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THE ROLE of NUMBERS in ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)

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THE ROLE of NUMBERS in ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) Dr Tone Smith Spash ©2017 Doctoral Thesis THE ROLE OF NUMBERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) by Tone SMITH SPASH WU Vienna University of Economics and Business Submitted for a Doctoral degree in Social and Economic Sciences September 2017 Supervisors Committee members ao. Univ.Prof. Andreas NOVY Univ.Prof. Ulrich BRAND ao. Univ.Prof. Karl-Michael BRUNNER Prof. Arild VATN Dr Tone Smith Spash ©2017 To my parents who introduced me to the wonders of Nature Dr Tone Smith Spash ©2017 Acknowledgements This dissertation has benefited from the knowledge and support of many people. First, I want to thank my supervisor Andreas Novy for his enthousiasm and engagement in my topic. His guidance was indispensable, and his door was always open. I also would like to thank my second supervisor, Karl-Michael Brunner, who in particular gave very valuable advise for restructuring the first draft of the dissertation. Armin Puller could almost count as a third supervisor. He has been a tremendously important discussion partner for the critical realist part of the dissertation. Finally, I want to thank my partner in life, Clive, for his general support during the whole research period and for always being willing to discuss and reflect on various issues with me. Dr Tone Smith Spash ©2017 Abstract This dissertation explores the central role of numbers in environmental policy and discourse, with a particular focus on the 'economic turn' in nature conservation. The aim has been to understand and explain why, despite the parallel increase in environmental problems and in quantitative information about the environment, the faith in and focus on numbers to do something about the problems seem as strong as ever. The dissertation draws on discourse analysis and insights from historical and sociological studies about numbers and quantification and combines it within a critical realist methodology. The main empirical case analysed is the UN-backed study of The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB), supplemented by an historical review of the development of environmental statistics since the 1970s and a review of the developments within conservation science with respect to the role of numbers. The historical review demonstrates a change from biophysical numbers to new measures of equivalence (e.g. CO2-equivalents), paralleling the move from central planning and administrative rationality to neoliberalism and market rationality. While monetary valuation has been much criticised in the environmental politics literature for leading to the commercialisation of nature, this study shows a more nuanced picture: the role of monetary valuation has rather been to 'bridge' the transition from administrative rationality to market rationality. It is the newly developed measures of equivalence which allow setting up new markets for financial instruments and compensation schemes for environmental damage. In the case of TEEB, monetary valuation and its related arguments of efficiency, rational decision-making etc., are first and foremost rhetorical since the main recommendations (economic incentives and markets) are taken for granted. The centrality of numbers in current environmental policy discourse is explained by a combination of structural conditions, the search for business opportunities and actors' perceptions of money as the only possible language of communication. Some structural conditions are of a more general kind specific for modernity, while others are specific for the neoliberal era. A main problem with the number focus in environmental policy, is that it allows to not address the underlying drivers of the problems, and hence strengthens the 'actualist' perception of reality. The study concludes that numbers have potential as evidence of environmental problems. However, change does not happen by the numbers themselves (contra mainstream Dr Tone Smith Spash ©2017 economics), but must achieve political support. Further research is needed to understand better how numerical information can be combined with approaches which move beyond actualism, instrumentalism and relativism. Dr Tone Smith Spash ©2017 Abstract Diese Dissertation untersucht die zentrale Rolle von Zahlen in Umweltpolitik und Umweltdiskurs, mit speziellem Fokus auf die Wirtschaftlichkeit des Umweltschutzes. Das Ziel war zu verstehen und zu erklären, warum es, trotz des parallelen Wachstums der Umweltprobleme und der quantitativen Informationen über die Umwelt, das Vertrauen in und die Fokussierung auf Zahlen noch immer sehr wichtig ist, etwas gegen die Probleme zu tun. Die Dissertation berücksichtigt Diskursanalysen und Erkenntnisse historischer und soziologischer Studien über Zahlen und Bewertungen, und verbindet diese mithilfe des kritischen Realismus. Die wichtigsten analysierten empirischen Daten stammen aus der UN- gestützten Studie „The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)“. Sie werden durch einen historischen Überblick über die Entwicklung von Umweltstatistiken seit den 1970er Jahren und eine Bewertung der Entwicklung innerhalb des Umweltschutzes, in Hinsicht auf die Aufgabe von Zahlen, ergänzt. Der geschichtliche Rückblick demonstriert einen Wechsel von biophysikalischen Zahlen zu neueren Messungen der Äquivalenz (z.B. CO2-Vergleich) und spiegelt die Veränderung weg von zentraler Planung und administrativer Sichtweise hin zu Neoliberalismus und Rationalität des Marktes. Während die Bewertung auf finanzieller Grundlage in der Literatur zur Umweltpolitik scharf kritisiert wurde, weil sie zu einer Kommerzialisierung der Natur führt, zeigt diese Studie ein differenzierteres Bild: die Rolle der Bewertung auf monetärer Basis war in erster Linie die eines „Brückenschlags“ für die Veränderung weg von einer rein administrativen Sichtweise hin zur Marktrationalität. Es sind die erst vor kurzem entwickelten Messungen der Äquivalenz, die es erlauben, neue Märkte für finanzielle Instrumentarien und Kompensierungspläne für die Umweltschäden zu entwickeln. In der Fallstudie TEEB sind monetäre Bewertungen und die damit verbundenen Argumente zur Effektivität, rationeller Entscheidungsfindung, usw. in erster Linie rhetorische Argumente, da die wichtigste Empfehlung (ökonomische Anreize und Märkte) als gesichert gilt. Dass Zahlen in der aktuellen Diskussion zur Umweltpolitik im Mittelpunkt stehen, wird durch eine Kombination struktureller Vorgaben, die Suche nach Geschäftsmöglichkeiten und die Auffassung der Akteure, dass Geld die einzige Kommunikationsmöglichkeit darstellt, erklärt. Manche strukturellen Vorgaben sind generell spezifischer für die Moderne, während andere spezifisch für die neoliberale Ära sind. Fokussiert man sich in der Umweltpolitik auf Dr Tone Smith Spash ©2017 Zahlen ist eines der Hauptprobleme, dass die verdeckten Verursacher der Probleme so vernachlässigt werden können und somit die aktuelle Sichtweise auf die Realität festigen. Die Studie kommt zum Schluss, dass Zahlen Potential haben die Umweltprobleme darzustellen. Allerdings können sie alleine keine Änderungen herbeiführen (gegen die Mainstream-Ökonomie), dafür müssen sie die Unterstützung aus der Politik erhalten. Weitere Untersuchungen sind notwendig, um besser zu verstehen, wie zahlenbezogene Informationen mit Betrachtungsweisen kombiniert werden können, die über Aktualismus, Instrumentalisierung und Relativierung hinausgehen. Dr Tone Smith Spash ©2017 Table of Contents List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. 7 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 9 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 9 1.2 Background .................................................................................................................... 10 1.3 Existing literature ........................................................................................................... 13 1.4 Aim of the dissertation and research questions .............................................................. 16 1.5 Meta-theoretical approach: critical realism ................................................................... 18 1.6 Normative starting point ................................................................................................ 21 1.7 Outline of the dissertation .............................................................................................. 22 2 Theories about numbers in society ....................................................................................... 25 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 25 2.2 Steering from a distance................................................................................................. 25 Knowledge for state steering ........................................................................................... 25 Rational steering .............................................................................................................. 27 Steering through standardisation...................................................................................... 29 Governmentality: Making the object of steering governable (indirect steering) ............. 33 Disciplining and the performativity of numbers .............................................................
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