information and directions were clearly written and explained in the textbook. Activities were developmentally appropriate in the textbook and encouraged the development of higher–level thinking skills. The lessons/activities were interdisciplinary in the textbook. The activities catered to a diversity of student abilities, interests and learning styles. Non text content (maps, graphs, pictures) was not accurate and clear in the textbook.
All of the teachers agreed that the Senior Secondary Environmental education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board did not provide a separate teacher’s edition with resource package. Supplementary material (Transparencies/prepared kits/workbook/videos) was not provided.
Majority of teachers agreed that the Senior Secondary Environmental education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board covers various areas as biodiversity, environmental acts and laws, sustainable development, natural resources, etc. Environmental textbook aimed at developing awareness and sensitivity towards environment, knowledge related to basic understanding of environment, strong feeling of concern for environmental protection, skills for solving environmental problems, sense of responsibility towards environmental problems and responsible environmental behavior among students. Textbook showed greater compliance with the goals of environmental education.
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Recommendations
1. The present study recommends that the Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board should contain a glossary of difficult words.
2. The Environmental Education textbook should contain summaries, references and bibliographies.
3. A separate teachers’ edition with well-organized supplementary material, transparencies / kits/workbook/videos for teachers should be provided with Environmental Education textbook of class 12th prescribed by Punjab School Education Board for facilitating and enhancing instruction.
4. In the Environmental Education textbook, non-text content (maps, graphs, pictures) should be accurate and clear.
References
1. Bhargava, L. (1981).The effect of instructional material on developing environmental attitude of the students.Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, (7), 777-796.
2. Boersema, et al (2001). Is it all in the books? An analysis of the content and scope of 12 environmental science books.International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education 2(4), 349-367.
3. Cheng, J.C. ( 2008) Children, teachers and nature: An analysis of an environmental education program. University of Florida, Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. (3360650)
4. Dhiman,S.(2000). Evaluation of text books in subject of social study, environment at elementary level. Journal of Educational Research, 97 (5), 248-267. Retrieved from www.proquest.umi.com
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5. Gilbertson.et.al (1990).The effect of environmental awareness training program son the knowledge and attitude of 2nd standard students in Minnesota.Journal of Professional Services Marketing(19) 2, 107, Retrieved from DOI (07484623) www.proquet.umi.com
6. Gopalkrishan, S and Sarojini, A. (1992).The impact of environmental education on primary school children.Journal of Career Assessment 18(1), 71-81. Retrieved from www.eric.ed.gov. (EJ453217)
7. Gill, D. (1994).The effect of outdoor educational programmes on attitude and awareness of environment among students.Human Resource Development Quarterly, (21)2, 119-138, Retrieved from www.eric.ed.gov (EJ825346)
8. Jannah et al. ( 2013) Impact of Environmental Education Kit on Students' Environmental Literacy. Asian Social Science, 9(12), 1- 12.
9. Leal, F. W.(2011). World Trends in Education for Sustainable Development. Environmental Education, Communication and Sustainability. Peter Lang Frankfurt, 32 (ED530963)
10. Lewis, T. L., Humphrey, C. R. (2005) Sociology and the Environment: an analysis of coverage in introductory sociology textbooks. Teaching Sociology,154-169.
11. McComas, William F. (2003) The nature of the ideal environmental science curriculum: Advocates, textbooks, & conclusions. The American Biology Teacher, 171-178.
12. Mutaqui, Jand Bradfield, M. (1981).Development of curriculum in biology for secondary school students of Bangladesh.Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 1073-1091
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13. Sahoo, K.C. (1992).A critical study of the conception and perception of Environmental Education.Ph.D Education, Devi AhilyaVishwavidyalya. In M.B. Buch’sFifth Survey of Educational Research, NCERT: New Delhi.
14. Tracana, R. B., Ferreira, M E.&Carvalho, G. S. (2014) Content analysis of ecosystems and geochemical cycles in Portuguese textbooks Asian Social Science, 187-202,261.
15. Wilson, A. H. (2000). A Content Analysis of Environmental Education as Presented in Selected High School Biology Textbooks.Unpublished dissertation. University of Maryland, College Park, MD
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LIFELONG LEARNING AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT
Mr. Rahul Yadav Assistant Professor DACEE (Faculty of Social Sciences) University of Delhi, Delhi
Introduction: -
The discourse on lifelong learning in India started in 1980-1905. Government of India has implemented programme as National Literary mission (1988) for eradication of illiteracy. This mission was one of the important national mission which emphasized functional literacy, numeracy, skill development to improve the economic status, national integration, consternation of environment, etc. (Government of India, 1988). Lifelong learning helpful in development of vocational skill and its start from birth and continues till death. Lifelong Learning means formal, non-formal and other forms of education. In the age industrial development lifelong Learning it need for skill development and skill up gradation. With the help of Lifelong Learning, learning society can get skill growth,social control,social change,self-evaluation, self- directed learning, personal development etc.Lifelong Learning about the provision of learning opportunities to group of the people ,reflect individual of contemporary society.Lifelong learning recognised that society, or part of it,are changing rapidly and so it is necessary for individuals to learn to cope with the challenges of daily life.Skill enhancement is crucial for nation to socio- economic and individual development.
Need of Skill development: -
A wide range of Lifelong Learning programme are offered by different agencies in the country. Lifelong learning continue to focused
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on skill development. Mainly due to huge number of unskilled persons, new-literate and literates.
India is the second most populaces country in world after china. The gross enrolment ratio in higher education is ally 12-15%. The demographic data shows that the 50-60% population it below 35 year. Mainly because of these factor, Lifelong learning play vital role to improve skill. India have 70% population live in rural areas, diversification, different languages, poverty, unemployment exist in every part. In recent years role of Lifelong Learning In India have increased due to skill enhancement and social development.
Skill development with Lifelong Learning: -
To get any job in industry, corporate area or public sector, it is essential to have a required skill or experiences. But after spend 2-5 years. It will realize by employee to update their skill according to need of hour.
If employees or professional want to change their job update skill is requires. So Lifelong Learning is tool to update skill, enhance capacity, increase potential etc. In government or corporate offices most of aged or older worker working , they can get new skill with Lifelong Learning. In India less than 21 years age group find 47.9% (Cengus-2011) and lees than 18 years age group – 41.1% Although most of population of youth engaged with study and job but basic fact indicates that large member of youth is out of school, jobless or drop out. Means, it is important to make provision to provide job and appropriate skill for youth. Lifelong Learning can play major role to provide skills for unemployed youth or dropout youth. Economic growth is indicator to development or success of nation. Youth population specially 15-64 age group is responsible for increase production and contributed to G.D.P growth. This age group can perform will with the help of skill and skills acquired by Lifelong Learning.
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Lifelong Learning provides deliberated learning personal development, professional development, latest knowledge etc. But before skill development self-motivation is require for learner. In the field of Lifelong Learning no age bar, barrier free learning in content of specific or general area and humanistic approach. After freedom India has achieved lot of aim and goals such as illiteracy elimination, poverty elimination, reduction of unemployment aims etc. But skill development is crucial requirement for nation. Youth population suffers form unemployment, they have achieved academic degrees but without skill they are not able to perform in industry or public sector unit. For set-up own business or carrier growth skill enhancement is required. So Lifelong Learning can provide opportunity to develop their own skill or upgrade skills.
Skill development courses with Lifelong Learning
In 1978, Government of India has introduced a programme named as National Adult Education Programme (NAEP) aim as to eradication of illiteracy. NAEP has three dimension Literary, Functional Literacy and Awareness. In 5th May 1988 again a programme launched name as National Literacy Mission (NLM) to enhancement of literacy among illiterate people of India. Now literacy rate is 74.04% (Census-2011) and Kerla state is achieve hundred percent literacy. Indian huge population require skill to increase production. In government system and private sector provide limited number of jobs means entrepreneurial skill, set-up own business and acquired skill by training is needful. Some course such as laptop repairing, short hand typing, pickles making, computer skill, travel and tourism related skill, NGO management sports journalism. Radio joky, tailoring and cutting, automobile, refrigeration repairing, Information technology, small industry management, Textiles, mehandi making, TV anchoring etc. can helpful to get job. Lifelong Leaning actually popular in western countries. Learning habit found largely in western
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population. The skill acquired people always confident than others. Professional development, promotion, self dependency and socio- economic development depends on skill development. Skill always gains with training or experiences. Its not get by birth. So, everyday launched new courses in area of science. Art. Commerce etc.
Conclusion: -
Lifelong Learning support skill development throughout life. Learning in out of building, out of school, anytime, any place, without any age barrier. Indian government also very consigns about skill set-up with NSDC,ITI,Short term courses etc.Learning and skill development is a driving force in human living, it is one of the major means by which become ourselves ,stimulate own and serve society. In other word we can say in contemporay society needs life skill, soft skill, hard skill to achieve social goal.In private sector latest technology, innovation always consider and compulsory for employees ,now same for public sector.
References:-
1) Bhatia, sugan (2014), Literacy and Adult Education in Independent India. Sonali Pub. New Delhi.
2) Jarvis, P. (2010), Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Tehory and Practices.
3) Yadav, R (February 2014), Lifelong Learning and Globalization IJHSS.
4) Http/www.google.com
5) Sharma, S.N. and Prakash Ravi, (1996), Adult Education and social growth Kanishka rublishor , New Delhi
6) Jarvis,Peter (2007),Globalisation,Lifelong Learning and the Learning Society, Routledge
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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TRIBAL IDENTITY MOVEMENT IN ASSAM OVERVIEW OF THE MISING
Mr. Samir Pegu Head Department of Political Science Jiadhal College Dhemaji, Assam
The question of identity is not merely a new subject for academic enquiry for the social scientists or for others, it is also life and death issue, particularly in north-east of India. Thus, discourse of identity is triumphant in the north-east. It is closely liked with the ethnicity, socio-economic and politico-cultural awareness of different ethnic groups of the North-East. The identity movement may be observe as the manifestation of aspirations of the ethnic conflict and misunderstanding. However, identity movement of the tribals started in Assam with the formation of the Tribal League in 1933, with Bhimbar Deori as it convener and Jadav Chandra Khaklari as secretary.1
The concept of identity is much more than personality and personal identity. It is believed that identity centres upon images, knowledge and assessment of position, performances and attributes of social object and that identities have an objective and subjective aspect at the same time. Identity perception also helps to distinguish one group from another and thus stratifies society. The notion of identity seems to imply-firstly the perception of an overall coherence within the experiences and expressions of an individual. Secondly, the memory in this individual and normally at least some other of the continuity of the Story or tale of his life and thirdly, a conscious commitment to a particular manner of both comprehending and managing one's own self. 2 That at any given time one identity is a state in the processes of judgment of one's perception of one's categories of consciousness and
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these categories constitute one's selection from the structures of one's civilizations. As to identity Taylor, D.M. and L.M Simard (1979) in "Emerging Ethnic Boundary" , define identity as that component of person's self definition which is derived from an affiliation with a specific group. This self definition is generally derived from what was 'given' at birth like race, language, Cultural, Tribe and history of group relationship with other groups in a society.3 But today an era of globalization. under the impact of globalization lots of social groups or community have lost their own socio-cultural identity. Those groups under standing for preserved their own language dialect, Cultural, Custom, and traditions. Therefore many social groups or ethnic groups are rise their identity movement for constitutional safeguards. The tribals are socio-economically backward than the non tribal groups and each tribal have own dialect, language, culture, religion, customs, tradition, etc. They have been dominated by non tribal groups. Therefore, they have been taking responsibility of gearing up there sentiment among the Tribal for their distinct tribal identity.
At different period of her history. Assam become a refuge for many people belonging to different socio-cultural groups. In fact, Assam has been a melting pot of socio-cultural diversities since the earliest time. However, there has been a process of socio-cultural fusion towards the growth and development of a composite Assamese culture. It has been slowly taking shape with the divergent culture of Aryans, Dravidans, Mongoloid, Austrics and Tibeto-Burmans. The process of moulding of these diverse cultures into a single whole was virtually started during the reign of the Ahoms that began in the middle of 13th century. But under the British rule this process became weak leading to the clashes of interest among divergence groups. Eversince the British occupation, most of the ethnic groups of Assam have been fighting for maintaining their distinct identity. By and large, it appears that even today, they are not prepared to merge their culture completely with the
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dominant Assamese caste Hindu culture. Thus some ethnic groups have still been launching movements for the creation of separate states on the basis of their cultural identity, while some others are demanding for constitutional safeguards of their respective identities. It may be noted that at the advent of independence, most of them even demanded sovereign state a measure of maintaining their distinct identity. Some of them demanded special provisions in the new constitution for protecting their interests. After independence, particularly since the early sixties they became increasingly conscious of their identity.More importantly, the tribals who made immens contribution in the formation of greater Assamese society, today fee a sense of alienation from the rest of the Assamese society and they have been struggling for maintaining distinct tribal identity in the state.
There is a large number of tribal population in Assam according to 2001 census report the schedule tribes population in Assam was 3,308,570 constituting 12.42% of the total population of the state (26, 638, 407) and 3.92% of the total ST population in the country (84, 326, 240).4 There are different categories of plans tribes such as the Barhmans of Cachar, the Bodo Kacharis, the Deoris, the Hajangs, the Sonowal Kacharies, the Miris or Misings, the Rabhas, the Tiwas or Lalungs, the Machs etc.5 The size and distribution of ST Population among STs, Bodo represents nearly half of the total ST population of the state (40.9%) Miri (17.8%) Rabha (8.4%), Kachari (i.e. Sonowal Kachari) 7.1%) and Lalung (5.2%) are the other major STs each having 5% or above of total STs. Along with Bodo they constitute 90% ST population of the state. Besides them, Dimasa constitutes 3.4% and Deori 1.2% of the total ST population of the state. The rest of the Scheduled Tribes are very small in their population size.
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Table – I
Population of Major STs, 2001 Census
Sl. Religious of the Total Proportion to No. Scheduled Tribe Population the total ST Population 1 All Scheduled Tribes 3308570 100% 2 Bodo 1352771 40.9 3 Miri 587310 17.8 4 Mikir 353513 107 5 Rabha 277517 8.4 6 Kachari 235881 7.1 7 Lalung 170622 5.2 8 Dimasa 110976 3.4 9 Deori 41161 1.2 The ST population in Assam is predominantly rural with 95.3% rural and only 4.7% urban population of the eight major STs, Dimasa have recorded the highest 10.4% urban population, followed by Mikir (8.3%). On the other hand Miri have recorded the lowest 1.8% urban population.
North Cachar Hills and Karbi Anglong the two autonomous hill districts of Assam are predominantly tribal housing two important STs of Assam – the Dimasa and Mikir (now recognized as Karbi). As per 2001 census, the North Cachar Hills has got the highest 68.3% ST population, followed by Karbi Anglong (55.7%). In absolute number Karbi Anglong is on top sharing 13.7% of the total ST population of the state. Hailakandi, Karimganj, and Cachar district have a negligible presence of ST population.
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Table – II
District ST Population
Sl. Sate / District Percentage of STs Percentage of No. to total population STs to total of the State/District State’s ST population 1 Assam 12.4 100% 2 Kokrajhar 33.7 9.2 3 Dhubri 2.0 1.0 4 Goalpara 16.0 4.0 5 Bongaigaon 12.2 3.3 6 Barpeta 7.5 3.7 7 Kamrup 9.9 7.3 8 Nalbari 17.6 6.1 9 Darrang 16.6 7.6 10 Marigaon 15.6 3.6 11 Nagaon 3.9 2.7 12 Sonitpur 11.6 5.9 13 Lakhimpur 23.5 6.3 14 Dhemaji 47.3 8.2 15 Tinsukia 5.8 2.0 16 Dibrugarh 7.5 2.7 17 Sibsagar 3.9 1.3 18 Jorhat 12.3 3.7 19 Golaghat 9.9 2.8 20 Karbi Anglong 55.7 13.7 21 North Cachar Hills 68.3 3.9 22 Cachar 1.3 0.6 23 Karimganj 0.3 0.1 24 Hailakandi 0.2 0.0 Note : Data on rest four districts are not available.
Each tribal community in Assam has its own customs, belief, language and a way of life markedly different from the dominant Assamese Hindu culture. It needs to mention that the tribals were greatly disillusioned with the limited progress made by the British
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Administration. During the British rule, these tribal communities remained backward educationally, socially, politically and even economically. As a result, the tribals of Assam failed to occupy any prominent place in the Assamese society during the British rule. Important positions were held either by the non-Assamese or the Assamese upper caste elite, who were of Aryan origin. The tribal elite felt that they were deprived of their “legitimate” share of Administrative jobs and other privileges under the British Administration. For this reason, the tribal elite began to feel that they were systematically exploited by the dominant section of the Assamese society as well as by the British. Thus a feeling gradually grew among them that were markedly different from the Assamese caste Hindus which has been the dominant community in Assam evesince the British Administration.
The growing sense of negligence and deprivation among the tribals reinforced their urges for distinct identity within the larger Assamese society. There is a great deal of similarity among the different tribals groups of Assam. They felt the need of a common platform among them to fight for the upliftment of tribal communities in Assam. As a result, the organization like tribal league (1933) and All Assam Tribes and Races Federation (1944) came in to existence. Formation of such organization marked the socio-political and cultural consciousness of the tribes of Assam.6 The tribal elite increasingly realised the necessity of such organizations to exert pressure on the Government of the day so as to fulfill their long cherished aspirations. Since a long past they have been launching several movements in a bid to maintain tribal identity. After independence, the Assam Tribal League following its merger with the congress, abandoned its political activities and became a more socio-cultural organization under the name and style of “Assam Tribal Sangha”. In the late sixties a new political organization was formed named, Plains Tribals Council of
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Assam in 1967. The Mising also co-operated on the principle of Pan- Tribalism with this organisation The main objectives of the organization are –
(i) To protect the Tribal belt, (ii) To check the exploitation on the tribals by the non-tribals. (iii) To preserve the tribal language, culture and customs, (iv) To prevent political domination by the non- tribals over them etc.7 In addition to this common efforts, emerging educated elite of different tribal groups gradually became conscious of their respective tribal identity which culminated in the formation of different socio- cultural organization on the basis of their distinctness, ispliting from the tribal league. Thus in course of time to articulate their problems, several organization such as the “Mising Bane Kebang” (1924), (Parent Body of the Mising people) “Mising Student Union” (1933), “Bodo Sahitya Shaba” (1952), “Bodo Student Union” (1966), “Rabha Student Union” (1967), “Sonowal Kachari Student Union” (1970), “Deori Sahitya Shaba” (1978), “Bodo Sangram Parishad” (1989) etc. came in to existence, currently all these organizations have been struggling for their respective identities within the state. In fact, since their inception, these organizations have been fighting for restoring the tribal communities of Assam in to a rightful place. In view of this, they have been demanding the constitutional safeguards of their respective socio-cultural and linguistic traits. More importantly, they want to have a “legitimate” share in the administration of the state. After failing in this effort, some tribal groups (particularly the Bodos, the Misings, the Rabhas, the Tiwas) are even launching movement for the creation of a separate state and Autonomous state respectively on the basis of their distinct cultural identity. Now, the Bodos have created of B.T.C. under the 6th Schedule of the constitution, also others groups have been
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demanding their Autonomous under creation of 6th schedule of the constitution in India.
However, over view of the Mising identity questions here. The erstwhile Miris who call themselves now as Mising are one of the major sections of tribal population in the Brahmaputra Valley. The Misings are the second largest Plain tribes in Assam. According to 2001 census report, the Mising population numbered 587310 out of 3308570 to S.T. population in Assam. The Mising orginates from the Tani (ami) groups of Tibeto-Burman race of mankind. Ethnically the Mising belong to the Tibeto-Burman group of Mongoloid Stock. Originally they belong to the same group of tribes comprised of Nishis, Miyongs Padams, Gasis, Galos, Bagnis Apatanis, Tagins etc. who are found in the district of Siang and Subansiri of present Arunachal Pradesh. They are known to have Migrated down to the Brahmaputra as far back as twelve century A.D. From the neighboring hills of present Arunachal Pradesh during the reign of the Chutia Kings. The Misings are scattered in eight eastern districts of the Upper Assam i.e., Dibrugarh, Tinsukia, Sibsagar, Jorhat, Golaghat, Sonitpur, Lakhimpur and Dhemaji.
The Mising people have socio-economic and political problems. Firstly, the issue of Mising language continuously drew the attention of the government for about four decades. Secondly, the issue of seat reservation in the legislative bodies started during the British Colonial rule. Likewise issue of protection of forest right, belt and block preservation have been the major issues during the post independence period. Interestingly the demand for self rules the Mising parent organization (Bane Kebang) along with other mass organizations raised the question of autonomous council to eliminate their socio-economic problems. By this political and administrative arrangements the elite section of the Mising people hoped to fulfill their political power. Thus to fulfill this aspiration of the Mising elites they organized themselves and motivated the Mising masses to reach the end. The Pan-Tribalism
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that grew up during the pre-independence days had shifted to Mising castist consciousness.
The identity movement of the Mising more or less emerged out of the movement for linguistic rights and it may be noted that language has been the popular political issue in Assam. In fact, most of the similar identity movements of this region have taken place over the issue of language, especially after the enactment of the language Act of the government of Assam in 1960 the Mising language movement in Assam like any other tribal movement in the North-East region.
The Misings ethnic movement looks very alarming trend in the last two decades of the 20th century. The major significant stages were the reaction of the SEBA circular in 1986. Establishment of school, Mising language teacher issue, control and dominant role of the left wing Mising youth section in the Mising Nationalist organization such as Mising Bane Kebang (MBK), Takam Mising Prorin Kebang (TMPK), Mising Agom Kebang (MAK), Mising Mimag Kebang (MMK), Mising Mime Kebang (MMK), etc.
Similarly, the Misings autonomy movement grew stronger when new batch of young political leader emerged out of the community. Although the Mising people raised their demand for autonomy first in 1947, the popular mass movement was launched only in the eighties. The Major Significant role of the movement tool place in February 1993, when Mising Mimag Kebang (Mising Action Committee) was formed at Mising National Convention held a Jonai in the Dhemaji District. Democratic agitational programmes such as Bandh, Picketing, Mass Mobilization started to step by step. As a result of the movement, in 1995, the Govt. of Assam led by Hiteswar Saikia, announced grant of Autonomy to the Mising, (Mising Autonomous Council), MAC has been located in Gogamukh in Dhemaji District as secretariat office but it is boundaryless. Therefore they have been demanding for creation under
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the 6th schedule of the constitution. “No Sixth schedule no Rest” that is their motto they have also been looking for regional political identity as well as their distinct identity.
Conclusion
Thus, the identity movement of the Mising started under the umbrella of socio-cultural and economic movement. The leadership of the movement in its later stage has been provided by the tribal organizations. The Mising Agom Kebang (Mising Linguistic Organization) Mising Bane Kebang (Mising Socio-Culture Organization) Takam Mising Porin Kebang (All Mising Student Union) Mising Mimag Kebang (Mising Action Committee), Mising Mime Kebang (Mising Women Association) have also been playing important roles in the development of the identity movement. The activities are integrated towards a common goal or raising cultural, political and economic status of the Mising within the larger Assamese Society.
References
1. Gohain, Hiren, " Reflection on Ethnicity and thnic Movement", Deka, K.M and K.N Phukan (ed) Ethnicity in Assam, Centre for North-east Studies, Dibrugarh University 2001.P-5. 2. Robertson, R. and H. Bwckart, Identity and Authority. Basil Blackwell, oxford, 1980, P-41 3. Taylor, D. and Simard, L.M Emerging Ethnic Boundaries, Curson Press, London 1979. 4. Census Report of India, (Assam part), 2001 5. Chaube, S.K. “Plains Tribals in Assam Politics” North astern Affairs Annual, T. Bashu, (ed), Guwahati, 1973, P.- 14 6. Phukan Girin, “Ethnic Nationalism in Northeast India : Overview of its legacy” Nationalism and Regionalism in Northeast India, K.M.Deka, (ed), Dibrugarh, 1985, P.- 80 7 Constitution of plain tribal council of Assam, 1968, P.- 1
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THE ASSESSMENT OF OBJECTIVES AND CRUCIAL IMPORTANCE OF SPORT TRAINING PRINCIPLE ON SPORTS MEN
Abdu Mohammed Asfaw Research Scholar Department of Physical Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
1. Principle of specificity The Specificity Principle simply states that exercising a certain body part or component of the body primarily develops that part. The Principle of Specificity implies that, to become better at a particular exercise or skill, you must perform that exercise or skill. A runner should train by running, a swimmer by swimming, a cyclist by cycling and the marathon runner should do predominantly endurance training to enhance the performance level (Quinn, E. Updated July 23, 2015)
All athletes know what you philosophically train them to and exercises specific to an event lead to anatomical and physiological changes related to the demands of that sport (Bompa, T. 1999 cited in Sneaks, k.).
The coach, sport managers, assistants and even athletes of any sport needs to take account of specify their training activities before they design a training program.
Many scholars have different ideas on their experience in different ways but unanimously demonstrated that specificity is specialization of specific event.
If you are more specified, you will get more benefit at a particular event. If you are hungry, you need edible things but not water as an antidote of thirsty. That is why specification is a specialization of an event of an individual. “You never go in two streets at a time”.
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2. Progression The principle of progression implies that there is an optimal level of overload that should be achieved, and an optimal time frame for this overload to occur. A gradual and systematic increase of the workload over a period of time will result in improvements in fitness without risk of injury.
Workloads must be gradually adjusted upwards to increase stress on the body. Increase only one factor makes it gradual. Example, Resistance training include altering; Amount of resistance, recovery time, frequency of sessions, number of sets, range of motion, intensity level etc.
If the training demand is increased too quickly, players will be unable to adapt and may break down. If the demand is not adequate, they will not reach optimal fitness levels (Liberty I.GAA G.D.C.2015. learning.gaa.ie\coach).
Progression inculcated in a training session rely on increasing the frequency of exercise, repetition of each set number of exercise and decreasing the recovery period. In fact, progression is a solid ground base of each step of training principle to be inculcated in all our programs and my sincere advice to all athletes that, don’t focus yourself with what others doing different amount of exercise because you are different from them by many genetic and psychological makeup what you had. For example, if you want to develop your strength level by during weight lifting and should be keeping increase progressively time to time but not up and down even not continue as steady state throughout training time. One thing to be focused in this section that: obey FITT Principle. FITT is as a set of rules that should be related to benefit from any form of fitness training program.
- Frequency – how often (number of training session per week)
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- Intensity – how hard (load at any one session)
- Time (duration)- how long
- Type (mode) –Kind of activities what we should choose to achieve an appropriate training program.
3. OVERLOAD The overload principle states that for strength or endurance to improve, demands placed on the muscle must be increased systematically and progressively over time, and the resistance (weight lifted) must be of a magnitude significant enough to produce development (Werner, W.K. Hoeger and Sharon, A. Hoeger, 2011, 2009). Whilst training loads must be increased gradually, they must also allow the body to adapt to avoid injury. Varying the type, volume, and intensity of training load allows the body an opportunity to over- compensate and recover. Loading should continue to increase gradually as adaption occurs. When more is demanded, within reason, the body adapts to the increased demand (Liberty I.GAA G.D.C.2015)
Most of sport science scholars stated that progression and overload merging together others are explained separately. But unanimously the context that much not controversy.
- Progression – gradual improvement of load / intensity
- Overload – intensity/ load being increased
New studies demonstrated that, in this section 10 per cent rule is crucial to maintain how much gradually increase a load accordingly. Coaches and athletes have been doing voraciously their training without a demarcation and that is why injuries occupied and aggravating recovery period.
There is no clear and exact number of loads or intensity to increase at a time except our rule of thumb and 10 per cent rule training
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principle, but the more comfort and easy training depends on individualization that recommended.
4. Principle of individualization Each athlete will respond differently to the same training stimulus. There are many factors that alter the training response: genetics, maturity, nutrition, environment, sleep, rest, stress, age, developmental age, training age, illness or injury, and motivation, to name a few (Sneaks, k. cited in Bompa, T. 1999).
I inform one thing to be considered always while performing training that; an athlete should depend on training age and maturation than the rest difference.
5. THE PRINCIPLE OF VARIETY Due to the intensity of, and need to recover from training, variety must be build into the training program. The intensity of the training will cause mental rather than physical strain. A change of environment or an entirely different type of physical activity for a period of time might be needed for recovery (…………..).
Variety – Tedium is a state of being keep it interesting. Some scholars don’t give weight properly but this need a good attention to keep interested especially for children. Must be keep variety by changing time of the day, type of materials, training group, training method and keep it make fun.
Being many of sport science scholars informed that, the training program should consist a variety of element such as cardio respiratory fitness, aerobics, strength, speed, anaerobic, neuromuscular skills development, flexibility, mental preparation, entertainment activities and etc. The aforementioned of each element must consider on training year, training event and program of the training.
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6. THE PRINCIPLE OF ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT The coach should communicate training information with his/her athletes, the athlete should actively participate in planning and analyzing long and short-term training programs, The athlete must periodically take and pass prescribed standard tests, The athlete must undertake individual assignments and/or individual training sessions without supervision of the coach or manage.
Sneaks, K. (s.a.) mentioned that, the athlete should actively participate in planning what the coach has been designed and which have considered athletes interest accordingly. Because planning is a solid ground base of each step of training principle. In general participation of an athlete in every activity with coaches is remedy to alleviate the problem that to face what they are going to engage training. In particular between coach-athlete intimate relationship should be high and coaches to give a good sense of humor without shrink and wrinkled his face.
7. THE PRINCIPLE OF REST Athletes needs more rest than non-athletes. The body repairs its own tissues, but it requires it’s “off’ time every day. The average athlete requires 8 - 10 hours of sleep each day to recuperate sufficiently for the next training session.
For an athlete to improve on his previous best performances, or to peak at the right time, the athlete will have to plan the rest periods constructively. The duration and frequency of rest periods will depend on how the principles of training were applied.
The actual duration of the rest and recovery period may vary from individual-to individual based on factors like their current physical condition, prior weight training experience, diet, and the intensity and volume of their training.
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A good rule of thumb is to provide 48 hours of rest and recovery time before working the same muscle again (Kapleau, R. s.a)
In this training principle, some of athlete ignores totally to use or some of them are to use too short or too long period of recovering. After intensive training we should have to take a rest. But some coaches recommend their athletes ambitiously to get back quickly.
In this section not some coaches have a gross mistakes doing, they may not planned a program cyclic or acyclic as well as a proper per iodization.
I recommended that healthful training is usually two steps forward and one step back.
Recent researches stated that duration and fore frequency of period of rest time very on to avoid injury, moderation should keep in mind, be consistent and patient.
Athletes need more rest than non-athlete. Actually, the duration of recovery period vary from individual to individual. So, keep individual like their current experience, physical condition, diet, intensity and volume of their training, age, heredity, injury type, interest. Schedule type and psychological abilities which responding for different training exercise. Because, each individual should have to be treated accordingly. In general coach athlete relationship should have a great intimacy among them, In particular obeying the training principle. Because personality is a consistent way in which the behavior of one person differ from the other specially social situation. Individual difference should be considered fully among children which they need support a lot according to maintain their ability levels.
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8. Principle of per iodization
Periodization is the process of systematic planning of a short- and long-term training program by varying training loads and incorporating adequate rest and recovery. The plan serves as a template for the athlete and coach (Smith 2003). The training programme must consist of a variety of elements, including cardiorespiratory (aerobic) fitness, general strength, anaerobic fitness (power), speed, neuro-muscular skills development, flexibility, mental preparation as well as, pragmatic, feasible and effective approach of training. The emphasis placed upon each of these elements must vary during the training year, but will also depend on the athlete’s event and level of experience and maturity. Generally, basic preparation for all events should focus on general strength and aerobic fitness. Training cycles usually last about 3 weeks, with a week of lower-intensity recovery before starting the next cycle. Skills acquisition should not be emphasized during a high-intensity training cycle, but should be reserved for periods of lower volume and intensity. Periodization is an organized approach to training which involves progressive cycling of various aspects of a training program during a specific period of time (http://www.brianmac.co.uk/plan.htm).
Per iodization is a systematic plan of schedule to organize according to principle of training will help the athlete: Optimize the increment of fitness, utilize competitions in preparation for peak performance and peak at a correct time.
9. The Principle of Diminishing Returns This is to say that after a certain point, repeating a workout will bring less and less improvement. Athletes that do not realize this will continue to train to the point where workouts are not only failing to help them improve, but in fact are making them slower! When unfit
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players begin a training programme, the initial training results in large increases in fitness. As the training programme progresses and a player becomes fitter, the amount of improvement is less. When designing training programmes, it is important to remember that fitness levels do not improve at the same rate as players become fitter.
Fitness gains ‘diminish’ once the athlete gets close to their maximal level of fitness. Genetic potential will determine if the unfit athlete will eventually pass the initially fit athlete. Overload can be used when fitness levels plateau.
Fitness gains are difficult at once in a program. Novice athletes assume that can gain easily over night and it stay throughout their life as it is. Fitness gains gradually and after a certain level will gain less improvement and not improve at the same rate. At the end, there is a certain stage to get back which is reversibility. Before reversibility the peak performance stage of diminishing return is a ceiling principle.
Ceiling principle: As fitness level increases, strength and endurance also increase. Conversely, relative and absolute improvements will decrease. As athletes tend to reach their potential, increases tend to slow down and tend to be smaller. In addition, many plateaus may occur during training.
Remember, you first start training improvement in fitness large and happen quickly however, the closer you get to your maximum fitness level, the harder you must work to achieve smaller increase in your fitness (from internet “principle fitness dev.t section 2)
10. Adaptation Adaptation refers to the body's ability to adjust to increase or decrease physical demands. Repeatedly practicing a skill or activity makes it second-nature and easier to perform. Adaptation explains why beginning exercisers are often sore after starting a new routine, but
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after doing the same exercise for weeks and months they have little, if any, muscle soreness. Additionally, it makes an athlete very efficient and allows him to expend less energy doing the same movements.
Even if, we are apply the rule of training principle properly, there are things should to be considered. Many adaptive changes reverse when immediately training ceases. So adaptive will be negative (decline) or positive (increment) of the performance which is reversible and adaptation or fit and unfit respectively.
11. Reversibility A regular training stimulus is required in order for adaptation to occur and to be maintained. Without suitable, repeated bouts of training, fitness levels remain low or regress to their pre-training levels. The Principle of Use/Disuse implies that when it comes to fitness, you "use it or lose it." This simply means that your muscles hypertrophy with use and atrophy with disuse. This also explains why we decondition or lose fitness when we stop exercise.
When player stops training, their gains will disappear quicker than they were gained. The rate of decline for athletes will depend on the length of training before detraining, the specific muscle group and other factors.
Maintaining a moderately high level of fitness year-round is easier than detraining at the end of the season and then retraining at the beginning of the next (learning.gaa.ie\coach).
If we invest our energy, we will get something relatively with what we lost, unfortunately, some athletes not devote their time and energy without proper way and then gain nothing but their demands of athletes to get high performance quickly.
Reversibility is not degrading while become only to ceases exercise but also to use too high and too low dosage of exercise. So, the rate
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of decline depends on the length of training before detraining. The threaten thing is that, when we stop training, will decline quickly than our gained before. Nobody knows exactly how much decline or reverse and how long the time but some scholars indicated that most fitness is lost after 4-8 weeks of detraining. Concluded that, the longer the training program, the more gradual the loss occurring (Chapter power point). Endurance is loss faster than strength or aerobic fitness loss is faster than (2-4 weeks) than anaerobic. Example, a long distance runner and a short distance runner both have one month break from training. The long distance runner would be worse off than the short distance runner. Most fitness is lost after 4-8 weeks of detraining. Generally, the longer the training program, the more gradual the loss occurring.
12. Maintenance
Maintenance Gains achieved during high-intensity training periods can be maintained with a moderate level of work. Thus, by means of periodisation, some elements can be maintained with less work, while other elements are stressed. Remember that training is a slow, gradual process. Give yourself time to progress! Don’t be impatient! Stick to a training program that progress slowly.
Maintenance being researcher and scientific literature have been stating that, performance, health, fitness and wellness are not stay as it is or for a long period of time as well as throughout life. Maintenance is to maintain moderate level of the intensity of the training relatively recovery period depends on periodization. I stated that multilateral development, symmetry and balance principles are the overall balanced development of the body, these relatives to sports performance because an overall – conditioned athlete will achieve greater result than an athlete with only specific development (sport medicine science council of Saskat Clewan).
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The Balance Principle is a broadly applied principle that concerns achieving the right proportions of training activities. It also relates to the body's tendency to return to normalcy, or homeostasis.
Three-dimensional movements Sport skills involve movements in the three planes of space simultaneously: forward-backward, up-down, and from side to side. Your strength and conditioning program should improve functional strength with exercises and drills approximating these skills.
Modeling: “Through model training the coach attempts to direct and organize his/her training lessons in such a way that the objectives, methods, and content are similar to those of a competition. The coach or athlete needs to know his or her sports ergogenesis [work production].” (Sneaks, k. cited in Bompa, T. 1999).
The transfer principle: provides guidance on how workout activities can speed up the athlete's results in competitive performances.
13. WARM-UP A warm up is used at the beginning of any exercise or activity session to prevent injury, increased muscle temperature, improves work capacity, knee fluid, improve oxygen intake, the amount of oxygen needed for exercise is reduced, helping to get blood flow to the working muscles and nerve messages also travel faster at higher temperatures (Jerrold S. Greenberg, George B. Dintiman, Barbee Myers Oakes)
14. COOL-DOWN A cool-down brings the body back to its normal functions, and athletes perform activities that facilitate faster regeneration and recovery from strains of training. The very light exercise movements at the end of a vigorous workout designed to cool the body slowly to near-normal core temperature. Norepinephrine an end product of some of the secretions of the adrenal gland; influences nervous system activity, constricts
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blood vessels, and increases blood pressure (Jerrold S. Greenberg, George B. Dintiman, Barbee Myers Oakes).
Warmup and coal down – activities are common and simple action what we can perform easily but most coaches and athletes ignore it deliberately. I inform one thing that, types of exercise we use within warm up and cool down session are dynamic and static. No matter we may use both in cool down but must not be use static stretching in warm up session.
15. Principle of the 10 Percent Rule The 10 Percent Rule is an easy way to gauge your training increases to get the most from your workouts while reducing your risk of injury. Once you know you can safely exercise the main thing to remember is that you need to progress slowly (Quinn, E. s.a).
Many scholars recommended that beginners and experienced athletes should follow the ten percent rule, which plans a limit on increasing in weekly training. This rule informed that we should increase our training not more than 10 percent at a week
For example, if you are running 10 miles per week and want to increase, adding 1 mile the next week follows the 10 Percent Rule. If you are lifting 20 pull up per week and want to increase, add 3 pull up the next week follow the 10 percent rule. If you are lifting 40 kg and want to increase, add 4 kg the next week to follow the 10 Percent Rule. If you are a novice, 10 percent may be too much, and a 5 percent increase per week may be much more comfortable; for elite athletes, 10 percent may be too little. So, to be focused principle of individualization accordingly.
The 10-percent rule (10PR) is one of the most important and time- proven principles in running. It states that you should never increase
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your weekly mileage by more than 10 percent over the previous week (Ambey, B., 2001).
Before design to use the 10 per cent rule you should have to check what did before and training age. At any time your over all increment is higher than usual level, it is not bad but enough to keep your fitness. If not, less than usual level you might find yourself under fatigued, over training and hurt.
16. Principle of Energy System For effective conditioning, training must occur at the same intensity and duration as you will face in competition in order to develop the proper energy system predominately used. (Epley, 1998, cited by Sneaks, k.).
Epley, 1998, cited by Sneaks, k. Demonstrated that “The primary objective of conditioning is to improve the energy capacity of an athlete to improve performance. Many coaches and athletes are confused as Misinformed on how to implement the correct conditioning methods for a particular sport. To effective conditioning, training must occur at the same intensity and duration at you will face in competition in order to develop the proper energy system predominantly used. We must be contemplate our coaches and athletes how much they are know about energy system and to use training types depends on energy system function. So, coaches, managers, assistant and other stakeholders take account of to support our athletes by teaching theoretical aspects of the whole sport events.
17. Didactics principle A didactic method is a teaching method that follows a consistent scientific approach or educational style to engage the student’s mind. The didactic method of instruction is often contrasted
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with dialectics and the Socratic method (My Essay Point. 2015). Didactics is a theory of teaching, and in a wider sense, a theory and practical application of teaching and learning. This theory might be contrasted with open learning, also known as experiential learning, in which people can learn by themselves, in an unstructured manner, on topics of interest (My Essay Point. 2015). Didactics principle doesn’t isolate from practical teaching which support our athletes by physiological and psychological aspects that is why to count or give emphasis didactic teaching principle being one of training principle.
18. Recording: Recording is a state of being documenting daily training activities. I have never seen still yet, nobody has been writing recording as one of training principle but this is one of a pioneer teaching methodology in order to alleviate the problem and weak side before aggravating. For example, we have to record one of our training session one a time, after one per iodization term we can see that recorded document what we did before. This helps us to control our drawback easier can measure our performance improvement and predict future capacity.
19. Inclusive – a state of being inculcating different age group, gender, experience engaging into one group of training activities.
20. Methods of training principles This principle didn’t consider as one of training principle yet. But some of scholars informed that to be focused being a basic. I suggested that training methods are the umbrella of all training principles to help to differentiate which one of training types specifically crucial for a certain event.
For example, if you want to develop endurance for a certain performance improvement, you should have to performed aerobic activities or endurance training method. As aforementioned training principle is a correct dosage of physical training which
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improves fitness level and control injury. So, training methods are a tool of training principle which training types for which specific training load, intensity and volume important even while designing a training program.
21. Physical examination principle (Sneaks, k. 1999) stated that, no body use and instructs nor anyone who has taken a physical examination while recruitment of talent identification or before get into program. I agree fully his principle count as one of training principle because injury problem, performance ineffectiveness, athlete disinterested as well as early reversible of fitness are becoming from the ignorance, truancy and absenteeism of physical examination. In particular developing countries have faced such kind of trouble and outrageous situation.
Conclusion: Training principle is a solid ground base of each step improvement fitness and performance. My sincere recommendation thoroughly that, we should have to give emphasis equal to training principle the following terms:
- Nutritional value – what types, how much, and when to take before, in and after training.
- Materials – appropriate, qualified and interested to be used.
- Medication – which will have taken immediately after injury occurred
- Psychological preparation- our training principle should be simple not hard, knowing not unknowing, whole part not a part and interested not boring.
- Prevention of injury through skill, fitness, nutrition, warm up, environment, treatment and proper materials.
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- Self demonstration- demonstration is 1000 times better than telling. Generally human beings are sociable animals particularly sportsmen are more sociable animal because they have spent more time interact with others. So didactics is a product or segment of experience sharing from one to another in line with the opportunity to get open learning by interesting morally. Training principle should be inculcating didactic teaching methodology while designing a plan. Training principle is the increment of performance and fitness and the controlling system of injury and wastage of time.
References
1. Bompa, Tudor. 1994. Theory and Methodology of Training: The Key to Athletic Performance. 3rd Ed. Kendall/ Hunt, Dubuque 2. Costill, David, and Wilmore, Jack. 1994. Physiology of Sport and Exercise. Human Kinetics, Champaign 3. Epley, Boyd. 1998. The Ten Performance Principles. Husker Power, tm. Lincoln, Nebraska 4. Freeman, William H. 1996. Peak When It Counts: Periodization for American Track and Field. 3rd Ed. Tafnews Press, Mountain View 5. Harre, Dietrich. 1982. The Principles of Sports Training: Introduction to the Theory and Methods of Training. 2nd Ed. Berlin, Sportverlag 6. USOC. “A Collection of Research on Sport Physiology.” US Olympic Training Center, Colorado 7. Physical fitness and wellness / by Jerrold S. Greenberg, George B. Dintiman, Barbee Myers Oakes. 8. Carling, C., Reilly, T. & Williams, A.M (2009) Performance Assessment for Field sport. Routledge London 9. Jarvie, G. (2006) sport, culture and society Routledge London 10. IOC (1999). Sport F or All. International Olympic Committee. Sport For All Commission. 11. Sport For All in Canada: Building on the European (1999). Colloquium, center for sport policy studies, university of Toronto. May 25-27
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12. Thibault, L., Slack, T. and Hinings, B. (1994) strategic planning for non profit sport organizations: Empirical verification of a framework.Vol 8, 218-233 13. Verhoshansky, Y. The end of ‘’periodization’’ in the training of high performance sport 14. Werner W.K. Hoeger and Sharon A. Hoeger Fitness and Wellness, Ninth Edition 2011, 2009 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning 15. Robert J. Karwasky, MS, CSCS 2002 LACoFD Wellnes & Fitness Exercise Manual 16. Corbin, C.B., Welk, G.J., Corbin, W.R. & Welk, K.A. 2008. Concepts of Fitness and Wellness: A Comprehensive Lifestyle Approach, 7/e
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28. My Essay Point 2015. Importance of sport. Online:
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PALLAVAS AND THEIR BOWL
Prof. N Kanakaratnam Head Dept. of History, Archaeology and Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam, Andhra Pradesh
"Hail! Prosperity! Let that physique of the bedmate of Sri (Visnu) which is beaming with the kaustabha jewel on its chest and which with a hundred marakata-like accoutrements is lying on the ocean, akin a accumulating of clouds bright with the interspersed lightning and clearing on the amnion of the ocean...grant you welfare." Some plates invoked Brahma and Siva as well.
The sacrificial world-view was replaced by one that ability in accepted agreement be characterized as Puranic, alleged afterwards the accepted abstract of the classical aeon which independent belief of the abundant gods, focussing on Shiva, Visnu and Krishna and their wives.1
In this new world-view Visnu and sometimes Siva replaced Indra and the added Vedic gods, decidedly with account to kingship. In the Vedic abstract Vishnu had been the acquaintance and abettor of Indra, but in the later, puranic texts, he affected a above position acceptable the archetypal fighter of the gods. Back animal kings were aswell declared to be warriors, in afterwards times it was Visnu who in the aristocratic credo maintained abutting relations with alluvial royals. "Visnu /had consistently been/...considered a protector who rendered casework of the absolute accent to gods and men and /was/ admired as getting invincible." This rendered him fit for aristocratic ideology, back the
1 Ancient Jaffna: Being a Research Into the History of Jaffna from Very Early Times to the Portuguese Period, C. Rasanayagam, p.241, Asian Educational Services 1926
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animal baron was aboriginal and foremost a protector of his commonwealth and its abeyant for prosperity. In the closing connection, "Visnu was, generally in cooperation with added gods, absorbed on announcement the processes and advancement the phenomena affiliated with vegetation...and fertility, with the agency of acknowledging activity and with the constancy of the animal chase in general." Visnu was aswell perceived as all common and in this address represented the advanced conquests which the Pallavas boasted of in their inscriptions.
Thus it is not casual that Visnu is carefully associated with the aeon that witnessed the growing alliance by the Pallavas of a trans-regional arrangement of kingship, the a lot of all-encompassing arrangement yet developed in south India. The Vedic notions of 'incorporative' ascendancy acquired into new forms and the new base of ascendancy for the afterwards Pallavas can bigger be characterized in agreement of the development of relations of "shared sovereignty" amid Pallava kings and bounded chieftains.
The primary basal ritual of the aboriginal south Indian kingdoms had been the sacrifice. In the afterwards period, the ritual of the aristocratic dana became primary. It represented the amphitheatre in which ascendancy and accurate relations were constituted in advertence to the newely developed approach of all-powerful origin.
First, aristocratic danas provided accessible occasions for the agreement of hymns of acclaim which inscribed the affiliated bequest of the kings--their affiliated all-powerful nature--and declared their accurate exploits, decidedly their conquests. Secondly, clashing beforehand grants area the supporters of the baron had been classified but not named, in the backward seventh century, assertive bodies were accepted for their own qualities and articular by their claimed constituencies as bounded big men or chiefs.The aboriginal examples of
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this had to do with the class of ajnapti (executor), which had ahead been one of a amount of agent titles. In grants of the backward seventh century, the ajnapti was singled out as the above class or appellation for admiral who were awfully anxious with the beheading of the admission at the akin of arbitration amid the cloister and the village. In a admission of Paramesvarman I, of about 680 AD the ajnapti was articular as the adjudicator of a accurate accumulation of villages. And a admission of Pallava Narasimhavarman of about 700 AD, the ajnapti was alleged Isvara (lord) of Nandakurra and was said to according Rajaditya in valour.2
Conceivably added chiefly an altogether new class appeared that of vijnapti (petitioner). In plates of Paramesvaravarman I (about 669-690 AD) a allowance of acreage to abutment Brahmins (brahmandeya) was fabricated by the baron at the appeal of anyone who is identified, afterwards his name, as "the aristocrat of the Pallavas." There is aswell acknowledgment of the ajnapti who accomplished the agreement of the grant. What is important about this admission is that a aristocrat of the kingdom, allegedly not of the Pallava lineage, alternate in the accurate of the admission in added than an controlling capacity: in this and afterwards grants, the vijnapti provided the catalyst for allowance giving.
In a afterwards inscription that vijnapti is one Brahmasriraja who is absolutely declared as:
acclaimed but modest, handsome and long-lived, fo bendable accent and the best of mend; who just as Brihaspati is the abbot of Indras the aristocrat of heaven, and is the arch of the handsome Nandin (the Pallava king), the aristocrat of the apple and arch of the Pallavas; who is aesthetic both by natures and through education; who is the aboriginal of the wise, close and brave; who possesses the ful splendour
2 The journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Volume 51, p.109
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of the Brahmana and Kastriya castes and a adherence to the august Nandin, which does not cease as affiliated as the moon and the stars endure; who supports his family; who is the arch of his family; who is an beforehand son; who resembles the moon in beauty; who excels in all virtues; and who is an beforehand grandson.3
In accession set of plates from Nandivarman's reign, the appellant was the king's arch accepted and fighter of abounding battles surrounding the king's accretion to the throne. Accession set of plates names a appellant and describes him in Sanskrit as the aristocrat of the commune of Mangala. He had requested an award for the Brahman association of a apple and he is accepted thus:
The assistant of this baron Nandivarman who was the armory of acerbity and virtue, who was heroic, awful distinguished, admired by the good, whose abundance was honour, whose overextension acclaim belted the autogenous of all quarters, and in whom ...the name /lord of Mangaladistrict/ became able-bodied known, he gave a accumulation of Brahmans their adapted object, accepting again petitioned the king.
These statements of acclaim advance that these personages represented an adjustment of consequence ahead embodied alone in the baron and his family. The amplification of the political arrangement was such that the baron was now able to authorize relations with classes of bodies who either did not exist
before or who had ahead been either rivals or allies. These chiefs are said to be apart blameless and admirable of honour. The accustomed honour by accommodating in the acceding of aristocratic danas, and in that accommodation they entered into relations with the Pallava baron based on "shared sovereignty." That is, they became alive and allegedly all-important participants in the axial aristocratic ritual. The
3 Alī Jāvīd and Tabassum Javeed. (2008). World heritage monuments and related edifices in India, p.107
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ascendancy of the Pallavas which was based on their agent was aggregate with the chieftains who embodied agnate virtues on a bottom scale. It is in this accommodation that the ritual of the aristocratic dana proclaimed the base of ascendancy and then, by administration the aristocratic qualities and privileges of that sovereignty, accustomed accurate relations with loyal subordinates.
The set of relations accustomed during the backward seventh and eighth centuries affiliated to abide through to the end of Pallava rule. In a backward bowl anachronous about 867 AD, the beforehand arrangement was replicated. The vijnapti in this admission was a man alleged Martantan who was declared thus: "a brood of the ancestors of Kuru /a Vedic lineage/ and absorbed on affording ambush to his subjects. An accessory to the apple like the moon and akin the ocean in profundity, ... this adjudicator of men became the resort of the humans by attention the humans as if he were the sun. Accordingly the surname Nilaitangi (the abutment of the world) was as acceptable to this adjudicator as a...god." The arch had abounding of the attributes of the Pallava kings themselves and was even likened to a god. He had petitioned for the appropriate to accord the grant, admitting in the king's name.4
The admittance of both a new akin in the political arrangement and a new blazon of accord amid the chiefs and the baron represents the amplification of a bounded arrangement to a trans-regional system. This new arrangement included chiefs who were themselves ritual actors with their own afterward of supporters. The new arrangement of sovereignty, associated as it was with the universalism of Visnu and the all-powerful base of the aristocratic family's privileges and honor, was adapted to board the beyond political system.
4 Ordhendra Coomar Gangoly. The art of the Pallavas, Volume 2 of Indian Sculpture Series. G. Wittenborn, 1957. p. 2.
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As added and added networks of chieftains and their accommodation became angry to the Pallava king, new cardinal institutions spread, abacus to the abyss and calibration of the axial polity. Temples were acceptable added important politically as institutions with constituencies--dependents and worshippers--and with acclimation capacities. They were aswell important as allegorical centres in which the advance of adoration was amenable for transmitting new cultural and fabulous concepts and symbols to beyond and beyond groups of people. Temple adoration was overshadowing Vedic practices and replacing them with account codifications of rules for worship. The acceptance and new identities which participants acquired by their accord in temple ritual was acceptable added important conceivably than the allowances from sacrificial performances. Furthermore, as we shall see later, temple came to play an added important role in the attempts of warrior families to accomplish aristocratic cachet and then, to accumulate it. Temple worship, by acceptable affiliated to baronial ambitions, became as able-bodied a way to absorb groups of added accustomed humans into the aristocratic cults of south India. The affirmation of all-powerful agent for the baron fabricated it accessible for him to be admirable as the added Puranic deities were getting admirable in temples. As the Sanskritist Gonda has remarked, "the account apparent to a soveriegn is, .../in this period/ in abounding respects agnate to the marks of account /adoration and worship/ conferred on the images of the gods." In fact, as we shall see later, in Tamil the chat for temple agency the abode of the king, kovil.
It is important to acknowledgment aswell the accent of brahmadeyas, settlements of Brahmins. In afterwards Pallava times, brahmadeya settlements began to advance the amusing characteristics--in agreement of both centralized alignment and cultural influence--which would accomplish them important in the added development of amount association and religious acquirements in the Chola aeon which began
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in the l0th century. Brahmans acted as the ritual specialists of temple adoration in accession to accustomed on their role as calm ritualists, accustomed out ceremonies in the homes of top cachet non-Brahman castes. Brahmans developed a alternation of alliances with ascendant agrarian groups during this aeon and alternate in the administering assemblies in localities. The allowance of a brahmadeya was the accomplished cachet allowance of the kingdom. Whether able by the baron himself or by a chieftain, the brahmadeya had a a actual appropriate importance. The appropriate to acquire arete from its alms was the a lot of admired ability in the kingdom. The accepted action for allotment a brahmadeya consisted of the allocation of a artifice of acreage and the redirection of aristocratic cesses (a assertive allocation of the crop and the casework that were owed to the king) to Brahmins. The apple headman in the adjustment would airing about the artifice of acreage with the aristocratic adjustment captivated over his arch at the time which the data of the admission were released.5
In fact, the amplification of the political arrangement cannot be discussed after advertence to the abounding arrangement of affairs revolving about the king. Actual few of the aristocratic cesses mentioned in the inscriptions assume in fact to accept begin the way to the axial cloister of the king. One finds in the inscriptions accretion numbers of tax-exempt Brahmin acreage settlements, temples and temple land, and their accompanying accumulated institutions. One finds as able-bodied acutely greater numbers of important humans who captivated villages with some array of tax-free status. One has to accumulate in apperception that the possibilities for circuitous socio bread-and-butter alignment and abundant agronomics were bound to almost baby littoral and littoral areas. Records of bounded accouterment for added "intermediary" recipients of the king's
5 Jaiswal, Suvira (2000). Caste: origin, function, and dimensions of change. Manohar Publishers. p. 115.
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generosity, such as warriors in some way affiliated with the centre, added suggests a ample cesspool on aristocratic revenues. The address of the inscriptions appear a aristocratic affirmation on all these appurtenances and services. This affirmation had brainy candor insofar as the axial position of the baron was maintained by the ascendancy of all added added units to the Pallava dynasty. The grants asserted that now amount how assets were initially allocated, the baron was the ultimate recipient.
The baron was aswell the ultimate donor. This was the case with grants to Brahmans and temples and this aswell seems to accept been the case with the redistribution of assets in such areas as irrigational facilities. A application of the inscriptional affirmation over time suggests an accretion amplification of this arrangement of transactions. But, even as assimilation from the centermost to ambit became added pronounced, decentralizing developments aswell took place. Added and added intermediaries rose in the system--persons who had bounded followers and audience and who had ascendancy over bounded institutions such as temples and belt assemblies. However, because of the apparatus of aggregate ascendancy in political relationships it was accessible for the political arrangement to expend as a individual cultural entity. These relations with the axial baron were allegedly awful admired and mutually advantageous. Otherwise, we could not explain the adherence of the Pallavas and their amazing accommodation to just abide as a blooming dynasty. The forms of aristocratic relations accustomed beneath the afterwards Pallavas functioned as adaptive institutions and were adapted to board the growing calibration and complication of the political system6.
6 Rabe, Michael D (1997). "The Māmallapuram Praśasti: A Panegyric in Figures". Artibus Asiae 57 (3/4): 189–241.
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References:
1. Avari, Burjor (2007). India: The Ancient Past. New York: Routledge.
2. Hermann, Kulke; Rothermund D (2001) [2000]. A History of India. Routledge.
3. Minakshi, Cadambi (1938). Administration and Social Life Under the Pallavas. Madras: University of Madras.
4. Prasad, Durga (1988). History of the Andhras up to 1565 A.D. Guntur, India: P.G. Publishers.
5. Raghava Iyengar, R (1949). Perumbanarruppatai, a commentary. Chidambaram, India: Annamalai University Press.
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