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Home , Ahmad Shah I, Bengal Sultanate, Choto Sona Mosque, Eklakhi Mausoleum, Gulbarga Fort, Jaunpur Sultanate

UNIT 18 REGIONAL CITIES*

Structure 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Jaunpur 18.3 Gaur and Pandua 18.4 Kalpi 18.5 Mandu 18.6 Ahmadabad 18.7 and 18.8 Nature of Regional Capital Cities 18.9 Summary 18.10 Exercises 18.11 References

18.1 INTRODUCTION The ambitious and rapid expansions of the Sultanate under (reg. 1296-1316) and then Muhammad bin Tughlaq (reg. 1325-1351) ensured the spread of a Turkic-Persianate court culture across the entire sub-continent. Despite regional variation in local design histories, we can perceive certain uniformity in the architecture and planning of sultanate cities across the Indian sub-continent. In this Unit, eight Sultanate cities that emerged at regional centres of power and were conceptualised in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are considered, from across different parts of . After Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign, most of his territories rebelled and declared independence from the that he had tried to consolidate. The sultanates of (1342-1576), Deccan (Bahmani: 1347-1518), (1382-1601), (1392- 1562), (1391-1583), Jaunpur (1394-1479), along with the kingdom of (1336-1565) were all the successor kingdoms to the Khalji-Tughlaq empire. Various other local chieftains and subdued kings also declared their independence in this period. As all these successor states sought to consolidate their own kingdoms, they established new capitals, sometimes on the sites of earlier settlements, but with completely new paradigms of architecture and planning, in part rooted in local custom, but also derived from new ideas ushered in by the . The fourteenth century fashioning of court culture and kingship by (1336-1405) in his Central Asian heartland was being emulated in the greater Persianate world, and these new kingdoms in India were no exception. The aesthetic and visual ideals promulgated by Timurid practices shaped the Persianate world, from present-day to India. In addition, several new forms of irrigation, water technology, agriculture, and land settlement were introduced across India in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, allowing the establishment of urban centers in India at locations hitherto thought of as unsustainable for cities. Here, we will look at some cities in some detail, viz. Jaunpur, Gaud, Pandua, Bidar,

* Dr. Pushkar Sohoni, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA. 2 9 Urbanisation in Gulbarga, Mandu, Ahmadabad, and Kalpi. In tracing the emergence, continuity and - 1 changes in the urban settlements in this period, it is possible to highlight differences and similarities in the new capitals of the regional sultanates.

Map 18.1: Regional Kingdoms c. 15 Century [After Joppen, Charles, (1907) Historical Atlas of India, London: Longmans Green & Co. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/ 57/India_in_1525_Joppen.jpg]

18.2 JAUNPUR The city of Jaunpur was founded in 1359 by Firuz Tughlaq (reg. 1351-88) on the bank of the Gomti river. It was used as a base for the Delhi sultanate for further operations against the rebellious and Orissa. When the rule of the Delhi sultanate weakened, Khwaja Jahan (reg. 1394–99), Malik Sarwar, upon whom Muhammad Shah conferred title of -us Sharq, who had been then the governor of the province, 3 0 declared independence and founded the Sharqi sultanate in 1394. It was under the Regional Cities Sharqi that the city prospered, and they carried out ambitious building activities to embellish their capital with a distinct architectural programme. Eventually, Sikandar Lodi (reg. 1489-1517), second ruler of the in Delhi, ransacked and pillaged the town, destroying all buildings except the . Under the Mughals, Jaunpur was rebuilt as were most of its . The city of Jaunpur comprised of 67 mohallas; a few still survive today – Isapur, Begum Ganj, Madar Mohala, Karar Kot and Atala mohalla.

Jaunpur Sultanate [After Saeed, Mian Muhammad, (1972) The Sharqi Sultanate of Jaunpur, Map 2: The Provincial Sultanates of India and Pakistan During the 14th and 15th Centruries, Karachi: University of Karachi] Architecture and Planning Sharqis were great patrons of art and architecture. Within a short span Jaunpur emerged centre of . What makes Jaunpur architecture occupy distinct place was local roots of the artisans, both Hindu and Jain. – it assimilated and blended the Islamic tradition with local. Timur’s invasion forced the artisans and men of letters to move to provincial centres. Jaunpur rulers provided them liberal patronage. The city of Jaunpur, like most other sultanate cities, does not have any extant remains from earlier settlements at the site. Founded as a new provincial capital, it soon became the capital city of a new kingdom in the late fourteenth century. The walled city with a network of streets around a centrally located congregational mosque, and a citadel on the edge of the city facing the river, is a pattern seen in other sultanate towns. Malik Sarwar expanded and repaired Firuz’s fort and renamed it Badi Manzal; later the capital was named by him Dar-us Surur (the abode of the bliss). Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi built a separate palace in Jaunpur, Chihal Situn Mahal (the palace of forty pillars) for himself. Best known for the Atala mosque built in the late fourteenth century, Jaunpur has a number of other important buildings dating from the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries. Yet, the Atala mosque is stylistically unique as an exemplar of the visual identity that the Sharqi sultans were trying to create. The square tapered towers that flank the high central arch are perhaps the identifying markers of Jaunpur mosque architecture. It is the most ornate and beautifully carved, is the best among the mosques of Jaunpur. It was partially destroyed by Sikandar Lodi but restored to its glory in 1860 by Munshi Haider Husain. Other mosques such as the Khalis Mukhlis mosque (c. 1430) and the 3 1 Urbanisation in (c. 1450) and Jami mosque (c. 1470) are other examples of this Medieval India - 1 style. The Mughal legacy includes a magnificent bridge (Shah bridge) built by the then governor Munim Khan, Khan-i Khanan around 1569 over Gomti river during the reign of . The most striking feature of Sharqi architecture was its propylon and recessed arches.

Atala Masjid, Sketch by William Hodges, 1783 Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Atala_Mosque_William_ Hodges_1783.jpg

Lal Darwaza, Jaunpur Source: Archaeological Survey of India Collections, Photograph by Joseph Beglar c.1870, British Library Online Collections. http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/m/largeimage58808.html

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Jama Masjid, Jaunpur Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaunpur,_Uttar_Pradesh#/media/File:BadiMasjid.jpg The Sharqis were also torch bearers in the field of cultural development in the region. Jaunpur occupied prominent place as one of the prominent centres of learning on account of which Shahjahan called it Shiraz-i Hind and named it Dar-ul Ilm (abode of learning) even it outshone Delhi. Jaunpur became abode of men of learning and sufis who were forced to leave Delhi on account of Timur invasion coupled with the decline of patronage of Delhi Sultans. Qazi Shihabuddin Daulatabadi, who is praised by Abul Fazl for his wisdom and learning, Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi honoured him with the title of Malik-ul Ulama (chief of the learned) and appointed him the chief qazi of Jaunpur. Again the Timurid onslaught was severe and the sufis left Delhi in large numbers. Jaunpur once again provided the safe abode. Khwaja Abul Fath (d. 1454) of settled down at Jaunpur. Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi was his great murid. Jaunpur is equally blessed by the brisk activities of the madariya order. Its founder Shah Badiuddin Madar made Jaunpur-Makanpur as centre of his activities. Among the Shattaris, Shah Abdullah Shattari also for long time stayed at Jaunpur before moving towards Kalpi, Mandu and Chittor. But the major mystic movement that received its roots in Jaunpur was Mahdawi movement spearheaded by Saiyyid who aimed at restoring the ‘purity of ’. At Jaunpur other than Persian Awadhi also flourished. Shaikh Qutban who composed Mrigawati (1503) dedicated his work to Husain Sharqi. Music also find liberal patronage of the Sharqis at Jaunpur. Husain Sharqi himself invented many ragas. He invented 12 syams and four todis (famous being Husaini or Jaunpuri Asawari and Jaunpuri Basant). Above all Sultan Husain Sharqi left a lasting impact on posterity in the form of his invention of khayal mode of singing. Husain Sharqi, himself was a painter, provided liberal patronage to painting as well. The famous Jain Kalpasutra, (1465) was illustrated at Jaunpur under Husain Sharqi’s patronage. Thus the city of Jaunpur emerged as the prominent centre of Indo-Islamic tradition even surpassing Delhi during the 15th and early 16th centuries.

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A Leaf from Jain Kalpasutra, Jaunpur School Source: The MET; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History:Jain Manuscript painting Courtesy:http:/ /www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1992.359/

18.3 GAUD AND PANDUA With the advent of Islam in Bengal, particularly from onwards a visible change is evident in the process of urbanisation which is evident in the presence of a number of mint towns in the region – Gaur, Pandua, , Satgaon, Chitagong, Tanda. Further, activities of the immigrant Sufis who got settled down there and established their khanqahas, and madarsas particularly provided the fillip to the growth of towns in the region.

Bengal Sultanate [After Syed Ejaz Hussain, (2003) The Bengal Sultanate (AD 1205-1576) 3 4 New Delhi: Manohar, Map facing page 1.] Gaur, the city of the Bengal sultanate was established at Lakhnavati (today known as Regional Cities Gaud, Gaur, Goud), which was the erstwhile capital of the Pala kings. It is located at 24° 52’ N and 88° 08’ E, near an older channel of the river. In 1205, the older Pala city was sacked by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji who was a minor vassal of the Ghurid sultans at Delhi. His coins issued in 1205 carries the phrase Gaur Vijaya. Called Lakshmanavati or Lakhnavati under the Palas, it became a capital of the regional governors and rulers and was still also known by this name when Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah (reg. 1342-58) declared himself to be the king of Lakhnavati in 1342. In another ten years, by 1352, he had consolidated his kingdom and styled himself the Sultan of Bengal. At this point, though Gaud continued to be an important city, the capital was shifted to Pandua by Alauddin Ali Shah (1339-1342), approximately 30 km to the north-north-east.

Gaud

Gaur/Gaud [Khan, Khan Sahib M. Abid Ali, edited and revised by H.E. Stapleton. (1931) Memoirs of Gaur and Pandua, Calcutta: Bengal Secretariat Book Depot] 3 5 Urbanisation in It is said that older buildings in Gaud were deliberately plundered to enable the Medieval India - 1 construction of the new capital. Unfortunately, Pandua was looted by Firuz Shah Tughlaq of Delhi as he marched into Bengal in 1353. It would be almost another eighty years before the city of Gaud was again made the capital of the Bengal Sultanate. Sometime around 1437 when Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah IV (1434-1459) controlled the Sultanate of Bengal, the capital was moved back to Gaud. Gaud remained the capital of the Bengal Sultanate throughout the Sultanate. The city was completely sacked by (1486-1545). Sulaiman Khan Karrani (reg. 1565-1572), who ruled as a vassal of the Mughal emperor Akbar, shifted the capital of the province from Gaud to Tanda. In the seventeenth century, an English factory was set up at the nearby English Bazaar (Englezabad as it was then called), and Gaud was slowly abandoned as an important urban center and focus shifted more towards Rajmahal, and later . Under the Bengal Sultanate city continued to be an important mint town throughout, as early as Bakhtiyar Khalji’s time.

Pandua [Khan, Khan Sahib M. Abid Ali, edited and revised by H.E. Stapleton. (1931) Memoirs of 3 6 Gaur and Pandua, Calcutta: Bengal Secretariat Book Depot] Planning and Architecture Regional Cities The geographical and geological circumstances of Bengal make it unlike most other parts of India for the settlement of large cities. Estuarine and swampy lands, with a network of rivers and tributaries that shift course meant that there was always a danger of flooding, and drainage more than irrigation would have been the primary concern. Rich alluvial soil provided most of the building material when made into bricks, as good building stone was not easily available.

Adina Mosque, Pandua Photo By Ajit Kumar Majhi, September, 2016 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Adina_Mosque._Pandua._Malda.jpg The city of Gaur was enclosed by a high earthen rampart, and it was reported that this embankment had buildings on top, a likely response to the geography, to protect against floods. The buildings do not survive anymore. On the western side of the city, the Ganges afforded protection against any intrusions, and on the eastern side, there was a double embankment and a moat. The major axis for movement in the city was an avenue that ran from north to south, and openings in the embankments in those two directions were provided with gates. Large boats used to ply on the Ganges and the city had a thriving port. It is surmised that the ease of water-based communication systems made the site highly desirable, but the shifting river eventually made the city undesirable and unhealthy for human habitation.

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Dakhil Darwaza, Gaur Photo By Ujjwal, India https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dakhil_Darwaza_at_Gaur,_Malda,_West_ Bengal.jpg With its mosques, madrsas, etc. the layout of the city of Gaur completely resembles an ‘Islamic city’. The citadel palace was close to the river embankment close to the southern end of the city. The main gate of the fort was called Dakhil Darvaza or Salami Darvaza, and it was on the northern side; the extant gateway dates most likely from the fifteenth century. This inner fortified area was approximately two and half square kilometers. Among the surviving remains outside this fort is Tantipara mosque (Umar Qazi mosque) built in 1580 by Khan-i Azam Mirsad Khan which is the finest example of terracotta art in Bengal. However, the biggest surviving mosque in Gaur is the Bara Sona Mosque built during Nasiruddin Nusrat Shah’s reign around 1525-1566. Its counterpart was built during Sultan Alauddin Ahmad Shah’s reign (1493-1519). Another surviving fifteenth century structure at Gaud is Firuzah Minar built by Saifuddin Firuz Shah (1488-90).

Choto Sona Mosque Photo By Nahid Rajbd 3 8 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Choto_Sona_Mosque_04.jpg Regional Cities

Baro Sona Mosque Photo By Pratyush Datta https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Baro_sona_masjid_or_baro_duary_masjid_ or_the_great_golden_mosque_,_gour,_malda_ district_of_west_bengal_state.JPG All the architecture of the city, including the fortifications and gates, makes extensive use of local bricks, because both stone itself and the tradition of using stone for construction are not local to most of Bengal. Terracotta ornament is often used to embellish the buildings. Remnants of the palace are extant, but inadequate to construct the layout. Because of the material and the resultant architectural forms, the style of architecture is distinct, and even later temples in Bengal use the same architectural vocabulary as sultanate architecture.

Qadam Rasul Mosque Photo By Abhishek Kumar Jha https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Qadam_Rasul_Mosque.JPG 3 9 Urbanisation in Medieval India - 1

Fateh Khan’s Tomb in Qadam Rasul Photo By Abhishek Kumar Jha https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Fateh_Khan.JPG There appears a strong element of local feature on the architecture during the regional Sultanate of Bengal. However in the 17-18th centuries with Mughal influence Bengal got integrated closely with north India and Pan-Indian Mughal impact is clearly evident on architecture. Under the Bengal Sultanate Lakhanauti/Gaur emerged as an important urban centre. From the very beginning it was an important centre of trade and commercial activities. Such was the common site of migrant traders that when Bakhtiyar Khalji entered the town with his troopers they were mistaken as traders. Ziauddin Barani describes the length of the Lakhnauti’s main market street stretching over a mile on studded with shops. Merchants and communities of various descents from all directions thronged there – Isfahani, Sijistani, Abyssinians, Afghans, Kararanis, Makkis, etc. Gaur, rather entire Malda was important centre of silk production and export and silk was exported as far as Russia. Commenting on the grandeur and hustle-bustle of the markets of Lakhnauti the Portuguese embassy who visited Gaur in 1521 writes:

The streets and lanes are paved with bricks like New Street. The market is everywhere and everything – food and other goods alike – is in plentiful supply and very cheap. The streets and cross-lanes are so full of people that [it] is impossible to move…The streets are well mapped out and arranged. All the arms…are sold in streets which specialize in these goods. There is also a saddlery which sells horse harnessing and in another street all colours of fabric such as silk and other cloth can be found. (cited from Hussain, 2003: 244)

The streets are broad and straight and the main streets have trees planted in rows along the walls to give shade to the passengers. The population is so great that and the streets so thronged with the concourse and traffic of people, specially of such as come to present themselves at the King’s court, that they can not force their way past one another. A great part of this city consists of stately and well wrought buildings. (De Barros [pre-1540], cited from Khan, 1931: 43)

4 0 Pandua/Firuzabad also enjoyed the capital status for almost a century (1339-1437). Regional Cities Qutb Shahi mosque, and the famous and unique Adina mosque are some of the prominent monuments at Pandua. The city was well populated and centre of trading activities. It was well connected through river and land routes alike. Merchants from Heart, China, etc. flock together in the town. When Firuzabad was capital a number of Chinese embassies were exchanged between the Bengal Sultans and Chinese emperors. Chinese sources (CE 1412) informs that, ‘The city walls are very imposing, the bazaars well arranged, the shops side by side, the pillars in orderly rows, they are full of every kind of goods.’ (cited from Hussain, 2003: 254). Gaur and Pandua became centres of cultural activities. Under the Husain Shahis and literature flourished. At Gaur during Alauddin Husain Shah and Nasiruddin’s reigns several Bengali works were written – Vipradas’s Manasa Vijaya, Vijaya Gupta’s Manasa Mangalam, Yasoraja Khan’s Mangala, Maladhar Basu’s Shri Krishna Vijaya. The literature produced during this period had a strongVaishnava impact which reached its peak under Chaitanya (1486-1533). The Vaishnavite devotionalism paved way for the emergence of a local genre – mangalakavyas. Literature so developed exploited the local folk deities such as snake goddess – Manasa; forest goddess – Chandi. This fusion of Hindu-Muslim cultural tradition is best illustrated in Nabi Bangsa of Saiyyid Sultan (last quarter of the 16th century) who attempted the Islamic concept of Prophet (Nabi) with avatara doctrine of the . Pandua/ Firuzabad also enjoyed special place as centre of pilgrimage where stationed are the shrines of Shaikh Jalaluddin Tabrizi and Hazrat Nur Qutb Alam, popularly known as Bari and Chhoti Dargah. Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad patronized the famous Chishti saint at Pandua Shaikh Nur Qutb-i Alam (d. 1459). Shaikh’s tomb at Pandua achieved such a high esteem as pilgrimage centre that Sultan Alauddin Husain Shah (1493-1519) paid annual visit to his shrine. 18.4 KALPI In the 14th century Kalpi was a small village on the banks of in the present Jalaun district of . The change began little before the Timur invasion when Malikzadah Mahmud, son of Masnad-i Ali Azam (wazir of Sultan Tughluq Shah [1388-98]) made it his headquarter in 1390. Bihamad Khani Muhammad in his Tarikh-i Muhammadi informs that following disturbances of Chauhan chiefs in the region iqtadars of Tughluqpur, Phapoond, Chandwar, Shamsabad, Patiali, etc. also joined him. They built beautiful houses, constructed mosques and in the region. Kalpi soon developed into a planned city when in 1393 Azam Humayun demarcated specific area of the village Kalpi, encircled it with lofty walls and built a massive fortress there. He made his newly built hisar () Muhammadabad. Following Timur’s invasion huge migration of the elites, sufis and the commoners occurred towards Kalpi when his son welcomed scholars, sufis, and artisans who escaped from Timur’s onslaught. Soon Kalpi acquired the status of shahr-i Muazzam (great city). Kalpi soon became centre of Islamic learning and culture. The muqta of Kalpi quickly acquired strength and overran neighbouring iqtas and zamindaris. Mahmud assumed the title of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah and declared Kalpi as independent principality and addressed Kalpi as capital city (hazarat-i Muhammadabad). Soon the boundaries of the Sultanate of Kalpi extended touching the borders of the Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur in the east; the southern frontier converged the Malwa territory of Chanderi; while the western frontier bordered iqta of Erachh (in modern Jhansi district), Gwalior and Bayana. It served as buffer between the Sultanate of Delhi, Jaunpur and Malwa till 1442. However, in 1443 the Sultanate 4 1 Urbanisation in was occupied by the Sharqi Sultan Mahmud Sharqi and Nasir Khan of Kalpi accepted Medieval India - 1 the tutelage of the Sharqi Sultanate. In 1479 finally Kalpi once again got subsumed into the Sultanate by Sultan who entrusted its charge to his grand son Azam Humayun Lodi.

Chaurasi Gumbad, Kalpi Photo by Rajarshi, September, 2010 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Chaurasi_Gumbad_2.JPG By the time of Sultan Mahmud Turk’s death (1412) Kalpi already represented a replica of metropolitan Delhi. Here flourished karkhanas established by the sultan and the nobles which gave impetus to weaving industry, and Kalpi in no time emerged as prominent centre of textile production. Even Kalpi acquired good reputation for sugar production. Being on the banks of Yamuna and ample availability of timber from the dense forests confronting its eastern and western borders, here also flourished boat and ship industry. Building activities and growth of industries made the city soon hub of artisans of varied nature. According to a rough estimate of I.H. Siddiqui strength of imperial retinues alone numbered approximately one hundred thousand in Kalpi by the turn of the . Ulama and Sufis equally contributed to its growth. Famous sufi saints Humam Ahmad Thanesari and Maulana Shamsuddin Nahwi left Delhi after Timur’s invasion and settled down in Kalpi under Mahmud Shah Turk’s patronage. Besides, a few disciples and khalifas of famous sufi saint Gesudaraz also made Kalpi as their abode. Besides the Chishtis, number of sufi silsilahs – Suhrawardi, Zahidi, Shattari and Madari – got settled here. Their presence and later their tombs made Kalpi an important centre of sufi activities. It was at Kalpi that Shah Madar of Madari silsilah interacted with the Hindu yogis before finally moving to Jaunpur. Emergence of Kalpi as an important town coupled the growth of other surrounding centres into towns. Mention may be made of Khandaut which Sultan Mahmud Turk fortified and built a palace fortress there and named it Mahmudabad. Other towns, Ratha and Chakni, near Kalpi also emerged in the region. Both were fortified and were vibrant economic centres. Jathra, which was an unfortified small town, by 15th century emerged into a prominent city under Majlis-i Ali Nizam Khan. He and his successors planted orchards and gardens around the city. It attained fame for wine manufacture (khammars, wine sellers and manufactures flourished in the region) and musicians (kalavants). The wine industry led to extension of grape cultivation in the region. Erachh 4 2 emerged as one of the strongest fort in north India. It became centres of activities of the ashrafs (elites). It flourished under Khan-i Azam Junayd Khan. It almost expanded to Regional Cities the size of Kalpi. Number of military outposts (thanas) by clearing forests emerged in the region during this period which in the coming century developed into flourishing towns. Mahoba and Shahpur also emerged centres of trade and Islamic learning. During Akbar’s period Kalpi and Erachh formed two separate sarkars in suba Agra (Siddiqui, 2012: Chapter 11). 18.5 MANDU Mandu formed a prominent capital city of the Malwa kingdom. Ala’ al-Din Khalji (reg. 1296-1316) captured this erstwhile settlement of the Paramaras, it was renamed Shadiabad by Hushang Shah Ghuri (reg 1405–35). There are virtually no traces of the city under previous dynasties. Founded by Dilawar Khan Ghuri (reg. 1401-1406), the sultanate of Malwa formally assumed trappings of a royal house only in 1401, though they were virtually independent since 1392. It was sometime around that time that the capital was shifted to Mandu from nearby . The Ghurid dynasty was quickly replaced by the Khaljis, who controlled the Malwa sultanate from 1436 to 1531.1 There was a small period when the Sultans of Gujarat and the Mughals had control, but from 1537 to 1561, Mandu struggled to remain as an independent state. The last of its independent rulers was the famous Baz Bahadur (reg. 1555-1561). Through all these dynastic changes, it remained the capital of the sultans of Malwa from 1401 to till it was completely subdued by the Mughals in 1562. Nonetheless, Mandu continued to remain an important administrative and military center not only to control the region, but also as a key location to control a major route from north India to the Deccan.

Fort of Mandu [Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, Bhopal] 1) Alamgiri Gate 2) Road from Nalcha 3) Bhangi Gate 4) Delhi Gate 5) Lal Kot 6) Chishti Khan’s Palace 7) Suraja Talao 8) Hathya Por Gate 9) Hindola Mahal 10) Champa Baoli 11) Jahaz Mahal 12) Munja Talao 13) Ujala Baoli 14) Andheri Baoli 15) Gada Sha’s Shop 16) Gada Shah’s Palace 17) Kapur Ta;ao 19) Taweli Mahal 19) Tahasil 20) Ram Mandir 21) Asharafi Mahal 22) Hoshang Shah’s Tomb 23) Jami Masjid 24) Lohani Gate 25) Chhappan Mahal 26) Ek Thamba 27) Chor Kot 28) Nil Kantheshwar 29) Sonpur Darwaza 30) Songarh 31) Mosque 32) Jali Mahal 33) Tarapur Gate 34) Rewa Kund 35) Baz Bahadur’s Palace 36) Rupmati’s Palace 37) Bhagwaniya Gate 38) Darya Khan’s Tomb 39) Lal Bunglow 40) Lal Sarai 42) Malik Mughith’s Mosque 43) Sarai 44) Dai Ki Chhoti Bahan Ka Mahal 45) Dai Ka Mahal 46) Sagar Talao 47) Sat Sau Sirhi 48) Jahangirpur Gate 4 3 Urbanisation in Planning and Architecture Medieval India - 1 Mandu is located on a large mesa along the southern outcrops of the Vindhya mountain range, overlooking the plains of Malwa to the north and the large basin of the Narmada river to the south. The fortified mesa has defensive walls that extend more than 40 kilometers and are punctuated by a dozen gates. The important gate to the north, Dilli Darwaza, was the most easily accessible of the routes to the fort. The fort entrance on the north has three gateways, with the spearhead fringes that are commonly associated with the Delhi sultanate. Several water bodies are included within the fortifications at Mandu, and because the plateau is at an altitude of over 600 meters, there is no other source of water collection other than these lakes. Several wells and cisterns also provide water to the settlement. The enclosed area includes large swathes of landscape, several lakes, gardens, agricultural lands, making it self-sufficient in case of a siege. The major axis of the hilltop is north-south, passing a very large lake, and most of the monumental architecture at Mandu is situated on this locus. At the northern edge of the city are the monuments of the Ghuri and the Khalji dynasties of Mandu, most famously the Hindola Mahal, the Jahaz Mahal (Hoshang Shah), the Ashrafi Mahal (Mahmud Khalji I), the tomb of Hoshang Shah and the Jami mosque (Hoshang Shah). Marble and stucco inlay, techniques similar to the ones used under the Tughlaqs, are commonly used across most of the architecture. The tomb of Hoshang Shah is one of the first in India completely built of marble. At the southern edge of the fort, overlooking the Narmada, are the palaces and buildings associated with Baz Bahadur. The Mughals made their own contributions to the site, and Akbar and Jahangir built a few palaces.

Hindola Mahal Photo by Muk.Khan, September, 2009 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Hindola_Mahal%2C_Mandu%2C_ India.JPG

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Jahaz Mahal Photo by Bernard Gagnon, December, 2013 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Jahaz_Mahal_10.jpg

Baz Bahadur Palace Photo by Bernard Gagnon, December, 2013 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Baz_Bahadur%27s_Palace_09.jpg

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Jami Mosque Photo by Pavel Suprun (Superka), January, 2009 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Mandu%2C_Jami_Masjid.jpg

Rewa Kund Photo by Bernard Gagnon, December, 2013 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Rewa_Kund%2C_Mandu.jpg

Rupamati Pavilion Photo by Bernard Gagnon, December, 2013 4 6 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Rupmati_Pavilion_01.jpg Hushang extended patronage to scholars and ulama and mystics and established a Regional Cities madarsa (1441-42) at Mandu which provided a great fillip to the city as chief centre of learning. He extended his patronage to famous sufi saint Shaikh Makhdum Qazi Burhanuddin. Besides, Saiyyid Najmuddin Ghausud Dahr, Shaikh Yusuf Budhan, and Hazrat Shaikh-ul Islam also migrated to Malwa and settled down at Mandu. It greatly enhanced the prestige of the region and Mandu soon achieved great reputation as an important sufi centre as well as an important centre of learning. At Mandu under the patronage of the Malwa rulers also flourished and . Punjaraja wrote commentary on Saraswata, a Sanskrit grammar during Ghiyas Shah’s reign. Prameshti Prakash Sara (1493) in Prakrit and Harivansha Purana (1495) were composed by Jain Scholar Shrutikirti of Mandavagarh (Mandu). Baz Bahadur and Rani Rupmati both provided a fillip to the growth of Hindi by composing poetry in Hindi. Paintings also found new lease of life under Malwa rulers’ patronage. Jain Kalpasutra (Mandu rendition) was inscribed at Mandu under the patronage of Mahmud Khalji (1439), Nimatnama illustrated during Nasir Shah’s reign marked the beginning of Malwa School of paintings at Mandu with the fusion of Turkaman School of painting at Shiraz and the indigenous Jain style of paintings. Under Baz Bahadur’s patronage city became live with musicians and singers flocking to the city from all around. Abul Fazl rates him amongst ‘a singer without rival’.

18.6 AHMADABAD The Sultanate of Gujarat came into existence when in1407 Zafar Khan (Muzaffar Shah I), who was the governor of the province of Gujarat under the Tughlaqs of Delhi, declared independence in sometime in the last decade of the fourteenth century. The city of Ahmadabad was founded by Sultan Nasiruddin Ahmad Shah (reg. 1411-1443) in 1411 on the banks of the river, near an older smaller settlement called Karnavati/Asawal. This became the capital of the replacing Patan and the next few centuries saw several accretions and improvements. Ahmad Shah had to combat the powers of his uncles who were based in south and central Gujarat; equally turbulent region Rajputana situated next to the present capital city Patan. Thus Patan was comparatively more vulnerable. Instead, compared to Patan its advantage lied in the fact that it was more strategically and closely situated to its port towns Cambay and Bharauch; from Ahmadabad it was easier to control regions of south and central Gujarat; equally approachable were the regions of Malwa, Mewar and Idar with whom Gujarat rulers were in constant clashes. The construction of the city of Ahmadabad was sanctified and legitimised by the eminent saints of three sufi orders – Maghribi (Shaikh Ahmad Khattu), Suhrawardi (Qazi Ahmad Jud of Patan) and Chishti (Malik Ahmad). It remained capital for about seventy five years when Mahmud Begarha shifted his capital to and named it Muhammadabad. However, it continued to thrive as an important industrial and commercial town even during Mahmud Begarha’s time. In 1487, Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah (Begada) (reg. 1458-1511) commissioned extensive city walls, with a perimeter of almost 10 km., twelve major gates and hundreds of towers and defensive features. The Sultan had commissioned major construction projects at Champaner since he had captured it in 1484, and the next twenty odd years would be spent in making it ready to be the capital city of the Gujarat Sultanate. By the middle of the sixteenth century, the kingdom was in decline, and Ahmadabad remained the de facto capital city. In 1572, as part of the annexation of Gujarat, the Mughal Emperor Akbar captured Ahmadabad. It became the capital of the Mughal subah (province) of Gujarat, and prospered under the Mughals, and remains one of the most important commercial cities in western India. 4 7 Urbanisation in Medieval India - 1

Medieval Gujarat [After Yagnik, Achyut and Suchitra Sheth, (2011) : From Royal City to Megacity, New Delhi: Penguin Books, p. 6.]

Plan of Ahmadabad Fort [After Yagnik, Achyut and Suchitra Sheth, (2011) Ahmedabad: From Royal City to Megacity, New Delhi: Penguin Books, p. 18.] 4 8 Planning and Architecture Regional Cities The city was roughly rectangular with the western wall along the banks of the . Abutting the western wall, inside the walls, was the citadel, the , the seat of royal and political power, but nothing survives of this complex now. This arrangement was quite similar to the placement of the citadel at Gaud. Almost in the center of the city was the great congregational mosque, the Jami’ (1424) and Ahmad Shah’s mosque (1414). It was close to the two major axes that led to the major gates in the cardinal directions. Several other smaller mosques, and also tombs of important nobility and holy men were scattered throughout the city.

Jami Mosque, Ahmadabad Photo by Bernard Gagnon https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jama_Masjid,_Ahmedabad_01.jpg The eastern doorway of the Jami’ mosque led to the tombs of members of the dynasty. The Bhadra towers and Ahmad Shah’s mosque still stands out among the surviving monuments of the city. The Jami mosque consists of as many as 15 domes and 260 pillars. Its richly carved two minarets, which were shaking minarets (jhulti minar) got destroyed in 1819 earthquake.

The Shaking Minarets at Ahmedabad Drawn By Grindley, Robert Melville in 1809 (1786-1877); The British Library Board; Publisher: Ackermann, R; London; 1826 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shakingminarets.jpg 4 9 Urbanisation in In between the jami mosque and the Bhadra towers is Tripolia gate or Medieval India - 1 known as Maidan Shah or King’s Bazar. This imposing Teen Darvaza, a large ceremonial portal in the middle of the city, is quite unique from this period. Mandelslo records:

The Maidan Shah or the King’s market is at least 1600 feet long and half as many broad and beset all around with rows of pal trees and date trees, intermixed with citron trees and orange trees, whereof there are very many in the several streets: which is not only very pleasant to the sight…

1. 2. 1. Manik Chowk (Teen Darwaza) Photo by Charles Lickfold, 1880s Source: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1400_1499/ahmedabad/ photos/photos.html https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Teen_Darwaza_1880s.jpg 2. Present State of Teen Darwaza Photo by Aviral Mediratta https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Teen_Darwaza.JPG Towards the eastern entrance of the Jami mosque (1414) Ahmad Shah erected his own rauza (mausoleum) known as Badshah ka Hazira where lied Ahmad Shah (1411- 1442), his son Muhammad Shah (1442-1451), and his grandson Qutbuddin Ahmad Shah II (1451-1458). In 1445, Rani ka Hazira was constructed in the vicinity. It appears that at the earliest stages of the foundation of the city there were built two mosques one, Saiyid Alam mosque, in the Khanpur area near the river and the other Haibat Khan’s mosque in the Jamalpur area. However, both lacked the elegance of Ahmad Shah’s mosque. The city wall got built by Sultan Mahmud Begara (1459-1511) in 1487. Writing in the seventeenth century, Mandelslo informs that it had 12 gates and was surrounded by a moat of 96 feet broad. Mirat-i Ahmadi further adds that it had apart from 12 gates, 139 towers, 9 corners and over 6000 battlements. Later British added Premabhai (1864) and Panchakuva Gates (1871). However, Ahmadabad Municipality dismantled entire wall structures leaving the gates in 1927 (Yagnik, 2011: 19). As with Malwa, Gujarat had its own set of architectural conventions that marked the building as being from Gujarat. Perhaps it was the rich tradition of construction in carved and dressed sandstone, or the availability of craftsmen who would take stone carving to the highest levels. The buildings at the new capital at Champaner exemplify this artisanship, but Ahmadabad also has a few fine of architecture, as the jaali style used for the first time was in the Jami mosque of Ahmad Shah and the climax can be seen in the Sayyid mosque built in 1572. Thus the distinct feature of the Gujarat Sultanate architecture was elaborate intricate jaalis/lattice/perforated screen with intricate geometric patterns and fine vine, leaf flower and petel designs which later became the hallmark of the jaali style in the mosques and rauzas. Even these jaalis were exported to southeast Asia. The tomb stone of 15th century saint Maulana Malik Ibrahim in Gresik in east Java is reported to have sent from Gujarat.

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Sidi Syed Mosque Photo By Vrajesh Jani https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mosque_of_Sidi_Sayed_Jaali.JPG Jharokha (over hanging roofed balcony) was another feature of Gujarat architecture which can be seen in Ahmadabad buildings, particularly in Teen Darwaza (see illustration of Teen Darwaza above). Tanks and wells also formed crucial part of landscape of the Gujarat Sultanate. Sultan Qutbuddin built Hauz-i Qalb known as Kankariya Lake near the royal palace. Malik Shaban constructed a big lake and a step well. In 1499 Dhai Harir, the chief of the royal Haram of Mahmud Begara constructed a step well in the suburb of Harirpura and Rudra Devi (Ruda Bai) constructed another step well on the outskirts of Ahmadabad. Sultan Mahmud Begara even encouraged his nobles to establish ‘puras’/suburbs. The present day , Sarangpur, and are such suburbs established by nobles. Malik Shaban who served first three Sultans established a suburb, Bagh-i Shaban with a tank and his rauza. Malik Isan established on the southern side of the city another suburb known as Isanpura and erected a mosque, which still survives today (Yagnik, 2011:23-24). Even the sufi centres soon developed into suburbs. At Vatva, where situated the dargah of Saiyyid Qutb-i Alam, along that soon evolved a suburb called Rasulabad. Similarly, along the mausoleum of Saiyyid Usman, built by Mahmud Begarha, on the western side of the Sabarmati, a new suburb known as emerged. Today here stands the famous Gujarat Vidyapeeth.

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(2) (3) 1. Adalaj (Rudabai ) Step Well (1) Photo by Notnarayan, November, 2012 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Adalaj_step_well.jpg 2. Photo December, 2012 By Ronakshah1990 (2) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Adalaj_Stepwell_-_Upper_Level_-_2.jpg 3. Photo by Raveesh Vyas, January, 2009 [See the intricate jaalis](3) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Adalaj_Stepwell_-_Upper_Level_-_2.jpg

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1. Dhai Harir Step Well Photo by Orissa8, October 2012 (1) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Dada_Harir_Stepwell_-_top_view.JPG 2. Photo January 2012, by Bornav27may (2) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Stepwell_staircase.JPG Ahmadabad emerged as prominent commercial and cultural capital of Gujarat thronged by the immigrants from all directions. Gujarat Sultanate patronised scholars and saints from the Islamic world. Apart from Shia and Sunnis, Ismaili tradition of the Bohras 5 2 (Khojas) also flourished. Ismaili Naziri tradition that developed around Imad Shah Regional Cities during Mahmud Begara’s reign was an amazing fusion of Hindu-Muslim tradition. Imad Shah declared himself incarnation of Indra resulting in attracting large followers from agricultural and pastoral Hindu communities. They even celebrated Holi and Dipawali. After Imad Shah’s at Girmatha in the 16th century the village came to be known as Pirana and the sect as Pirana Panth. Momana, community of the Panth, was involved in textile production and generally concentrated in the towns. In the walled city of Ahmadabad there were as much as four Monana-vad (bad), suggesting of the strong presence of the community. Saiyid Muhammad Jaunpuri laid the foundation of the Mahdawi movement here. It was at Ahmadabad, during Mahmud Begara’s reign, he declared himself a ‘’ (saviour). Another famous sufi flourished at Ahmadabad in the 15-16th century was Wajihuddin Alwi who was originally a Qadiri sufi, later converted to Shattari order under Muhammad Ghau’s influence. In his khanqah students from all over the country flock together to learn higher literary, religious and spiritual studies. His student Saiyyid Sibghatullah who migrated to was the spirit behind spreading the Shattari order in Arabia. Ahmadabad also emerged a great centre of literary activities. The court poet Udayaraj wrote Mahmudsuratranacharit in Sanskrit in praise of his patron Mahmud Begara.

18.7 GULBARGA AND BIDAR Gulbarga Gulbarga was the first capital of the Bahmanids and enjoyed the status till 1424 when finally Ahmad I shifted his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. The shift in the capital pushed Gulbarga to a secondary spot.

City-Plan of Gulbarga [Michell, George and Mark Zebrowsky. (1999) Architecture and Art of the . The New Cambridge , I.7 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), Map 7, p.27.] Gulbarga fort (1429-1432; rebuilt by Nizam Shah Bahmani in 1461-1463) and its Jama Mosque inside the fort dominate the building architecture of the city which is fusion of Sultanate and Persian architectural forms. Even the famous Jami Mosque was designed by Persian architect from Qazvin, Rafi. Built in highly unconventional style, the courtyard was covered with small cupolas supported by arches. However, this style never been repeated in any of the later building, possible discarded by the traditionalists. The fort that stands today was greatly modified during Adil Shahi period. 5 3 Urbanisation in Medieval India - 1

Photo by Deen Dayal, 1880 Courtesy: http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/g/019pho0000430 s6u00046000.html https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Great_Mosque_in_Gulbarga_Fort..jpg Gulbarga soon emerged a prominent sufi centre. Tajuddin Firuz invited Chishti saint Hazrat Gesu Daraz to settle down at Gulbarga in 1397. However, his death in 1422 led to the decline in the importance of Gesu Daraz’s followers, instead Nimatullahi Sufis of Kirman under Ahmad Shah I’s patronage emerged prominent at Bidar. .

Hazrat Gesu Daraz Tomb, Gulbarga Photo by Ken Boulter (Sandonik), 1869 http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Asia/India/South/Karnataka/Gulbarga/photo1387335.htm 5 4 Regional Cities

Hazrat Gesu Daraz Tomb http://www.khwajagharibnawaz.net/BandaNawaz.htm

Bidar After more than half a century of Bahmani sovereignty, Ahmad I (reg. 1422-1436) decided to found a new capital around c. 1424 to replace Gulbarga, which had been the Bahmani capital from around 1350 to 1424. Located at the geological intersection of Deccan basalt and laterite, the location used a number of strategies for a plentiful supply of water to the city. It is located at the edge of the northern plateau, and therefore easily defensible. The location was also close to Kalyani, the capital of the late Chalukyas, and that meant a convergence of trade routes. In 1512 though the Bahmani capital once again shifted to Golconda, even after the decline of the Bahmani dynasty, Bidar remained the capital of the Barid , till that latter kingdom was annexed by the sultans of in 1619. It remained an important provincial capital even under the Mughals. New gunpowder seige technologies had been introduced in the Deccan by the time and Bidar displays many of the then new defenses against such attacks. The climate of Bidar was a lot more salubrious than that of other areas in the region, on account of its altitude. Planning and Architecture The city has a fairly orthographic grid of streets, and two of the major ones intersect at an important central crossing. Several gates puncture the walls, and the city was connected in all directions by major routes. The outer walls of both the city and the citadel are shaped by topographic considerations, as the ground is not level. Many of the non-royal buildings of note are in the walled city, such as Mahmud Gawan’s madrasah and the Chaubara, an unusual cylindrical structure most likely built as an observation tower or a gnomon in the center of a city crossing. The city, like many others, had a distribution of Sufi tombs and small mosques that served different neighbourhoods. 5 5 Urbanisation in Medieval India - 1

City-Plan of Bidar [Michell, George and Mark Zebrowsky. (1999) Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates. The New Cambridge History of India, I.7 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Map 10, p. 31.]

Bidar Fort Photo by Santosh3397; October, 2014 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Fort_Garden_bidar.jpg 5 6 Regional Cities

Mahmud Gawan’s Madarsa Photo by Prasannasindol, September, 2012 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Complete_view_of_Mahumad_ Gawan.JPG

Chaubara, Bidar http://www.gounesco.com/bidar-k-chaubara-ki-katha/ 5 7 Urbanisation in The citadel was at the northern edge of the walled and fortified city, and almost equal in Medieval India - 1 area to the city. The citadel is curious because of triple moats that separate it from the city. On the northern side of the citadel, the elevated situation makes it easily defensible. The citadel also contains low-lying areas that were included inside to facilitate the collection, storage and distribution of water. Several qanats also feed this low lying area, thus ensuring a steady water supply that is not limited to local precipitation. All the important royal buildings are clustered on the southern side of the citadel, closest to the city, yet visually and physically removed because of their elevation, and the placement of walls and moats. Within the citadel, various halls of audience, and the residential palace buildings, along with the Solakhamba mosque, are noteworthy. The significant structure of the fort is Gumbad Darwaza so named after its domed roof. Rangin Mahal is marked by wooden columns and mother of pearl inlay decoration. Bidar was a planned city, with two zones the royal enclave towards north and the city towards south, complete with its own royal necropolis at Ashtur, only a few kilometers on a lower plain to the east of the citadel.

Gumbad Darwaza Photo by Vamsi Rimmalaoudi, August, 2009 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Gateway_to_Bidar_fort.jpg The architecture at Bidar extensively used both the local basalt and laterite stones, conscientiously chosen for different functions and effects. Lime mortars and plasters, along with rubble masonry are extensively used where dressed stone is not required. Bidar is one of the few locations in the Deccan, where the use of polychromatic glazed tiles for decoration on the exteriors of buildings can still be seen. Stylistically, Bahmani architecture set the tone for all the later regional manifestations of architecture in the Deccan. The court and royal buildings at Vijayanagara, the architecture of Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmadnagar, all carried further this new style inaugurated under the Bahmanis. The architecture of Bidar completely dominated by Persian art forms. Even Chand Minar (four storied structure with projected balconies) at Daulatabad, built in 1435 has deep Iranian influence. Another aspect of Bahmani architecture was Idgahs of Gulbarga, Bidar and Daulatabad.

5 8 Bahmani capital Bidar soon became centre of immigrants from and Central Asia. Regional Cities Under Nimatullahi sufis Irani element dominated the Deccani politics, particularly during Mahmud Gawan’s period of prime ministership (1463-1481). During Ahmad I’s reign famous sufi saint Shah Khalilullah, son of revered Shah Niamatullah of Kirman arrived in Bidar in 1431. It greatly reduced the influence of Gesu Daraz.

Shah Khalilullah’s Tomb, Chaukhandi, Bidar Photo by Santosh3397, April, 2010 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Chaukhandi_bidar.jpg

18.8 NATURE OF REGIONAL CAPITAL CITIES Sultanate capital cities were founded, either on the sites of earlier provincial capitals, as in the case of Gaud, or completely from scratch, as seen at Bidar, several considerations shaped their physical form. In most cases, antecedent pre-Islamic cities are claimed on the location of these sultanate capitals, but the veracity of these claims has been elusive, both archaeologically and in terms of extant evidence. Since some of the cities have been find-spots for antiquities, earlier claims have been made. But it is important to realise that all the cities were located along military or trade routes, and therefore there are always settlements found in the area around them. The two features for which these 5 9 Urbanisation in settlements are attributed to the regional sultanates are the scale and the urbanity of Medieval India - 1 these cities. None of the earlier towns were of the size of the sultanate capitals. No doubt they benefited from being part of not just local, but much wider networks of trade, facilitated by merchants from across a larger Islamicate world. The climate and terrain (which determined the methods and systems of water management), and the strategic location (both military and mercantile), were the two major sets of constraints that shaped the sultanate city. Favoring one could often mean giving in to the other. For example, the location of Gaud, so important to trade and easily defensible, was very difficult because of the shifting physical character of the Ganges. In the case of Mandu, the city eventually lost importance because it was not at the frontier of the past the sixteenth century. There were several settlements in the area, such as Chanderi, Dhar and Indore, which became major commercial centers, and did not require the fortification of the early sultanate cities. Bidar stayed important as an important administrative center for the region, and Ahmadabad transitioned into a major mercantile city. Ahmad Shah’s decision to shift the capital of the Gujarat Sultanate from Patan to Ahmadabad was completely guided by geopolitical considerations – Patan, then capital, was vulnerable being surrounded by Rajput kingdoms in the north; while towards east and south were the kingdoms of Khandesh, Malwa and Bahmani; while his uncles controlled and Bharuch areas in the south so for better control of these regions there was a need for a capital more central and towards south. All the cities of the post-Khilji pre-Mughal sultanates were eventually captured by the Mughals. With the exception of Gaud, which was abandoned, all of them became important Mughal provincial centers. Therefore, all the cities in their present state have large scale Mughal improvements, obliterating large parts of their earlier history. The relative uniformity of Mughal architectural and planning logic, irrespective of local climate, material and custom, tend to create similar visual impressions. The introduction of gunpowder technologies from the fourteenth century for sieges, and the rapid developments in guns through the course of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, required the inhabited sultanate cities to either upgrade their defenses, or be abandoned. In other cases, political and physical changes meant the decline of the city. As a result, the character of many of the defensive features, the settlement patterns, and the relative importance of sultanate cities completely changed over time. It is only through part archaeological, part literary, and marginally extant architecture, that the reconstruction of these cities is possible. Though some of the sites were inhabited earlier, the growth in the scale of the city was possible only because of new imported modes of water conveyance, such as qanats and the construction of large-scale waterworks. The Persian wheel was the first of such technological innovations that changed the schema of water supply. Till then, wells and cisterns were the only source of water to supplement flowing water. In terms of planning, all the settlements that became capitals of the sultanate kingdoms can be called urban on account of their scale and specialised occupations that they supported. Almost none of the residents of these cities were directly dependent on agriculture, but were instead men of letters, merchants, courtiers or soldiers. All these cities had a grid of large streets, most probably processional in nature, that led across the city, and converged or crossed at a central square. The citadel was always set against the edge of the walled city, a pattern that can be seen in most cities of this period, as a precaution against internal strife and revolt. Bidar, Ahmadabad, Gaur, Jaunpur, all follow this layout. In the case of Mandu, because of its remote defensible 6 0 location on a high plateau, the walled enclosure might be considered a royal enclosure with multiple palaces around the whole walled area. An enceinte with a large centrally Regional Cities located mosque, a set of public buildings including bazars and hammams, and a garrison, became the minimum set of physical requirements to be recognised as a capital city for a kingdom. People of skill, learning and merit were the human requirements to create an important city. Great innovations were made in architecture, literature, and other expressions of culture under the regional sultanates. The modern linguistic landscape of South Asia was also shaped in this period, with the consolidation of several regional languages which were used at court in addition to Persian. It is also in this period that a new language of new architectural styles is born, with regional variations. For example, under the centralised rule of the Delhi sultanate, the architecture of all the provincial cities was comparable, but the disintegration of the large based in Delhi ensured a local expression. It is possible to discern distinct differences in the architectural style and material of the regional sultanates, differences that would again be flattened with the rise of the Mughals. These regional centers and urban settlements became the basis for the expansion of the Mughal state that followed in the sixteenth century.

18.9 SUMMARY The decline of the Delhi Sultanate led to the emergence of the regional polities in the 14-15th centuries. The seats of these regional kingdoms emerged into prominent urban centres – Jaunpur (Sharqi), Gaur and Pandua (Bengal), Mandu (Malwa), Gulbarga and Bidar (Bahmani), Ahmadabad and Champanir (Gujarat) and Kalpi. Since these Sultanates grew out of the Delhi Sultanate, in practice it imbibed the cultural tradition of the Delhi Sultanate at large. At the same time, it did assimilate the regional features/ characteristics. Architecturre and layouts of various cities apparently had deep impact of the Delhi Sultanate – fortified and planned cities; skyline was marred by mosques and tombs. However, Sultanates of Bahmani and Malwa on account of their close connections with Iran did showed certain distinct overarching Iranian influence. Bengal’s geography led the regional sultanate not only to opt for various regional styles in architecture but also it assimilated a vibrant secular cultural tradition. These Sultanates emerged as prominent centres of sufi learning, particularly the Timur onslaught forced them to migrate and settled down in these regional sultanates where sufi tradition flourished and grew further. These centres also patronised regional languages and facilitated its growth

18.10 EXERCISES 1) ‘The new capital cities that developed in the 14-15th centuries were benefited by the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.’ Comment. 2) Discuss the characteristics of capital cities developed during the 14-15th centuries. 3) In what respect Gaur and Pandua represent distinct styles of growth pattern in the 14-15th centuries? 4) Discuss the emergence of Ahmadabad as chief centre of activities. How did it succeed replacing Patan even survived when Mahmud Begada shifted the centre of power towards Champanir? 5) Critically examine the emergence of Kalpi as major city as well as seat of regional power in the 15th century.

6) What were the characteristics of Bahmanid cities, Gulbarga and Bidar? 6 1 Urbanisation in Medieval India - 1 18.11 REFERENCES Ahmadabad Rajyagor, S.B. et. al., Gujarat State Gazetteers: Ahmadabad District Gazetteer (Ahmadabad: Director, Government Printing, Government of Gujarat, 1984). Yagnik, Achyut and Suchitra Sheth, (2011) Ahmedabad: From Royal City to Tegacity, ( New Delhi: Penguin Books). Gaur and Pandua Alamgir, Khoundkar, (2011) Sultanate : An Analysis of Architecturaland Decorative Elements (New Delhi: Kaveri Books). Eaton, Richard M.,’Islam in Bengal’, in Michell, George. (ed.) (1984) The Islamic Heritage of Bengal (Paris: UNESCO), pp. 23-36. Hussain, Syed Ejaz, (2003) The Bengal Sultanate: Politics, Economy and Coins (AD 1205-1576), New Delhi: Manohar. Khan, Khan Sahib M. Abid Ali, edited and revised by H.E. Stapleton. (1931) Memoirs of Gaur and Pandua (Calcutta: Bengal Secretariat Book Depot). Michell, George. (1984) The Islamic Heritage of Bengal (Paris: UNESCO). Sengupta, Jagdish Chandra. (ed.) (1969) State Gazetteers: Malda (vol. 3) (Calcutta: West Bengal District Gazetteers, Government of Bengal). Gulbarga and Bidar Michell, George and Mark Zebrowsky. (1999) Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates. The New Cambridge History of India, I.7 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Yazdani, Ghulam. (1947) Bidar: Its History and Monuments (Oxford: Oxford University Press, published under the Special authority of HEH the Nizam). Jaunpur Fuhrer, Alois Anton. (1889) The Sharqi architecture of Jaunpur; with notes on Zafarabad, Sahet-Mahet and other places in the Northwestern Provinces and Oudh (Calcutta: Printed and published by the Superintendent of Government Printing, India). Saeed, Mian Muhammad. (1972) The Sharqi Sultanate of Jaunpur: a political and cultural history (Karachi: University of Karachi). Kalpi Siddiqui, Iqtidar Husain, (2012) Delhi Sultnate: Urbanization and Social Change (New Delhi: Viva Books). Mandu Day, Medieval Malwa, Patil, D.R. (1971) Mandu (New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India). Yazdani, G. (1929) Mandu: the City of Joy (Oxford: Printed for the Dhar state at the University press, by J. Johnson).

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