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A confident call to faith: Rediscovering the relevance of Christian catechisms

Author: Protestant heritage is synonymous with the traditional employment of catechisms and 1 Raymond Potgieter catechetical teaching of both young and old. Many denominations have shifted from this historical approach, not least because of the challenges of so-called catechetical vacuums Affiliation: 1Faculty of Theology, North- when facing third-millennial issues. The Heidelberg, Anglican and Westminster Catechisms West University, South Africa allow for express distinctions peculiar to each unique Protestant faith constituency, but serve acceptably within the wider ecumenical tradition. A rediscovery of the historical contexts of Correspondence to: these historical formulations will illustrate traditional denominational Protestant flexibility Raymond Potgieter accompanying its Christian creedal fixity. This study will refer to confessional content in the Email: main without resorting to particular content. The intention is to show how these polarities [email protected] could dynamically serve the confessing church in meeting present-day challenges to the Christian faith in a manner that once again will inspire confidence in its catholic witness in the Postal address: third millennium. PO Box 19491, Noordbrug 2522, South Africa

Dates: ’n Oortuigde oproep tot geloof: Die herontdekking van die relevansie van Christelike Received: 24 Jan. 2013 kategismusse. Die protestantse erfenis is sinoniem met die tradisionele gebruik van die Accepted: 02 Sept. 2013 Published: 15 Nov. 2013 kategismusse en die kategetiese onderrig van oud en jonk. Baie kerkgenootskappe neig weg van hierdie historiese benadering hoofsaaklik as gevolg van die uitdagings van die sogenaamde How to cite this article: kategetiese leemtes in die hantering van derde millenniumkwessies. Die Heidelbergse, Potgieter, R., 2013, ‘A Anglikaanse en Westminsterse Kategismusse laat ruimte vir spesifieke onderskeidings wat confident call to faith: eie is aan elke unieke protestantse geloofsgemeenskap, maar wat nogtans binne die breër Rediscovering the relevance of Christian catechisms’, ekumeniese tradisie aanvaar word. ’n Herontdekking van die historiese konteks van hierdie In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi tradisionele formulerings sal tradisioneel kerklik-protestantse buigsaamheid illustreer wat 47(2), Art. #686, 10 pages. met konfessionele vastheid gepaard gaan. Hierdie artikel verwys na konfessionele inhoud http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ oor die algemeen sonder om spesifieke inhoud aan te toon. Die doel is dus om aan te toon ids.v47i2.686 hoedanig hierdie polariteite die belydende kerk daadwerklik kan help om die daaglikse Copyright: uitdagings van die Christelike geloof op so ’n wyse te hanteer dat daar weer vertroue in die © 2013. The Authors. algemene getuienis van die kerk in die derde millennium sal wees. Licensee: AOSIS OpenJournals. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Introduction Attribution License. The Christian church claims to be the guardian of revealed truth as contained in the Bible. Historically, this translated into formulating creeds, confessions and catechisms. Creeds take on the form of ‘a concise, formal, and authorised statement of important points of Christian doctrine’ (Cross & Livingstone 1974:358), for example the Apostle’s and the Athanasian creeds. More specifically, a confession is ‘a declaration of religious belief’. This word has also been applied to the traditional ecumenical creeds of the church. A development during the Protestant Reformation of the 16th and 17th centuries was confessional expressions of faith with the added element of defining its particular confessors communally as a distinct religious body (Cross & Livingstone ibid:329–330). With the concern for truth in the light of differing opinions and opposition to heresy, the cure of souls, recourse was made to yet another expression of the Christian faith. Underlying this concern for truth is ‘the study and dissemination of the Bible’ (Bray 1994:17) which was essential to the rise of the Reformation. Its formulated truths were often expressed in the distinctly peculiar form of a catechism.

There is no manifesto available on the use of catechisms within the Christian community. A rewarding exercise though is to draw together some of the bits and pieces relevant to the subject as documented in various historical documents. These will reveal the careful boundaries delineated for individual catechisms from their historical context, purpose and distinct form. To Read online: that end selected documentation about the (HC), Anglican Prayer Book Scan this QR Catechism (APBC) and the Westminster Catechisms (WC) will be examined. code with your smart phone or mobile device Emerging from the aforementioned will be the observation that, although these three catechisms to read online. focus on developing systematic theological distinctives, natural revelation is not particularly

http://www.indieskriflig.org.za doi:10.4102/ids.v47i2.686 Page 2 of 10 Original Research addressed as a form of revelation. This is evident from the Medieval catechetical teaching truths disseminated from, for instance physical science Contextually the 16th century Reformation emerged from the and one of the reasons Christians are so divided on these background of the Middle Ages, a period Lane (2007:90) says matters. The church needs to express a holistic view of Protestants need to revisit for its struggle between faith and revelation which will uniquely define and succinctly address reason, a contemporary problem. Whereas monastic theology matters pertaining to science and theology. To that end the church may once again recapture the significant value of its tended towards a particular way of living, for example catechisms for the Christian church in the 3rd millennium. Regula Benedicti, its purpose was to elicit edification and worship and was not primarily a pursuit of knowledge for its own sake (Lane ibid:88) – a paradigm challenged during Some introductory comments the Reformation, but not resolved. Catechism comes from kateleo and means ‘to cause to listen’, implying instruction. From the Latin catechismus the further Aristotelian logic influenced medieval theology. During implication is that of word of mouth teaching. Turrel this time embryonic universities emerged as the weight of (2006:500–508) defines a catechism as ‘a manual of Christian scholarship gradually shifted from monastery to cathedral doctrine, designed for a popular audience’. Martin Luther with persons such as Peter Abelard (1079–1142) and John Hus (1872:124, para. CCLXV) said ‘The catechism must govern the (c. 1369–415) who began scrutinising the church’s doctrine church, and remain lord and ruler.’ The word catechism was and methodology. ‘Reason had entered theology not [yet] popularly used in the early 16th century, although the form as a means of defining Christian doctrine [which was based of catechetical teaching predates that (Cross & Livingstone on revelation], but as a technique for defending and further 1974:249). understanding this faith’ (Lane 2007:89). The Bible became available to laity in the vernacular viz. John Wycliffe (c. Catechism was originally intended as an oral means of 1320–1384), whilst internationally this period had to deal religious instruction preparing catechumens including with the fall of Constantinople in 1453, papal rivalry and the children and adults for confirmation of their Christian faith, beginnings of social emergence from serfdom. By the 15th for example The Book of Common Prayer (BCP) (n.d.:288–289). century theology was dually centred in the realm of God’s Preparation included teaching as well as transformation in revelation and philosophy (Lane ibid:89). How would the its addressing of morals, religious practice and such matters. Reformation respond? Finally, however, no catechism covers all the particulars of the understanding of Christian theology and, by virtue of Amidst these aforementioned dynamics, medieval its brevity, touches upon the essentials for Christian faith catechetical teaching continued to follow the Early Church’s and living (Turrel 2006:500) as generically defined by the rigorous preparation of candidates for baptism with its church. Little account is taken of the impact of life beyond concern for backsliding from the faith. Religious instruction the confines of its definition such as the historical progress of prior to the Reformation generally found its place after scientific discoveries and its interpretations of reality. baptism or before, for those catechumens not baptised as An example of Early Church catechetical practice was infants. Ascendancy of the practice of god-parenting led to that expressed by the ‘golden mouthed’ John Chrysostom sharing in the responsibility for nurturing a godchild in the (c. 347–407). He, famously, viewed marriage and the family content of the faith and to ensure pursuit of a moral life. as a ‘little church’ which Johnson (2002) argues in a thesis includes not only responsibility of managing the church, Catechetical teaching generally followed the threefold pattern but also of parents in teaching their children. Hippolytus of of faith (Apostle’s Creed), hope (Lord’s Prayer) and charity Rome (d. 235) was apparently less concerned about the size of (Ten Commandments). Teaching content tended towards his congregation than about the morals and values professed stylistic harmony centred in sevens so that the Lord’s Prayer by its members (Harmless 1990:70). Anyone who professed was for instance divided into as many petitions (Cross & some Christian conversion, but did not seek to break with Livingstone 1974:249). The Reformation, on the other hand, a previous way of life and accept Christian practice, was brought about a concern for biblical content of its catechisms summarily rejected from becoming a catechumen. According to ensure expression of its doctrines. to Harmless (ibid:668), Augustine (354–430) was particularly concerned about the need to catechise the church, because Whilst confessions of faith express the creedal doctrines of ‘addiction to the world’ negatively impacted upon society the catholic faith and denominational distinctives, catechisms (Harmless ibid:668–689). disseminate these doctrines as a form of dialogue into basic questions and answers. Traditionally, many of the questions Historically, instruction of neophytes and children of and answers became embedded in the consciousness of the believers took the form of dealing with a set of searching catechists to serve as standard answers to their faith. Initially questions followed by answers (Turrel 2006:500). Although catechisms served both sides of the baptismal dividing line: not a new concept at the time of the Reformation, it became a those who were baptised into the church as infants and those standard for religious instruction. who had not yet been baptised.

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History and the emergence of some catechisms the 16th century the concern was to distinguish between the teaching of Rome and Protestant truth (Green ibid:40). From Prior to the Reformation there was one accepted faith in the 1640s the emphasis shifted to distinguishing the various Europe. Though subject to criticism, it was doctrinally Protestant doctrines. Christians’ doctrines were generally dictated by Rome (Cross & Livingstone 1974:1165). As the stated in an irenic fashion in an attempt to avoid unnecessary Protestant Reformation gained in ascendency its doctrines division. A comparison of different catechisms illustrates the inevitably birthed new confessions of faith. many points of similarity and shared doctrinal persuasions (Green ibid:91–92). Confession, as a term on the European continent in the 16th and 17th centuries, did not particularly distinguish between Some of the well-known catechisms of the era were Luther’s catechism or creed, but embraced them without particular Little Catechism (1529), the HC (1563), the Prayer Book distinction (Cross & Livingstone 1974:329). Nevertheless, Catechism (PBC) (1536, enlarged 1604, revised 1661, final form catechisms as teaching tools came about to express the rise 1662), and the Westminster Shorter Catechism (WSC) (1647). of a new orthodoxy which of course did not go unchallenged Many of these catechisms became missionary standards and (Lane 2007:149). Written for lay instruction they unified the accompanied the process of colonisation, leading to them masses into for instance a Lutheran expression of theology being translated in many foreign languages and standards on the one hand or a peculiar Anglican theology on the other. for revised catechisms. Wherever these catechisms were In time this development gave rise to separate Lutheran taken, however, they served to guide the Christian church in and Anglican identities. Denominations claimed certain its witness to all nations. confessions and catechisms, whilst excluding others so that these writs often became denominationally associated. To show the relevance of the catechisms for the church today, Each group claimed that its preferred doctrines most clearly this article will briefly trace the historical backgrounds, expressed their distinctives in the most biblical fashion purpose and form of the HC, WC and PBC.1 Each of these possible. catechisms has distinctives which gave rise to its formulation and for its continued historical relevance. Catechetical teaching was reinforced by a dialogue in the form of question and answer. The questions and answers of for instance the HC, reflect a truly catholic exposition of the Some historical distinctives of the reformed faith. Indeed, many who may remember little of Heidelberg Catechism (1563) a catechism may yet be able to state its first question. This Distinct historical background question is generally developed throughout the catechism. Ursinus (1888:17) holds that ‘[t]he question of comfort is Von Alpen (1863:5, 7) states that its history leads into a school placed, and treated first, because it embodies the design and of wisdom and that this catechism evidences the providence of substance of the catechism’. Between 1530 and 1740 about 680 God. According to Von Alpen (ibid:5), the HC was a powerful different questions can be identified from catechisms on the influence ‘upon the destinies of entire nations and kingdoms’. continent and in England alone (Green 1996:51). Catechisms From the catechism’s inception, there was this identification do not necessarily follow a dialogue or question and answer of the present with the historical necessitated by the need for format and may include more polemical approaches of a single catechism for the Palatinate which would supersede confrontation (Green ibid:56–57). any other in circulation and address conflicting theological divisions. Differing opinions included those particularly Traditionally, Protestant reformed instruction is given by related to the understanding of the presence of Jesus during a catechist who may be a minister, curate, lay person or a the service of Holy Communion and how this was reflected person in good standing in the church. Catechumens were in the symbols of the sacrament. This came to a head in 1559 generally children, but could also be older persons. Sometimes when Lutheran Tilemannus Heshusius (1526–1588) and catechetical instruction was periodically presented in church Deacon William Klebitz,2 a Zwinglian by persuasion (or services to include the congregation as a whole. The audience of Calvinist persuasion according to Bente 2008:334, 343) was variously identified: ‘all sorts of people’, ‘all Christians’, allowed their differences to enter the public arena (Chalmers ‘all those that seek to enter the path-way of salvation’, ‘babes 1814:426). This took place during a service of the Lord’s in Christ’, ‘babes in knowledge’ and so on (Green 1996:74). supper when Heshusius tried to wrench the cup from Klebitz who had been forbidden to partake of the sacrament (Bente The large number and extent of catechisms and of the ibid:343; Nevin 1888:xi). Attempts to reconcile them failed, manner in which catechists borrow from one another is a and both were removed from their pulpit ministries (Von question addressed by Green (1996) for the period 1530– Alpen ibid:16–18). Consequently Heshusius was forbidden 1740. He distinguishes between the ideal and reality of entrance to several cities in Germany and had a reputation what took place (Green ibid:4), and the impact of changing for controversies with Calvinists. Elector Frederick III mediums such as new forms of music, visual aids, symbols faced a dilemma. Although personally persuaded towards et cetera – all of which affected instruction. Ideally, the idea 1.To that end I do not wish to specifically deal with the particular content of each was not just to repeat a catechism by rote, but to progress in catechism. That is not the purpose of this article. understanding and knowledge (Green ibid:562). Moreover, in 2.Hesshuss, Klebiz is the spelling used by Nevin (1888:xi).

http://www.indieskriflig.org.za doi:10.4102/ids.v47i2.686 Page 4 of 10 Original Research a Zwinglian interpretation of the Lord’s Supper, he also be thoroughly trained therein, but also that the Pastors and maintained that unity may be had amongst German Schoolmasters themselves may be provided with a fixed form Protestants who held differing views of mode and doctrine and model, by which to regulate the instruction of youth, and (Von Alpen ibid:18) even though ‘the reigning spirit of the not, at their option, adopt daily changes, or introduce erroneous doctrine. (Bierma et al. 2005:51) university, and of the land, was already more Reformed than Lutheran’ (Ursinus 1888:xi). This was to serve as a guide not only in schools, but in churches and from the pulpit so that the emphasis upon Heidelberg University, founded in 1386, was beholden to youth expanded to include persons in the pew. Frederic’s Rome, but in time Frederick III populated it with theologians concern for the youth reveals his passion for the enduring of Protestant persuasion. At his behest, Caspar Olevianus impact which godly teaching brings about: (1536–1587), former lecturer at the university and at that stage ... that if our youth in early life are earnestly instructed and court preacher, prepared an exposition of the covenant of educated in the word of God, it will please Almighty God also grace and framed it in the form of a prototype catechism (Von to grant reformation of public and private morals, and temporal Alpen 1863:22–23). Zachariah Ursinus (1534–1583), lecturer and eternal welfare. (Von Alpen ibid:21) at the university and known for his concise expression and A further historical purpose of the catechism was to point out clear thinking, on the other hand, cast the theological net doctrinal error and provide reasons for the allegation. After wide to include those new and mature in faith adults and the initial printing of the catechism, a subsequent version children (Nevin 1888:14–15). To that end he prepared a dual included more clarity from a Protestant perspective regarding catechism (Von Alpen ibid:23). There is evidence that the mass (Von Alpen 1863:25–26). The following words appeared catechism was, to a certain degree, the result of a team project on the title page of the catechism: ‘Nach dieser Regel forschet (Bierma et al 2005:53ff., 67). After scrutiny by theologians at in der Schrift’ [According to this rule search the Scriptures] the university, Frederick III deemed the catechism ready for (Rupp 1895:10). Instead of implying a finality it rather served scrutiny by pastors and others throughout the Palatinate as an invitation to continue reflecting upon the Bible as the and convened a Synod at Heidelberg (1562). The clarity source of its doctrinal statements (Rupp ibid:10).3 The fixity of its statements and faithfulness to scripture expressing of faith (justification) is for instance strongly put by the HC the reformed faith evoked admiration and agreement. Lord’s Day 24, question 64 ‘for it is impossible that those, By January 19, 1563 it was decided to get it printed and who are implanted into faith, should not bring forth fruits distributed for use in the vernacular and in Latin. John of thankfulness’ (Ursinus 1888:335). It was soon recognised Mayer printed the catechism in 1563 in Heidelberg which as having masterfully dealt with divisive doctrines. This included the Elector’s preface. Historically the catechism in ensured that the catechism had to be read as a whole without the German language was regarded as the authentic edition isolating a single doctrine.4 for its precision in statement and verbal elegance (Von Alpen ibid:24–25). It was widely accepted within the Palatinate and In due course the catechism soon affected all education reformers everywhere, but not where Protestants holding to within the Palatinate, whether in the home, schools, a strong Lutheran position were in the majority. At the Diet university or seminary. It was in fact enhanced when Ursinus of Augsburg (1566), Frederick III defended the HC as a true began developing the catechism in his lectures which he did expression of the Christian faith. He answered accusations of Calvinistic partisanship stating that he had never read any annually until 1577. His students compiled these lectures of the works of John Calvin except for the commentary on and published it under his name. Later editions expressed Jeremiah, dedicated to him. He was thus not influenced by the author’s intentions more clearly (Ursinus 1988). The that in his statement (Good 1887:211). Despite opposition the catechism served as a platform for unified teaching of the catechism was, nevertheless, translated into Dutch (1564), church for the present generation and for those to come English and Hungarian (1567), French (1570), Gaelic (1571), (Finlayson 2005a:12–13, part 1). Hebrew (1580) and Greek (1597) to eventually circle the globe, accompanying missionaries everywhere. Brief reference to its distinctive form The 1563 edition did not resemble the later forms of the Historical purpose for the catechism catechism, nor did it betray whose work was whose. Its Although the purpose of the church is not solely to interpret unity was rather wonderfully organic; a joint production of Scripture, it is of necessity dependent upon it for its ecclesial its main authors together (Good 1887–177) with input from practice and so seeks clear teaching. From the first there others. Formerly known as the Catechism of the Palatinate was the identification of the need for a summary course (Von Alpen 1863:11), it did not at first adopt the question and of religious instruction of the Christian faith (Von Alpen answer format and there was a lack of numbering. Therefore, 1863:21). Frederic III in his preface, after the adoption by the statements sometimes gave the impression of being Synod of Heidelberg (January 19, 1563) and reprinted in the 3.This goes hand in hand with a settled conviction that the Holy Spirit in fulfilment of Christ’s promise (Jn 16:13) will continually guide the church and affirm its quest early catechisms, stated amongst other some of the reasons for truth. for implementing the catechism: 4.Von Alpen (1863) refers in this regard to the interpretation adopted regarding the [That] in order not only that the youth in churches and schools controversy which sometimes arises from considering ‘Christ’ and ‘the whole world’ an issue for the ‘four point Calvinists’ example. Richard Baxter and the Arminian may be piously instructed in such Christian doctrine and remonstrance addressed it at the provincial Convention of The Hague, 1611.

http://www.indieskriflig.org.za doi:10.4102/ids.v47i2.686 Page 5 of 10 Original Research indiscriminate. When the second print followed, already to include the Confession of Faith and the Larger Catechisms some doctrinal changes were evident (Von Alpen ibid:25). In (LC) and Shorter Catechisms (SC) (Lane 2007:205). Although the first edition of 1563 the familiar format of Lord’s Days sanctioned by the Commons, it was not sanctioned by the was missing and only added in a later print of the same in Lords. Nevertheless, it soon found popular acceptance. The the same year which included a more ordered format for SC soon outstripping the Larger in sales (Green 1996:81) scriptural references and precursor of its apologetic stand.5 and popularity. It served subsequently as basis for many This was moderately stated (Good 1887:178). reformed denominations with changes to accommodate particular and denominational interpretations (Green ibid:81) ‘What is your only comfort in life and death? That I, with such as the Baptist Catechism 1689. body and soul, both in life and in death, am not my own, but belong to my faithful Saviour Jesus Christ’ is the first Historical purpose for the catechism question and answer of the HC to be expounded (Ursinus 1888:17–20). Here ‘[t]he very pith and marrow of the whole The Calvinism expressed in the Westminster Confession Christian religion is nowhere presented, either in ancient or was Puritan and stricter than the moderate views of the modern times, in words so few and yet so weighty’ (Von 39 Articles (Lane 2007:205). Green (1996:90) speaks of ‘the Alpen 1863:28). Not surprisingly this catechism was regarded hard-line Calvinism of the Westminster Catechisms’, and as having surpassed Calvin’s catechism for its sheer compass British Calvinism did not slavishly follow Calvin (Lane of comprehension and economic expression of cardinal ibid:205). Lane (ibid:205–206) shows how its treatment of Christian doctrines. ‘limited atonement’ and the distinction between assurance associated with salvation distinguish it from Luther and From Sunday 1 the catechism develops along the division Calvin. Nevertheless, its purpose was religious unity not of the epistle to the Romans (Ursinus 1888:23ff.). The first only in England, but in the whole of Britain. All parties in the section addresses sin and its consequences; the second Assembly saw the value of sharing a unified expression of the redemption; and the third response to God for such a great Christian faith which led to its continued ecumenical appeal salvation. Its tone is didactic and at once confessional, to adherents of the reformed faith. After revising 15 of the expressing the grandeur of God, faith leading to worship. It 39 articles of the Church of England, the decision was made develops expositionally through the Apostle’s Creed, the Law to frame an independent confession (Mitchell 1884:136–137). and the Lord’s Prayer to impress a confessional tone. The The BCP was also regarded as inadequate and doctrinally Protestant understanding of salvation rooted in God’s grace suspect (Hetherington 1890:304–305). A break had to be underlies its confession. Consequently, the HC has been used made. A brief catechism was deemed necessary as it would to prepare persons for confirmation of their faith in Christ by its very nature have to express its doctrines succinctly and membership of the church. but broadly to be inclusive of various reformed traditions. Remarkably, not one of the commissions which completed Accusations that the HC was Melachthonian or Low the catechisms anticipated their impact at that stage and later Lutheran were finally put to rest when the Synod of Dort (Mitchell ibid:430–432). Historically these standards served in 1619 unanimously voted in favour for its acceptance as a as the basis of numerous confessional documents of many true reflection of the orthodox faith (Good 1887:179; Schaff presbyterian and reformed churches everywhere so that 2007:549). Some of the supposed intentional silences of some modifications to the original texts are found deviating the HC such as predestination, reprobation, covenant and from the critical text of 1647. A distinctive throughout the sacraments were supplemented by its pronouncements text is the inclusion of Scripture proof texts. (Bierma et al. 2005:94ff.). In spite of the the Larger Catechism (LC) being the first to Historical distinctives of the be completed by the Assembly, it was never included in Westminster Shorter Catechism presbyterian hymnals as a rule. It was regarded as too verbose and so continues in the shadow of the SC and the Confession (1647) of Faith (Beveridge 1904:138). The distinct purpose of the Distinct historical background Catechism was to effect religious unity through the express In the attempt to capitalise on the victory of Parliament statements of doctrinal belief. However, in expressing a over Charles I (1600–1649) and to a lesser extent Archbishop distinct and continued concern of the Christian church, William Laud (1573–1645), the English and Scottish the mandate was for ‘[a] catechism for the instruction of Protestants convened the meeting children and of the comparatively ignorant in religious truth’ regularly from 1643 to 1649. This was also due to the (Hetherington 1890:304). Historically its evangelical character agreement of the Solemn League and Covenant, a treaty that allowed for its use in propagating the gospel (Hetherington assured reformed religion in Scotland, England and Ireland ibid:380). The famous words of Thomas Carlyle, ‘The older I and the reformation of present religion (Cross & Livingstone grow – and I now stand upon the brink of eternity – the more 1974:1287). This Assembly issued the comes back to me the first sentence in the Catechism which I learned when a child, and the fuller and deeper its meaning 5.For a copy of the textus receptus in English of the final 1563 version, refer to Thelwall (1850:51). becomes: What is the chief end of man? To glorify God, and

http://www.indieskriflig.org.za doi:10.4102/ids.v47i2.686 Page 6 of 10 Original Research to enjoy Him for ever’ (quoted in Beveridge 1904:140), reveals (Carruthers 1897:1). According to Hanko (1986), this is not something of this evangelical and didactic6 spirit. sustained in the development of the catechism and does not compare to the first question and answer of the HC and its Brief reference to its distinctive form subsequent development: ‘What is thy only comfort in life and death? That I with body and soul, both in life and death, Finlayson (2005a:12–13, part 1) points out that the context for framing the Westminster Confession and the catechisms am not my own, but belong unto my faithful Saviour Jesus (1648) should also take into account the development of Christ.’ reformed theology since the establishment of the HC (1563)7 and the PBC (1536; final form 1662). This contextualisation, The LC basically summarised the Westminster Confession, together with puritan influence, became the defining marks whilst the SC was an abridgement of the latter and for of the continuing English Reformation. It was peculiar use in catechising children. It also exhibits a strong ethical to the British Isles and distinguished it from continental persuasion most likely representative of the puritan confessional theology, although their respective catechisms influence (Hanko 1986). Thomas Boston (1676–1732) (1993:9) shared the same roots of the Protestant Reformation, in suggested that the doctrines are merely illustrative of the particular as understood by Calvinist Protestants (Hanko Christian religion, implying there is much more to be found 1986). The Westminster Confession and WLC and (SC) were upon earnest study. For his own day he viewed this study as formulated in the context of the 39 Articles of the Church a necessity so that in facing times of trial Christians may not of England, especially in the light of the , to lapse into apostasy. also known as the Nine Articles of William Whitaker (1548– 1595) which served as an early precursor of the five points of The SC, unlike the LC, does not define the church or its Calvinism. officers, nor does it cover the creeds. Mitchell (1884:430) says More particularly the SC was written to educate lay persons that as far as possible the committee attempted to remove in matters of doctrine and belief in the question and answer anything related to organisation of Christians. Whatever was format. This format was regarded as suitable to aid its regarded as treating external community was regarded as memorisation especially by children (Finlayson 2005a:12−13, non-essential and superfluous. The impression is that their part 1). Erskine and Fisher (in Engler 1911:iii) imply that efforts were to primarily preserve the essence of the faith the truths expressed in the SC were already present and centred upon the Gospel and in which all Protestant youth contained in churches and that its reception merely affirmed could unite (Mitchell ibid:430–431). It was done with the what was already believed. Its doctrines, together with the dictum in mind of what the youth needed to hear and not WCF, led to affirming and developing the presbyterian style what they thought they had (Mitchell ibid:435). of worship and government. Children of believers were also taught the WCF and the Bible, a practice and tradition many continued doing as adults and passed on to their Some historical distinctives of the children. Book of Common Prayer: Anglican

Although the catechism was the product of humans, ‘being Catechism (1536; final form 1662) a form of sound words’ (Erskine & Fisher in Engler 1911:iii; Distinct historical background cursive in the original), it faithfully represented the truths ‘Anglican’ stems from ecclesia anglicana or ‘English church’ of the Bible. Engler also highlights the harmonious unity of from the Middle Ages, reflecting Christian presence in doctrine, held to by the many formulators of the catechism Britain and Ireland long before the missionary efforts of and that ‘divine faith is due to the words of the Holy Ghost St. Augustine (597) sent from Rome (Cross & Livingstone supporting it’ – a frustration to anyone promoting contrary 1974:58, 1043). Through the initial work of John Wycliffe doctrines (Erskine & Fisher in Engler ibid:vii). Hanko (1986) is of the opinion that the SC lacks the subjective warmth of the (c. 1330–1384) and later of William Tyndale (1494–1536) HC and of some statements of the WC due to its objectivity the Bible became available in the vernacular and the telling and cold phraseology. Finlayson (2005b:12–13, part 3) agrees influence for the later English Reformation (Bray 1994:17−18) about the objectivity, but adds that it brought about a precision continued in the authorised version of 1611. Biblical of language which allowed it to masterfully employ logic to preaching, writings and pamphlets in circulation contributed formulate definitions and address problematic theological to the fact that by the 16th century its ground in England issues. This objectivity seems to be an appeal to reason first had been laid. Luther’s works, entered into England, were and then to faith. Undoubtedly the crowing jewel of the SC is translated and received with eagerness, although the Roman its first question and answer: ‘What is the chief end of man? Catholic Church vehemently opposed their distribution at Man’s chief end it to glorify God, and to enjoy him forever’8 peril. Gospel matters were the centre of discussion at the 6.The question and answer method enhanced its didactic usefulness (Cross& University of Cambridge and to a lesser extent at Oxford Livingstone 1974:1472). The question is always partially included in the answer, University. The annulment of Henry VIII’s marriage with reinforcing both question and answer at the same time. Catherine of Aragon also signalled the rift of the Christian 7.Four versions of the catechism appeared in 1563, but with no differences between the third and fourth. This reference is to the final accepted version as textus church in England from Rome. This led to the concept of receptus. ecclesial independence of the realm and a transfer of power 8.The original words of the first question in the 1647 version of the SC were: ‘Ques- from pope to king, bringing about the necessity to enunciate tion. What is the chief end of man? Answer. Mans chief end is to glorife God, and to enjoy him forever. The more modern form of spelling was merely substituted. the Christian faith peculiar to the Anglican communion.

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Martin Bucer (1491–1551), who had laboured energetically theology without reference to particular scriptures to avoid for the reformation on the continent (Von Alpen 1863:13), unnecessary interpretative controversy. Green (1996:73f.) continued his work in England. Thomas Cranmer (1489– suggests that its expositors went to some length to give 1556), later Archbishop of Canterbury, who was influenced an account of its teaching through separately developing by Bucer as John Calvin was before him, saw theological alternate catechisms or interpretations (cf. Allen 1892). Some reform as a concern for the purity of doctrine and pastoral alternate catechisms were specifically aimed at children, the care and some measure of discipline (Lane 2007:172). youth and the unconverted, and others at scholars. A mark Cranmer was significantly influential in developing the 1549 of the PBC is that it does not generally include scriptural and 1552 prayer books (Lane ibid:172). His 42 Articles of references to substantiate its statements. Nevertheless Religion of 1553 were eventually refined to 39 which became the catechist, usually the curate of the parish, was to be the official doctrinal statement of the Church of England in knowledgeable in theological matters and follow the question 1571 and was included in the BCP (Bray 1994:284). Though and answer method (Allen ibid:5–6). Unfortunately, as Allen the Articles held to Protestant theology, with leanings (ibid:7, 12) points out, the opinion is that it was more of an towards Calvinism (Bray ibid:284), a characteristic of the emphasis upon correct answers than affirming a living faith BCP and its catechism is its broad open-ended doctrinal of the heart. statements. This was due to Bucer persistently seeking a way to reconcile the different groups (Protestants, Roman The catechism distinguishes between baptismal vows and its Catholic, Zwinglians, Anabaptists, Lutherans) comprising affirmation. Traditionally, the Apostle’s Creed was accepted the Christian community (Lane ibid:172–173). as the basis for its baptismal faith, and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient, though not full statement of the Christian An irreducible compilation of sources for the Christian faith. A continuing episcopal government necessitated that faith in England was formulated as early as 1281 (Duffy 2005:53). This comprised of the Creed, Ten Commandments, the bishops, upon confirming a candidate in the Christian New Commandment, seven works of mercy, virtues, vices faith, should be satisfied that such person had been truly and sacraments. Although ecclesial rather than scriptural, and sufficiently examined to give a reason for the faith as authority and interpretation held sway at the time a new espoused by the PBC (Allen 1892:2). Continuation within learning9 founded on scepticism was emerging (Innes the faith in the Anglican tradition also ensured its continued 1900:3), developing into what Innes terms ‘the scholars reinforcement by the set liturgy of the Prayer Book. movement, 1496–1529’ (Innes 1900:12ff.). Duffy (2005:87) also traces how the catechetical teaching adapted to changing Brief reference to its distinctive circumstances in England. Often the initiative was taken by lay persons concerned for the lay masses. In this tradition, form Cranmer, leading by example, initially took the path of Because some form and structure of its catechism was abolition instead of reform (Duffy ibid:380). This was evident always part of the whole BCP of the Church of England, the in the advent of the BCP which signified a radical break from denomination always had a close association with teaching, Rome as it discontinued the Romish cycle of feasts. It also liturgy and worship. Its inclusion, according to Turrel broke with sacramental formularies (Duffy ibid:464–465, 472) (2006:501), was due to its preparatory role to the ritualised introducing emergent doctrinal views allowing for royal activity of the service of confirmation. The BCPs of 1536, supremacy (Duffy ibid:381). 1538 and 1547 included the Apostle’s Creed, Lord’s Prayer and the Decalogue (Turrel ibid:501). As these were regarded Historical purpose of the Prayer Book Catechism as fundamental to religious instruction it was expected that all members of the denomination would at some stage By virtue of its inclusion in the BCP the Anglican Catechism memorise them. must be understood in that context. It cannot be totally divorced from the views opined in the prayer book which Price and Weil (2000:75) point out that from the beginning sought to bring about a practice that would serve as a middle the church’s bishops expressed spiritual concern for the way between various reformed expressions of the Protestant connection between faith and its normative expression in faith and provide sufficient latitude to leave it open- godly living. This is clear from the format of the confirmation ended (Green 1996:20). Jeanes (2006:20) opines that, whilst service and first question of the catechism. A baptised Cranmer’s prayer book language could imply much, at the candidate first professes his or her baptism in public and to the same time it could be sufficiently vague to serve as a bridge bishop. This is followed by a clear statement of the principal spanning cultural divides for unity in prayer and worship. matters pertaining to Christian faith (Apostle’s creed, Ten At the same time, however, it must be recognised that it also Commandments, Lord’s Prayer and the sacraments) into disguised his radical protestant theology (Jeanes ibid:28). which the candidate had been baptised. The catechism famously states its first question: ‘What is your name? In this way it also sought to bridge the gap between Roman Answer: N or M’, emphasising a transition towards personal Catholicism and Protestant faith in reformational fashion. affirmation and accountability in the confession of faith. The catechism espoused a broad sweep of reformed This format first associated the catechism with the service 9.See the early influence of this new learning in England (Carter 1912:9–17). of confirmation in the BCP of 1549. Upon confirmation, the

http://www.indieskriflig.org.za doi:10.4102/ids.v47i2.686 Page 8 of 10 Original Research confirmands usually partook of their first holy communion. at variance with one another redefined, accepted European The catechism was periodically expanded upon until its final understandings of the mode of Christian contact (Buchanan refinement in the BCP (1662). Significantly it was not only 2006:261–270; Rahner 1973). The BCP 1662 has been criticised now associated with confirmation of a candidate’s faith, but as being ‘logocentric, heavily clericalist and male-oriented’ its insertion was immediately after that of the ministration of which favours the Anglican communion’s hierarchical baptism and preceded the service of confirmation. organisation (Mombo 2006:277–286), thus impacting upon the catechism and its relevance for all genders. Nor is the The BCP refers doctrinally to various creeds. For instance, the pedagogical element of catechetical teaching emphasised Nicene Creed forms part of the service of Holy Communion. as it once was with the emergence of so many alternate The Athanasian Creed may be substituted for the Apostle’s curriculums for Sunday school and young people going Creed on certain feast days such as Christmas, Easter day beyond the oral medium. These distinctions of cultural and so on. Clearly the doctrinal form of the Christian faith, ecclesial dynamics need biblical answers if they are to be expressed by the moderate Calvinism of the 39 Articles, is addressed instead of simply accommodated. A catechism liturgically reiterated in the context of liturgical worship. may be regarded as one of the many tools available to the This extends and affirms catechetical instruction as a life- church to lead a person deeper into the Word of God. This long experience in the Church of England in the context of deepening may be manifested in various ways. See the worship. No other Anglican catechism developed in former following examples. British colonies has ever superseded it (Turrel 2006:501). This is a testimony to Bucer’s conciliatory legacy. It does not mean The emergence of evangelists in the 19th and 20th centuries that all who appreciate the PBC is unanimous regarding its brought about a questioning of matters enshrined in theology. Courtenay (1964:367, 380), for instance, accuses the catechisms such as paedo baptism (LeMarquand Cranmer of traditional ‘nomilanism’ as opposed to McGee’s 2006:287−297). The questionable independence of evangelists 10 (1966:192–196) counter-claims. and their ‘back to the Bible call’ caused many sincere believers to bypass the catechisms in for instance requests for Changes to the BCP have traditionally been met with strong rebaptism, an independence in Bible teaching based upon the opposition, not because of its cultus, but because of whether individual preacher’s view of the Bible, whether it conformed doctrinal changes would move the church towards Rome to accept confessional teaching of the catechisms or not. At its (Buchanan 2006:263). Such a move would have far-reaching 1998 Synod the Christian Reformed Church added a footnote effects necessitating doctrinal changes to the BCP and its to question and answer 80 of the HC as no longer representing catechism and articles. Rome’s teaching about the mass today (DeYoung 2010:250, fn. 33). On the other hand, whilst question and answer 87 Issues to be faced in the 3rd do not specifically refer to homosexuality, it would not be millennium inappropriate to consider an insertion of words such as ‘homosexual perversion’ (DeYoung ibid:239−247; cf. 247), as A number of ‘in your face issues’ confront the Christian they would not violate the spirit of its author (Ursinus) or church worldwide, some more obvious and others less so. content. The ‘Brief Statement of Faith’ (1991)11 emphasises in Whilst general principles may suffice for broad sweeping its preface the one catholic faith that truth cannot be found statements, 3rd millennial issues tend to demand a specific address. To name a few: in one person, church or tradition alone. New light from God’s Word may be gleaned together with other churches Within the Christian communion the perception of the too (Placher & Willis-Watkins 1992:10–11). Another example Word of God as unchanging and sufficient for faith is of the spirit of change is manifested in the PBC adapted under immense fire. New translations of the Bible brought to the changing face of South African society is that of Ian questions about the assumption whether God may be Carrick (1997:v) of the Church of the Province of Southern properly known in any language at all, let alone one. Africa’s APBC (1989). Underlying his changes is Carrick’s Amongst evangelicals this led to formulating the Chicago view (ibid:iii) of creation on a journey of continual change. Statement on Biblical Inerrancy of 1978 which is not only However, these more obvious examples are not the only reminiscent of the Vatican’s Dei Verbum, but according struggles encountered. to Geisler and Roach (2011), an especial need to establish inerrancy for a ‘new generation’. Such statements polarise Some more subtle challenges are, however, in the offing. the Christian community in its approach to science, a playoff The encompassing view of the world hundreds of years ago between literal translation and organic translations of for does not equate with that of the third millennium. Kraus instance the creation accounts of the Bible, both maintaining (2006:541–544), for instance, wrestles with relating the BCP its authority. with technology, and Morris (2006:545–550) with cyberspace. Science and technology need to be addressed by the church, International cultural interpretations of fellowship but how about addressing its relationship with sport to its amongst Christians who may be historically or politically iconic heroes and their heroism and the ‘sacred moments’

10.These articles reflect the 1964 debate between McGee and Courtenay. 11.Adopted by the Presbyterian Church (USA) as part of its .

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(Dreyfus & Kelly 2011:193–194f.) of presence12 in an attempt writer’s opinion, should rediscover some of the ecumenical to find some meaning to it?13 These matters are part of the elasticity which made for their unique biblical historical conversation of the community of believers as well as outside formulations, although widely different in some instances, of it. each true to Scripture serving their particular constituencies. Historically both the HC and the SC became accepted beyond However, the doctrinal net goes wider. Augustine’s their constituencies, whilst the PBC’s influence extended ‘addiction to the world’ may express itself differently today. mainly to the Anglican Communion worldwide. In 1972 the Church of Rome initiated the Rite of Christian Initiation for Adults to facilitate the process of reform to Reformation catechisms essentially proceeded from special accommodate persons on a spiritual journey expressing revelation only. Its reasoning was founded upon proof some interest in Jesus Christ (Harmless 1990:1, 2). If such texts, although the PBC is the exception in this regard, but divisions are acceptable to some Christian communities, its not when considered in the entirety of its liturgical context. reasons must define the church’s thinking in similar present Whilst recognising the immense worth of catechisms, the and future matters to distinguish between pastoral and Bible points to the centrality of Jesus Christ, who alone is the scriptural toleration. ultimate source of Christian faith. The worth of any creed or catechism must be seen in that light. This inward looking In South Africa’s apartheid struggle the divided church of catechisms reveals humankind in relation to God and his emerged as the dual conscience of the nation. Christians in creative works. It is as such particularly meaningful for the both camps resorted to the Bible. Some found solidarity in church. However, this introspectiveness of the catechism is a form of liberation theology, whilst others sought to justify proving to be its Achilles heel. Historically not much attention segregation. Whilst the catechisms do ask questions, the was paid to emerging tensions of Christian living within the question before us is: Does it also ask questions relevant to for wider world. It was not part of the catechism conversation, instance the youth of South Africa, questionable acceptance and so it became a struggle for credibility. Although church of and violent behaviour towards the gay community, the authority and its claims for authenticity based upon its growing numbers of divorced persons and single parents? Nobody expects all the questions to be addressed, but surely spiritual sources are at the low end of any spectrum, the spirit some of them deserve to be. of ecumenical accommodation and faithful adherence to the scriptures remain a continual testimony of the catechisms. Without a doubt a serious challenge to the Christian faith is the New Atheism, a stand against all forms of religion Generally the catechisms serve the church today in at least levelled by persons such Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennet, three ways. Firstly, these ecumenical documents jointly and Chris Hitchens and Sam Harris. Older atheism denuded unequivocally express essential Christian faith of the Christian Christianity from the supernatural, but acceded to the community. Secondly, the three catechisms still demand that existence of a watered down religion and God hypothesis their initial questions be considered and answered. Thirdly, (Mohler 2008). Plantinga and McGrath, in their rebuttals, the pastoral concerns addressed in the catechisms may be do a fine job of answering this onslaught. Finally, however, expanded upon to address the wider relation of God and the for many evangelical Christians, their arguments betray world, God and humankind, humankind and the world to weakness in that both accept evolution as a process (Mohler bring about an authentic Christian engagement to the fullest ibid:84). Their arguments can be turned on themselves by the expression of what it means to live as Christ’s children in aforementioned Horsemen of the Apocalypse, demanding this world. To that end the HC may well be the best suited that they too accept the logical conclusions of evolution to lead the way for reasons stated above. There is no sell-by (Mohler ibid:84–85). As Lane (2007:90, 234) intimated, the date for the truth. Simply put, the task is to make it available Reformation needs to be revisited through the Middle Ages. to the best of our abilities for each generation, to be seriously In this period the church wrestled with faith and reason, an considered by the church and those outside of its fold. unresolved issue which continued into the 3rd millennium (Lane ibid:234–235). The point here is that the answers are This is no attempt suggesting redefinition of catechetical not primarily a referral to the catechisms; essentially it boils questions and answers; simply a call that new questions be down to being a matter of revelation and not a devaluation considered to embrace God’s special and general revelation of any catechism. to its fullest extent. From its historical ecumenical appeal and moderate theological formulations the HC is ideally suited Concluding with a way forward to continue an open-ended development of thoughtful exposition and application of the Bible message to make The continued influence of the HC and other reformed sense and of this present world and its context within the catechisms serving as maps for the Christian faith, although wider universe. waning in some circles, warrants appreciation. They survived the test of time from the Reformation onwards but, in this Acknowledgements 12.One sometimes hears references to the sacred (hallowed ground) in the mention of for instance Lord’s (home of cricket) in St. John’s Wood road, London, The Competing interests Wanderers Club in Illovo, North Road in Johannesburg, Loftus Versfeld in Arcadia, Pretoria, particularly on the days of important matches. The author declares that he has no financial or personal 13.Dreyfus and Kelly (2011) suggest that the spirit of nihilism pervading society may relationship(s) which may have influenced him in writing be reassessed in the light of great historical moments and figures suggesting that meaning may be existent and worth recapturing. this article.

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