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ANATOMY Through History ANATOMY Through History Brian Dolan, PhD Perspectives in Medical Humanities Supplement 3 Anatomy Through History i University of California Medical Humanities Press Perspectives in Medical Humanities Supplement Number 3 How to Cite: Dolan, Brian. (2021) Anatomy Through History. Perspectives in Medical Humanities, Supplement 3. (July 2021). https://doi.org/10.34947/M75P4N https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7w064921 Digital Publication: July 2021 Keywords: anatomy; history of medicine; dissection; medical education; Vesalius Peer Review: This article has been peer reviewed through a collaborative review process through a platform provided by the UC Medical Humanities Consortium consisting of a multi-disciplinary faculty editorial board. More information about collaborative review can be found at: http://ucmedicalhumanitiespress.com/ Copyright: © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. The material may not be used for commercial purposes. See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Open Access: This open-access article is brought to you by the University of California Medical Humanities Consortium. The scholarship produced under the auspices of the Consortium was supported through University of California Office of the President Grant IDs MR-15-328363 (2009-2015) and MRPI-141374 (2015-2020). Posted with permission of the author(s). Digital Preservation: The articles published in the Perspectives in Medical Humanities series are digitally preserved through California Digital Library and the eScholarship Repository, supported by the Regents of the University of California. See: https://escholarship.org/ Table of Contents Anatomy Among the Ancients 2 Hippocrates on Anatomy 4 Galen on Anatomical Procedures 6 Islamic Anatomy 8 The Question of Dissection 8 The Bodies of Da Vinci 13 A Captivated Student 15 Vesalian Anatomy in the Sixteenth Century 17 The Rebirth of the Corpse 18 Why Defend the Ancient Authority of Galen? 23 Entrepreneurial Anatomists of the Enlightenmet 26 Bones, Muscles, and Machines: Automata and Anatomy 28 Anatomy & Pathology 30 Virtual Bodies: The Intersection of Art & Anatomy 34 Conclusion 41 References 42 ANATOMY among the among the Fig. 1: Achilles Tending to a Wound ANCIENTS As with the history of surgery or the history of therapies, our understanding of anatomical knowledge in the ancient world derives from verses within Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey (7th-8th century BCE) that provide graphic descriptions of wounds and internal trauma suffered by soldiers during the Trojan War. While careful reading of the poems presents a guide to medical terminology and a schematic of anatomical knowledge, a more standardized articulation of anat- omy is presented hundreds of years later through the work of Hippocrates. Anatomy Through History 3 Fig. 2 (right): Bust of Hippocrrates Fig. 3 (middle): “Skeleton Man,” mid-fifteenth century Hippocrates on Anatomy he Vatican Library possesses manuscripts 3. In the middle of it the heart is situated: it is dating from the twelfth century (catalog rounder than [that of] all creatures. From the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 276) heart to the liver a large tube goes down, and Tthat comprise some of the extant works with the tube the vessel called the great of the Hippocratic Corpus (the body vessel, by means of which the entire frame of writings attributed to Hippocrates). is nourished. Among these manuscripts, which form the basis of translations for hundreds of The text continues with descriptions of years subsequently, is a tract written multiple organs focusing on placement, in Greek titled Anatomy. It is the size, and color. The organs’ function, shortest preserved treatise, and or physiological concepts generally, provides descriptions of the inter- are eschewed, perhaps because nal configuration of the human of lack of knowledge, or perhaps thorax and abdomen. Relying on because their divine role was a a recent translation by classical different level of enquiry. scholar Professor Elizabeth Craik, A couple of aspects of this work it begins like this: deserve comment. First, at the risk of sounding frivolous, there are no illustrations. 1. The trachea, This book, like many taking its origin others produced over from each side hundreds of years to of the throat, come, was simply a writ- ends at the top ten account of body parts. of the lung; it is Second, while clearly a work with aims composed of similar rings [to of accuracy and precision, to modern other creatures], the circular readers the descriptions can be glaringly parts touching one another on rudimentary and wrong. For instance, the surface. the account of the heart never 2. The actual lung, inclined mentions valves or chambers, and towards the left, fills the the repeated comparisons to the chest cavity. The lung anatomy of animals are striking. has five projecting parts, While the words are attributed to which they call lobes; it has Hippocrates (or his ‘disciples’) who an ashen colour, is punctuated by dark spots, lived in the fifth century BCE, the manuscript itself and is in mature like a honey-comb. dates from the twelfth century. In between that time, 4 Perspectives in Medical Humanities broader anatomical knowledge was provided through the biological writings of Aristotle (384-322 BCE) and research at Alexandria in Egypt Fig. 4: Page spread from mid-fifteenth-century Middle English translation of Galen’s Anathomia. The colored font and borders, with (founded in the third century BCE) where mummification provided six anatomical illustrations, are not part of the original manuscript but opportunities to preserve the inter- were later added to “illuminate” the manuscript for added artistic nal organization of the body. It is value. hypothesized that the lack of detail in the Hippocratic anatomical text is a consequence of it belonging to a period when dissection on human cadavers was not practiced. Yet despite incidental findings through battlefield trauma, accidents, or “For anyone wishing that the works of the surgical interventions, the authority of Hippocrates reigned supreme and Creator be made apparent, it is incum- it was translated and repeated for over a thousand years. Examining bent upon him not to trust in books other medical writers who saw devoted to anatomy but rather in what anatomy in ways that differed from Hippocrates’ account reveals the he sees with his own eyes, and after that challenges of asserting medical authority, and providing new views make up his own mind.” of what the human body looked like - Galen. It becomes ironic that later anatomists who challenged internally. Galen’s writings with their own observations would be condemned for atacking the “gospel of Galen,” which was considered a sort of blasphemy. Anatomy Through History 5 Galen on Anatomical Procedures laudius Galenus, commonly wars. We know of his self-professed of divine craftsmanship. [3] called Galen (129 – c. 217), lifelong commitment to studying Galen was a brilliant self-pro- was a Roman physician the works of Hippocrates and moter, performing vivisections C(born in Pergamum, Asia Minor, dedication to developing a “rational” (dissection of a living animal) which was part of the Roman foundation for extending ancient on pigs in the middle of Rome, Empire). While one of the most medical wisdom. [2] Galen’s writings impressing spectators with his famous figures in the history of have long been valued for their medical powers by silencing a medicine, historians have very significant contributions to anatomy pig’s squeals from compressing little biographical information on and physiology. One reason for this its recurrent laryngeal nerves. [4] him. What we know about his devotion to studying anatomy was While such displays of anatomical medical work and thinking comes his belief that the body’s perfection insight may have helped Galen mainly from his extensive writings, reflected God’s wisdom. He referred gain notoriety for his skill and earn deriving from some extant Greek to his treatise De usu partium (On him a place as physician to the manuscripts (about one-third of his the usefulness of parts of the body) as “a gladiators and attendant to emperor corpus) and later Arabic translations sacred discourse,” refuting claims by Marcus Aurelius, it foreshadowed made before the originals were the unorthodox views of the philo- the important role of public destroyed, along with libraries sophical sect knows as the Epicureans performance in the accreditation of that housed them, during ancient that the body’s design was no proof medical knowledge. Fig. 5: Dissection of a Pig, from Galen, Opera Omnia (1565 edition, detail) 6 Perspectives in Medical Humanities As an example of the boldness of of his technique and observations. [6] The absence of a declaration his experiments on living animals, For instance, when discussing the of his own first-hand experience is he observes that although a ligature vasculature of the liver, he instructs suggestive of the caution used when on the inguinal or axillary artery readers to insert a probe into the the practice of human dissection causes the pulse to cease in the leg vena portae (hepatic portal vein), might have been culturally sensitive. or arm, the animal is not seriously and gently dissect throughout the Elsewhere he mentions how phy-
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