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Otterbein Aegis Spring 2006

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essays andbookreviewsthatadvancethepresencevaluesofhumanitiesoncampusbeyond. A journal designed to catalyze a deeper critical appreciation of the humanities at Otterbein College, contact Dr. [email protected]. on Students interested in serving Aegis’ Editorial Board for the 2006-2007school year should essay. All essaysacceptedforpublication willneedeventuallytobesubmittedonharddisketteinMicrosoft Word. the of title the and address, author’sname, the appear which on sheet, cover a by accompanied be should submissions include a self-addressed envelope with sufficient postage. Authors’ names Ohio,should 43081. not appear If onyou aresubmitted submitting essays; through instead,the U.S. Mail and Faculty Advisor,wish Eisenstein, Paul for to oneaddressed and copy duplicate of your submission to be returned, please the to either according prepared Submissions, final yearofhis/herstudyatOtterbein. the in is writer the if edition—even year’s following the for considered be will date this after received reviews book on a rolling basis. The deadline for the coming year’s edition shall be the second Friday of Winter Quarter. Essays and Aegis Aegis pages—in twelvepointtype,double-spaced,in Times NewRomanfontwithstandardone-inchmargins. one-inch margins. This includes pages devoted to notes and/or works cited pages. Book reviews should be between 4-8 Essays should be between 10-20 pages—in twelve point type, double-spaced, and in Times New Roman font with standard assess scienceandtechnology. Aegis in publication for eligible be also humanities—will the in traditionally criticism involve or interpretation that of approach—or questions in philosophical or historical are that sciences social the in books of reviews and Essays archeology; jurisprudence;thehistory, theory, andcriticism ofthearts;ethics;andcomparativereligion. literature; linguistics; languages; philosophy; history; disciplines: following the in reviews book and essays scholarly humanities, the of definition Humanities’(NEH) the for Endowment National the with accord In will appear annually during the first week of May of each calendar year. Essays and book reviews will be received iscommittedtononsexistlanguageandwordingfreeofhostileovertones. or analyze, interpret, to humanities the of disciplines the use that books of reviews and essays consider also will Aegis: The Otterbein College Humanities Journal Aegis: TheOtterbeinCollegeHumanities Advisor: Cover Art: Jen Wall Cassi Smith Jennifer Roberts Adam Cottrell Christina Amato Board Members: Editors: Statement of EditorialStatement of Policy

Aegis: Editorial Board Michelle Yost andJ. T. Craig Dr. PaulEisenstein MLA Style Manual Style MLA Michelle Yost (ofStonehenge)

Aegis or , 227 Towers Hall, Otterbein College, Westerville,College, Otterbein TowersHall, 227 , The Chicago Manual of Style of Manual Chicago The Aegis Aegis , should be sent in sent be should , seeks scholarly will consider will Aegis .

3 aegis 2006 contents Editor’s Introduction 5 Interview with Dr. Alan Lightman: At the Intersection of the Sciences and Humanities 9 Articles Two Essays on Socrates

An Examination of Richard Kraut’s Liberalization of Socrates’ Political 13 Philosophy • J. T. Craig Would King Drink the Hemlock?: Socrates’ Views on King • Larsa Ramsini 29 The Not-So “Invisible Hand”: America’s Role in Haiti’s Endemic Poverty • Christina Amato 35 Philosophizing Disgrace: Anatomy and Analysis of Dylan’s “Hard Rain” 45 • Adam Cottrel A Priest of the Portrait as a Young Man: The Path to Stephen Dedalus’s Artistic 52 Baptism • Adam Cottrel

The Moral Dilemma of Atomic Warfare • Edward Gunn 59 Jaingxi Elementary School Explosion: A Look at Human Rights Abuse 74 in China • Rhonda Maynard A Woman’s Religion: How Ann Lee Broke Through the Patriarchy • Jen Roberts 82 Art of Revolution • Jen Wall 88 Hirohito: Dunce or Duplicitous Leader? • Michelle Yost 96 Book Reviews The Body of Brooklyn • Jennifer Roberts 104 The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order • Zach Reat 106 Collapse • Cassi Smith 108 Teacher Man • Christina Amato 110 China Inc. • J. T. Craig 112 In Brief 114 Contributors 120 perceived asa “student-only” problem,toinfecting professionalacademics (asevidenced professors arebeingmonitored. We canseethattheproblemhasjumped frombeingwidely this problemaddressesstudent intellectualdishonesty, it does notaddresstheissueofhow education. They don’t gotobeinvolvedinaculture ofmistrust,acultureguilt.” of thestudentsunionatNova ScotiaUniversity, states:“Studentsgotouniversityforahigher to studentbodiesusingtheirSenate toinvalidatethatpractice. paper againstthousandsofotherdocuments,papers,journals, etc. by creatingwebsitesthatare,essentially, large studentdatabasesthatcancheckaparticular page). Infact,therehavebeenmovesmadebyprofessors and universitiestocurbthistrend, work, orgoingsofarastohiringsomeonewriteaspecific paperforyou(attendollarsper entrepreneurial culturethatleadstoessaysitesontheweb, thebuyingandsellingofacademic tion. It is these seemingly small things in conjunction with the pressure and exploitation of our – afterall,theprofessorwantstoomanysources,andthere areotherclassesthatneedatten – afterall,itisonlyonesentence.Fromthere,easyto fabricate asourceofinformation begin withcuttingandpastingsentencesfromjournals,or online sourceswithoutacitation unique andtogetahead(careerism)thatleadssmallslips inacademicintegrity as ameanstoanend–thedegreeinthiscasebeingmerely acredential).Itisthisdrivetobe produce (or, perhapson thepartofmanystudents,thereisaviewcollegeexperience ous, almostinnocent.Inacademia,bothasastudentandprofessor has becomethenorm,andnotexception,tobedishonest. debatable) andthenracesthroughtheculturalbloodstream,permeatingallmajorpartsuntilit cancer, thatstartsatonepoint(scholarship,perhaps,thoughwewouldfind thispointoforigin with adamantdenialsaboutthefalsityofone’s ideas andworkisindicativeofadisease,like tions, andinjustabouteveryotheraspectoflife. The theftanduseofothersideas,along academia, butisrampantinpolitics,governmentalandprivatebureaucracies,corpora life. Butthisclaimwouldbewrong.Intellectualdishonestyisnotonlyamajorproblemin to academiaandscholarship;itisnotoneindicativeorcarriedoverintootheraspectsof giarizing theworkofothers,butthatfarfrombeingpervasive,thisisjustaproblemconfi own. An individualmightbetemptedtosaythereisaproblemwithstudentsandfacultypla Oneoftheunderlyingthemesineveryscholarlyfield, istheintellectualhonestyof honesty, becauseofthe volume andbreadthofsourcesthatonecanfind, andusurp,asone’s one’s work. The scholarshipinvolvedinthehumanitiesisespeciallydependentonacademic increasingly interdisciplinaryworld. and research,inturndrawonothers,sothatourworkiswell-roundedrelevanttothis Itisapleasuretobringyouthethirdeditionof peers canshare. Academic workcannotexistwithinavacuum;weneedtoshareourtheories nal. We haveenjoyedprovidingaforumthatembraceswidespectrumofideasinwhichour Editors’ Introduction and oursociety asawhole(seeJaysonBlair’s workforthe by plagiarismin worksbyDorisKearnsGoodwin, Lawrence Tribe, and Stephen Ambrose) Like manysocietalproblems,thebeginningsofintellectualdishonestyseeminnocu Michelle Michelle Yost andJ. T. Craig Aegis New York Times , Otterbein’s Humanitiesjour As ChantalBrushett,president And thismovementhasled , thereispressureto , orJamesFrye’s . Itmight 1 While ned - - - - -

editors 5 aegis 2006 - - - And, if the ltrated the ltrated the The problem . And it is this . Viswanathan lifted direct Viswanathan , about the pervasiveness , about the 2 How Opal Mehta Got Kissed, Got Wild and Got How Opal Mehta Got Kissed, Got Wild best seller, best seller, was going to press, Random House –Viswanathan’s publisher – an was going to press, Random House –Viswanathan’s accomplishment less visible and, for the same reason, discriminate against visible and, for the same reason, discriminate accomplishment less in their fields. those who are active Master’s theses that are routinely passed despite the fact that the level of passed despite the fact that the level theses that are routinely Master’s illiterate at worst, them is remedial at best and virtually writing exhibited in have, quite close personal friends of the chair who tenure-track hires of and who are hired single publication credit to their names not a literally, in which two and three books – resulting in a situation over candidates with their instructors, more experience and publications than students often have nothing for 10 culture in which those who have done and an institutional own lack of like themselves in order to make their or 15 years hire others New York Times New York Aegis In the past few years alone, there have been scandals involving false claims about In the past few years alone, there have Even in institutions such as Columbia and Harvard – which is where elite intellectual intellectual elite which is where – and Harvard as Columbia such in institutions Even , from other popular young adult fiction. Ms. Viswanathan received 500,000 dollars for received Viswanathan Ms. , from other popular young adult fiction. is not enough to stop the problem. Finding a few falsified papers does not mean that the battle is not enough to stop the problem. Finding a few falsified several engineering masters’ theses from Ohio University have been discovered to be pla several engineering masters’ hence, giarized. Some papers were copied outright, while others were merely badly cited, through all plagiarized. One begins to see the problem of intellectual dishonesty spreading does eventually proof and testability, Our academic system, demanding rigorous of society. That system fails us, though, when we stop uncover the frauds; at least, we hope that it does. And merely stripping credentials away from students or professors being outraged by the lies. academy is the staging ground for preparing and sending out the future generation into the academy is the staging ground for preparing honesty in the “real world?” “real world,” then what is the state of intellectual Suk, who claimed to have Woo research – as evidenced by Hwang medical and scientific Merck Pharmaceuticals who knew for many years cloned human embryonic stem cells, and Just recently, of their marquee drugs. side-effects about the very negative (potentially fatal) passages for her a Life similarities between her swears that “any phrasing Viswanathan a two book publishing deal. unintentional and unconscious.” Just works and mine were completely [Megan McCafferty’s] as this issue of contract – if this is the state of Viswanathan’s and nounced the cancellation of the book – then what of other “less elite” institutions? intellectual honesty at elite institutions, While the above passage is not about plagiarism in the purest sense, it points out the lengths While the above passage is not about plagiarism preserve or advance their careers – in this instance cro to which others within academia go to the disease of intellectual dishonesty nyism appears to be the manifestation of to a culture of ineptitude at Columbia. cronyism and careerism that have lead plagiarized fiction about one student’s At Harvard, revelations extends to students as well. old Harvard student Kaavya have recently been made. Nineteen year “fictionalized” non-fiction book) . book) non-fiction “fictionalized” has infi a culture of dishonesty – it is apparent that takes place work supposedly and at Columbia a former professor quote from Mark Slouka, example, this is a system. For University program at Chicago of the creative writing current chair include: whose problems dishonesty at Columbia, of intellectual

aegis 2006 6 editors and womenaresupposedtobetheparagonofathleticismintegritysportsmanship. growth hormonetogetanedgeonthecompetitionhavealsobeeninlimelight. against thediseaseofdishonestyshouldbestopped. body canproduce. The Humanities emphasizetheexamination of self,whatitistobehu some ofthebest Otterbeinhastooffer, anexample ofthebrilliant,originalwork thisstudent for theeasyway out,andforbeing“number one.” The papers thatfollowarerepresentative of of intellectualhonesty, veracity, andingenuitythathasbeenassassinatedbyour culture’s love attempt toamelioratethesituation, andhopefully, beleadersinthefight towinbackaculture least wecando,inthewakeof ourownhomegrownintellectuallydishonestrevelations, to in ourgenerationhasnation’s intentionsandtrustworthiness beensoderided,anditisthe tem. Truth isthebasisforgoodlife,andconsequently, the goodsociety. At noothertime are nobetteroff ethicallythanuneducatedmembers, thereisaseriousproblemwiththesys again beabletohavefaithandtrustinotherpeople.Ifthe educated membersofthissociety top downtorectifyit.Itisahardgoal,butonethatnecessary ifoursocietyisgoingtoever sess forthemselveswhatthecauseofthisproblemis,and work fromthebottomup,and – rather, theinstitutionitself,andfaculty andstudentswhocompriseitsbody, needtoas failing studentswhoarecaught–thosemethodsonlywin small battlesintheoverallwar hard work. This isnotjustsomethingthatwillbeinstilledbybuildingpublicdatabases and ready forthe“realworld,”needtoinstillanatmosphereof collegiality the universityandcollegesystem. These institutions,alongwithpreparingyoungadultstobe led ustothisbarrennessofintellectualhonesty. A goodplacetostartstoppingthistrendisin we mustworktowardsalong-termgoalofrectifyingthecultural andpersonalethosthathave tempt torectifythesituationandfind abatter path. know itwasafalsetrailplantedbythehighestlevelsofgovernment,wehavemadenoat the hoodagain. The pathtowarinIraqwaspavedwithquestionableintention,andwhilewe the hoodofcar, acknowledgedtheleakinradiator, beratedthecrack,andlowered cal lie,butnottothepointwhereanythinginourgovernmenthas Congress? The publichasmustereditsusualself-righteousindignityatthenewsofapoliti Abramoff, whohasalreadypleadedguiltyandbeensentencedtojailforbribingmembersof did ties, theepitomeofintellectualdishonesty. What aboutClinton’s publicassertionsthathe false. Notjustfalseinthesensethattheywerewrong;rathermanufacturedfalsi the “waronterror,” theirmainassertionsandjustifications forgoingtowarhavebeenproved arena thathasbeeninfectedbyintellectualdishonestyisinpolitics. of somefundamentalflaw inourculturalandpersonalethos,perhapsthemostfrightening est productstoadvancethelifeandvitalityofhumankind. While this,webelieve,isevidence letes ofprofessionalsportsareplayingbytherules,orthatdrugcompanieswillprovidehon mental capacities,totrulyreachtheiracademicpotential.Nolongercanwetrustthattheath we cannolongertruststudentstoworkhard,engageinthestruggletestandexpandtheir areas haveseriouslydamagedthecredibilityofpeopleandinstitutions.Itseemsasthough and societalpressuretobe“numberone.” The intellectualdishonesty and cheatinginthese Now, manyathleticheroeshavebecomecausalitiesoftheirowncareerism,personal not haveinappropriatecontactwitha White Houseintern? What aboutthelobbyistJack Is thisproblemonethatcanbesolved?Evenifintheshort-term,answeris“no,” IntheyearssinceBushadministrationdecidedtotakeaunilateralapproach Revelations aboutprofessionalandamateurathletesusingsteroidshuman changed , ofgood,andhonest, . We haveopened These men ------

editors 7 aegis 2006 . , 8 March 2006. man, and knowing our tempestuous relationship with honesty, perhaps together we can now we can together perhaps honesty, with relationship our tempestuous and knowing man, this problem. and solve forward to move better way find a 1 3/16/2006. cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2006/03/08/plagerism-software060308.html> 2

aegis 2006 8 editors At the Intersection of theSciences At theIntersection of with An Dr.Interview Lightman: Alan is thistrendof everything happeningfaster and fasterthere beingmoreand the qualityoflife; it’s reallyinhowthetechnology isused. What Iamverydisturbed about to beusedthoughtfully, andwe can’t justassume thateverybitofnewtechnology improves us.” Ihavenooppositionatall totechnology. Ithinktechnologyisawonderfulthingthathas was therailroad,andhemade thecommentthat“wedonotriderailroad,railroad rides was movingtoofast,andgetting toocomplex.Inhisday, thegreatesttechnologicaladvance ry David Thoreau, oneofhisfamousmottoswas“simplify, simplify.” Hefeltthattheworld theme atearliertimes,themost prominentinfluence onmeisHenryDavid Thoreau, andHen LIGHTMAN: Ithinkmyentirelifehasmoldedthatperspective. Writers whoechoedthis you themost? How didyoucometothisperspective?Whatwriters,scientists, andphilosophersinfl ern life,thattheabundanceoftechnologyandinformation hasoverwhelmedthehumanspirit. AEGIS: ferent waysoflookingattheworld. races onerace. There isaculturaldiversitythat’s veryvaluable,andit’s valuabletohavedif we wouldlosesomethingthesamewayasiftriedtomake allreligionsonereligionor tant differences whichshouldbepreserved,andin tryingtodoawaywiththosedifferences world, andthehumanisticwayoflookingatworldarecomplementary humanistic worldviewintoasingleworldview. Ithinkthatthescientific wayoflookingatthe is onlyoneworldview, and wereallyhavetotrydistillcompressthescientific and but Idon’t thinkthatweshouldtrytohomogenizetheseworldviews,andsaytherereally sciences canlearnfromthehumanities. And, weshould havemoredialoguebetweenthem, to sayeachother, andsoIbelievethatthehumanitiescanlearnfromsciences, LIGHTMAN: Ithinkthatthetwosubjectsandwholeworldviewtheyrepresenthavealot the disconnectionbetweenthesetwosubjects? creative onesintheright-brain.Beingbothaphysicistandcreative writer, doyoulament part, perhaps, becauseoftheevidencethatmathematicalprocesses occurintheleft-brain and AEGIS: asked Dr. Lightmanabouttheconnectionbetweensciencesandhumanities. ing thecentennialof Albert Einstein’s publicationoftheSpecial Theory ofRelativity. We who cametoOtterbeinCollegeaspartofthe2005“BigBangBoom”lectureseriescelebrat Aegis Humanities and waspresentedwiththegreatopportunitytositdownandtalkDr A themethatseemstoberecurrent inyourwritingsisasenseofalienationfrom mod Western civilizationhasdrawnalinebetweenthesciencesandhumanities,in Michelle Michelle Yost andJ. T. Craig . There areimpor . Alan Lightman, uenced - - - - -

lightman 9 aegis 2006 - - - - t know ex t, so you need ection on who we are, and we are, and on who ection Origins: The Lives and Worlds Worlds and Lives The Origins: t have science without humani , the science sections of various newspapers and maga , the science sections of various newspapers Nova , you were again looking for the humanistic reasons behind scientists’ behind scientists’ again looking for the humanistic reasons , you were ; you just need a large variety of that in many different forms, because in many different variety of that ; you just need a large Discover In your investigation with Jon Miller, “Contemporary Cosmological Beliefs,” you In your investigation with Jon Miller, Regarding your essay, “In God’s Place,” you closed by stating, “All of it, all the “All of it, all the you closed by stating, Place,” “In God’s essay, your Regarding In the interviews you and Roberta Shaw conducted for conducted Shaw Roberta and you interviews the In too much. Programs on PBS, like zines, like some of those magazines and programs will reach some people and some won’ variety of people. variety to reach a large a large AEGIS: of Modern Cosmologists actly what the system is of teacher certification right now, but I know that in the past that you right now, actly what the system is of teacher certification is where people start forming most of their beliefs, could go to many high schools — which teachers teaching biology that had not majored in sometimes for life — and you could find care needs to be exercised in determining which teachers can And so, more biology in college: to that, we just need to continue having more and teach what subjects. But I think, in addition but you can never have a lot now, of science, there’s more popular (good popular) expositions as only 37% recognizing that the sun will burn out). Your attempt was to find out why people out). Your that the sun will burn as only 37% recognizing beliefs and education. religious to age, gender, held these beliefs about science, with regard is not knowledge? Do you feel there appear to be such a lack of scientific Why does there the next generation about how our universe works? enough being done in schools to educate need to know that the universe is not static? history teacher or phlebotomist Does a future education needs to be improved. I don’ LIGHTMAN: I think certainly that science manities also help tell us how to live in the world and you can’ manities also help tell us how to live in and we have to function as human beings in a society and not just live in a society, We ties. the laws of nature. intellectual automatons trying to discover AEGIS: Americans (such lack of cosmological understanding among is a fundamental found that there to get there. It’s a way of thinking and it’s an intellectual curiosity, a desire to know how the a desire to know how an intellectual curiosity, of thinking and it’s a way to get there. It’s of the world are, and to know our know what the fundamental principles world works, and to is the age of the universe,” or we stop asking questions like “what place in it. I think once level,” once we stop asking carried out on a microscopic of DNA “how are the instructions as science; a need for the humanities as well There is always we’re dead. questions like that, our art where That’s right. humanities are important in their own The almost a tautology. it’s truth and expressing ourselves, but the hu comes from, which is another way of exploring stopped.” Are you trying to say that science has no limits and will one day destroy us? Do one day destroy has no limits and will to say that science you trying Are stopped.” can science? If so, how to be placed on needs humanistic influence that a greater you believe objective? science remain by What I meant day. science will necessarily destroy us one think that LIGHTMAN: I don’t the journey not the destination, it’s it’s and to me, an intellectual journey, that is that science is more general noise in the world, and less and less time for quiet refl for quiet less time less and world, and in the general noise more we’re going. where AEGIS: in one house. live together and dread, creation of liberation and imprisonment, centuries we cannot be opening the doors; we will keep disturb us. Yet new door opened will And each

aegis 2006 10 lightman your creative writingallowyoutolendahumanisticpurposethesciencestudy? think thattheuniversehasapurpose?Ordoeshumanityneedtofi beliefs andinvestigations.RobertDickewasaskedif“theuniversehasapurpose?”Doyou classroom? Shouldscientistskeep lookingforanswers,oratsome pointwilltheysimplyhave point doesscience becomephilosophy, anddoes ithaveanyplaceinaninvestigative science evidence forarandomuniverse, whileothersseeitasacasefor“intelligentdesign.” of universecouldlifeariseat anypoint,adichotomyseemstobepr AEGIS: living mylife. turn themaroundinmymind, whileI’mwriting,andthathelpsmedecidehowIshould be I thinkaboutideas,andeveninmynovels,thereare andItrytoexplorethoseideas writing isoneofthewaysthatItrytoanswerthisquestion, “whatisthemeaningofmylife?” actually discoveringinthewritingprocess,you’re creatingknowledge. but inwriting,you’renotsimplyputtingdownthingsthat are alreadyknowntoyou. LIGHTMAN: Mywritingsareanexploration,andIthink a lotofwriterswouldtellyouthis, AEGIS: end ofmylifeIwillfeelthatitwasaworthwhilelife.” but eachofuscouldaskhimorherselfthatquestion,“how shouldIlivemylifesothatatthe does haveapurpose.Eachofushaspurpose,andthepurposecouldevenchangeintime, and sinceIdon’t feelthattheuniverseasawholehaspurpose,thisisnextthing I needtohavedoneinmylife,butme,that’s closely relatedtowhat’s themeaningoflife, I willfeellikeI’velivedagoodlife.It’s reallyonly asmallnumberofthingsthatIfeellike my deathbed.Ithinktomyself,howshouldlivelifenow, sothatwhenIonmydeathbed and so,sometimeswhatIdoisplaythisimaginaryexperiment,imaginethatI’mon to makeitasatisfyinglife? When Iamonmydeathbed,wanttofeel thatIhavelivedlife, I askmyselfthatquestionallthetime,andmyself,whatshouldbedoingwithmylife to havemoretimefor. What themeaningoflifeisforme,maynotbewhatityou,but, life?” That’s thekindofself-reflection thatI’mtalkingabout,anexampleofit weneed ask themselvesthisquestion,“Whatisthemeaningoflife? And whatisthemeaningofmy person hastoanswerthatquestionintheirownway. Idothinkthatit’s importantthatpeople is themeaningoflife?” You asksomebodywhatisthemeaning oflife,andIthinkthateach purpose, butIbelievethatindividualpeoplehaveapurpose.It’ LIGHTMAN: Iwouldhavetosaythatdonotbelievetheuniverseasawholehas AEGIS: purpose? interesting question.So,areyouaskingmeasanindividualwhetherIthinktheuniversehasa entific experimentyoucoulddothatwouldanswerquestion—althoughit’ and soIcannotanswerthatasascientistbecauseit’s notascientific question. There isnosci LIGHTMAN: The question of whethertheuniversehasapurposeisnotscientific question, For thosewhobelieveinthe strong Anthropic Principle,thatonlyina“special” kind How doyourwritingsplayintothis? Yes. s thesamequestionsas“what nd itsownpurpose?Does esented. Someseethisas s anextremely And so,my You’re At what -

lightman 11 aegis 2006 - , - nd was an Einstein’s Dreams Einstein’s was a finalist for the 2000 National Book Award in in Award was a finalist for the 2000 National Book The Diagnosis So that principle (the strong Anthropic principle) is not a testable principle? principle) is not a testable principle? Anthropic strong So that principle (the Something philosophers are very obsessed with. very obsessed philosophers are Something international bestseller, and international bestseller, accretion disks, gravitational theory, Lightman focuses his studies on fiction. In physics, Dr. stellar dynamics and relativistic plasmas. that we can’t test it now and may not be able to test it for a long time, but I think that there test it now and may not that we can’t and all the sciences, where we will be trying to fi will always be new frontiers of science, allow us to sit on our hands and not ask think that the human spirit would answers. I just don’t questions. Adjunct Professor of Alan Lightman is both a writer and a physicist and is currently an Dr. His book, Technology. of Humanities at the Massachusetts Institute would get cold too quickly. Or if the speed of light was very different, maybe atoms would Or if the speed of light was very different, would get cold too quickly. systems with lots of atoms before you could start forming organized collapse immediately, question is answerable. But the question of molecules and so on. I think that that and organic kinds of universes independent of the question of life whether there could be lots of different keep looking for answers. I mentioned should We to answer. is something that is very difficult very far out on the edge of science in the sense that string theory is an example of something LIGHTMAN: I think you can’t test it. I think that what is testable, I think that you could by test it. I think that what is testable, I you can’t LIGHTMAN: I think kinds or not life could evolve in other and mostly theoretical work, show whether scientific, before you had time to form the the universe expanded and collapsed of universes. Like if would have any bearing to what hard to imagine any life forming that stars then it would be life requires a central source of life. Because, everything we know about we understand to be things if the universe expanded too rapidly, which a star provides. On the other hand, energy LIGHTMAN: Right. It was Leibniz who said that “this is the best of all possible worlds.” Or all possible worlds.” “this is the best of who said that Right. It was Leibniz LIGHTMAN: that I think…it may not be a scien be lots of other universes is something whether there could that question. to do any experiments that could answer may not be able We tific question. AEGIS: to throw their hands up and admit the universe is beyond human comprehension? comprehension? beyond human is the universe up and admit hands their to throw possible uni live in is the only this universe that we question of whether The LIGHTMAN: we could exist. verse in which AEGIS:

aegis 2006 12 lightman Liberalization of Socrates’ PoliticalLiberalization of Richard Kraut’s of An Examination is presentinthe politicalphilosophyofthe Socratic jurisprudence. Kraut’s interpretation allowsformuchmoredisobedience thanIthink reality thereis a strongerargument for“ final analysis,Ihopetoshowthat whilethereissomeroomfordisobedienceinthe dependent uponhowoneinterprets thepoliticalphilosophyof other interpretationsofwhySocrates drankthehemlock,andhowtheseinterpretations are laws ofthestate,evenifthey causedonetosuffer injustice.Second,Iwillalsodiscusssome tation ofthe the interpretationstomakethemstandup.Inshort,Idisagree withKraut’ attempts tomakethe principle ofjustagreements,andhisinterpretationtheparent/city analogy–areinteresting pretations ofmanythekeyissuesinCrito–namely, thepersuade-or-obey doctrine,the wrong, Iwantinthisessaytodotwothings:First,intend toshowthatwhileKraut’ Crito one thatIbelievefails,anddoesnotfit withthepoliticalphilosophysetoutbySocratesin escape, whilestillallowingforcitizenstodisobeyanunjust orderorlaw Kraut attemptstointerpretthe no roomforanydisobediencetolawsorordersarewrong in theirinterpretationofthe however, thatthe“conservative” commentators(likeGroteand Woozley) wholeavelittleor Apology their verynature,toconcludethatoneowesmoreobediencethestatethanissetoutin him toaccepttheoffer fromhisfriendstoescapejail.Partsofthis argument seem,by guilty verdict(thepunishmentisdeath),Socrates’ argument thatitwould beunjustfor was notadvocatingtotalsubmissiontothelawsofstate. The towards thelaw, andhis reasonsforshowcasingthem,wouldleadonetoassumethatSocrates injustice, and(c)heiswillingtodisobeyanunjustlaworcommand. (a) hehasanextra-legalcode,(b)thecodedoesnotallowhimtocommitactsof of the Thirty Tyrants ( which surpasstheordersoflaw, e.g.,notgoingtocaptureLeontheSalaminianatbehest some partsofthe trast withthe the lawshavetreatedhimunjustly. This presentsaproblem,asitseemstobeinstarkcon of writingthatleaveslittle(orno)roomfordisobedienceonthepartcitizenwhofeels commentators andearlytranslators(suchasGrote that hethinkswillallowittofit betterwith itscounterpart,the Philosophy . , especiallyinthespeechgivenbypersonified Lawsof Athens. Krautbelieves, In lightofmyviewthatKraut’s liberalizationofSocrates’ politicalphilosophyis In hisbook Crito Apology, J. T. Craig Apology . IintendtoshowthatSocrates placedastrongemphasisonobeyingthe Socrates andtheState Crito Apology Plato’s versionofSocrates’ defenseargument athistrial. inwhichSocratesseemstobeadvocatinghighermoralprinciples fitwiththe , 32c-e).SocratesusestheLeonstoryasawaytoshowthat Crito inaliberalwaythatjustifies Socrates’ arguments against Apology just” , RichardKrautinterpretsPlato’s Crito obediencerather thanforKraut’s conception of , therearesimplytoomanyproblemswith . 1 ) haveinterpretedthe Apology Crito, Crito These actsofdefiance setafterthetrialand . Traditionally, most and . This liberalizationis Crito s liberalinterpre Apology Crito tobeapiece 2 There are inaway Crito, s inter . Inthe Crito - in - - .

craig 13 aegis 2006 t . - - - - fer Here is Kraut’s first Here is Kraut’s 4 It is my contention, 5 the principle of just agree the principle one must do the things one agrees upon the things one agrees one must do That, however, is not necessary for our purposes. What I for our purposes. is not necessary That, however, 3 . Kraut attempts to show that Socrates would be violating this Socrates would be to show that . Kraut attempts Of course, agreements can be broken justifiably when new information Of course, agreements can be broken justifiably of chess with Jones, and he comes to light: if I agree to play three games the game, I can legitimately break off keeps trying to cheat during the first of unjust treatment. For I didn’ match, rather than continue to be the victim (36) consent to play under those conditions. Suppose a club I belong to is deciding where to hold its meetings next year Suppose a club I belong to is deciding this is an unfair choice, since it Site X is the leading candidate, but I think else. Nonetheless, I voluntarily agree makes me travel far more than anyone Having made this agreement, to go along with this, and voice no objections. on the grounds that the rule I agreed to is unfair break it I cannot justifiably that still does not is over, to me…If I change my mind after the meeting give me a reason to break the rule. (35-36) …when someone freely makes an agreement, realizing that it calls upon makes an agreement, realizing that …when someone freely at a he has no right to go back on his word an injustice, then him to suffer (35) comes time to honor his commitment. later point, when it Early on in his argument Kraut lays out his conception of lays out his conception Kraut his argument Early on in which is agreed upon by Socrates and Crito: upon by Socrates which is agreed A) Chess Game and the Club The Private Arguments against Kraut against Arguments

It is apparent that Kraut views Socrates’ plight as analogous to the club example, and not the It is apparent that Kraut views Socrates’ then chess partner is cheating somehow, chess case. For instance, if one discovers that one’s a problem when used to un This seems to present the playing arrangement. one can break off Socrates indeed, that, seem would it analogy, club the at looks one If plight. Socrates’ derstand Athenian law. has always tacitly agreed to the rules and regulations of to the chess example. If the conditions for plight is more analogous that Socrates’ however, This is Kraut’s example of how it is wrong for someone to back out of an agreement that has been been has that agreement an of out back to someone for wrong is agree it the how of break example justifiably Kraut’s cannot is one This that argues Kraut etc. rushed, agreement. coerced, the not to up e.g., leading made, justly process the in participated new knowingly when and and if actively had agreement one if one’s ment break justifiably may one that game: believe chess however, hypothetical a does, Kraut invokes Kraut point, this make To light. to comes information It is Kraut’s goal here to show how this principle of just agreements is not one that lends show how this principle of just agreements goal here to It is Kraut’s reading. itself to an authoritarian his footnotes. on are two examples Kraut lays out in would like to focus example: making a just agreement to accept the court’s verdict of death, regardless of whether the men of whether the men of death, regardless verdict the court’s just agreement to accept making a he (Socrates) is suf or whether or not of just motivations, him are doing so out convicting states: ing an injustice. Kraut 1. ments just if they are with another, system, he is Athenian legal of the by his tacit acceptance escaping, and that principle by

aegis 2006 14 craig non-biased trial,areasonableverdictbasedonthecrimeaccusedof,etc.)thenperhaps ment couldbemadethatSocrateswasindeedwronged. breaking one’s agreementinclude“newinformation”comingtolight,thenperhapsanargu jury ofone’s innocence,todisobeyan unjustverdict(69): far asthepersonifiedLawsareconcerned,oneneed onlybe“right,”andattempttopersuadea creates theabilityforacitizen todisobey, andnotbeacting unjustly. that bothofthesereadingsarewrong.Heseesthepersuade-or-obey doctrineasathat no meaning,asitisalreadytoolate,andone’s abilitytopersuadehaspassed. assembly of Athens, notthecourts.Ifthisiscase,thenattempting topersuadeatatrialhas comes fromGrote,whoargues thattheattemptto persuademustcomethroughappealtothe to disobeyifoneisconvictedorpunishedunjustly. Oneexampleofaconservativereading tive readingofthisdoctrinewouldgivelittleornoleeway foronetodisobeyinadvance,or the state whenalawhasbeenbroken. prudence. The persuade-or-obey doctrineissetouttoexplainthecitizen’s obligationtothe whether ornotSocrateswas“right”todrinkthehemlockissomethingIwillreturnlater ity thatSocrateswastrulywrongedorcheatedintodrinkingthehemlock. particular case. a consequenceofapplyingKraut’s readingoftheprinciplejustagreementstoSocrates’ be justifiedinmakinghisescape.SocratesortheLawsdon’t statethis view;thisseemstobe have alreadyinfluenced. The gamewasrigged,andso,itwouldseem to followthathewould one’s accuseroraccusersareonthejury, andsettingoutthecasetootherswhomtheymay trial reliesupontheaccuser’s motivations,especiallyinthe Athenian courtsystem,where intentions, thenthereisnorealdestructioninescaping,forhispart.Itwouldseemthatafair dards, ortheprincipleofjustagreements. And so,iftherewerealreadybiasesandmalevolent tempted topersuadethejuryofhisinnocence,therebynotviolatingextra-legalmoralstan to Socratesthatheplayedbytherulesofstate;wenttrial, matter greatly, becausetheirmotivationsimplysomekindofcheating.Iwouldhaveargued wasn’t, itchangeseverything. The motivationsofthoseinvolvedinbringinghimtotrialthen chess exampleandSocratesthoughtthatthetrialitselfwasgoingtobefair tions don’t matter, becauseeverythingwasdecidedfairly. If,ontheotherhand, itislikethe because oftheexamplesKrautsetsout.IfSocrates’ situationisliketheclub,then themotiva part, wrongednotbyus,theLaws,butmen”( factor inhisdecisiontodrinkthehemlock. The Lawsstate:“Asitis,youdepart,ifde motivations ofthosewhooriginallybroughthimtotrialshouldhaveplayedmuchmorea Crito The persuade-or-obey doctrineiscentraltoKraut’s liberalconception ofSocraticjuris Kraut’s argumentthatallone needstodois B) It wouldseemthatifSocrateswasagreeingtotherulesofgame(inthiscasea tomean“onemaydisobey, aslongonepersuades” (Kraut,60).Theconserva one’s innocencefor onetohavefulfilledthepersuade-or-obey obligation 6 Myconcernisthat,asidefromthelarger politicaltheory, thereisapossibil fails in his efforts to show this to the jury, he has done no wrong. (68) to accept or risk, then he cannot rightly disobey it… but if he was right yet only if that order is in fact unjust. If the order does him an injustice he agreed A citizen will be justified in violating an order issued to him by his parent city

Kraut takesthepersuade-or-obey doctrineaslaidoutin Crito , 54c). This ideaofmotivationsmatters try topersuadethelegalbodyof 8 fered adefense,andat Heevenstatesthat,as This questionof , butinrealityit 7 Krautbelieves - - . ------

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- - Athe actually Athens to apply guilty. However, what of those who However, guilty. then one may justifiably continue to continue then one may justifiably 9 , actually was truly in the right They [the Laws] must mean that if a citizen has violated an unjust order and They [the Laws] must mean that if a citizen because it is unpersuadable, then if he has failed to persuade the jury only turn to the other alternative, and he has already done enough; he need not (74) obey the law. So it would be an error to think that the Laws must always have the same always have the that the Laws must be an error to think So it would observers of the they are ideal Rather, the city and its citizens. opinions as of law which no with a philosophy legal scene, equipped Athenian appor They may therefore ever have held. than Socrates, need nian, other that depart by means of standards and perceptions tion praise and blame (66) contemporaries. from those of their flesh-and-blood As seen in the passage above, Kraut’s conception of the persuade-or-obey doctrine conception of the persuade-or-obey As seen in the passage above, Kraut’s convicted. This is fine because these people were This is fine because these convicted. state or jury to know that the person is truly innocent? are innocent but convicted? How is the This seems to allow for misuse of interpretation would come into play. This is when Kraut’s version is correct, There would have to be a percentage of people who, if Kraut’s the system. are continue to state their innocence, and “rightness,” in the face of the verdict that These people then could say that they are disobeying the orders of the state because guilty. justify people they attempted to persuade and failed, but were “right.” In essence, this could disobey. but that those who do attempt, to persuade must obey, allows that people who do not attempt The problem with this is in distinguishing defy the state. and are “right,” can then justifiably where people Athens—cases clean cut cases in the “right.” I imagine that there were many to persuade a jury to their innocence, and were had obviously committed a wrong, attempted It would seem as though to Kraut “persuade-or-obey” becomes only: persuade if you disobey, becomes only: persuade if you disobey, It would seem as though to Kraut “persuade-or-obey” if that persuasion fails, and one situations under it. The whole chapter is filled with “what ifs” regarding people’s obligations obligations with “what ifs” regarding people’s is filled The whole chapter situations under it. It seems unclear to me how much of under the “Law” when following persuade-or-obey. were passed that violated some I highly doubt that if a law this theory would actually apply. they would not be forced to submit. moral code that after their attempt to persuade person’s This is shown when Kraut asserts: hurt his interpretation of the Laws because democratic Athens did have institutions where Athens did of the Laws because democratic hurt his interpretation doctrine. I the persuade-or-obey innocence, thus fulfilling a jury of one’s one could persuade implications of his interpretation Kraut is tactfully avoiding the real-life disagree. I think that Socrates, then about If Kraut were just arguing legal philosophy. Law’s and application of the focusing on the As it is though, Kraut is not just is fair and correct. I believe his interpretation opportunities in he is attempting to show that there were hypothetical Laws; hypothetical from the stance of other people’s doctrine, and he argues the persuade-or-obey Kraut believes that while this distinction exists (between real and ideal laws), it does not while this distinction exists (between real Kraut believes that There are a few things with his argumentation that I think are suspect. First, Kraut has earlier Kraut has First, are suspect. I think that his argumentation things with are a few There and moral real laws of a mixture and therefore, laws, ideal Socratic Laws are that the asserted that Socrates embodies: and philosophy ideals of justice

aegis 2006 16 craig obedience inhisinterpretation,willingandnon-willingobedience.SupposeSmithcommits must leavemoreemphasison“obedience”’ ifitistobeconstruedasarealisticsituation. becoming fugitives.Krautassumestoomuchhere,andthisreadingthatheappliestothetext for repealofsome lawthattheyconsiderto be unjust,but,ifthatpersuasion fails,regardless accept amore literal readingofthedoctrine. Janehastheabilitytopersuade ajury interpretation ofpersuade-or-obey appliesto Athenian lawingeneraliswrong,andwemust the rightconnectionsandfinances. Ifthisisthecase, thenKraut’s argument thattheliberal application ofKraut’s liberalinterpretation wouldbetoughtopulloff if onedidnothave nities topersuade-or-obey builtintothe Athenian legalsystem,butitappears asthoughthe sophical ideallookonlytotruly applytothecaseofSocrates;theremayhavebeenopportu spend someseriousmoneyto bribeofficials? Inthe end,theLawsthatarehighphilo would oneescapethecourt? What ifonedidn’t havefriendslikeCritoandPlatowillingto are toomanyvariablesinvolvedforonetocommenceindisobeying anunjustverdict.How That wouldappeartomebetherealityofsituationwhen oneisinacourtroom. Someone mightmakeacase,fail,andbeforcedtosubmit: tosuf common Athenians, Socrates, whoseconceptionsandpracticeofjusticewere somekindofhigherstandardthan fort (tome,atleast)thatImadeajailorforcethehemlock down mythroat,whileIlaydying. eyes ofthestatetheyareguilty, andwillbesubmittingtothestate.Itwouldseemacoldcom a persontoknowthathe/shehasliveduptheirmoralstandards, butthesituationisthatin person, regardlessofbeing“right”isthenforcedtosubmit.Perhapsitsomecomfort In moderntimesapersoncanappealtheircase,andiftheseattemptsatpersuasionfail,that the state. This wouldbeakindofdisobedience.However, whatisthestate’s viewofthis? sentence totheend.Inthissense,perhapsoneisfulfilling apersonalmoralbelief,anddefying might believethathe/sheisinthe“right,”andthenattempttoarrangeescape,ordefy dies. willingly abiding by the death sentence. Smith might be personally disobedient, but Smith still it comestolegalrulings,andthisisthesamething(ithasconsequence)asSmith matters inthepersuade-or-obey doctrine. The realityisforcedsubmissiontothestatewhen the lastbreath,victor, intheend,wasstate. To myconception,itistheendresultthat entire life. And, regardlessofthe“victory”Smith’s willthatmaybeshownbyfighting to retically beentacitlyandexplicitlyconsentingtothelegalsystemitsramifi the punishment,liveuptohis/heridealofnotsubmittinganinjustice,but,Smithhastheo down Smith’s throat.IsupposethiscouldmeanthatSmithdid,eventhoughforcedtoaccept (submission). PerhapsSmithfightsthehemlock,strugglingtolivewhileallofitisforced larger politicaltheorycontextofthe to disobeyit.So,thequestionbecomesoneofwhetherornotthereisadif likelihood, Smithwillbeforcedtosubmitthecourt’s decisionunlessSmithhasthemeans obligation ofthepersuade-or-obey doctrine,canjustifiably disobeythisruling;however, inall fails, andiscondemnedtodeath. According toKraut’s argument, Smith,havingfulfilled his truly innocentofthecharges, andsoattemptstopersuadethejuryofthis innocence.Smith a crimeintheeyesofstate,isaccused,andgiventrial.Smiththiscasehappenstobe My worryisthatKraut’s conception,whileperhapsperfectlyfine inapplyingto Kraut believesthatthiswouldnotbethecase.Inmyview, ahypothetical Athenian IsupposeitcouldbeshownthatKrautisarguing foroneoftwopossibleforms 10 isnottrulyapplicabletoalarge percentageoftherestpopulation. Crito ) betweenwillingobedienceandforced fer deathorimprisonment. ference (inthe cations his/her , ortoargue There - - - -

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that Kraut must interpret to support must interpret to support that Kraut Crito ; here is Kraut’s cleanest summary of the doctrine: cleanest ; here is Kraut’s Crito ment and the desirability of maintaining continuity…(Robbins, 87) “Best interests of the child” means the sum total of the following factors to “Best interests of the child” means the by the court: be considered, evaluated, and determined (a) com and other emotional ties existing between the The love, affection, peting parties and the child. (b) The capacity and disposition of competing parties to give the child of the educating and raising and guidance and continuation love, affection, of the child in its religion or creed, if any… (c) The length of time the child has lived in a stable, satisfactory environ [If] state X has given person Y, during his childhood, at least as many during his Y, person [If] state X has given as an adult, no serious has, Y if and Y, should give benefits as a good parent its to contribute to Y against X, then when X asks and legitimate complaint (145) comply or explain to X why he will not. must Y well-being, One of the most important parts of the most important parts One of the The passage quoted above lays out a conception of parental obligation that focuses on well- The passage quoted above lays out a conception of parental obligation that focuses to a parent do being. Education, love, and a satisfactory environment are all key components amount of obedience even into adulthood. And this obedience, to Kraut, consists in respect amount of obedience even into adulthood. that is in This conception of parent-child obligations is one doctrine. ing the persuade-or-obey between adult children and their parents. Kraut line with our modern conception of obligation analogy by stressing a less conservative reading of is attempting to liberalize the parent/city conception of modern obligations and how they might better understand Kraut’s To the Laws. look at a brief sampling of some of the modern legal apply to the parent/city analogy let’s ruled in a court of law): obligations that a parent has to a child (as depending upon the benefits conferred on them, and the way in which they were treated dur depending upon the benefits a dumpster at birth, and then reappear leave a child in parent couldn’t A ing their upbringing. (above and beyond the extent that benefits To eighteen years later demanding to be obeyed. upon children, there is a correlation in the amount of mere biological existence) are bestowed parents have done If a set of one chooses to disobey. parents when explanation one owes one’s owe a certain even into adulthood, then one may everything right, and give their child benefits Kraut disagrees with some of the Laws’ statements about the extent of a child’s obligation to extent of a child’s statements about the some of the Laws’ Kraut disagrees with between parents and children. a modern view of debt and obligation its parents. He promotes adult children, have obligations to their parents Kraut believes that children, in particular his liberalization of Socrates’ political philosophy is the part of the Laws’ speech that further speech that further part of the Laws’ philosophy is the political of Socrates’ his liberalization parents, one’s one has to analogous to the obligations doctrine as persuade-or-obey defines the are many references to the parent/city There parent city. one has to one’s and the obligations analogy within the of Jane’s beliefs of the “rightness” of her actions, Jane will be forced to submit to the ruling of to the ruling to submit be forced Jane will actions, of her “rightness” of the beliefs of Jane’s is the the consequence Either way, the state. ruling of obey the willingly she will or, the state, same. analogy with the parent/city The problems C.

aegis 2006 18 craig they arewrong,orexplainingtothemwhyhavebeendisobeyed. that childmust,uponadulthood,givehis/herparentstherespectofpersuadingthemwhen Namely, ifparentshaveprovidedthesethingstotheirchild,andraisedhim/herproperly, then ing agoodjobofraisingchild.Krautisarguing somethingsimilarintheparent/cityanalogy. slave/master modelisindeed representative ofhowtheLawsviewone’ between acitizenandthestate issimilartothatoftheonebetweenslaveandmaster and master. Krautneedstohaveasolid answertothispassage’s claim thattherelationship This passageseemstoexplicitly statethattherelationshipoftocitizenislikeslave that equatestherelationshipofachildtohis/herparentsas onetoslaveandmaster: persuade-or-obey, yet,itexistsinthe text.Evenfurtherthanthis,theLawsgiveanargument anything likethisbecauseitisthebeginningofanargument foraveryconservativeviewof child tobearviolenceagainsthis/herparentsnomatterwhat thesituation.Krautcannotadmit impious tobringviolencebearagainstyourmotherorfather.” Itwas, infact, time inlifewasconstruedasoneoftheworstactsimpiety, asseenat clear tomethatthiswasnotthecaseinSocrates’ time.Harmtowardsone’s parentsatany against them.Iftheyattackhim,hestillhasarighttoself-defense”(Kraut,144).Itseems bringing uptheirchild,itdoesnotfollowthatthechildmustneverintentionallyuseviolence has arighttoself-defenseifitsparentsareattemptingviolence:“Ifdogoodjobof analogy isthathebelievesregardlessofthebenefits conferreduponachildthatthe obey doctrine. an adult and ayoungchild, which istooauthoritarian, and leaves no roomforthepersuade-or- to justice,andsavetheparent/cityanalogyfrombeinginterpretedasrelationshipbetween parents. This readingwillallowforapersontohavetherightattemptpersuadecourtas cally therelationshipbetweencitizenandstateislikethatofayoungadult,notchild,toits that thereisanytextualevidenceforthisinterpretation. state isanalogoustotherelationshipbetweenanadultandhis/herparents.Idonotbelieve the speechofLaws.IfKrautiscorrect,thenrelationshipbetweenacitizenand actually wasisimportantbecauseitabarometerbywhichtogaugeone’ Greece was anywhere near this liberal. How liberal the Greek attitude towards raising children tions) thereisnoreasontoacceptthattherelationshipbetweenparentsandchildreninancient Kraut’s arguments arereasonableinmodern America (andinmostmodernindustrializedna tive viewoftherelationshipbetweencitizenandstate. tive viewoftheobligationsthataparentowestoitschild,andconsequently Laws condoneanythinglikethisintheirspeech,oriftheinsteadhaveamoreconserva One ofthewaysinwhichKrauthasamoreliberalinterpretationparent/city There areproblemswithKraut’s conceptionoftheparent/cityanalogy. First,while regards the right… ( for you to do to us? You were not on an equal footing with your father as equal footing as regards the right, and that whatever we do to you it is right both you and your forefathers? If that is so, do you think that we are on an …could you, in the first place, deny that you are our offspring and servant, Crito , 50d-51) 11 Iintendtoshowthatmostrealisti We mustalsoseeifthe s obligationtothepar Crito s interpretationof , amoreconserva 51c:“Itis illegal . Ifthe fora - - - - -

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------alone However, However, gue that one 12 . This is where my interpreta . …violence can justifiably be undertaken by the superior party against the the against party superior the by undertaken be justifiably can …violence against inferior the by done when justified be never can it though inferior, the that suggest or assert never Laws) (the they particular, in superior… the ought cities authority the for model fitting a is slaves over masters of authority (Kraut,107) citizens. over have to Viewing the Laws’ speech like this, one can begin to see more weak points in Kraut’s in Kraut’s speech like this, one can begin to see more weak points the Laws’ Viewing While the Laws may not be explicitly stating that the slave/master relationship is the explicitly stating that the slave/master While the Laws may not be can never disobey the state. My claim is that the relationship between the citizen and the state can never disobey the state. My claim is par There is more opportunity to persuade one’s to his/her parents. is like that of a near-adult As far as the state is concerned, the ents at this age, because one has reached an age of reason. It is not the same as the relationship between an adult citizen remains in this state perpetually. vital things in and his/her parents. It is because the state will and must perpetually provide the life that the citizen now owes more allegiance to the state than to his/her parents. that the this does not mean that the ability to persuade the state has disappeared. It is obvious tion of the analogy is very different both from Kraut, and from those who would assume that tion of the analogy is very different is like that of a young child and its parents. Kraut the relationship between citizen and state parents, just as one must per to pay respect to one’s wants to show that as an adult, one has disobey within the con This would allow for much more freedom to the city. suade-or-obey The ultra-conservative reading would take the slave/mas text of the citizen/state relationship. a child has with his/her parents, and ar ter example, and the lack of authority that then at some point, as with a parental relationship, the benefits (the major ones: food, clothing, (the the benefits then at some point, as with a parental relationship, state. In that particu This is not the case between a citizen and the etc.) must cease. shelter, vital services to the citizen, and the citizen lar relationship, the state will always provide of the state. It is the moment that this relationship will therefore be obliged to obey the laws the vital services necessary to life, that revolutions changes, and the state no longer provides fact This were no vital services provided. Indeed, there would be no state if there occur. as the superior entity obliges the citizen to always view the state modeled somewhat after the slave/master relationship then a totally tyrannical government modeled somewhat after the slave/master to be pointing out the fact that in most ways would ensue. Indeed, the Laws seem merely in wards of the state, not only They are, in effect, all citizens are dependent upon the state. but throughout adulthood. infancy, is like that of an adult child to his/her parents, interpretation. If the citizen/state relationship been too charitable with his interpretation. been too charitable between citizen and state can be style, it appears clear that the relationship ideal governmental In the passage quoted directly the slave/master dynamic in many ways. seen as modeled after does a citizen have an obligation that the Laws believe that not only above, it seems explicit forefathers were also in this but that those citizens’ to his/her master, to the city like a slave that if the relationship between citizen and state is position. It is not necessary to conclude This liberal reading allows Kraut to save the parent/city analogy from an authoritarian read allows Kraut to save the parent/city analogy This liberal reading and that in this case, Kraut has believe that the text explicitly states otherwise, I ing; however, ent city, then Kraut’s interpretation fails. Kraut’s response is to read the passage so that the list so that the passage read the is to response fails. Kraut’s interpretation Kraut’s then ent city, the balance in an asymmetry proving is merely by the Laws given relationships of subordinate its citizens: the state and of power between

aegis 2006 20 craig sion is there, avoiding the totalitarian state that a true master/slave government style would be. Laws allowforacitizentohavehisdayincourtnomatterwhat,andso,theoptionpersua that ofGrote,suggestsno disobedienceisallowed: individuals frommostfalseorincorrectallegations. The moreconservativecommentary, like opportunity topersuadethestateismorethanenough(especially inancienttimes)toprotect to atyrannythattruemaster/slaverelationshipwouldimply. Ibelievethatmerelyhavingthe allows forunderstandingofinvoluntaryorignorantdisobedience, andso,isnothingatallakin and summarilypunishconvictpeoplewithoutanopportunity toar suade,” Imeanthatacitizenhastherighttotrialand thestatewouldnotjustarbitrarily amount tothesamething. The abilitytoattemptpersuadestillexists.By“attemptper submission andwillingobediencehavethesameconsequence, andso,intheeyesofLaws example wouldbethosewhowillinglysubmittothe ruling.Inmyconception,forced or money, onewouldmostlikelybeforcedtosubmitthepenalty. Along withthiskindof continue todisobey, fulfillingsomekindofextralegalstand,butthat,withouttheconnections persuade acourt,butthatthepersuasionmustsucceed.Iffails,thenonecould the citizen’s obligationtoobey. Letmemakeitclearthatacitizenwouldstillhavetherightto obey thestate. And thestatewouldfulfill itsrighttoforcesubmissiononthecitizen,as it is feeling thatoneisbeingwronged,wouldbeaviolationofthedutyandobligationshasto if theirattemptatpersuasionfails,tosubmitpunishment.Notobey “attempt topersuade”istooliberal.Itlooksasthoughthecitizensof much moreemphasisonobedience. it wouldseemlikelythatwhiletheattempttopersuadestateexists,inreality correct, thenitappearsthatthereismuchlessroomforpersuasionthanKrautwants.Indeed, a citizentolive,eat,andinvestmoney, thenthecitizenowesmoretostate.Ifthisis adulthood, thentheremustbeevenmoreobligationstothestate.Ifstateisstillallowing what ismeantby“stillmore.” obedience theLawsexpectfromallcitizenstowardsstate. What needsexplainingis mention ofthepartthatIhaveemphasized. is thedutythatanadultchildhastopersuade-or-obey one’s parents.However, hegivesno For Kraut,thispassageisnotaproblem.Hewouldargue thatthedutyonehastocity This readingsupportsmyviews,asstatedaboveinsectionB,thatthedoctrineof In furthersupportofthisposition,Iwouldpointoutfollowingpassage: but thecitizen who failsinpersuading,must obeythepublicwhenthey low toeverycitizen fulllibertyoftryingto persuade theassembledpublic: them—neither byopendisobedience, norforce,evasion…theLawsal the lawsshoulddealunjustly withhim,hehasnorightofredressagainst a covenanttoobeyexactlyand faithfullywhatthelawsprescribe. By hisbirth,andlongresidence in Athens, he[Socrates]has enteredinto ogy mother orfather; to thenatureofjustice.Itisimpiousbringviolencebearagainstyour …One mustobeythecommandsofone’s cityandcountry, orpersuadeitas , 51c) 14 Ifonehasobligationstopersuade-or-obey parents,eveninto it ismuchmore sotouseitagainstyourcountry. 13 Ibelievethatthispartisvitalinrealizingthe Athens wouldbeforced, gue theircase. The state , regardlessofthe Though ( , thereis Apol - - - -

craig 21 aegis 2006 - - - - - Apol This lines cally passed by Athens of one’s Athens of one’s

15 rst case, Socrates took a -proposed. So, in light of ts the state bestows upon the ts the state bestows is correct, then Socrates was advocating a political is correct, then Socrates Crito there are two famous instances in which Socrates speaks of disobedience. there are two famous instances in which enact a law adverse to his views. (428) to his a law adverse enact Apology The second case is a hypothetical one proposed by Socrates, but it sheds light on The second case is a hypothetical one proposed If my reading of the If my reading of the . In the obey it. This is for two reasons: 1) It is against his lifelong pursuit of knowledge, and his “ap This is for two reasons: 1) It obey it. and 2) it would still be questionable whether such a Athens, of pointed” position as the gadfly verdict is “legal” in the sense that there was no law against philosophy specifi Athens, so the verdict would have no legal weight. Let us suppose that the Assembly of the this as his proposal, and Socrates had been set free under the condi prosecutor had offered so. tions it demands. Socrates would have disobeyed the order; he explicitly states because Socrates would be arrested again, having up with my conception of persuade-or-obey, Socrates simply denies this possibility because of the way the Athenian legal system was set because of the way the Socrates simply denies this possibility the by juries after a guilty verdict; rather, There were no punishment proposals offered up. then the defendant counter prosecutor proposed a punishment, and the order to cease philosophizing because it this, perhaps Socrates said he would disobey it could be proposed and hence, itself be illegal. However, would be proposed by the jury, scenario as a punishment that Socrates still would not that if the prosecutor had put forth this any time he may have been imprisoned for this disobedience. He accepted that possibility and any time he may have been imprisoned he would have I think that if Socrates had been arrested for this, and charged, acted anyway. moral standards, but that if convicted, he would attempted to persuade the jury of his higher views of his obligation to the state. He This is because of Socrates’ have obeyed their order. Thirty and then escaped. the would not merely have tried to persuade that moral convictions. It could be argued to one’s his views of obligation to the state, and my view, this theory of political obligation has no problems reconciling itself with the this theory of political obligation has no problems reconciling itself with the my view, ogy and the other in which he tells the Tyrants, Thirty One is in his defiance of the orders of the letting Socrates go free, but forbidding him to phi jury that if their punishment were to be order (29d, 31c-d). In the fi losophize, that he would not follow that but he recognized the fact that at to be an unjust order, moral stand against what he perceived 2. Connections, Conclusions, and Hemlock 2. Connections, Conclusions, the courts of for the ability to attempt to persuade philosophy that allowed the order. obligation to obey it was the person’s failed, however, innocence. If that persuasion himself, or forced, as in either be willing, as in the case of Socrates This obligation could both with the same outcome of action: submission. In many imagined hypothetical situations, or law. Grote and I do have a somewhat similar view on the parent/city analogy: “Their (the the parent/city analogy: similar view on I do have a somewhat Grote and or law. those of his father and indefeasible than more uncontrolled over him are even rights state’s) that the relationship between the This falls in line with my view 428). and mother” (Grote, benefi subordinate because of the state and citizen is perpetually the lines of Grote, but falls of the text is not authoritarian along And so, my reading citizen. Grote and Kraut. somewhere in between One can see where Grote and I differ; I do not think that Grote allows for the possibility of for the possibility think that Grote allows I do not I differ; where Grote and One can see of per Athens. My conception of as persuading the assembly in courts so much persuading Kraut persuade in court. must successfully but then, one allows one to disobey, suade-or-obey to disobey an order to persuade in order “right” and attempt one only need be believes that

aegis 2006 22 craig be eitherwilingtoacceptthepunishment,orforcedsubmit.Mostlikelyhewouldhave offence wouldhavebeendeath, thenbySocrates’ ownviewsofpersuade-or-obey, he would his innocence,andwouldonceagainfail. Assuming thepunishmentforthissupposedsecond violated, knowingly, thecourt’s decree.Hewouldattemptonceagaintopersuadethejuryof harm cancometothe“goodman.” Anderson states: Namely, and Anderson isborrowingsome fromSeneca’s essay“OnProvidence,”perhapsno possible Socrateswasaccepting ofthehemlockbecauseahigherreligiousconviction. obligation arguments inthe ity, whileperhapsfactoringinahumanelement,does notfit togetheraswellwiththepolitical it’s safetosaythatthisisprobablynothismainreasonforseeking death. And thispossibil life “inseason.” This viewdoesnotseemtoline up withtheothertextsinvolvingSocrates,so hassle ofleadingthephilosophicallife. This mightbesupportedbythementionofending his political/moral point, necessarily implymartyrdom,andthatheneednotbeseeking martyrdomtoachievesome that hewantedtobeamartyr. Although Ibelievethefactthathewaswilling todiedoesnot as beingawishforsomekindoflastinglegacy, whichwouldsupport(possibly)theidea in Xenophon’s versionofeventsingeneral. The factthathewantstodiecouldbeinterpreted Now, thereareseveralwaysthatSocrates’ arguments couldbeconstrued inthispassageand is anotherinterestingargument Socratesgivesforhisdeath: pointless, becausehehadalreadydecidedtodie(Xenophon, Xenophon’s account.Xenophon’s assertionisthatSocrates’ defenseandeloquencewasrather support ofthiswouldbetheverydifferent conceptionofSocrates’ defense thatwehavein gious principleorbecauseitwas“histime”todie. The evidencethatIcanoffer inpossible one whodiedindefenseofhisprinciplesassetoutthe Socrates drinkingthehemlockisbestunderstoodifweseehimasanintellectualmartyr—as It ismyassertionthatwhile(b)aninterestingattempttosolvethehemlockquestion, believe arethetwostrongestarguments forSocratesmotivations. These are: separate questioninsomeways,butalsotiedtomyabovearguments. Iwillfocusonwhat sion, andupholdhismoralstandardsbytheactofdisobedience. agreed toit.Hewouldtherebyfulfill hisbeliefinobligationtothestateafterfailedpersua Albert Anderson argues in“Was SocratesUnwiseto Take theHemlock?”thatitwas LetusfirstexaminethepossibilitythatSocrateswishedtodiebecauseofareli out ofsomekindhigherreligiousprinciple. (b) Socrateswantedtodie—butnotbeamartyr—becauseofhisadvancedageand (a) Socrateswantedtobeamartyr Now Iwillturntothejustifications forSocratesdrinkingthehemlock,whichis a ing that insomeoddsense thejustification forSocrates’ death,this alleged And toargue that, really, no harm cancometothegoodman islikesay season butalsointhewaythatiseasiest.(Xenophon,[5]-[8]) ing mypartandsecuringmetheopportunityofendinglifenotonlyin ness towardGodandman…perhaps,headded,inhiskindnessistak now?…For Ihaverealizedthatmywholelifehasbeenspentinrighteous Do youthinkitsurprisingthatevenGodholdsbetterformetodie 16 itisalsopossiblethatSocrateswassickoftheconstantpressure and Crito . Crito Apology ofSocrates . [1]).Here ------

craig 23 aegis 2006 ------Athens he 17 in which Socrates happiness. (Ander happiness. , which is the expla , to die in defense of fect?). If one couples true Theatetus . I also have trouble accepting this as Crito 173a-176b). This makes an interesting case for Socrates’ motivations Socrates’ This makes an interesting case for 173a-176b). . To my thinking, Socrates lived a life that promoted unique and insightful my thinking, Socrates lived To . tragedy to an indisputably good man, is not so nearly difficult to come by if to come difficult so nearly is not good man, to an indisputably tragedy about beliefs by convictions, supported life is one’s son, 451) Theatetus, Now I will examine the possibility that Socrates died as a martyr Now I will examine the possibility that So this would be an argument that Socrates was seeking to free himself from the that Socrates was seeking argument So this would be an just obedience stumble through life to some state of awareness. It was this method—the foundation of his stumble through life to some state of awareness. politics, and almost every aspect of in philosophy, life—that was the catalyst for revolutions This alone quali Athens (hence, we still feel those reverberations today). day-to-day life in He willingly died defending his method. If one couples this fies his death as one of a martyr. one of apparent that while Socrates life exemplifies it becomes with his political philosophy, relationship constant examination, it is tempered by respect and understanding for the unique of between individuals and states. By questioning the man made laws and practices nation that connects best with my arguments about Socrates’ political philosophy. In essence, I In essence, philosophy. political Socrates’ about arguments my with best connects that nation and disobe thought that promotes intellectual rigor, have been advocating a view of Socrates’ the relationship a citizen and state have. I have labeled dience, but at the same time, respect of this own; created and used to sting those who The elenchus was a method uniquely his thought. strongest alternative to the martyrdom argument. However, the question of religious obliga However, argument. strongest alternative to the martyrdom in the tion, while interesting, is not really at issue because within the true Socratic dialogues I do not the main reason for taking the hemlock had given up on the elenchus, or on the value of think there is textual evidence that Socrates that he believed in an afterlife). In light of this I not even all that clear his role on Earth (it’s as one of a higher goal. Namely still see Socrates acceptance of his death on those who followed after him. his beliefs, and to leave a lasting impression est order” ( himself recognizes, as might be inferred from this to drink the hemlock. Perhaps Socrates any true knowledge of virtues is not possible on Earth passage, that the possibility of gaining does not have the desired ef (maybe this is an admission that his method for Socrates’ God, then perhaps this argument ‘personal’ this with all the talk of Socrates’ I believe that this option poses the gets stronger. recognition of the providence of his death bonds of this existence and in doing so attain some kind of higher wisdom/rationality that is and in doing so attain some kind of bonds of this existence from the Anderson also has a passage life. unattainable in human of good requires an eliminate evil things, because the nature that it is impossible to argues the Gods… therefore we ought try evils do not have a place amongst opposite, and so “…the to become like a God, so far as that as quickly as we can; and to escape is to escape from here to become just and pious through wisdom of the high is possible; and to become like a god is though he is put to death it does not matter, because he was a truly good man. This seems a truly good man. because he was not matter, is put to death it does though he of metaphysical/religious that has some kind is an argument I understand it, this odd, but as an that Seneca can supply does not go into full detail, but he argues Anderson implications. and perfect rationality, lines: “[the] nature of reality is perfect along the following argument the real but otherworldly order” of a rational will in harmony with morality is the expression (451). The argument in short is that Socrates was either wrong (he somehow did commit a wrong did commit a wrong (he somehow Socrates was either in short is that The argument even no wrong and so, he committed or, is justified, and so the punishment Athens), against

aegis 2006 24 craig tion ourlaws. After all,hewasnotanadvocateofanarchy, asIamsuresomein Athens might showing thefallibilityofhumansandtheirlawsservesasmotivationtomodify might nothavebeenthinkingthathisquestioningshouldachieveademocraticstate,but was, inessence,advocatingadeeprooteddemocraticprinciplethatwetakeforgranted.He Bostock, David. “TheInterpretationofPlato’s Crito.” Anderson, Albert. “Was Socrates Unwiseto Take theHemlock?” Bibliography we lence andunrestinthemodernworld,wemustnotforget themaximthatSocratesdiedfor; logic, motivations,ethics,etc.oftheworldatlarge andofindividuals. With somuchturbu to lapseintoapathy. Socrates’ lifeisanexample ofamanwhoneverceasedtoquestionthe news—where doesourobligationascitizens’ rest? We asapeople,race,cannotafford this revelationsaboutstatewiretappingpractices,and sponsoredtorturearealloverthe obligation tothestatearejustasimportanttodaytheywere inclassical standing ofSocratesisvitaltoourethics,politics,etc. struggles ofSocratesandhisstudentsarestillplayingout today; hence,amodernunder and thatthewayinwhichheinfluenced thoseafterhimhaveshapedourworld. The ideasand after somanymillennia.ItisrelevantbecauseoftheenormitySocrates’ consequently, itmightbeaskedwhytheissueofSocrates’ politicalmotivationsisrelevant the frameworktoexamineourlives.Peopleoftenwonderwhyphilosophyisimportant,and not Socrateswasprodemocracy, itwashismethodofneverceasingquestionsthatgivesus the intellectualquestioningandrigorinvolvedinchangingsociety It isbecauseofhimthatmenlikeMartinLutherKingJr. andMahatmaGandhicouldsee was anintellectualmartyr. Hediedtodefendthepoliticalandsocialassertionshehadmade. money ofhiscompanions—hechosetostayandacceptthestate’s judgment.Ibelievethathe and ratherthanescape—whichhecouldhaveeasilyaccomplishedwiththeconnections disobedience. Hewascharged withcorruptionoftheyouth,andworshippingfalseGods, By questioningsocialnorms,andbycausingdissent,Socratesengagedinpublicprivate followers, followerswithpoliticalclout,andtheytookhisteachingsontothestage. ence. Heconstantlyquestionedentrenchedbeliefsinpursuitofpureknowledge.gained belief, asIinterpretthe I believethatSocratestookthehemlockbecauseofhispoliticalphilosophy; must willinglybeobedientorforcedtosubmitthestate’s judgment.Inthefinal analysis isted, acitizen—becauseofthedebtandobligationowedtostate—ifruledagainst,either violated alaw—inthecourts.Itismyassertionthat,whilepossibilityforpersuasionex room fordisobedience.Onecouldchallengelawsboththroughthelegislature,and—ifone evidence ofwhyhechosetodie,ratherthanflee. have asserted.IbelievethatthepoliticalphilosophyofSocratesandlifeheledarebest must liveanexaminedlife,regardlessofthediscomfortthatsuch alifemightbring. Critical Essays Review In summary, Ibelievethat Socrates’ politicalphilosophywassuchthatthere , Vol. 65,No.3(Jul.,1972), 451-52. Crito . Ed.Rachana Kamtekar. RowmanandLittlefield, 2005.221-222 , in just obedience . Socrateslivedalifeofintellectualdisobedi Plato’s Euthyphro, Apology, andCrito: The questionofdisobedienceand . Regardlessofwhetheror The Harvard Theological Athens. As Iwrite intellectualimpact, , fix,andques - - - - -

craig 25 aegis 2006 - - - -

- The Fam Volume 1, Volume . Vol. 1, 1, Vol. . ed. Hackett ed. Hackett nd 2 . . Princeton University . Princeton University Crito gue this. A possible reason A gue this. Volume One. Volume Dialogues: Exploring Perspec Dialogues: Philosophy and Public Affairs and Public Philosophy . Princeton University Press. Princeton, NJ. 1984. . Princeton University . Cohen, Marc S., Patricia Curd, and C.D.C. Reeve, C.D.C. Curd, and S., Patricia Marc . Cohen, Plato and the Other Companions of Sokrates . Anchor Books. New York. 1989. York. Anchor Books. New . . Vol. 23, No. 1 (Jan, 1974) 87-90. 23, No. 1 (Jan, Vol. . . Edited by Columbus State Community College. Pearson Custom State Community College. Pearson . Edited by Columbus Open Society and its Enemies Volume One: Plato Enemies Volume Open Society and its Law and Obedience: The Arguments of Plato’s of Plato’s Arguments Law and Obedience: The

32. The Socrates and the State Plato, and the Other Companions of Socrates the Other Companions Plato, and Crito, and Theatetus and Theatetus Crito, , Readings in Ancient Greek Philosophy from Thales to Aristotle to Thales from Philosophy Ancient Greek in Readings The Trial of Socrates The Trial Press. Princeton, NJ. 1962. Press. Princeton, NJ. ily Coordinator tives on Issues 2003. 203-215. Publishing, Boston. eds. 2000 Co. Inc, Indianapolis. Publishing 1972) 284-292. No. 3 (Spring, Apology Apology seems to leave much mystery as to why Socrates himself did not ar seems to leave much mystery as to why was so anti-democracy that he took the hemlock out is that Socrates wanted to die, or that he this of defiance to the state. Some of these possibilities are examined in the last section of essay. of redress 7. Grote states: “Though the laws should deal unjustly with him, he has no right to every against them-neither by open disobedience, nor force, nor evasion…the laws allow fails in per citizen full liberty of trying to persuade the assembled public: but the citizen who 4. The footnote number is 16, on pages 35 and 36. 4. Kraut) that Socrates must have actively believe it is necessary (nor do I think does 5. I don’t agreement (tacit or otherwise) to have been life for a ‘true’ Athenian public participated in against having a public involvement in politics, spe reached. Socrates at many points argues cifically the chess game analogy applies to Socrates, then it 6. Of course, if this view is correct, and 3. Specifically, that there is no obligation to abide by an agreement that is unjust, or coerced, that there is no obligation to abide by an agreement that is 3. Specifically, for evidence of less personal freedom from legal obli Which I suppose someone looking etc. (i) If Perhaps something like have to try and argue. gations to agreements with the state would being the state), then (ii) regardless of X’s (Y Y for X contracts to abide by doing something This would seem to be a very unjust commands. Y as feelings about the agreement, X must do Kraut that Socrates is not advocating anything at all principle of agreements, and I agree with along these lines. Endnotes a more authoritarian interpretation of Socrates’ 1. Some of the authors and texts that assert Grote’s political philosophy: George Woozley’s A.D. and Socrates, not the historical man. All references to Socrates are meant to discuss the Platonic 2. Robbins, Norman N. “Legal Standings for Determining “Best interests of Child”.” “Legal Standings for Determining “Best Robbins, Norman N. Stone, I.F. Jail.” from a Birmingham “Letter Martin Luther. King Jr., London. 1888. Aberdeen University Press. Kraut, Richard. Karl R. Popper, Plato, Plato, and Disobedience.” “Liberalism Cohen, Marshall. Grote, George.

aegis 2006 26 craig separate arguments viatheLawstoprovethatSocratesmustdrinkhemlock. obey doctrine,andtheparent/cityanalogyareoneargument, butratherthattheywerethree 8. Although Krautisnotadvocatingthattheprinciple ofjustagreements,thepersuade-or- suading, mustobeythepublicwhentheyenactalawadversetohisviews”(428). 16. Groteinterprets Socrates’ drinkingofthe hemlockasreconciliationbetween hislifelong mands, justor not. the Lawsdothatbystayingin Athens whenhecouldhavefled, heagreedtoobey theircom will resultinforcedobedience regardlessoflegality. And ofcourse,itispossibletoargue as that mosttyrantgroupswillforce decreesbytheswordifnecessarytoenforcetheirwill. had nolegalstandingtoissue suchdecrees.Butthisseemsinsuffi 15. Ofcourse,itwouldbepossible toargue thatperhapsthe Thirty, beinga‘tyrannical’ group successful case, obedienceisexpected,anddisobediencesetdown as its parents,whichisinfactsimilartotherelationshipbetween aslaveandhismaster the citizenandcityisbeingcompared…torelationship betweenayoungchildand 14. Onceagain,compareBostock:“…itismuchmoreprobable thattherelationshipbetween more thanone’s parentsasseenin and makessenseof,allofthestatementsaboutslave/master, andowinghonoringthe city obligation tothestatethanachild(youngorold)owesits parents. bearing onmyargument. Iamreadingthispassage asstatingthatacitizenowesevenmore it isrelatedbacktothecity. That is notsomethingIamconcernedwithasitdoesn’t have 13. Krautdoesexaminethemeaningofterm your father’s?” gods andsensiblemen,thatyoumustworshipit,yieldtoitplacateitsangermorethan ancestors, thatitismoretobereveredandsacred,countsforamongthe realize thatyourcountryistobehonoredmorethanmother does notpayasmuchattentiontocomesat51bofthe 12. Another passagethatseemsvitaltomyinterpretationoftheparent/cityanalogyKraut between parentsand offspring…the textnowhere tween ontheonehandcitiesandtheircitizensotherparents argues thattheanalogybetweenparentsandcitiesmustbetakenasdrawingaparallel 11. As Bostockalsointerpretsinhisarticle,“TheInterpretationofPlato’s Crito”: “Kraut speaking abouthisdivinemission. 10. After all,hewasthewisestman,ashimselfstatesmanytimesin (after all,theworldisnotfilled withcharactersofSocrates’ moralfiber). is good.Itjustseemsasthoughthissystemcouldbetakenadvantageofbypeopleveryeasily is atleaststillsomewayofatrulyinnocentpersonbeingabletoattemptpersuade,which is soeasytogetatauniversal‘rightness.’ Evenifthisproblemiscorrect,Isuppose thatthere universal conceptionofrightnessthatwouldmakethisdoctrinefairtoall.Idon’ some disobedientact.Itseemsthatbysayingonemustbeintheright,thereis save mefrombeingforcedtoobey, evenifinmyconceptionIwastherightcommitting live inthestate,Idonotactualityagreewithabidingbyitslaws.However qualifications fortruejusticearedifferent thanthestates.Perhapswhile Ihavecontinuedto 9. There seemstobesomething off abouthavingtobe“truly”intheright.Perhapsmy attemptatpersuasion”(222). adult offspring…” (221). says thattherelationshipitisconcernedwithspecifically that Crito 51a-d. violence Crito , usedwithinthepassage,andhow : “Isyourwisdomsuchasnotto wrong , yourfatherandall cient inthelightoffact , unlessitisjustified by a As such,itsupports, Apology , thiswillnot t thinkthatit when . Intheir adult - This

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craig 27 aegis 2006 - part s view is , 194). . Nor do I views, then Popper triumph…Socrates triumph…Socrates . Republic enemy. This is a highly controversial assertion. I do believe that Socrates died for some higher highly controversial assertion. I do believe that Socrates died for some higher This is a enemy. to me what principle, and I am unwilling to assert standard or principle, but it remains unclear motivations. any kind of definitive opinion as to his the existence of an afterlife come after gives for that ‘Socrates’ 17. Most of the arguments as a mouth thought to using ‘Socrates’ of Socrates’ Plato had shifted from being a transcriber in the piece for his philosophy—this is most evident we are to believe that any of the Platonic dialogues are truly Socrates’ we are to believe that any of the Platonic and advocated that only those who the many, is refuted by the fact that Socrates disdained If Thirty. that he disobeyed the that Socrates argued “know” should rule. It was not enough he would have joined the rebels. Stone’ he had truly been an advocate of democracy belief that Socrates was totally egotistical and closer to the truth, but it is tainted by Stone’s to punish others, and who sympathized with the was essentially a man who used his intellect wanted the democracy he rejected to win a moral victory by setting him free. His martyrdom, he rejected to win a moral victory by wanted the democracy Socrates’ made him a secular saint…this was and the genius of Plato, (Stone, 230).” I to fulfill a mission as Jesus needed the crucifixion, needed the hemlock, reconciliation on Socrates’ hemlock was taken as some kind of do not believe that the disdained the many with the many as Grote asserts—he to harmonize his views principles. It seems was fighting to support democratic version that Socrates buy Popper’s save Socrates from the authoritarianism of Plato. If as though Popper wants desperately to for what he believed to be right, and for his life’s work. He had never intended to undermine intended to undermine work. He had never and for his life’s believed to be right, for what he the even have welcomed it needed…he may to give it the faith In fact, he tried democracy. unbounded (Popper to prove that his loyalty to his city was trial as an opportunity Socrates the Platonic, like historical, “The approach: different Stone takes an entirely Whereas he did not believe; free speech for repugnant to plead a principle in which would have found it He would not have not of the benighted many. of the enlightened few, him was the privilege dissent and democracy: “yet as reconciling himself with the laws by voluntarily accepting the the accepting by voluntarily the laws with himself as reconciling “yet and democracy: dissent most with the imbued of rhetoric by a piece moreover, to do so, persuaded and as sentence; dissent of his long standing It is the compromise democracy. of constitutional genuine spirit drinking also believes that death (431).” Popper just before his orthodoxy, with the reigning principles: and his uncompromising of democracy, support was tied to Socrates’ the hemlock He simply fought I do not believe. the role of martyrdom, to die, or enjoyed “That he wanted

aegis 2006 28 craig Would KingDrink theHemlock? person comes to have an agreement with the state is not by explicitly stating that he/she agrees why he/shecannot, orinsomecases, injustice, since he/she has made an agreement to obey, the citizen must persuade the state as to cific lawrequireshimtocommit anactofinjustice.Ifthestatedoesaskhimtocommit Socratesbelieved thatthereissometimesanagreementmadebetweenthestateand ments. This agreementstatesthatthecitizenmustobey lawsofthestateunlessaspe the citizen;andincaseof the they arehelpingtokeepthese unjustlawsonthebooksandinpractice. a neutralpositionondiscriminatorylaws,theirinactionis simply maskedinjusticebecause and goesevenfurthertosaythatwhenpeoplebelievethey arebehavingjustlybymaintaining institutions inplace.KingcompletelyagreeswithSocrates thatoneshouldneverdoinjustice, close-minded, buttheywerereallytheonesbehavingunjustly bykeepingimmorallawsand ing totheir“morals”duringatimewhenothersweresuffering injusticeatthehandsof preserve immoralends”(King243).Peoplethoughtthatthey werebehavingjustlybystick right thing.Hesaysthat“itisjustaswrong,orperhapseven moreso,tousemoralmeans vehemently disagreedwithpeoplewhoappearedtobejust insteadofactuallydoingthe state wasactingunjustlybywithholdingbasichumanrights fromblackcitizens.Kingalso would havethesamerightsaswhitecitizens,andhebroke thelawsofstatebecause to betreatedjustly(King235).Hewantedblacksableliveinasocietywherethey the differences betweenjustandunjustlaws,explainsthathisendgoalisforeveryone states that“itiswrongtouseimmoralmeansattainmoralends”(King243).Hediscusses the victimofinjustice”(Kraut37-38).KingdisplayshisagreementwithSocrateswhenhe This isbecause“doingwhatunjustharmsone’s soul,butthesoulisnotcorruptedifone is they mustalwayschoosetosuffer aninjusticeratherthancommitthemselves. Socratesbelievedthatoneshouldnevercommitaninjustice,andthisincludes people mustnever, underanycircumstances,commitaninjustice,iftheyaregivenachance, returning aninjusticeforonecommittedagainsthim(Plato136).Hebelievedthatsince harm andinjustice state, butdisagreeonthemotivesbehindsomeoftheiractions,anddistinctionsbetween agree ontheirphilosophyofcommittinganinjusticeandacitizen’ interpretation ofSocrates’ viewsaspresentedinthe him aspunishmentforhisdisobedience. Through anexaminationofKing’s letterandKraut’s explains hispoliticalphilosophy, andwhyhemustdrinkthehemlockstateadministersto Socrates’ viewsaboutacitizen’s obligationstothestatein ham Jail,”heascribedsomeofhisviewstotheteachingsSocrates.Platopresentsmany disobedience isjustified. When Dr. MartinLutherKingJr. wrotehis“LetterfromBirming other timeswhentheycouldnot,andhealsoheldopinionsaboutthestepsonemusttakeif Socrates,accordingtotheinterpretationofRichardKrautasexpressedin and thestate.Hebelievedthattherewerecertaintimeswhenlawscouldbedisobeyed and theState , maintainedmanycomplexviewsabouttherelationshipbetweenindividual Larsa Ramsini Larsa Crito could , thecontractwascalledprinciple ofjustagree notobeythelaw (Kraut86). The way bywhicha Crito , wecandiscoverthatthesemen Crito s responsibilitiestowardthe , whichiswhereSocrates Socrates - - - -

ramsini 29 aegis 2006 - - - - - ect

1 They did If my country seriously abridges my rights as an adult, or in some other If my country seriously abridges my rights or at least compromises any claim way treats me with disdain, then it loses if a country has given me But it might otherwise have had to my loyalty. comparable to those I received child—benefits when I was a great benefits rights when I am an adult, then it from my parents—and if it respects my explanation if I turn down the ap has a moral standing that entitles it to an concerns (146). peals it makes in the pursuit of its legitimate As just explained, Kraut’s Socrates contends that if a citizen has made a just agree As just explained, Kraut’s Kraut disagrees with this stance and contends that Socrates believes that “continued Socrates believes and contends that with this stance Kraut disagrees King had received no such benefits from the United States. As a result of all the prejudiced from the United States. King had received no such benefits time, the United States in no way acted as a Americans during King’s African laws against 93). parent to King so he was not indebted to it for “his life and upbringing” (Kraut if he/she does not obey a specific law. Kraut notes that according to Socrates, since the state Kraut notes that according to Socrates, law. if he/she does not obey a specific his life, he must “honor it, and he must never treat it has treated the citizen well throughout city either by obeying it or by persuading it as to the with violence,” and “citizens honor their mentions that “those who have not received these nature of justice” (Kraut 104). But he also persuade,” even if they continue to reside in benefits have been given no reason to obey or Socrates would give this response to someone who the state (Kraut 159). Kraut believes that to the state: asked him when exactly gratitude is owed tion to the legislature, the courts, and the people; therefore, he was in no way bound to an tion to the legislature, the courts, and the disobedience. conception of justified agreement with the state, according to Socrates’ In some in disobeying the law. he/she is justified still be required to persuade the state that and moral upbring such as education certain benefits, cases the state provides the citizen with with the state, the citizen may Socrates asserts that if no agreement is made Kraut’s the citizen is indebted to the state and owes it much respect ing, and because of these benefits, statements in public about the state and its laws. This means, however, that his statements This means, however, about the state and its laws. statements in public King and with some of its laws” (Kraut 182). show that he is dissatisfied “can also be used to during the 1960s because they no such agreement with the United States his followers made their dissatisfaction the state, and they vehemently showed were not satisfied with the laws of other demonstrations. protests, marches, boycotts, sit-ins, and through their various interprets Socrates, residence is not for quite some time, but as Kraut live in the United States of an agreement. King displayed his dissatisfac sufficient evidence to support the existence for disobedience, despite any prevailing circumstances (Kraut 55). prevailing circumstances despite any for disobedience, laws, since it does not refl does not signal agreement to obey its residence in [the state] complete his agreement he must laws” (180). In order for a citizen to satisfaction with these the laws (Kraut 174-175). actions that are in compliance with show his approval through is by making positive that one way a citizen can show his satisfaction Kraut also explains to obey the laws or persuade the state as to the nature of justice (what the just action would just action (what the of justice nature as to the the state or persuade the laws to obey to time given enough being the citizen involves out and more drawn is much The process be). he/she of them, and then understands all of the state until he/she examine the laws thoroughly satisfac to demonstrate his/her of time in order period sufficient in the state for a must remain that of Socrates, believes Grote, another critic 168). George laws (Kraut 156, tion with these no room leaving absolutely commands,” to the city’s submission’ requires ‘absolute “the Crito

aegis 2006 30 ramsini ing tothegovernment,hedidnotneedfollowpersuade-or party toanyjustagreement,nordidhereceivebenefits fromthestateandowednoth from aparent,thenhemustfollowSocrates’ persuade-or-obey doctrine.SinceKingwasnot ment withthestate,orhasreceivedcertainbenefits fromthestatelikethosehewouldreceive Kraut’s Socrates believedthatwhenacitizen breaksalaw, thejustthing todois break thatlaw openly andnotattempttohide theactfromanyone,because “thepersuade- what wasunjust. motive forbreakingthelaws in thefirst placewastoconvincethestate ofwhatwasjustand not persuadingthestateasto the natureofjustice,Kingstillwouldhavepersuadedsince his had consistentlyrefusedtonegotiate. SoeventhoughSocrateswouldhaveapprovedof King laws changedandbelievedthat breakingthelawwasonlywaytodoit,sincewhites out ofspeakingtopeopleand explainingwhyhebelievedalawtobeunjust;wanted the packed that it [would] inevitably open the door to negotiation” (233). He was not trying to get “the verypurposeofdirectaction”(King233).Kingwanted to“createasituationsocrisis- that itwaswrongbefore,during,andafterhislawbreaking, becausehebelievedthattobe disobedience itselfinvolvedaformofpersuasion.Hewas attemptingtoconvincethestate believed ittobeunjust,Kingactuallywentaboveandbeyond thecallforpersuasionsincehis a conceptionofcivildisobedienceandknewthatwhenKing brokealawitwasbecausehe or notionofprotestingagainstalawbyviolatingit”(75). Since havior mightitselfbeaformofspeechorpersuasion”because “theGreekshadnotradition break thelawsincehewasinright. not hisfaultthough,andhewouldbejustified, accordingtoKraut’s Socrates,incontinuingto but hefailedtoconvincethesegregationistsingovernmentthatwasright. doing therightthingbychanginglaw. Kingconsistentlyargued againsttheunjustlaws, continually breakingthelaweventhoughstateconvictedhimofchar in theright”(Kraut68).IfSocratesisinterpretedthisway who breaksanunjustlawbutfails,throughnofaultofhisown,toshowthejurythathewas the statethatlawisunjust.Ifthisfails,thenLaws3“mustbewillingtoexcuse[him] act requiredofthecitizenbreakinglawisthathemakealegitimateattempttopersuade ing thelaw(Kraut57).Krautassertsamuchlessauthoritarianviewthatholdsonly permitted totryandpersuadethestate,butwhenthatfails,thereisnoallowanceforbreak including George Grote,GlennMorrow, andGerasimosSantas,whoallaffirm thatoneis sary conditionofjustified disobedience”(72).Heisinmuchdisagreementwith othercritics, makes quiteapointabouthowSocratesdoesnotview“successfulpersuasion[as]neces city withwhichhehasmadeanagreementsomeexplanationforhisbehavior”(60).Healso mentions that“persuasionisrequiredofthedisobedientcitizenbecauseheowesparent- law, hemust,beforeor after breakingit,attempttopersuadethestatethatheisright. lems. But,Kraut’s Socratessaysthatifhebelievesalawtobeunjustandwishesbreakthe mine whatSocrateswouldsayifKing now lookdeeperintobothSocrates’ andKing’s viewsofdisobediencetothestatedeter previous statementsclaimingthatnoagreementexistsbetweenKingandthestate,wemay driving thecitizen’s dutytopersuadeorobey(Kraut161-166).So,ifonedoesnotaccept the more authoritarianreadingoftheCritowouldsaythatcontinuedresidenceisonlyelement Kraut alsomentionsthatinSocrates’ time,“noGreekeverthoughtthatillegalbe If acitizenissatisfied withalaw, thenhe/shewillobeyit,andtherearenoprob did in factoweallegiancetothestate. , thenhewouldapproveofKing -obey doctrine.However, a Americans inthe1960shad ges, insteadofit This was 2 Kraut ------

ramsini 31 aegis 2006 - - - ed; but the a more liberal harm could Crito . He states that “it is , according to Kraut’s , according to Kraut’s nonviolent c laws were unjust and ghting, and not necessarily ghting, and not necessarily that his action will result in violence know King took the same approach as Socrates and did not rush into any lawbreaking King took the same approach as Socrates at times necessary in order to stop injustice from continuing any longer at times necessary in order to stop injustice to gain his basic constitutional rights because an individual to cease his efforts wrong to urge This sounds almost like Socrates, but is quite the quest may precipitate violence” (King 237). according to King, a person can because different act will help not initiated by him and still commit the act; because he knows that this certain As King was planning a boycott on certain companies, he rid the community of an injustice. of direct decided that since “a strong economic-withdrawal program would be the by-product needed to be broken (King 231). However, unlike Socrates, King was a pacifist and believed unlike Socrates, King was a pacifist needed to be broken (King 231). However, we use be as pure as the ends we seek” (King that “nonviolence demands that the means he did believe that some 243). But even though he was a pacifist, negotiation fails to eradicate the injustice. Since be committed against certain people when when you can do something about it is worse than King thought that letting an injustice occur in the end, he absolutely believed that some harm is committing an injustice to gain justice treated unjustly, because in none of the dialogues does Socrates give a “reason to accept a phi because in none of the dialogues does Socrates give a “reason treated unjustly, (Kraut 38). Kraut gives the losophy of passive submission to injustice” that a citizen should examine the content of each interpretation than others, mainly by saying just before he obeys it; no law law individually to make sure that it is (Kraut 86). Socrates, “is to be obeyed blindly and unconditionally” whether those specifi before he collected all the facts to determine cause the least amount of harm to others, but this only applies when the person has no way of cause the least amount of harm to others, result of his action and has no way of preventing the knowing that any harm will occur as a Socrates would not “accuse people of recklessness harm from happening (Kraut 140). Kraut’s that imposed fewer risks was open to them,” but or wrongdoing merely because an alternative that would occur as a result of their actions. Socrates they must be truly ignorant of any harm interpretation, that a person can take steps to avoid being also believed, according to Kraut’s unjust. It category and claim that not all harm is put harm in a different injustice, they both of using harm circumstances Socrates would have approved is very difficult to say in which should never commit an King both believed that one Even though Socrates and of shown by the fact that he “was proud as certainly not a pacifist, He was against another. are sometimes justifi and believed that violence and harm his military service,” (Kraut 44). Kraut believes to distinguish injustice is fairly difficult line between harm and to determine what they should do based on what will expect people that Socrates wouldn’t son for breaking a law out in the open is different from Socrates’ though, since King was not since King was not though, Socrates’ from the open is different a law out in son for breaking laws was to get those in breaking the laws Since his main focus persuade anyone. obliged to his actions so that they would as many people as possible to know about changed, he wanted lawbreaking because he wanted actually were. King was open in his see how unjust the laws fi give to the issues against which he was the attention it would believed. it was the just thing to do, as Socrates because of the fact that or-obey doctrine has teeth only when it is combined with a prohibition against concealed concealed against a prohibition with it is combined when teeth only has doctrine or-obey not the se the law is breaking secretly is against Socrates The reason (122). disobedience” most from the state will lawbreaking hidden fact that keeping the of itself, but the crecy in and by or indebted to it with the state is either in a just agreement who the lawbreaker, likely lead 123). King agrees of justice (Kraut state as to the nature to not persuade the benefits received, rea openly” (236). His law must do so who breaks an unjust he says that “one with this when

aegis 2006 32 ramsini unjust law. Inthiscase,hedidnotbreakalaw, butsimplyorganized amassboycottofcertain of people,whichKingbelievedtobejustified, sinceitwouldhelpridthecommunityofan for theneededchange”(King232). This typeofactioncausesfinancial harmtoagroup action, [he]feltthat[Easter]wouldbethebesttimetobringpressurebearonmerchants vidual hastomake sureunjustlawsarenot kept inpractice,whileallthe whilemakingsure never commitan injustice,andthatthereis a certaindegreeofresponsibility thattheindi respect forthecourtsystem,but nottheunjustlaws. same timeobeyingthelawof acceptingthepunishmentthatcourthandsout;hehad much ferent typesoflawsdiscussed inKing’s letter. Hedisobeyedmanyunjustlaws,whileatthe the law. When oneexamines King’s lawbreakingstrategies,onemustlookatthetwodif obeying thejudgmentofcourts, oneisshowingthepublicrealmotivebehindbreaking est respectforlaw”(236). This coincideswithKraut’s interpretation ofSocratesinthatby to arousetheconscienceofcommunityoveritsinjustice, isinrealityexpressingthehigh conscience tellshimisunjust,andwhowillinglyacceptsthe penaltyofimprisonmentinorder systems hadimplemented(King232).Hestatesthat“anindividual whobreaksalawthat system; whattheywerefighting againstweretheunjustlawsthatpeopleworkinginthese to showthestate,aswellpublic,thattheyloveddemocracy andrespectedthecourt all ofhismenwhobrokealawwerewillingto“endurethe ordealofjail”becausehewanted Movement sothattheunjustlawscouldbechangedsooner. ButKingalsomadesurethat spending timeinjailforacausewhichtheytrulybelieve. because hedesiredtheeffect itwouldhaveonthecommunitywhoseepeoplewillingly must doso…withawillingnesstoacceptthepenalty”(236).Hemaintainedthisstancepartly United Statestoacceptunjustconvictions,Kingaffirms that“onewhobreaksanunjustlaw ing thejudgmentofcourts(139). Whether ornotonesayshemade anagreementwiththe gal systemwasnotthemotivebehindone’s act,”andthiswouldbeanotherreasonforaccept that “bymakingoneselfavailablefortrialandpunishment,oneshowsdestroyingthele promised tocommitaninjusticehimselfsinceonecanneverdoinjustice.Krautalsonotes the justagreementknowingthatstatecouldatonepointbeunjusttohim,buthenever ment requiresthedoingofinjusticeorleadinganunjustlife”(Kraut86-87).Hemade ing thelaw, then“hemayrefusetoacceptthecourt’s punishmentifandonlythatpunish Socrates believedthatifhefailsinhispersuasionofthecourtswasjustifi BothSocratesandKingdodiscuss,however, theirviewsonwhatactsarejustified in a citizenwhohasanagreementwiththestatedisobeysforjustreasons,Kraut’ accepting orrejectingthepunishmentofstatewhenacitizenbreaksanunjustlaw unjust harm. not easythough,sinceneitherSocratesnorKingdiscusseswhattheybelievetobejustand Where tospecifically drawthelinewithallofvaryingcircumstancesthatcould ariseis be saidisthatbothSocratesandKingapproveofusingharminsomecases,butnotothers. he wouldcondonepreventingsomeonefromobtainingmoremoney(Plato130). for itcanovertakehimandcausetoactunjustly, butthisdoesn’t necessarilymeanthat this situation.Socratesdidnotplacemuchvalueonmoneyandthoughtthataperson’ harm butaren’t actualactsoflawbreaking,soit’s hardtotellwhathewouldsay toKingin products. Socratesdidnotdiscussthejustification ofcommittingcertainactionsthatcause After allthis,wenowknowthat bothSocratesandKingbelievedthatoneshould Hehopedthiswouldspurmorepeopletoactivelyparticipate intheCivilRights ed inbreak What can . When s need s ------

ramsini 33 aegis 2006 - - - - . . Eds. , which was to , which was must be on his side

Ed. Tammy Tammy Ed. ferent reasons, that one should that one should reasons, ferent IS Reader. , with the capital “L,” represent the does not actually make, but one which Laws Crito , with a lowercase “l,” are the “statutes that were laws . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984. . Princeton: Princeton University Press, . The . Crito Readings in Ancient Greek Philosophy: From Thales to Aristotle Thales to From Philosophy: Ancient Greek Readings in Socrates and the State Readings in Ancient Greek Philosophy: From Thales to Aristotle Thales to From Philosophy: Ancient Greek Readings in the laws of the state. Socrates says that if there is an agreement, a citizen must the laws of the state. Socrates says that S. Marc Cohen, Patricia Curd, and C.D.C. Reeve. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2000. S. Marc Cohen, Patricia Curd, and C.D.C. 131-141. Immell. McGraw-Hill, 2004. 230-245. obey Eds. S. Marc Cohen, Patricia Curd, and C.D.C. Reeve. Indianapolis: Hackett, Eds. S. Marc Cohen, Patricia Curd, and 2000. 112-130. (Kraut 66, 81). of the 3. Kraut makes a distinction that the text He says that there are two different views. he believes to be important in discussing Socrates’ types of laws present in the actually in force at the time of Socrates,” and the the real and the “legal philosophy” present throughout, making these two “an artful mixture of ideal” (Kraut 81). either obey the laws or persuade the state as to the nature of justice. But if there is no agree either obey the laws or persuade the state not mention anything about situations without case, since Socrates does ment, as in King’s entitled to disobey any law of the state with which he agreements, one could say that King is is dissatisfied without explanation. nature of the law if any of this is to follow through. 2. He must truly be right about the unjust legal philosophy, Socrates’ This means that the Laws, which represent Notes King does not even have a responsi An extremely liberal view of Socrates could say that 1. bility to Kraut, Richard. Plato. “Apology.” Plato. “Crito.” ment take that into its own hands, when he knew the reason for why they were killing him own hands, when he knew the reason ment take that into its was definitely unjust. Cited Works Jail.” “Letter From Birmingham King, Martin Luther Jr. accept whatever punishment the courts handed out so as to show that it was not the court sys it was not the court so as to show that the courts handed out punishment accept whatever have been willing it seems that he would laws of the state, then attacking but the tem he was obvious that he was willing to die of the government for his cause. It is to die from the hands knowing Americans, African for civil rights for he continued in his fight for his beliefs, since death threats to him and be a result, as revealed to him by the numerous that his death could have approved of letting the govern it is still questionable whether he would But his family. one adheres to the rules of obedience and respect owed to the government, which includes which includes to the government, owed and respect of obedience the rules to one adheres for dif agree, albeit Both also court. of the the orders following also the state, but they is committed against lawbreaking that not keep secret any be open and still not sure many things we are harm. One of the just and unjust on what constitutes differ death, as Socrates the punishment of have accepted or not King would is whether of, however, precisely philosophy If he followed his political the hemlock. did in drinking

aegis 2006 34 ramsini America’s RoleinHaiti’s The Not-So“Invisible Hand:” beginnings and subsequentdecline. must acknowledgeandrespond withthisknowledge,wemustfirst venture toHaiti’s nascent tors ofHaitianlife. To understand thiscomplex,entangledhistoryandhowwe,as Americans, America remainsfirmly entrenchedinHaiti’s sovereignaffairs, shapingandimpactingallsec ship withthefirstblackrepublic, afreed While thenatureof American interesthasevolvedthrough our two-centuriesoldrelation ing andincessantgovernment intrusion,standstoblameforagooddealofHaiti’ news coveragemightsuggest.Infact,theUnitedStates,through aggressivebusinessventur United Statesplayingamuchmoresignificant roleinallofHaiti’s affairs thanthesporadic nation. The truthisthat America’s historyisverymuchintertwined withHaiti’s, withthe morsel showcasing“humanitarian”efforts torestorestabilityabackward,uncivilized registers ontheradarof American nationalconscienceexceptfor theoccasionalnews affairs? Why should Americans care? in Haitiinevitablyleadstothequestion:howinvolved damning inisolation,buttheshadowypresenceof America, bothindustrialandgovernmental, mittent MarineoccupationsofHaitithroughouttheirunstable history venture devisedbythe American porkindustry. There aremultiplereferencestotheinter cusses theawkwardlyhatchedplantosubstituteIowafarmpigsforCreolepigs,anill-fated so muchmiseryanddestructionamongthefamilieslivinginvillagesofHaiti. events liketheconstructionofadam,influenced by American agri-businesses,whichwreaked accountability of Americans forthetragicstateofsuffering inHaiti.Kiddersubtlyrecounts and decayingrubbishtrashheapslefttheirindelibleimprintsonreaders,too. of treacherousmud-swelledroads,emaciatedchildrendyinglar book keenlyfelthisvisionsimplythroughtheexperienceof mentioned thatactuallyseeingHaitiwaslike“theendoftheearth,”manywhoread AsOtterbein’s “CommonBook,” the tinyislandnationanditsincrediblepoverty, suffering anddomesticstrife. While Kidder animated dialogueontheconditionsandqualityoflifeinHaiti; —Dietrich Bonhoeffer in short,fromtheperspectiveofthosewhosuffer.” spective oftheoutcast,suspects,maltreated,powerless,oppressed,reviled- “We haveforoncelearnttoseethegreateventsofworldhistoryfrombelow, fromtheper Endemic Poverty The answerisinthedetails,historicalfacts,tobeprecise. What issprinkledlessobtrusivelythroughthebook,though,arereferencesto Christina Christina Amato slave Mountains Beyond republicnoless,onetruthalways resonates: has theUnitedStatesbeeninHaiti’s reading Tracy Kidderilluminates gely eradicateddiseases, . These seemhardly about Haiti(20).Images Today, Haitibarely hasinspiredan s suffering. 1 Hedis ------

amato 35 aegis 2006 - - - - In short, 3 These new attitudes These new attitudes When the French became t” (Davis qtd. in Mat Washington for signs of Washington feared Britain would do the same). they The French began to settle the island around this time, time, this around island the settle to began French The 2 , as Haiti was known when Columbus first reached its shores in 1492, seemed seemed 1492, in shores its reached first Columbus when known was Haiti as , Ayiti 25). Washington also authorized “$750,000 in military aid, as well as troops, to defend the also authorized “$750,000 in military aid, as well Washington 25). to heavily pressure white colonists” (Farmer 68). France continued purposes good faith, due to fears that the United States would exploit the rebellion for trade (with the United States in turn claiming status as a pawn to be parceled up between the major industrial powers of the world Haiti’s fate would establish a precedent that carries This first of squabbles over Haiti’s had begun. resources, both material and human. into present day: the bid for control of all Haiti’s where (Matthewson 22). Abolitionists of the north sympathized with the slaves, claiming “it Abolitionists of the north sympathized where (Matthewson 22). nation to take measures against a people who had would be inconsistent on the part of a free the yoke of atrocious slavery” have to throw off availed themselves of the only means they ultimate U.S. stance on the slave rebellion came from the Yet, (qtd. in Matthewson 23). sale of arms to who eventually authorized the Washington, own president, George America’s alarming insurrection of Negroes” (qtd. in Matthewson France to quell, in his own words, “the tracted from their most profitable slave colony. Seizing the opportunity, the slave insurrection Seizing the opportunity, slave colony. tracted from their most profitable Africans in confrontation with about many as 100,000 of Saint Domingue in 1791 “placed as 40,000 whites” (Matthewson 19). While the United States the United States, directly into the middle of the conflict. neighbor, colonial agents pressured the French about slavery, was knee-deep in its own ambivalence fledgling democratic invite Haiti’s The slave rebellion of 1791 would ultimately fears of “similar commotions” in the U.S. and else southern U.S. states for help, preying on cultural wastelands blighted by an obsessive pursuit of private profi cultural wastelands blighted by an obsessive holders from desperate attempts prevent plantation owners and slave This didn’t thewson 7). Abolition movements stormed the United venture. to hold on to their exceedingly profitable and autonomy serv[ing] as dangerous doctrines in States as well as Britain, with “their liberty islands” (Matthewson 8). Saint Domingue and the other Caribbean the French Revolution, they were ultimately dis embroiled in troubles of their own during build the “all-important European port-cities” with the vitality and lives of thousand of African African of thousand of lives and vitality the with port-cities” European “all-important the build Saint- Revolution, American the of eve “the by Farmer, Paul to According 62). (Farmer slaves (63). combined” colonies American North thirteen all than revenue more Domingue…generated French Revolutions disseminating new American and world, with the to all corners of the 7). sensibilities and ideology” (Matthewson worldviews about “values, of the late eighteenth century stretched The tempestuous revolutionary atmosphere in “the image of [slave societies as] social and extended to slave societies which had resulted enous Indians that had died by 1540, leaving the Spanish bereft of their free labor to cultivate cultivate to labor free their of bereft Spanish the leaving 1540, by died had that Indians enous settlements. build and gold mine soil, treaty French-Spanish A settlements. agricultural for labor slave of prospect the in interested “spoon- packed slaves, African 30,000 of import the and 1697, in French the to island the ceding 2). (Logan Domingue Saint of beginning humble the be would ships slave squalid into fashion” and France for profits massive generate eventually would colony slave brutal notoriously This Hopeful Origins: Haiti’s Slave Revolution Slave Haiti’s Origins: Hopeful of years thirty Within world. Western the with brushes earliest its from misfortune for fated from extinct virtually were Indians Arawak native the island, the of “discovery” Columbus’s burgeoning The 60). (Farmer murder” outright and slavery, disease, infectious “imported indig of millions, not if thousands, the for substitute ready a provided trade slave African

aegis 2006 36 amato Saint Dominguedeclaredindependence.Haitibecamethesecondindependentnationof Victory fortheslavesofSaintDomingueseemedimminentasFrenchcoffers and troops werepulverized(byboththeslaveforcesandyellowfever)inlate1803,slavesof military resourcesweredrainedinpost-RevolutionFrance,andfact,afterNapoleon’ intervention. Farmer observesthat“itwasclear eventocharitableobservers thatthedestiny America, theUnited Statesintendedtodominate Haiti,whetherbymarket shareormilitary alist twist).Inthescramblebetween theemerging imperialist powersofEuropeandNorth United Statesembracedtheemerging imperial worldview(essentially, racismwithanation close oftheCivil War, andalong andshamefulchapterin America’s historyofslavery, the same damagingresultforHaiti: totaldominationandcontrolbyforeignpowers. Haiti wouldbemuchmorepublicly polishedtodiminishtheappearanceofracism,with the staple ofaU.S.foreignpolicy nolonger ship betweenHaitiandtheUnitedStateswellintomodern times. country throughthefarcicalembargo. Suchinconsistencieswouldcharacterizetherelation of anemancipatedblacknation,nobodyraisedanymoralqualms aboutprofi port anythingandmakeaprofit. Apparently, whilemost Americans foundrepugnanttheidea they wereentirelydependentuponforeigngoods,butdue to theembar not byanymeansindicatereciprocity;indeed,Haitiwasforced intoaneconomyinwhich Farmer, by1821“45percentofimportstoHaiticamefromtheUnitedStates”(78). This did merchants grewexceedinglywealthyfromexportingtheir productstoHaiti. a MissourisenatorduringthedebateaboutPanamaConference: (210). Racismwasattheheartof America’s rejectionofHaiti,asevidencedbytheremarks aptly observesthat“Haitiremainedaconstantreminderslaves Hemisphere PanamaConferenceof1852,almostfifty yearsafterindependence. refused torecognizeHaitiasanation,goingsofarblocktheirpresenceatthe Haiti’s autonomy(Farmer75). The UnitedStates,enmeshedinitsownslaverycontroversy, at everyturnbyitsjitterynorthernneighbor, whoaidedina“diplomaticquarantine”todeny the UnitedStates(Matthewson119). Haitifounditsefforts toestablishlegitimacythwarted ing a“symbolicgesture”thattheblackrepublicwouldnotserveasinspirationforslavesin wonder, then,thattheU.S. scrambledtoimposeanembargo onthenewnationofHaiti,send been turnedupsidedownandtheslaveshadbecomemastersslaves”(1 “had profoundrepercussionsthroughoutthe Americas, encouragingbeliefthattheworldhad Post-Liberation Haiti: The Scramblefor Power Western hemisphere,nexttotheUnitedStates. By theturnoftwentiethcentury, militaryinterventioninHaitihadbecomea Ironically, whiletheU.S.didn’t recognize Haitiansovereigntyuntil1862, American According to Tim Matthewson,theideaofanindependentnationliberatedslaves qtd. inLogan226) the honorswhichawaitthem,forasuccessfulrevoltontheirpart.(Benton country, andgivetheirfellow blacksintheUnitedStates,proofhandof Ambassadors toestablishthemselvesinourcities,andparadethroughthe the peaceofelevenstatesinthisUnionwillnotpermitblackConsulsand overtly drivenbyracism.Futurerelations with might go, wereunabletoex revolt”intheU.S. ting fromthat According to 4 With the R.W. Logan Western 13). No s - - - -

amato 37 aegis 2006 - - - - fairs well s sovereign affairs. s sovereign affairs. The countries of of The countries reveals much about about much reveals , could be obtained by Non Financial America Financial ,” signifying approval of the Constitution (Farmer ,” signifying approval of the Constitution OUI (Farmer 93). When Haitians protested, the U.S. Marine occupiers When Haitians protested, the U.S. (Farmer 93). 5 The United States Navy had been compelled to send warships into Haitian warships into Haitian compelled to send States Navy had been The United in 1849, 1851, American citizens property of protect the lives and waters to 1902, 1888, 1891, 1892, 1868, 1869, 1876, 1865, 1866, 1867, 1857, 1858, during 1912, 1913, and 1907, 1908, 1909, 1911, 1903, 1904, 1905, 1906, (89) ships there almost without interruption. 1914, 1915 had maintained The Marine occupation of Haiti from 1915-1934 perhaps seems like the last holdover The Marine occupation of Haiti from 1915-1934 perhaps seems like the last holdover One of the most significant amendments to this new constitution was the abolition abolition the was constitution new this to amendments significant most the of One It could hardly come as a shock, then, that in 1915 the United States began an armed as a shock, then, that in 1915 the United It could hardly come was apparent that Americans still had little regard for the only freed slave nation in the world. the in nation slave freed only the for regard little had still Americans that apparent was America The Reign of Corporate Post-Imperialist Era: the United from an era marked by “Big Stick” and “Dollar Diplomacy” tactics. In any event, States would never again make such obvious, public interventions in Haiti’ saying Heinl and Heinl, the U.S. Marine Corps historians, claimed the occupation a success, (Gaffney 2). North American companies scrambled to lease over 266,000 acres of Haitian land land Haitian of acres 266,000 over lease to scrambled companies American North 2). (Gaffney (Farmer produce” tropical other and mahogany sisal, sugar, bananas, rubber, of “plantations for of edition 1926 28, November the from article An 94). opportunity marvelous a offers “Haiti exploitation: Haitian toward attitude American blasé the hard a gives and directed, easily handy, is Haitian run-of-the-mill investment…the American for It 95). Farmer in (qtd. $3” cost work day’s same the Panama in while cents, 20 for labor day’s ticipants were handed a ballot marked “ points out, “that an alternative slip, marked As James Gaffney 93). (2). special request was not greatly emphasized” and economic Haiti’s fuel would this as land, of ownership foreign prohibiting laws Haiti’s of opened constitution “accommodating” more This times. modern into even crises humanitarian labor cheap importantly, more and land cheap for eager corporations, U.S. for floodgates the sion by U.S. warships” (90). In essence, the United States, along with its European partners sion by U.S. warships” (90). In essence, the very conditions in Haiti they later used as an in the throes of imperialist zeal, had shaped granted the United States full control of Haiti’s 1918 constitution excuse for invasion. Haiti’s “Haiti could not undertake any foreign debt” without with a provision that financial affairs, United States permission parliament and a requisite public vote, in which par responded by dissolution of the Haitian into the early twentieth century. Haiti was a sovereign nation, and yet the United States per a sovereign nation, and yet the United Haiti was century. into the early twentieth pretext of a “diplomatic all while maintaining the their domestic affairs, petually interfered in of the world. quarantine” to the rest was justified Although U.S. intervention that would last nineteen years. occupation of Haiti instability was in points out that Haiti’s Farmer accurately under the guise of “instability,” foreign capital, coupled with almost continuous inva reality the result of the “penetration of There seems hardly any doubt as to just how much control Haiti had over its own af any doubt as to just how much control There seems hardly of the Haitian people was under the jurisdiction of foreign powers” (85). (85). powers” of foreign jurisdiction under the was Haitian people of the Haitian struggling the vulnerable, saddled United States and the Germany Britain, France, revenue” for “protect percent of national amounting to “80 with crushing debt, government historians claim: U.S. military to Farmer, According (Farmer 88). citizens ing” Haiti’s

aegis 2006 38 amato 102). Essentially, the actions of the United States and the imperialist powers of Europe for the national treasuryandbankwereownedbyUnitedStatescorporations(Farmer101- Haiti’s $40,000,000 debttotheUnitedStatesintheirsolvencycalculation,orfactthat “in 1934,thecountrywasmodernized,solventandthriving,”althoughtheydidn’ received over $40 million in U.S. aid in his first four years in power, during the height of his for “the Haitian vote to expel Cuba from the OAS” (Chomsky 19). Most appalling, Papa Doc (Chomsky 20). Behind “Papa Doc” Duvalier stood President Kennedy, offering aid in exchange unemployment…no unions, ample terror, [and] workers at wages of fourteen cents an hour” in Haiti for U.S. manufacturers, “who were able to benefit from such advantages as enormous Behind the tremendous decline in wages stood U.S. tax dollars bankrolling assembly plants U.S. policies, both advertent and inadvertent, that contributed to and instigated Haiti’s troubles. centuries past. The truth is that behind the appalling suffering of the Haitian peasantry stood be tempting to assume the United States had recovered from its racist, imperialist fervor of ported someofthewealthiestcountriesinworld. meager cropstosupporttheirstarvingcountry, whiletheirshamefullyinadequatewagessup qtd inFarmer120).ItseemsalmostunfathomablethatHaitians wereunabletoproduceeven units comparedwith“theDominicanRepublic’s 2.10,Canada’s 5.38,theU.S.’s 6.35”(Abbot Dominican Republicproduced2.67…theU.S.5.04”with corn unitsinHaitiproducedat.67 (Farmer 120).Haitiansoil“couldonlyproduce.90unitsof riceperhectarewhereasthe by “deforestationandconcomitanterosion,”withthousands ofacresspoiledbyalkalinity the title“Taiwan oftheCaribbean”(Chomsky20). EvenHaiti’s soilwasexhausted, zen withoutevenanorderinwriting”(LoescherandScanlon317-18). wielded widediscretionarypowertoarrest,imprison,tortureorputdeathanyHaitianciti use of‘disappearances’ inthewesternHemisphere,[inwhich]Duvalier’s paramilitaryforces dissent” (LoescherandScanlan314).FrancoisDuvalierimplemented“thefi litical expression[were]closelymonitored;prison,tortureandexileusedtosuppress (Farmer 108).Nonconformistswere“deniedtherighttoorganize, [and] unionactivityandpo numbers areknown,itisbelievedthatDuvalierseniorkilled“tensofthousands”Haitians was regularlyusedfortheintimidationandtortureofHaitiancitizens,thoughnoexact son Duvalierreign,Haiti’s povertyandoppressionreachedendemicproportions. The army impossible thatthingscouldgetworseinHaiti,butbythe1980s,declineoffather “Baby Doc”destroyedanyshredofhopeHaitimayhavehadforimprovement.Itseemed ensure hisvictory”(315). disqualifying candidatesandstrictcensoringofthemediapriortoelection)wasmade voters ties, suchas7,500votesforDuvalierfromthetinyregionofLa “elected” in1957,byan“army-organized” campaign,whichwascharacterized byirregulari post-American occupationyears,andsentitcareeningovertheedge.FrancoisDuvalierwas for anunparalleledhumanitariancrisishadbeensown. no abilitytosustaintheireconomy, andnoautonomytosortthroughtheirfinances. The seeds first 150yearsofHaitianindependenceleftthecountryinshambles,crippledbydebt—with 6 (Farmer107). As GilbertLoescherandJohnScanlanobserve,“everyeffort (including With no visible U.S. government presence during the Duvalier reign of terror, it may By the1980s,alreadypaltryHaitianwagesdeclinedby56%,relegatingHaitito The horrifyinglycorruptthirtyyearreignof“PapaDoc”andsubsequentlyhisson The reignoftheDuvalierfamilytookcountryonverge ofcatastropheinthe Tortue, whichhadonly900 rst widespread t include - - - - -

amato 39 aegis 2006 ------ted from Haiti’s ted from Haiti’s , and significant ring. In the months following Aristide or his political tenden present in Haiti’s affairs, but they were very but they affairs, present in Haiti’s physically support [of] a new economic program guided by the United States, a pro the United States, a program guided by a new economic support [of] be States that would from the United private investments gram featuring taxes, a minimum wage as no customs by such incentives drawn to Haiti American of labor unions, and the right of the suppression kept very low, (Lawless qtd. in Farmer 114) their profits. corporations to repatriate Aristide also “declined his $10,000 monthly salary, terming it ‘scandalous in a terming it ‘scandalous in Aristide also “declined his $10,000 monthly salary, 7 What Aristide could have accomplished as Haiti’s president will never be known Haiti’s Aristide could have accomplished as What While Aristide must have appeared as a savior to the broken and oppressed seg Aristide must have appeared as a savior While The democratic election of Jean-Bertrand Aristide in 1991, while shocking to the The democratic election of Jean-Bertrand now. On September 30, 1991 Aristide’s government was overthrown in a coup by a three-man government was overthrown in a coup by a three-man Aristide’s September 30, 1991 On now. Angry Haitians filled the streets in the hours Cedras. military junta, led by one General Raoul Any with loaded rifles. soldiers of the new military regime waiting after the coup, only to find attempts at gathering by the citizens resulted in indiscriminate fi eliminate pro-Aristide sentiment in the coun the coup, Cedras and the army would effectively try by torturing, killing or driving out anyone associated with According groups, student groups and the press were among the early victims. cies: peasants’ oppression for almost two centuries. According to Jane Regan, during Aristide’s first seven Aristide’s to Jane Regan, during According oppression for almost two centuries. to turn around. Literacy programs months of office, “the Haitian economy was beginning with news, denunciations [and] popular opinion” (“Haiti The radio was alive were starting up. it looked as though forward progress history, Haiti’s 7). For the first time in on the Brink” par. of progress foreigners and wealthy Haitians desired. might be on the horizon, but not the kind of prosperity, and even commenced his presidency with a breakfast for the hungry at the presi the at hungry the for breakfast a with presidency his commenced even and prosperity, of dential palace. (Farmer 165). country where most people go to bed hungry’” foreign investors his populist philosophies gave Haitian elites and ments of Haitian society, Aristide seemed to be advocating redistribution of wealth The kind of cause for apprehension. and international, who had profi threatened the “establishment,” both domestic of a U.S.-chartered plane (Farmer 124). Again to Populism…And Back Tyranny From anticipation in the eyes of ushered in an era (albeit short) of hopeful international community, Haiti in which every person could “sit at the table” Aristide proposed a the poorest Haitians. much financially entangled in Papa and Baby Doc’s business of murder, oppression and oppression business of murder, in Papa and Baby Doc’s much financially entangled even as the U.S. State government, into Baby Doc’s Aid money continued to channel tyranny. all levels of society 1979 that “corruption is traditional at Department noted in to be diverted to personal revenues usable for development continue amounts of domestic endemic When Haitian oppression reached Loescher and Scanlon 317). enrichment” (qtd. in began to take notice and raise the international community proportions in the mid-1980s, Haiti in 1986, compliments Baby Doc ultimately fled protest, pressuring the U.S. to respond. The U.S. no longer appeared to be The U.S. no longer tyranny (Farmer 108). According to Loescher and Scanlan, between 1946 and 1972, the U.S. U.S. the 1972, and 1946 between Scanlan, and Loescher to According 108). (Farmer tyranny seized Doc Baby When (321). government Duvalier the to aid in million $120 staggering a sent vice-presi the by visit public very a to part in thanks seamless, was transition the 1971, in power was visit this for cost Doc’s Baby claims Lawless Robert States. United the of dent

aegis 2006 40 amato of povertyandcorruptiontheinternationalcommunitythoughtimpossible.Lifeexpectancy of thousandsleftthecountrybysea”(190). to Farmer, “over100,000HaitianswerebelievedtohavecrossedtheDominicanborder…tens daylight (“InBondage”4). According to ThesituationinHaititoday, itseemsclichédtosay, hassurpassedalmostanyone’s that forcesHaitianstocowerintheirhomes,andthereare fires anddecapitationsinbroad worst projections.Reganoutlinesapictureofdesperate country: thereisperpetualgunfi corporate profitssoared. was thatessentialsbecameunbearablyexpensiveforthepoorest ofHaitians,while with president George Bushproceededtoexempt“some 800ofitsfirms and all doubt. While publiclydenouncingtheillegal regime inHaitiwithanembargo, American about theU.S.stance,anotherleakyembargo reminiscentofthenineteenthcenturyremoved silence canbeconstruedasapassiveapprovalofsorts.Iftherebelregimehadanydoubts when Haiti’s biggestandmostinfluential neighborfailstoweighinonanillegalgovernment, regime torepressanyopposition(Farmer190;Regan,“HaitiontheBrink,”par Bush seniorinthemonthssurroundingcoupgaveasortofsilent“greenlight”torebel tion thanitpubliclyacknowledged. Additionally, the“awkwardsilence”ofPresidentGeorge There seemedtobelittledoubtthattheU.S.tookamoreactiverolein federal moneyfromtheUnitedStates(Regan,“InBondage”4). According toRegan, Farmer, ampleevidence hassurfacedthatcoupleaderswere“CIA assets,”orrecipientsof 1991 couphasnowbeenrevealedinthefinancial papertrail:accordingtoboth Reganand of U.S.troopsin1994,thereis,predictably, moretothestory. U.S.involvementin Aristide’s be forciblyremovedfromoffice byyetanothercoupshortlyafter. curred onlywiththehelpof20,000U.S.troops. full threeyearsafterthe1991couptoreinstate Aristide asHaiti’s presidentagain,andthisoc and wagesareatanall-timelow, worseeventhantheyearsof Duvalierreign.

Haiti byabout While themostvisibleroleU.S.hasplayedinHaiti’s recentwoesisdeployment Indeed, inthefifteen yearssince Aristide’s originalcoupHaitihasstrayedintoastate (“The Truth About Haiti”1) and companiessuchasDisney useitasasourceofcheapmanufacturing. 70 percent.Nearlyalltheraw materialsarecontrolledbyUScorporations, 85 per cent of the people live on less than a dollar a day; unemployment is at Life expectancyformenis48; onechildintendiesbeforeitsfi General RaoulCedras,onitspay-roll.(“HaititheBrink”par high-ranking Haitianarmyofficers, includingthecoupleader, Lieutenant repression from1986untilatleast1991.Foryears,theCIA hashadmany secret-police unit,theServiced’IntelligenceNational,whichoversawbrutal openly against Aristide’s economicreforms. The CIA setupandfundeda In 1991, AID allotted$26milliontoelitebusinessgroupsthatworked

50 percent ” (emphasisadded,“The Truth About Haiti”1). The result The NewStatesman 9 Aristide waselectedagainin2000,onlyto , Aristide’s opposi increased itstrade . 11). After all, fth birthday; 8 . 14) Ittooka American - re -

amato 41 aegis 2006 - - - - American less than a t a popular emotion in , but predictable, behind face of democracy, the promulgator face of democracy, the ? How do we justify American policies that result in the starving of the world’s American policies that result in the starving of the world’s ? How do we justify American identity (both perceived and actual) is precisely the reason that Haiti American identity (both perceived and tion of racism, greed and an all-consuming bid for power in countries that are incapable of tion of racism, greed and an all-consuming ventures of the Disney Corporation (an defending themselves. How else can the icon of family values) be explained, in a country where the minimum wage is dollar a day continues to poorest populations of medicines and basic necessities, while the country of Haiti explain that be the playground of some of the richest international corporations? How do we in aid to tyran America stands for freedom and democracy when we give millions of dollars a greater level of introspection into our own lives and motives, and those of our government a greater level of introspection into our American life, and cast ripple into all sectors of of such introspection The ramifications (13). in various areas of the world. If we American financial and military presence shadows over (and by extension, Iraq), what are we? the humanitarian savior of countries like Haiti aren’t something much more sinister The factual record tells us that there is a constella The historical record paints like Haiti. our continual interference in countries of liberty and democratic ideals. The invasion of the sovereign nation of Iraq, after all, was The invasion of the sovereign nation of Iraq, after all, was of liberty and democratic ideals. speeches and news conferences daily rein bolstered on precisely such ideals. Presidential has an obligation to bring democracy and freedom to those who America force the notion that happened to Haiti? are unable to help themselves. So what the “uncomfortable” truths, as Chomsky deems them, When we confront matters so much. which means be examined a little more closely, American motives may need to we find that Truth About Haiti” 1). While Americans may be aware of some of the ambiguities of our Americans may be aware of some of the ambiguities of While Haiti” 1). About Truth feelings of obligation or off easier to shuffle involvement in Haiti, it is simply government’s to a sense of guilt—which isn’ accountability because they could lead Americans pride themselves Chomsky points out, American repertoire. Indeed, as Noam the the idea of the U.S. as a beacon of freedom and values on certain “plain truths,” which include America has come to identify itself as (Chomsky 20). booming, amid the backdrop of murder, oppression and misery. and misery. oppression backdrop of murder, booming, amid the Why It Matters even more tempting to take the tiny island nation of Haiti. It may be should care about the random events, problems as a series of value, where they “treat [Haiti’s] news reports at face Americans and ponder why exactly It may be tempting to watch the evening news and the US cavalry riding to the rescue” (“The with voodoo somewhere in the background Canada” while the States, France and as well as the United [Haitian elite], private sector on his possible return (Regan, “In Africa Aristide waits for word in South popularly elected and favor of “the government has the enjoyed backing Meanwhile, the interim as long borders by the millions, aid dollars continue to pour into Haiti’s Bondage” 4). U.S. or in other words, the accepted to “foreign imports and investment,” as Haiti remains open is trade and profit American About Haiti” 1). Truth business (“The American exploitation of According to Regan, statistics like these wholly qualify Haiti as a “failed state” (“In Bond state” (“In a “failed Haiti as qualify these wholly like statistics to Regan, According literally on is is going notes, “What Bajeux Jean-Claude rights-advocate 5). Human age,” this, we are looking stop can’t If we march.’ philosophy a ‘death is what we call in insane… It seems 5). In short, Haiti “In Bondage” nation” (qtd. in Regan, of the Haitian at the destruction the of independence, with precarious history ever has been in its collapse than it closer to total and unconcerned. unaware world largely

aegis 2006 42 amato suffering isnotsimplytobe ashamed,buttoletthatshamebeacatalystforaction. When we stands notforhumanityintiny, invisiblecountrieslikeHaiti,butforexploitationandgreed. nical despotsbentonrepressingthoseveryvalues? The sumofthesefactsisthat America discussions oneventual U.S.intervention after Aristide’s deposition. 9. SeebothRegan, “IsHaitiinBondagetoHistory,” andFarmerfortheirenlightening Haitians. 8. See“The Truth About Haiti”forstaggering statisticsonthequalityoflifeforpoorest 164-65. 7. Forafascinatingdiscussion of Aristide’s activities inhisfirst days inoffice,seeFarmer, pp. 6. SeeFarmer’s explanationofDuvalier’s sham election,pp.106-107. constitution whileservingas Secretary oftheNavy. 5. Farmeralsopointsoutthat FranklinRooseveltclaimedtohaveactuallywrittenHaiti’ of Haiti 4. ForFarmer’s discussionof America’s intolerancetowardtheHaitiannation,see response, pp.24-28. 3. SeeMatthewson’s discussionofFrenchfearsabout American trademotives and American of thesixteenthcentury, withtheentirepopulation wipedoutby1540. 2. R.W. LogannotesthattheIndianpopulationhasbeenestimatedatoveramillionturn Mountains BeyondMountains. 1. ForKidder’s discussionofthedamconstructionandpigswapping,seepp.36-39 Notes of fellowhumans. The pointis:do Tracy Kidder’s Haiti,andacknowledgedtheinextricablethreadsthatbindustosuffering many, andwhiletheimpact mayseemsmall,itdoesmatter. Itmeanswehaveinternalized from malnutrition,tuberculosis, AIDS, andevenmeasles. The optionsforinvolvement are in-Health, whobringhealthcaretothepoorestpopulationsegmentsinHaiti,sickanddying We cancontributethroughvolunteeringorfinancial donationtoorganizations likePartners- Disney, and Texaco areafew working conditions,destabilizedeconomyandtaxloopholes(American governments. We caneducateourselvesonU.S.corporationsthatexploitHaiti’s deplorable sure ourelectedofficials tostoptheflow of U.S.taxdollarstoundemocraticallyinstalled simply asking:whataretherealmotives? What dothehistoricalfactsreveal? We canpres following publicizedagendasinvolvinghumanitarianismandthe“spreadofdemocracy”by affairs, andtakethatknowledgetothevotingbooth. We cancautionourselvesagainstblindly individuals, andcollectivelyas Americans. We canbeginwithvigilanceinourgovernment’s to suchloftyandself-sacrificial heightsofpublicservice,wecanstillmakean impact as ing canaccomplishinrightingacenturies-oldwrong. While itmaybeimpossibletoaspire ney observes,the“humanvoiceswakeus,”callingustoaction(3). acknowledge suchsuffering, andourplaceinthatsuffering, and donothing. As JamesGaff of humansreducedtonearslavery, itisimpossibletoturnaway. Itwouldbereprehensible to recognize thatourlavishandcomfortablelifestyleis , p.75. Tracy KidderrevealsinPaulFarmerwhattheempathyandworkofonehumanbe The pointofacknowledging America’s truemotivesandresponsibilityinHaiti’s 10 ) andmakeourviewsknown,throughletter-writing orboycott. something . still supportedwiththelivesandvitality Airlines, Citibank, The Uses s - - -

amato 43 aegis 2006 . 1941. 38.4 . 26.3 (1984): 313- . By Paul Farmer. Monroe, ME: Farmer. . By Paul . 171.11 (1994). 4 January 2006 (1994). 4 January . 171.11 . Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. Praeger, CT: Westport, . 58.9 (1994). 50 pars. 1 November 2005 NACLA Report on the Americas Report on the NACLA . New York: Random House, 2004. Random House, York: . New America 133.4678 (2004): 6-7. 1 November 2005 Progressive Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1994. Monroe, ME: Common The Uses of Haiti The Uses New Statesman Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs Studies and World Journal of Interamerican A Proslavery Foreign Policy Foreign Proslavery A Mountains Beyond Mountains Mountains Beyond The Uses of Haiti. Diplomatic Relations Of The United States With Haiti 1776-1891 Of The United States With Diplomatic Relations (2005): 4-8. 1 November 2005 Refugees.” 356. 4 January 2006 1969. Kraus Reprint, York: New Common Courage Press, 1994. 13-44. Courage Press, 1994. Common Regan, Jane. “Haiti on the Brink.” “The truth about Haiti.” Loescher, Gilburt and John Scanlan. “Human Rights, U.S. Foreign Policy, and Haitian U.S. Foreign Policy, and John Scanlan. “Human Rights, Gilburt Loescher, Logan, R.W. Tim. Matthewson, Regan, Jane. “Haiti: In Bondage to History?” Chomsky, Noam. Introduction. Noam. Chomsky, Paul. Farmer, James. “Haiti and her Friend.” Gaffney, Tracy. Kidder, 10. See the U.S. state department’s website, http://www.state.gov/e/eb/ifd/2005/42043.htm for http://www.state.gov/e/eb/ifd/2005/42043.htm website, state department’s the U.S. 10. See information more Cited Works

aegis 2006 44 amato Analysis of Dylan’s Dylan’s Analysis of Anatomy& Philosophizing Disgrace: literary structure that can be isolated for critical attention” (71). preference in definitions, and 2) the use of word “symbol,” which Frye uses as meaning “any Which poses two problems: 1) there is no word for a work of literary art that supersedes a trivial investigation. Frye’s concern lies in the fact that literature is without set of technical vocabulary. efforts spawned the second essay of four contained within other varied disciplines. In doing so, Frye has built a literary map of critical interpretation. His vis-a-vis its peers though; it merely leaves it open to be experienced in a way solely unique to historian for events, and to the philosopher for ideas” (12). This does not diminish literature an organized structure of knowledge, the critic has to turn to the conceptual framework of the and the poem—or primary source—to be experienced. Frye admits, “literature is not itself of literature” (11). This leaves the critical response—or secondary literature—to be “studied” literature’: one learns about it in a certain way, but what one learns, transitively, is the criticism guished from the systematic study of it, which is criticism. It is therefore impossible —JohnLeland to ‘learn primary source, from its critical commentary. Frye states, “Art, like nature, has to be distin in critical response to the To begin it is surely acceptable to believe that literature can be studied, criticized, himand are that while the past has been infatuated with the placed into a ranking order of quality. The difference with Frye and the critics who preceded Criticism found whenoneisinclinedtojuxtaposehislyricswiththose ofNorthropFrye’ able, unequivocal,andessentiallyirrefutableanswertothequestion,thatthisis eventually cometoanunderstandingofhislyrics?Itismycontentionthatthereaknow one mightwellask:buthowdoesdecipherqualityinpoetry, andhowmustweread comprehender ofwordsisnomoretheirmasterthanheorsheservant”(1 has alwayshadawaywithwords.Hedoesnotsimplyhavehisthem,sincetrue resembles theoneputforwardbyChristopherRicks,whodeclaresquiteconfi that anyonehasseriouslybotheredtotacklethequestioninrecentyears,answerusually and haveassumedtheyareeitherthebestofhisgenerationorsimplyirrelevant. great detail—onthequestion“Howdohislyricsrankamongstpoetryofpast?” to now, Dylanenthusiasts anddetractorsalikehavetendedtoelaborate—andrecentlywith be construedasthelatter, ifonlybecausethepropositionhasneveractuallybeentested.Up ThepoeticqualityofBobDylan’s lyricshasbeendescribedaseverything from (Christgau 63). “the perfectrolemodeltopresentaspiringartists”(Paglia262) in rags—intothescreechofrockandroll,deepeningbothprocess. freed the characters of archaic He self. hidden America—Sweet carefully a Marie, with theselfishness of Jack vortex a of as Hearts, public the Mrs. to Henry,came Dylan truth. Napoleonthe [Dylan] has consistently improved whatever he stole, and his lies have been more revealing than . 2 Adam Cottrel While theymayverywellstandastheformer, theymostassuredlycannot experience . He regards this process as one that must separate the Hard Rain fashionable Anatomy 1 to“sillywithoutthemusic” , Frye tries to clear a path that speaks directly to this dently, “Dylan s Anatomy of To theextent 1). To this - -

cottrel 45 aegis 2006 ------but an or s study as a methodi To ensure the critical ensure the To The song begins with the

3 In turn many of his lyrics that were previously hailed, were imme In turn many of his lyrics that were previously 4 I’ve walked and I’ve crawled on six crooked highways, I’ve stepped in the middle of seven sad forests, I’ve been out in front of a dozen dead oceans, I’ve been ten thousand miles in the mouth of a graveyard, Oh, where have you been, my blue-eyed son? Oh, where have you been, my blue-eyed young one? And where have you been, my darling I’ve stumbled on the side of twelve misty mountains, As my study of Dylan proceeds, so too will Frye’s system be unveiled as one that lit system be proceeds, so too will Frye’s As my study of Dylan Frye proceeds when he distinguishes critical analysis and art by saying “value-judg and art by analysis critical when he distinguishes proceeds Frye “Hard Rain”). This song is one of Dylan’s most particularly challenging, but I think equally This song is one of Dylan’s “Hard Rain”). is supported by Ricks—is that it refuses to be a rewarding set of lyrics. One reason—which The lyrics conjure time, setting, and the individual poem studied under allegorical contexts. sure on what grounds. but its reader (or listener) is never quite opening stanza: temple” (Goodman 42). And subsequent lyrics to songs were met with diately cast aside as “empty” or “nonsensical.” Thus, in choosing a precedent source poetic quality. an equal vigor of spite regardless of their and individualized response outlined by Frye is es one must bear in mind that the systematic of social attitude. sential in not being caught up in the debate to this song in abbreviated form as A-Gonna Fall” (from henceforth I will refer Hard Rain’s set of lyrics—is “A most endearing songs—and subsequently praised One of Dylan’s career playing largely acoustic numbers with lyrics that appeared to be topical on the situ acoustic career playing largely left his kingdom of folk groupies for an electric ations of the time. But in 1965 Bob Dylan everything concerning Dylan and his fandom; and the This changed guitar and backing band. their dreams come true two years before - the pro old guard of folk musicians that saw all now saw it fade away in a crown of self-indulgence. liferation of a politically active youth - manager] was the money changer at the gates of the “As far as they were concerned, [Dylan’s necessary to consider then that literary criticism is not a rudimentary progression of meanings, then that literary criticism is not a rudimentary necessary to consider the summative end of the work of contexts or relationships in which but rather a progression critical assessment This final destination sets and understood. can be placed, categorized, literature’ application of a social attitude and places apart from the mere innovation. cal, almost scientific hailed as the “voice of his generation” early in his connection to social attitude. Dylan was lyrics has been their strong of Dylan’s On the contrary the most impeditive quality der of words” (Frye 17). The criticism of literature, then, is one that must be multi-tiered and is one that must be of literature, then, The criticism (Frye 17). der of words” one places literature in approach that to a complex, systematic proposes amounts what Frye are divided as the Literal, five distinguishing sections groups. Frye’s of five distinguishing Anagogic phases. and Archetypal, Descriptive, Formal, principles (Frye 22). It is between inductive experience and deductive erature must correlate ments are founded on the study of literature; the study of literature can never be founded on be founded can never of literature the study literature; study of on the are founded ments poem between the excellent is the separation is determined here What (20). value-judgments” non-existent system. a futile search of a excellent poem as and the less of as there is an order “that just must come to the conclusion the reader study of literature, of ‘works,’ not a piled aggregate so literature is the natural sciences, nature behind

aegis 2006 46 cottrel If someoneweretoask,“Whatdoesitmeanhave finally themeaning. Onewouldbehardpressed tosaythattheline“Isaw tenthousandtalk But onemustnot takethesewordstomean that theliteralistherefore descriptive,and a poemliterallymeansunderstanding thewholeofit,asapoem,anditstands”(Frye 77). finite paraphrase. The “paraphrasesabstractasecondaryoroutwardmeaning. Understanding to makesummativepointsin the descriptivestage(79).Soplotthenofpoemis the study ofpoetryandthuscertain wordslike“plot”or“story”arenecessaryevilswhentrying sarily distinctforms.Fryemakes apointtosaythatourvocabularyislimitedconcerning the I takeit,thatdescriptivewriting foundinpoetryandthedidacticwritingareneces physical objects,liketheverbalstructuresofphilosophyand science”(79).Bythishemeans, The latterstandbetweentheverbalstructuresthatdescribe orarrangeactualideasrepresent FromtheliteralwefallintodescriptiveonbasisofFrye’s system. The de directly that“literatureinitsdescriptivecontextisabody of hypotheticalverbalstructures. scriptive purposeistoparaphraseapoemintocollective summation. Fryemakesthepoint the grave.IwanedtodosomethingthatstoodalongsideRembrandt’ learned fromthem.Popularcultureusuallycomestoanend veryquickly Dylan respondedbestwhenhesaid,“Ialwaysadmiredtrue artistswhowerededicatedsoI ily. Dylanwasconcernedinsteadwithatimelessquality, onethatdefies externaldefinition. were written. Those allegorieswon’t suffice andDylanwon’t letthembepigeonholedsoeas words of“HardRain”don’t applyclearlyandsimplytopeople,places,timeofwhenthey why suchlines—asnotedabove—areofaqualitywritingthatfewhavesurpassed. Hence,the“literalmeaningassimpledescriptivewillnotdoatallforliter While readingapoemliterallyisnecessityofnaturalinquiry ary criticism”(Frye76). This firststepinunderstandingapoemisnotsufficient onitsown. (74). simply insaying,“inallliteraryverbalstructuresthefinal directionofmeaningisinward” gal reading. The artistisoftenmisunderstoodandDylannoexception.Fryestatesthisidea Dylan, likeEliot,isnotwritingforanyoneletaloneanimageeasilyconjuredinthiscentrifu devolves intoaguessinggameofallegoricaldevicesthathaveneverbeenacceptedbyDylan. them andreachesanunderstandingthatislargely external. This externalreadingusually preting withanother—thecentrifugal. As thereader readstheselines,heinherentlyconsumes answer lieswithintheartistwritingforonepurpose—thecentripetal—andreaderinter explains tosomeextentwhytherehasbeensomuchmisinterpretationofDylan’ we trytodistinguishthewordsinlarger verbalpatterntheyaccumulate in(Frye73). This associates withthem. The secondsimultaneousresponseiscentripetal,orinward,inwhich calls thecentrifugal,oroutsideindividualwordsonpagetothingsourmemory read ourattentionmovesintwoopposite,yetintrinsicdirections.OnedirectioniswhatFrye the “literal”responseintraditionofFrye.Fryethoughiscarefultonotethatwhenwe answered: “Lady, threewhiteleopardssatunderajuniper-tree”. Wednesday” meant,“Lady, threewhiteleopardssatunderajuniper-tree” (Ricks329).Eliot means whatitsays.Ithasbeennotedthat T.S. Eliotwasonceaskedwhatalineof“Ashe- of agraveyard ?” onemighteasilyreply—withwhatFryecallsthe“literal”sense—thatit And it’s ahardrain’s a-gonnafall. And it’s ahard,andit’s ahard,it’s ahard,andit’s ahard, been tenthousandmilesinthemouth , itcannotsatisfyoursearchfor 5 This couldbeseennowas s paintings”(Hilburn72). . Itgetsthrowninto s lyrics. The The ------

cottrel 47 aegis 2006 - - - is more nd a descriptive 6 s thoughts on poetry as s thoughts on poetry

Anatomy of Criticism Your songs are supposed to have a subtle message songs are Your Subtle message? supposed to. they’re Well, Where did you hear that? In a movie magazine discuss those things here we don’t Well, Oh my God! The aesthetic, or what may qualify as the beauty, of “Hard Rain” is this combination that Frye beauty, The aesthetic, or what may qualify as the leave its listener with satisfaction, it cannot answer our While that component can calls on. quite forwardly more probing question of coming to an understanding of the song. Frye states is being that the “subtleties are really there, and as the audience can hear everything that but not played, it gets them all as part of a linear experience, the awareness is less conscious, an experi less real” (86). I take this as meaning our subconscious is invaded and creates to “Hard ence that we cannot always perceive consciously and on the verbal level. Listening The formal phase implies “form” and as phase. ous analysis in what Frye calls the “formal” the literal meaning, or unity of structure. On the such a combination of what Frye has called seri “Hard Rain” must then be given its first why the mystery of Which is largely which expresses those qualities it content and matter, subsequent side it implies such terms as This dichotomy of components can be recombined— shares with external nature (Frye 82). nature—into a single poetic component—aesthetic. the literal with the expression of external This type of exchange was not uncommon for the young Dylan. Time has proven that such Time for the young Dylan. This type of exchange was not uncommon of an overly exuberant media, and partly due to misinterpretation can be partly the result youthful petulance. Dylan’s meaning has been the bane of Dylan’s career as a writer. In one such case Dylan found him career as a writer. meaning has been the bane of Dylan’s self in this exchange when he was told: half the people he’s addressing. But you could appreciate the language” (Hilburn 74). But you could appreciate the addressing. half the people he’s it carries as we listen, or effect to the rhythm of delivery and the one can relate the meaning Dylan’ even makes the point explicit (and echoes experience it. Frye tongues were all broken,” “I saw ten thousand talkers whose Returning to the line not towards putting words together intention “is directed claims a poet’s language) when he in with meaning” (86). No other line towards aligning words meaning to lines in order to fi accurate concerning Dylan. Placing a literal not the meaning of the words in themselves (Frye 78). in themselves (Frye of the words not the meaning poets. I read them the way of those early songs. I was into the hard-core the time I wrote a lot than I could name. knocked me out in more ways stuff King. Poe’s some people read Stephen “I had read a lot poetry by very clearly when he recalls, Dylan echoes this sentiment And more revealing yet, 74). all those guys. John Donne” (Hilburn Byron and Keats and about or talking know half the things he’s don’t goes on and on and on and you stuff “Byron’s ers whose tongues were all broken” is literally about ten thousand people with broken tongues tongues with broken people thousand about ten is literally all broken” were tongues ers whose of a point in reaching part is a necessary tongues that broken from here deduce and thus that is where poem” but suggests poem is literally a As Frye says, “a Rain.” clarity in “Hard one music on of sounds approximating flow For if a poem is “a meaning ends (78). the literal the on the other” then the pictorial of imagery approximating integrated pattern side, and an its movement of words, mood of a poem, or descriptive is the poem as the literal unity of the

aegis 2006 48 cottrel Inusingtheformalphasethough—ifusedtointerpretcorrectly—onemustrecognize that allcommentaryisallegoricalinterpretation.Inoneinconstantneedtoplaceideas incapable ofexplainingwhy. This ismostessentiallyFrye’s formalphase. Rain,” onemaybeverymuchinclinedtosaythatyes,theyenjoyedthesongbutaltogether they arenotmeaningless. Inone1964performance of“HardRain”heprefaced hisperfor Dylan hasnever givenanyanswerstothequestion “Whatdoesitmean?” hehashintedthat this songandDylan’s worktranscends hiscontemporaries.Itisimportanttonotethatwhile cally pleasingiscertainlyajustifiable reasontoenjoythework,butitdoes notanswerwhy in question,perhapsmoreso than thesong. Accepting “HardRain”asbeautifuloraestheti Theproblemwithleaving “HardRain”asmerelyanexerciseintheaesthetic,and listener toacceptsuchsimplicity asaplausibleanswer. Dylanhimselfbecomesthelabyrinth such isthecasewithformal phase,isthatthesongtoolyricalandpowerfulfor its have misinterpreted,orrathermissed,themeaning. it islimiting,andoncewehavelimitedawork—“HardRain” to America, inthe1960s—we right indoingso.Reading“HardRain”asthisorthatisnever wronginitsterminalsense,but Dylan hasargued muchlikeEliot’s responseto“Ashe-Wednesday” andhe,astheartist,is tripetal, alwaysamovementinwardthatiscontemplativeand thatisuniversallysuggestive. It canbewrongonthebasisofassumption. The final directionofthepoemisalwayscen the samesensethatamathematicalsumiseitherrightorwrong dependingonitsexponents. The answermayliesomewherebetweenyesandno. A readingofthelinecannot bewrongin and therichindulginginunnecessarypleasuresisaproblem, butisthatDylan’ lying cry against the disparity between the rich and poorofthe world. The poor being ignored Again wereadthenextline“Heardonepersonstarve,Iheardmanypeoplelaughin’”asaral —that whilethisreadinghasmerititissecondarytotheartist’ tice. SurelythisisalogicalinferencebutFryeremindsus—andDylanwouldsurelysecond largely readasthepopulace’s lackofinitiativeinworkingtowardsananswerforsocialinjus instance, theline“Heardtenthousandwhisperin’ andnobodylistenin’”isalinethathasbeen standing ofwhythecentrifugalhasbeendominantandcentripetallar Looking oversomeoftheselines,wecanstarttofind apathofdirectionthatleadstounder “Hard Rain”thatmayhelpilluminatejustthisideareads: to makeagenuinecommentaboutpoemhehasbegunallegorize”(89).Onestanzafrom to thepoemsimagery. Fryestatesquitebluntly, “Theinstantthatanycriticpermitshimself And it’s ahardrain’s a-gonnafall. And it’s ahard,andit’s ahard,it’s ahard,it’s ahard, Heard thesoundofaclownwhocriedinalley, Heard thesongofapoetwhodiedingutter, Heard onepersonstarve,Iheardmanypeoplelaughin’, Heard tenthousandwhisperin’ andnobodylistenin’, Heard onehundreddrummerswhosehandswerea-blazin’, Heard theroarofawavethatcoulddrownwholeworld, I heardthesoundofathunder, itroaredoutawarnin’, And whatdidyouhear, mydarlingyoungone? And whatdidyouhear, myblue-eyedson? s centripetalfocus(Frye74). gely ignored.For s meaning? ------

cottrel 49 aegis 2006 ------

7 The nally That question , but containing life and reality in a system of verbal relationships” (Frye 122). and reality in a system of verbal relationships” This point of view demands that the critic no longer conceive of po render the work as well. 122). etry as a part of life; rather literature has become its own self-contained life (Frye critic sur This final phase demands not only that the poet leave the poem, but that the derived from world of “twelve misty mountains” and “seven sad forests” may very well be own world, the our own, but the summation of “Hard Rain” read in its entirety places it in its can ultimately access. a place only Dylan vision of the author, of Shakespeare has a ‘meaning,’ though it would be equally false to say that a play of Shake though of Shakespeare has a ‘meaning,’ This is a fitting observation to place on Dylan 107). speare is meaningless” (“Shakespeare” head, but that does not hammered over the reader’s and “Hard Rain.” No message is being In taking Frye anagogic meaning as a means to exclude the words from meaning altogether. to place these words in a “conception of literature an end for “Hard Rain,” we must be willing a commentary on life or reality as existing in its own universe, no longer (Frye 100). “Hard Rain” then must be examined over his own poem stops with the poem” topical song about nuclear fall-out), or the descriptive not as the literal (which lends itself to a control to “Hard Rain” we must acknowledge “the poet’s finally surmount meaning To than a series of subtle observations), and not even (which would hardly answer anything more meaning as a number of linked verses that resonate as the formal (which places the song’s what the reader wholly experiences with its presen The meaning then is very much beauty). plays the of none that suggest would “I said, Eliot T.S. anagogic. the calls Frye what or tation, with its conceiver. When Dylan proclaims, “something’s going to happen” that may be taken When Dylan proclaims, “something’s with its conceiver. is merely reassuring himself but Dylan necessary, by anyone for whatever reason they feel the public to transform the meaning and his own affirmation in what he is singing and leaving Frye shadows this by proposing, “the conception into what ultimately will suit him or her. is neither direct nor negative, but potential, fi of art as having a relation to reality which and instruction, the style and the message” (93). resolves the dichotomy between delight hatred.” Certainly one can be in love and be wounded by it and certainly one can be wounded can be in love and be wounded by hatred.” Certainly one in hatred?” the question remains “who was wounded by or with hatred, but late in the song “But I’ll know its writer who sings in that same stanza may be answered by that the mystery to “Hard Rain” Which I think suggests I start singin’.” my song well before explaining that “poetry is a vehicle would agree with such a suggestion resides in Dylan. Frye ver aim at these things, but only at inner but the poet does not and beauty, truth, of morality, given to the public, the meaning remains private While the song has been bal strength” (113). and over again that he isn’t sure how he produced such work, that it transcends this world and this world and work, that it transcends he produced such sure how that he isn’t and over again 74). leaves” (Haliburn so too the ghost over, the song’s was present. Once “like a ghost song being a work of art, I think, protest is not unwarranted. But the ing as a song of social the later lines reads, “I met One of than what preceded it historically. will always be larger missile crisis. Surely its read what preceded “Hard Rain” was the Cuban Historically, another man who was wounded in The next, “I met in love.” one man who was wounded mance by declaring, “Hard Rain’s A-Gonna Fall, it means something’s going to happen.” going to it means something’s Fall, A-Gonna Rain’s “Hard by declaring, mance it makes agree. Frye would and Frye to say not for Dylan is certainly is, that something What talk or even capable of equipped to talk, art is not the best the writer who produces clear that a product, not only of “that poetry is the Frye even suggests, the art in question. ing about, but of processes which discursive writing, consciousness, like and voluntary act of deliberate has declared over as well” (88). Dylan or half-conscious or preconscious are subconscious

aegis 2006 50 cottrel Dylan, though,liveinanaltogetherdifferent world,oneofimaginationandperhaps—asFrye Thequestionthenisansweredwithahigher, moresuggestive—rather thaninstruc pulsion ofaction,acompulsionthinking,andfeeling. tive—tone. We live,asFryesuggests,inaworldofthreefoldexternalcompulsion:com New York: Norton, 2004.261–62. Ricks, Christopher. BenjaminHedin. New York: Norton,2004. 41–43. Paglia, Camille. “Dylanat60.” Leland, John. Harcourt,1996. 225–226. Goodman, Fred.“TheMansion ontheHill.” Frye, Northrop. 1950.107–120. ——. New York: Norton2004.51–57. Eliot, T.S. “ShakespeareandStoicismofSeneca.” ——. InterviewwithRobertHilburn. ——. Interview. Ed.BenjaminHedin.New York: Norton,2004. 62–63. ——. Dylan, Bob. Christgau, Robert.“RockLyrics Are Poetry(Maybe).” Works Cited 7. 6. As heardon“NoDirectionHome: The Soundtrack. The BootlegSeriesvol.7.” 5. Taken fromaKQEDpressconference,December3,1965. Selected PoemsofT.S. Eliot 4. Foramorein-depthreadingofEliotin1929,recalledbyB.C.Southam,see Festival performance. Goodman’s essay“TheMansionontheHill”whichchroniclesDylan’s 1965NewportFolk 3. ForafurtherreadingofDylan’s progressionfromacoustictoelectricmusic,seeFred height ofDylan’s popularityinthemid-1960shispiece“RockLyrics Are Poetry(Maybe).” 2. RobertChristagaupresentsasensibleunderstandingtothehyperbolecommonduring comeback inheressaythatwasanthologized 1. CamillePagliahighlightsthesocialandmusicaltrendsthatsurroundedDylan’ Notes is unequivocally, essentially, andirrefutablythepoet’s. decisive actofspiritualfreedom,thevisionrecreationman”(Frye94)—aplacethat the personalgreatnessofpoet,butsomethingimpersonalandfargreater:visiona suggests—a fourthpowerwheremorality, beauty, andtruth“presentsuswithavision,notof Shakespeare andtheStoicismofSeneca A GuidebooktotheSelectedPoemsofT.S. Eliot. No Direction Home:TheSoundtrack Lyrics: 1962–2001 Hip: TheHistory Anatomy ofCriticism. Studio A: TheBobDylanReader Dylan’s Visions ofSin (sixthedition1996),pp.225-6. . New York: HarperCollins,2004. Studio A: The BobDylanReader . New York: Simon&Schuster, 2004. Mojo: TheMusicMagazine Princeton:PrincetonUniversity Press,1973. . London: Ecco,2003. (1927); . Columbia,2005. Studio A: TheBobDylanReader Studio A: TheBobDylanReader . Ed.BenjaminHedin. Selected Essays Selected Essays Ed.B.C.Southam.Orlando: Studio A: TheBobDylanReader . Ed.Benjamin Hedin, . Sept.2005:72–74. . Rahway:Harcourt, , p.107. The wordsofBob . Ed. A Guidetothe s 1990s . . - -

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- - - Joyce masterfully arranges these first first these arranges masterfully Joyce A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Young a as Artist the of Portrait A 1 century. Stephen’s story starts at childhood and and childhood at starts story Stephen’s century. th D.H. Lawrence — then God knew at once that it was a French person that was Dieu was the French for God and that was God’s name too; and when anyone was the French for God and that was God’s Adam Cottrel Dieu tion and second-hand ideals. Life will seem to you, later, not a lesser, but a greater thing. but a greater not a lesser, ideals. Life will seem to you, later, tion and second-hand It is a fine thing to establish one’s own religion in one’s heart, not to be dependent on tradi heart, in one’s own religion establish one’s It is a fine thing to College, is a promising young student who Wood novel. Stephen, enrolled at Clongowes name just as his name meditates, “God was God’s Instead, Stephen is struggling to study. major transformation of the approach helps to determine the first stylistic Joyce’s was Stephen. prayed to God and said The language and motif of such lines are ones best described as childish. praying” (Joyce 12). logic, These are lines that leave the reader curiously questioning the paradigm of childhood was there was a moocow coming down along the road and this moocow that was coming down down coming was that moocow this and road the along down coming moocow a was there was (3). tuckoo” named boy little nicens a met road the along the of simplicity the see plainly can One child. a of process thought the with coincide to lines Joyce’s and “nicens,” “moocows,” of vocabulary child-like the by reinforced is which language, fashion to effort great taken has Joyce 131). (Gifford tuckoo” “baby nickname childhood own gained. has Stephen awareness of level the imitating style the with manner, this in novel the create despair and hardship. Only when Stephen stands on his own two feet, independent of of independent feet, two own his on stands Stephen when Only hardship. and despair create beliefs personal own his in strength finds Stephen happiness. find to able he is doctrine, outside ardu an After desires. most he which that seek to strength the him gives what is this and art in figure, priest-like a becomes he art in and religion new Stephen’s into turns art self-struggle, ous purposeful. life finding of aim the with expression artistic of gospel the spreading it time good very a and time a upon “Once writes, Joyce boy. young a of perceptions nocent in the capture that lines opening playful the in Stephen encounters first reader The weaves through adolescence, and into early adulthood. Joyce creates this story on the basis of of basis the on story this creates Joyce adulthood. early into and adolescence, through weaves child, naïve from stepping-stones create transformations These transformations. distinct four independent an to eventually and Catholic, ardent to teenager, rebellious to student, bright to extreme, two by caused is climax eventual This life. for mantra his as art holds that individual journey Stephen’s acceptance. Catholic and rejection Catholic of stages unhealthy, equally yet only that mindsets and people, places, of variety a to him lead purpose and happiness find to Joyce’s James of reader the stead” good in ever and now liberation. to oppression man, to boy from Dedalus Stephen of transformation the witnessed has me stand artificer, Irish old an in raised father, is “Old who and person time” a upon thoughtful “Once of sensitive, a is bookends the himself, Between Joyce after modeled Stephen, 20 the of part early the during family Catholic A Priest of the Portrait as a Young Man: Man: Young a as Portrait the of Priest A to Stephen Artistic Dedalus’s Path The Baptism

aegis 2006 52 cottrel in bothvocabularyandsyntax.Stephenismaturingasahumanbeingthinker;one the sameGodandGod’s realnamewasGod”(Joyce12). This passageshowsastarkcontrast Later inthatsamemeditation,Stephencomestotherealization“Godremainedalways but onesthatlandfirmly atthecenterofStephen’s lifelongquestofspiritualdevelopment. Thesestruggles permeateStephen’s vision of theworldandeventuallycreate asensi Stephen’s familyfalling onhardtimes.Dublinhasnot madelifeeasierfortheDedalus’. The tive modeofself-awareness thatishingedupon moralguilt. The secondtransformation finds view ofyoungStephen’s world. reminded ofasensedecline. UncleCharlesisanotherreinforcementtotheimpressionable political statements,nowisseen asphysicallyandmentallydebilitated.Stephenisagain who earlierinthissection,was amanStephenadmiredforhisreligiousdevotionandheady comfort zoneofhischildhood andexploringtheworldresidinginDublin.UncleCharles, derstand. This passageisimportantforhowperfectlyitencapsulatesStephenleaving the The firstlinementionsDublinasa“newandcomplex”placethat Stephenistryingtoun ing worldsurroundingStephen.Joycewrites: Stephen’s naïvechildhoodworld.MovingtoDublinbringsmorechangethatechoesadeclin house, Stephenisdevastated.Inalikemanner, thissymbolicallysignalsthedismantlingof tramping intothehousetodismantleit”(Joyce68). Watching themovingcrew dismantlehis “Two greatyellowcaravanshadhaltedonemorningbeforethedoorand menhadcome Dedalus familyisforcedtomoveDublinbecausetheyhavefallenintofi that iscausedbyfinancial andfamilyrelatedstruggles. The firstmajorchangeisthatthe an alarminglynewway. Stephen’s awarenesscoincideswithadominatingsenseofdecline Thefirsttransformationisthemostminor, yetitlaysthegroundworkforStephen’s Stephen’s newfoundacademicpotential,hesoonbecomesawareoftheworldaroundhimin subsequent transformationsthatdrivehimultimatelytohisindependencethroughart. on theactionsoftheirlife? a character’s journey, butonafundamentalquestionofhumanity—howisonejudgedbased the readermustidentifywithonherownpersonallevel.Joyceisnotmerelycommenting upbringing. Joycemakesthispointprevalentearlytoshowcaseitsimportance,andit’ because Stephenhimself,religionornoreligion,isunabletoescapethenotionsrootedinhis transformations, as you will note, are judged predominantly with a Christian eye. This is done cupation withGod.HisrelationshipGodisthedrivingforceformuchofnovel. Thisearlydevelopmentisimportantfortwosubstantialreasons. The firstrestson rable fromtheartist. The secondpointofsubstancecomesintheway ofStephen’s pre-oc Stephen’s extremesensitivityandintelligenceatsuchanearlyage. These traitsareinsepa can concludethatJoyce’s proseismimickingthistransformationaswell. its centrallinesuntilhereachedthecustomhouse.(69) had madeaskeletonmapofthecityinhismindhefollowed boldlyoneof square or, atmost,goinghalfwaydownoneofthesidestreets:butwhenhe beginning hecontentedhimselfwithcirclingtimidlyround theneighboring tling thenewhouseleftStephenfreerthanhehadbeenin Blackrock. Inthe less thathecouldnolongerbesentoutonerrandsandthe disorder inset Dublin wasanewandcomplexsensation.UncleCharles had grownsowit nancial disrepair: s one With - - The - - - - -

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- - - 2 , - . nds himself nds himself s mind. The internal battle s mind. A cold lucid indifference reigned in his soul. At his first violent sin he had At his first reigned in his soul. cold lucid indifference A his body or his had feared to find felt a wave of vitality pass out of him and vital wave had carried him on its bo soul maimed by the excess. Instead the it receded; and no part of the body som out of himself and back again when had been established between or soul had been maimed but a dark peace them. (10) Stephen is undoubtedly embracing his new lifestyle; yet it is inaccurate to say he is happy Stephen is undoubtedly embracing his new lifestyle; yet it is inaccurate to say knew he times many but once not mortally sinned had “he that himself to thinks Stephen Later sin alone, by every succeeding that, while he stood in danger of eternal damnation for the first So, while Stephen is trying to sin he multiplied his guilt and his punishment” (Joyce 110). rages and Joyce writes: but the dark pressure of her softly parting lips” (Joyce 108). Mimicking the ritual of prayer but the dark pressure of her softly parting forever and into a life no longer curious about, this encounter thrusts Stephen out of childhood of the world. but rather embracing, the failing indulgence beliefs behind him. Stephen was reared in a his life he has not completely left his Catholic That kind of experience has left an indelible religious household, around religious doctrine. though Stephen has embraced a new direction for It is imperative to realize that even in the back of Stephen’ imprint and it is one that lingers always the second transformation Joyce creates. Joyce The scene solidifies by way of a prostitute. one of Stephen finds himself immersed in a world far from the performs this task flawlessly. comes which first sexual encounter, These stark words transition into Stephen’s her lips to his and he a sudden movement she bowed his head and joined his childhood: “With her frank uplifted eyes. It was too much for him. He read the meaning of her movements in conscious of nothing in the world body and mind, her, closed his eyes, surrendering himself to city. Every day he grew up a bill of fare for the family and every night led a party of three or a bill of fare for the family and every Every day he grew up city. into a world of sinful excess with (Joyce 104). Joyce writes of exploration four to the theatre” embracing this lifestyle as his new unifying him pages later we find these words, but a few which everything longings of his heart before to appease the fierce force. Stephen “burned sin, that his life had grown to be He cared little that he was in mortal else was idle and alien. within him to realize the enor and falsehood. Beside the savage desire a tissue of subterfuge sacred” (Joyce 105). mities which he brooded on nothing was ing order. Stephen is quick to spend his winnings in an attempt to buy back his naïve child an attempt to buy his winnings in is quick to spend Stephen ing order. Stephen in a position with money puts to buy inner happiness Trying with gifts. hood world in the Catholic eyes This is a sin the errant pleasures of the world. where he is embracing Catholic view is starting to then unchallenged was raised. Stephen’s under which Stephen prizes ran through season of merrymaking the money of his waver significantly: “For a swift dried fruits arrived from the parcels of groceries and delicacies and fingers. Great Stephen’s urban center of Ireland has, if anything, opened up Stephen and family to a host of new situa a host of family to and up Stephen opened if anything, Ireland has, center of urban soon fi though, Stephen, Clongowes. hills of in the rural never encountered tions money for his submission pounds in prize Receiving thirty-three situation. in an opportunistic income is a precious His newfound is at a threshold of choice. contest, Stephen in a literary make. has been forced to his family alleviate the compromises could potentially gift, one that is los of how his life in an epic example squanders his money Stephen But the inexperienced

aegis 2006 54 cottrel InthethirdsectionofnovelJoycepoignantlyportraysdoubtthatiscreeping piness. After histeacherspeaksofthegreatsaint FrancisXavier, Stephenisoverwhelmed into Stephen’s mind,hisreturntoCatholicism,andthesearchforthatstillunattainedhap flee theconstraintsofCatholicismheisnotabletocompletelybreakawayfromiteither the disappointment hefinds inhispeers. This generaldisappointment bleedsovertohispro they werebidden tonote”(Joyce192).Stephen scoffs at theineffectual classes hetakesand imagines “theheadsofhisclassmates meeklybentastheywroteintheirnotebooksthe points worldview hasspilledoverto histhoughtsonacademia. While walkingthroughDublinhe ponders theaesthetictheories of Aristotle and Aquinas. At thisstageStephen’s negative InlimboStephen leaveshishomeafterbeingcalleda“lazybitch”anddecidesto formation. Walking througharainyDublin,Stephenquoteslineof poetrytohimselfand take awalkaroundDublin(Joyce 189). This marksthebeginningofStephen’s finaltrans how itdoesn’t whollycurewhatailsStephen. a varietyofvirtuesthatStephenholdsdeartohisheart. Yet, Joyceisabletocommunicate Joyce touchesonthenow, whilecontemplating thebeforeandafter. Catholicismhasunveiled the touch?Orwherewashe?Healone”(Joyce185). This transformationendsinlimbo. house ofsqualorandsubterfugetoqueeninitfadedcerements andinwreathsthatwitheredat that hadhungbackfromherdestiny, tobroodaloneupontheshameofherwoundsandin whether hehasturnedhislifearound:“Wherewasboyhood now? efforts tore-embraceCatholicismandfind happiness.Stephen,confused,startstoquestion ness, whereneithersensationisbeingexercised.Stephen is stilltemptedbysindespitehis This uncomfortingrealitysetsStephenintheawkwardrealm betweensalvationandhappi past. Yet, Stephenisneverquitesureifhisactionsofdevotionandrepentanceareworthy. simultaneously. JoycewritesofStephentryingtoredeemhimselffromthesinshisrecent of suffrage” (Joyce159).Inthispassagewefind Joyceplayingwithtwopowerfulemotions prayer sincehecouldneverknowhowmuchtemporalpunishmenthadremittedbyway with easesomanyfabulousagesofcanonicalpenancesdidnotwhollyrewardhiszeal combat hispastsins.Joycesuggeststhat“thespiritualtriumphwhichhefeltinachieving sense ofreligiousvigorislessenedbythefactthathisnewfounddevotionwillcompetently aspect ofhisfaith,andintensereadingreligioustexts.Stephen,though,isunsure, daily prayersbeforeaholyimage.Eachdayoftheweekisadditionallydevotedtospecifi to thelifehehadleftasachild. This transformationincludesadailyschedulebasedupon tion intothedepthsofwhatlifehastooffer. Foregoingthisinsight,Stephenmarchesonback thought ofbreakingfromtheconstructtraditionalandpartakinginaself-explora tipping betweenleftandright,Stephenhadpushedbothendstotheextremewithout Onefindsthatthischangeisnotonespawnedfromtheheart;rather, itisrootedin though, wasonebasedininexperience,youthfulfolly, andcloudedjudgment.Likeascale fear. The constraintsofCatholicChurchforcedStephentochange. The changeforStephen, bowed hishead,prayingwithheart”(Joyce146). mesmerized byFather Arnell’s wordsandultimatelywith“histonguecleavingtohispalate, a passionatesermonontherealitiesofhell,Stephenisparalyzedbyhisownguilt.He comes topreachatStephen’s school,ensureshistransformationbacktoCatholicism.In Stephen backtotheidealshethoughthadleftbehind.Father “withered uplikeaflower ofthedesertthatfeelssimoomcomingfromafar.” This leads by Xavier’s monumentalwork inthenameofGod.Guiltoverwhelmshimandhisheart Arnell, aguestspeakerwho Where wasthesoul . - - - - c -

cottrel 55 aegis 2006 ------Their Their , convic es this with the For Stephen, God , peers, or school , peers, or 3 , traditionally as , which leads him to becom , which leads him to non serviam is purified in and reprojected from the human imagination. The mystery of The mystery from the human imagination. is purified in and reprojected The artist, like God material creation is accomplished. aesthetic like that of or beyond or above his handiwork, of the creation, remains within or behind (232) paring his fingernails. indifferent, out of existence, invisible, refined The personality of the artist, first a cry or a cadence or a mood and then a a cry or a cadence or a mood and then artist, first The personality of the imper itself out of existence, refines finally fluid and lambent narrative, form in life The esthetic image in the dramatic speak. sonalizes itself, so to about his mother’s wish for Stephen to partake in the Easter rituals of Catholicism (Joyce wish for Stephen about his mother’s statement This statement harkens back to the biblical 260). 190). Clearly Joyce is paying homage to the biblical signed to Satan in Jeremiah (Gifford even as he reference, but much like Satan, Stephen must still be bound by Catholic dogma mind is supersaturated with the religion in denounces it. Cranly observes “how [Stephen’s] This conversation is important in highlighting which you say you disbelieve” (Joyce 261). newly found artistic discipline that is in the mold of his former religious discipline. Stephen’s all divine and creates a “soft liquid joy [that] flowed through the words where the soft long through the words where the [that] flowed all divine and creates a “soft liquid joy (Joyce 245). For Stephen, art has now given him vowels hurtled noiselessly and fell away” life with aim, purpose, and passion. the pleasure and purpose to proceed in new attitude on life and religion, Cranly of Stephen’s formation is completed. Unconvinced when questioned Stephen proclaims that “I will not serve” sincerity. decides to test Stephen’s with his best friend - Cranly - that the trans conversation It is finally in Stephen’s to Stephen Dedalus’ theorizing. One is not faced here with a case of synthesis whereby one theorizing. One is to Stephen Dedalus’ or is grafted upon another” (107). set of beliefs is made to accommodate In these lines Joyce’s paring his fingernails.” has left the realm of men; God is “indifferent, a congregation. Stephen is preaching his newly words resemble those of a man ministering close to the Catholic sermons of his past. Stephen found religion in a manner that is very Stephen cradles the opening Yeats, Admiring often quotes poetry like he once did scripture. For Stephen, this kind of artistic expression is above has just finished. Yeats lines to the play The epiphany of Joyce is one rarely matched in all of literature in terms of power The epiphany of Joyce is one rarely matched perception of Through this transformation of mind and spirit, Stephen’s tion, and severity. aesthetic of art. In his reading of this formal move, a spiritual component to life lies in the and aesthetics is not peculiar A. Buttgieg articulates, “the inseparability of religion Joseph superiors, Stephen is driven closer to the edge, rejecting wholly the institutions in his life to institutions in his life wholly the to the edge, rejecting Stephen is driven closer superiors, has devoted so much. which he Stephen is guided to art by an epiphany in the traditional sense. Joyce exemplifi the word of art as a unifying force. ing an artist and spreading unity abandons the idea of organized Stephen finally Through this trinity of rejection, words: fessors as well. Making his way to French class, Stephen runs into the dean of studies. of studies. into the dean runs Stephen French class, his way to Making as well. fessors unyield to be he thought in a world venture disappointing another to yet proves conversation taught he has been from a figure and advice integrity, honesty, is searching for ing. Stephen The conversation is trying to discuss. much of what Stephen The dean evades to respect. of aesthetic lack his superior’s dry tone” of suddenly by the firm “disheartened leaves Stephen connection in his family no intellectual (Joyce 205). Finding knowledge

aegis 2006 56 cottrel as religionisanideathatStephenhasfullyrealizedandsubsequentlyturnedintoawayof substitution oftheChristiandoctrinebyonepersonalandpracticalprominence–art. sion androutineisonenecessarytotheactiveopenpracticeoffaith.Inthisveinita Stephen isnevertrulyabletoleavethestructureoforganized religion. A processofsubmis Infancy.” 4. Forfurtherreading seeC.G. Anderson’s essay“Baby Tuckoo: Joyce’s “Features of 107). religion andaestheticswereas inextricablyintertwinedastheyhadeverbeen”(Buttigieg one wouldcaretogo. At theturnof century, thecontextwithinwhichStephen develops, 3. “Theconnectionsbetween religionandaestheticsgoesasfarbackinintellectualhistory as C.G. Anderson’s essay“ChristianSymbolismin 2. Forfurtherexamplesofreligious imageryin Penguin Books,1992)andshallbecitedparentheticallyin thetext. 1. All quotationsarefromJamesJoyce’s, Notes conscience ofmyrace”(276). millionth timetherealityofexperienceandtoforge in thesmithyofmysouluncreated and subsequentaffirmation. To putitasonlyJoycecan,“Olife!Igotoencounterforthe ously, thereader, thecritic,skepticshouldnotquestionStephen Dedalus’ artisticbaptism, Portrait questions, curiosities,andchallengeconventionalthought.Noseriouscriticwillar perhaps thegreatestevidenceforartisticachievementyet. Art shouldalways,aboveall,raise of this,perhapsevenpurposefully, unansweredquestion.InthisquestionIfind left uptointerpretationregardinghissuccess,orfailureintheoryandart. tion, oritsrankasoneofmodernism’s championworks.Stephen,likethenovel,islargely author becomestheartist,andartistfinally findssalvation. the headofStephen(tobereadJoyce). The characterinthebookbecomes theauthor, the that thissignifies nothinglessthanthereaderbeingthrustfrompasttopresent andinto in thisfinalsectiontoafirst-person perspective,inajournalentryform. point. Herethenoveltakesaturnalmostunheardoffortime.Joycechangesnarrator created art;hehasthenovelinquestion. The lastsectiononlyfurthersolidifies my trait able, asthisnovelislargely autobiographical. With thisunderstanding,onemustread overlooks oneimportantfact.StephenDedalusandJamesJoyceareinherentlyinterchange he hasmademuchprogresstowardbecominganartist”(Brady68). this theory, CordellD.K. Yee contends“no educationreallytakesplace,anditisnotclearthat Asthenovelends,Stephenhasyettoproduceanyworkofsubstantialmerit.Further Ulysess reading ofJoycewilluncoverStephenDedalusin art, andappearsontheverge ofcreatingart. life. Hiswords,thoughts,andactionsareallinfluenced byart.Hespeaksofart,consumes astheresultingpieceofevidenceStephen’s artistic expression.JoyceasStephenhas portraysStephennotasanartisticsuccess,butratherafailure.Inhisconsiderationof isnotanindeliblepieceofart. Therefore, forreasonsandevidencestated previ Portrait isaworkofartinitsownright.Flawedorflawless, nooneargues itsambi A Portraitofthe Artist asaYoung Man A Portraitofthe Artist asaYoung Man A Portrait Ulysses, 4 .” Joyce’s otherliterarymasterpiece. 5 This readingcompletely 6 Itismycontention Yet, Joyceisaware (New York: gue that Por see - Art - - - -

cottrel 57 aegis 2006 A Portrait of Portrait of A . Athens: Ohio . – The Shape of Life” is an The Shape of Life” – Approaches to Joyce’s to Joyce’s Approaches Critical Essays on James Joyce’s Critical Essays on James Joyce’s James Joyce’s Portrait A Portrait of the Portrait of A . New York: Penguin, 1992, York: . New Readings On .” ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982. ed. Berkeley: University nd A Portrait A . 2 . Eds.Thomas F. Staley and Bernard Benstock. Pittsburgh: Benstock. Pittsburgh: Staley and Bernard . Eds.Thomas F. A Portrait of the Artist in Different Perspective Different Artist in Portrait of the A A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man a Young Artist as Portrait of the A Joyce Annotated Joyce A Portrait of Artist as a Young Man. Eds. Philip Brady and James F. Carens. New F. Man. Eds. Philip Brady and James Young Artist as a Portrait of A G.K. Hall & Co., 1998. York: the Artist as a Young Man. Ed. Mark A. Wollaeger. New York: Oxford York: New Wollaeger. A. Mark Man. Ed. Young Artist as a the University Press, 2003. Portrait: Ten Essays Portrait: Ten Press, 1976. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000. San Diego: Greenhaven Clarice Swisher. Man. Ed. Young Artist as a Yee, Cordell D.K. “The aesthetics of Stephen’s Aesthetic.” Cordell D.K. “The aesthetics of Stephen’s Yee, Buttigieg, Joseph A. Buttigieg, Joseph Don. Gifford, Joyce, James. University press, 1987. The Shape of Life.” Diary: “Stephen’s Levenson, Michael. Anderson, C. G. “Baby Tuckoo: Joyce’s “Features of Infancy.” Infancy.” “Features of Joyce’s Tuckoo: C. G. “Baby Anderson, in ——. “Christian Symbolism 5. A larger discussion concerning the connection between Stephen Dedalus’ theory and his art and theory Dedalus’ Stephen between connection the concerning discussion larger A 5. Aesthetic.” Stephen’s of “The aesthetics essay Yee’s D.K. in Cordell is found Diary in Joyce’s essay “Stephen’s Levenson’s 6. Michael should be read. can, has, and often overlooked section yet look at how this final, interesting Cited Works

aegis 2006 58 cottrel The Moral Dilemma of AtomicWarfareThe Moral Dilemmaof Manybooks,articles, andwebsitesaddress themoralissuesofwhether or notthe tion” issue.In focusingonthestrategicjustification for using theatomicbombs,answers are atomic bombs should havebeenused.Some approachthesubjectasa“strategic justifi final analysis, nuclear war cannot be condemned if total warfare in any form is morally justified. American Civil War. Yet there has been no world outcry against the practice of total war.more than In thean extreme form To of “total many warfare” people, which the hasactions been practicedof the United since States as far were back a asmoral the abomination and totally The answer depends on how, and by whom, morality is defined. Nuclear warfare is nothing unnecessary. To others, the nuclear attacks were necessary and morally justified. Who is right? ly killed babies, mothers, the elderly, the sick, and many other indefensible people. power and destruction that was unleashed against Japan. The atomic bombs had indiscriminate bombs. defects, blindness, and immune system failures continued to affect the victims of the nuclear dition to these deaths, many It is suffered impossible severe to know health the problemsexact number from ofradiation deaths thatexposure. resulted Birth from the explosions Most estimates put the number of deaths by the end of 1945 at around 200,000 people. In ad because people continued to die from the effects of radiation for several years after the attacks. only 8%escapeddamage. miles wasreducedtoashes,andofthe76,000buildingsin thecity62.9%weredestroyedand pressure wasequivalentto8,600poundspersquarefoot. miles perhour, whichisfivetimesstrongerthanthewindgeneratedbystronghurricanes. The an ultrahighpressure. The windvelocityonthegroundbeneathexplosioncenterwas980 the explosioncenterburnedclothesthatpeoplewerewearing. ture rosetoapproximately7,000degreesFahrenheit. The heatwithin11/4mileradiusfrom created by the blast.” was createdfromwhichwereemittedradiationandheatrays,severeshockwaves Thehorrificdestructionthatresultedfromthesebombblastswasunlikeanyhad perature probablyreachedseveralmilliondegreescentigrade. Almost immediatelyafireball ever beenwitnessedbefore. According toonesource,“atthepointofdetonationtem Urakami Ordnance Works (Torpedo Works), in the north, the two principal targets of the city.3almost midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works, in the south, and the Mitsubishi- target over the city of Nagasaki. The bomb exploded 469 meters (1,540 feet) above the ground can B-29 Superfortress kilotons of TNT. Hiroshima. It exploded about 580 meters (1885 feet) above the city with a blast equivalent to 13 August 6, 1945 the ful weapons ever used in warfare on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. At 08:15, of these firebombings occurred By the when end the of UnitedWorld States of WarAmerica II,dropped “more the than most 100 power Japanese cities were destroyed bya firemillion deaths, the majority being civilians, particularly women and children.” bombing, and two by atomic bombing, causing one million casualties, including more than half 8 With all of this death and destruction, there can be no question as to the awesome Edward Gunn 2 Three days later, on the morning of August 9, 1945, the crew of the Ameri Enola Gay 4 Onthe ground, beneath the explosion center (hypocenter), the tempera Bock’s Car 7

dropped the nuclear bomb called “Little Boy” over the center of , carrying the nuclear bomb nicknamed “Fat Man,” found its 6 InHiroshima,anareaof5square 5 The explosiongenerated 1 The climax ca ------

gunn 59 aegis 2006 - , get - cation Truman’s Truman’s gued over s first nuclear And further, how And further, . Browsing through It seems that with every passing year, more and more people are coming to believe more and more people It seems that with every passing year, These questions are the subjects of thousands of books, articles, and letters. Hun These questions are the subjects of thousands Other publications speak to the issues of the morality of warfare in general, and of warfare in general, issues of the morality speak to the Other publications Truman’s decision than support it. However, that sentiment is not unanimous. Whatever the Whatever the that sentiment is not unanimous. decision than support it. However, Truman’s the on both sides of well-reasoned arguments can find controversy concerning the bombs, one justifi issue. Many scholars and historians passionately defend their beliefs about the for using nuclear weapons against Japan. to the surface when Hiroshima and Nagasaki were devastated by the world’ to the surface when Hiroshima and Nagasaki historians to be uncovered or declassified, As more and more information continues attacks. their particular view of the atomic debate. and scholars have more resources to support not necessary to win the war that the nuclear attacks against Japan were sites on the Internet reveal that more people regret the many books in a library or through would not give up their emperor, why did Truman insist on “unconditional surrender” only Truman why did would not give up their emperor, Why was the second bomb dropped after the war? to allow the emperor system to continue There are many Japanese leaders? so soon after the first with no chance for a response from important controversy is the moral issue of tar questions for debate, but probably the most civilians in warfare? target ing civilian populations. Is it moral to to addressing these and other issues that were brought dreds of Internet web sites are devoted Did using atomic weapons shorten the duration of the war and save more lives than would Did using atomic weapons shorten the to surrender through Russia, and if so, Japan already trying Was have been lost otherwise? decision – racism, revenge, Truman’s What motives were involved in know it? Truman did or simply to justify the 2 billion dollars that were spent to make a political statement to Stalin, Were based upon military strategy alone? motives Truman’s were developing the bomb? Or, defeated enemy? Knowing that the Japanese the bombings simply overkill of an already The Issues over President Harry S. the moment of impact. Controversy debated virtually from issues continue to be ar bombs has been debated, and the decision to use the atomic bombs on Japan have been decision to use the atomic The issues involved in the that led up to the concerning the circumstances There are many questions 60 years later. less drastic, alternatives? or were there other, the bombings really necessary, Were decision. Again, many publications seek to answer these questions. None of these sources, however None of these to answer these questions. publications seek Again, many can be judged. these nuclear attacks principles by which define the moral while ignoring the overriding the atomic bombings of Japan be discussed can the morality of over the fate of Hiroshima and The outcries that permitted the actions? principles of total war But where is the outcry over heard, and they have spurred many debates. Nagasaki have been of civilians? that have led to the deaths of untold millions the other acts of war sought as to whether the bombings could be justified on the basis of their necessity in order to in order their necessity basis of on the justified could be bombings the as to whether sought immoral. then it was if not, was moral; so, then it lives. If and save the war shorten address types of publications These are involved. when civilian populations particularly then how are legitimate be moral? If so, itself. Can warfare of the morality of war questions of war? in the name civilian populations Can it be moral to attack of war identified? targets

aegis 2006 60 gunn Pittsburgh haswrittenmuch tosupportthenotionthatbombsdidindeedsavemanylives, lost otherwiseisstillhotlydebatedtoday. ProfessorRobertP. NewmanoftheUniversity Did the Atomic BombSaveLives? mediated bythe SovietUnion,andthattheU.S. militaryandPresident Incontrast,it is nottoodifficult tofind other researcherswhodisagreewith Mad the atomicbombings, quotesmanydocuments thatshowJapan dox andNewman.DougLong, theauthorofawebsitedevotedtospreadingtruthabout invasion withmanycasualties wouldbenecessarybeforeJapansurrender Staff Admiral ErnestKing,GeneralHenryH. Arnold, and otherstoshowthattheybelievedan the historicalrecord.” Efforts tocreatesubstantiationwherenoneexistshaveresulted insomegrossdistortionsof with thisscenario,heclaims,“…isthatnooneyethasproduced anydocumentaryevidence. man) believedthatJapanwouldsurrenderbeforeaninvasion wasscheduled. University agreeswithNewman.Maddoxclaimsthatitis amyththatthemilitary(and beliefs. Another scholar, RobertJamesMaddox,Professor ofHistoryatPennsylvaniaState the conclusionofascholarwhohasresearchedissueand givesevidencetosupporthis leaders involved…showsthatJapanwouldhavefoughton indefinitely.” no Russians,invasion?Carefulinspectionofthetestimony ofthesurvivingJapanese The questionconcerningJapan’s planstosurrender priortotheatomicbombings leaders afterthewar, RobertNewmanconcludes, “Earlysurrender? With noatombombs, finds proponentsonbothsidesoftheissue. After consideringtestimony frommanyJapanese Was Japan Already Trying toSurrender? conclusions. Truman’s panelalluselogicalarguments tosupporttheiropinionsandyetreachopposing bank ofinformation,butreachdifferent conclusions.RobertNewman andthemembersof In thequestionofwhetherbombssavedmorelivesthantheycost,peoplelookatsame in July1946.Itdeclared, Pacific wardisagrees. Their report, sides wouldhavebeenkilledhadthebombsnotdropped. many facts,figures, anddocumentstodefendhispositionthatmanymorepeople onboth threatened anunacceptablelossoflife,toJapaneseasmuch the timeofdecision Truman administrationbelieved,withgoodreason,thatinvasionplans both Japaneseand American. Newmanclaims,“Thepreponderanceofevidenceshowsthatat On theotherhand,apanelthatwasrequestedbyPresident Truman tostudythe The questionofwhethertheatomicbombssavedmorelivesthanwouldhavebeen planned orcontemplated. Russia hadnotenteredthewar, andevenifnoinvasionhadbeen rendered eveniftheatomicbombshadnotbeendropped, all probabilitypriorto1November1945,Japanwouldhavesur Survey’s opinionthatcertainlypriorto31December1945andin the testimonyofsurvivingJapaneseleadersinvolved,itis Based onadetailedinvestigationofallthefactsandsupportedby 12 MaddoxgoesontoquoteGeneral George C.Marshall,NavyChiefof The UnitedStatesStrategicBombingSurvey 10

Americans.” was Truman knewabout it. seekingasurrender 11 Again, thisis The problem 9 Newmanuses . , wasissued - Tru - -

gunn 61 aegis 2006 - - - guments lled. Kyoko Togo to the Japa to the Togo So was the uncondi There was no clause Truman. He believes Truman. 14 cation for demanding The Atomic Bomb: Voices Atomic Bomb: Voices The The authors go on to say, “These were the terms under The authors go on to say, 15 , writes, “The evidence suggests that had the United States suggests that had the United States , writes, “The evidence However, the terms of the Potsdam Declaration mean nothing if Japan was However, 16 Can it be known for a fact what President Truman’s motives were for resorting motives Truman’s Can it be known for a fact what President Even assuming that Japan was fully aware of all of the terms of the Potsdam Dec Even assuming that Japan was fully aware One source states that “[a]lthough unconditional surrender was demanded from One source states that “[a]lthough unconditional Why did President Truman insist upon Japan’s unconditional surrender? After surrender? unconditional Japan’s insist upon Truman Why did President concerning his motives. But does that end the debate? It does not, because people concerning his motives. But does that end the debate? It does not, because people Long also documents the fact that President Truman was aware of Japan’s intentions. was aware of Japan’s Truman that President documents the fact Long also 13 to nuclear attacks? Certainly Truman’s diaries and other records can be looked at to find records can be looked at to find diaries and other Truman’s to nuclear attacks? Certainly evidence evidence to the tend to look at evidence that supports their beliefs, and overlook or downplay that the “cultists” (his term) have arguments Robert Newman disputes at length the contrary. domination (justifying on the Russians, or bureaucratic used to show that racism, a fixation the expenditures for creating the bombs) were the deciding motives for Japan’s unconditional surrender. The Seldons say that since the critical issue was the emperor, emperor, the was issue critical the since that say Seldons The surrender. unconditional Japan’s all, then the United States was wrong not just to say and since he was allowed to remain after that Japan was aware of the “generous” terms that so up front. Freed and Giovannitti state no consensus on the issues. Again, there is would be granted to Japan. Motives? Truman’s President Were What to the death.” not aware of its contents. the emperor would be spared. laration, there was still no guarantee that and the other statements in the retain the emperor, in the declaration stating that Japan could as to how these promises would be fulfi declaration were subject to interpretation Giovannitti about the justifi and Mark Seldon disagree with Freed and Japan, the Potsdam Declaration stated that the Allied Powers ‘do not intend that the Japanese the Japan, the Potsdam Declaration stated that The Potsdam Declaration made clear as a nation.’” shall be enslaved as a race or destroyed of thought, as well as respect for the fundamental that “freedom of speech, of religion, and human rights shall be established.” Far from vindictive, they were not ungenerous which Japan was called upon to surrender. of militarists determined to wage a last-ditch battle conditions for an enemy caught in the grip surrendering unconditionally. Mark Seldon, in his introduction to Mark Seldon, in his introduction surrendering unconditionally. and Nagasaki Hiroshima From had it employed the very language of unconditional surrender – indeed, softened the language bombings – surrender could after the Hiroshima and Nagasaki surrender that secured Japan’s an invasion.” achieved without the atomic bomb or probably have been just plain vindictive? tional surrender policy Why Unconditional Surrender? Why Unconditional permitted Japan to keep the the United States surrender, and Japan’s the atomic bombings to occupy his throne for over Emperor Hirohito continued emperor system of government. revere the emperor as It was widely understood that the Japanese war. forty years after the obstacle that prevented Japan from attitude toward Hirohito was the major and this a deity, Long documents many statements from Japanese foreign minister Shigenori Shigenori minister foreign from Japanese many statements documents Long end the wanted to that Japan prove Sato, that Naotaki Union, to the Soviet ambassador nese war. give logical ar can be found who and detractors the issue, supporters Again, whatever doubt? the truth beyond a any way to know their views. Is there to support

aegis 2006 62 gunn the evidenceshowsthat they aresimply questionsofmilitarystrategy involvingnumbersandtime. Evidence canbeargued frommanyperspectives.Butinasense,thesearenot moralissues; Japan wasreadytogiveup,or whetherthebombswerenecessarytoforceJapansurrender Debatingthe about thenecessityofit.No one canprovebeyondadoubtwhetherlivesweresaved, ans andotherscholarsusethe informationthatisavailabletoformandsupporttheirbeliefs been dealtwith,andtheywere alreadyapartofmilitaryhistoryevenbefore garding theiruse. The moralquestionsthatwere applicableto Truman’s decisionhadalready power anddestructivecapabilitiesofatomicweapons,nonew ethicalissuesshouldarisere Themoralissuesinvolvedinatomicwarfarearecertainlysignificant, andthebomb ing ofJapandidnotcreateanymoralconflict thatdidnotalreadyexist.Despitetheawesome ings ofHiroshimaandNagasakihavecertainlystirredalot ofdebate.Buttheatomicbomb The MoralIssue morality oftheindiscriminatekillingcivilianpopulations. of themotivesfor, andnecessityof,usingthe bombs,agreaterissueisleftonthetable: made on each side of every issue. However, even if all sides agree to a stalemate on the issues in thedecision,onemustadmitthatchoicewasmulti-faceted,andgoodar any givenmotivewasthedecidingfactor. When lookingatalltheissuesthatwere present went into Truman’s decisiontousetheatomicbombs,andnoonecanstatepositivelywhether Alperovitz uses a lot of historical data to defend his position on the topic. diplomacy” was at least a factor in Truman’s decision to use the bombs. And as with Newman, have a hammer on those boys.’” will’, Truman told an associate (indicating the Russians as well as the Japanese), ‘I’ll certainly vitz makes note of another incident that reveals Truman’s motives: “‘If it explodes as I think it because (as he told Truman) it had ‘such a bearing on our present foreign relations.’” tation with Stalin over the Polish issue—Secretary of War Stimson urged discussion of the bomb diplomacy, Alperovitz shows that “the But new again, weapon other was firstwriters explained argue tothat the there President were other,because of lessits rolelofty, in motives for Truman’sthat the atomic bombs were dropped on Japan primarily for their effect on the Soviet Union. decision. Noted historian and author Gar Alperovitz has written extensively to support his view Newman usesmanyfacts,figures,documents,andinterviewstomakehispoints. In short,Newmanbelievesthat Truman’s motivationforusingthebombswassolelystrategic. The onlyrealmoral issueinvolvedintheatomic bombdecisioniswhether ornot Much informationisavailabletoshowthattherewerepossiblymanymotives not because of its role in the war. In late April—in the midst of an explosive confron as quicklyandwithfewcasualtiespossible. surrender, on terms that would obviate recrudescence of militarism, of thethird. And the White HousewasfixatedonsecuringJapan’s the firstbombs“asavailable”assurelyheorderedcancellation decision, whichlaywiththepresident.Heordereddroppingof These analysesdonot,however, removethepressurepointof strategy ofdroppingtheatomicbombs willlikelycontinue.Histori 19 These quotes certainly give reason to suspect that “atomic 17 World War II. guments are 18 Alpero - - - - - . -

gunn 63 aegis 2006 - - To To . Who defines mo By this standard, nes morality? As the nes morality? 21 In a book on this topic, 20 moral issue created by the existence of nuclear weapons. Civilians Civilians weapons. of nuclear existence by the issue created moral Although he chose the path of nuclear warfare, Truman had a moral Truman the path of nuclear warfare, Although he chose 22 new On an individual basis, President Roosevelt, who ordered the atomic bombs to be On an individual basis, President Roosevelt, who ordered the atomic bombs to It may be safe to assume that almost all rational people find repugnant the thought repugnant rational people find It may be safe to assume that almost all The idea of Cultural Relativism insists that morality is defined by individual cultures, by individual that morality is defined The idea of Cultural Relativism insists When asking if the atomic bombings were morally justified, it might be helpful to atomic bombings were morally justified, When asking if the The question should then be asked, “Who decides what is morally acceptable and what is morally acceptable “Who decides should then be asked, The question almost everyone would find the whole idea revolting. On an individual basis, even Truman, Truman, the whole idea revolting. On an individual basis, even almost everyone would find any further bombings because, “He said the thought who ordered the nuclear attacks, halted like the idea of killing, as he of wiping out another 100,000 people was too horrible. He didn’t said, ‘all those kids.’” problem with the results of his decision. be inhuman barbarism. In place, found the idea of bombing civilians to developed in the first Morality: The Individual Perspective Morality: around the If a surveyor went in the name of war. of killing women, children, and the elderly have a moral problem going from house to house in world asking individuals if they would babies, and women, one can be sure that the elderly, an enemy civilian population and killing any particular action could be interpreted as moral in one culture, and immoral in another any particular action could be interpreted has been considered an acceptable practice. But For example, in some cultures prostitution as immoral, and laws are enacted in an attempt to in many other cultures, prostitution is seen leave the question of morality up to individual cultures when the to prevent it. It may be fine is not an issue where nuclear warfare only those within that culture. However, issues affect and global, are it of implications The culture. individual an of those to confined are effects the culture. by any single civilians cannot be defined therefore the morality of targeting and then practices another, then what are that individual’s or country’s true moral standards? or country’s then what are that individual’s and then practices another, imposed on another culture. and the morals of one culture cannot be “[c]ultural relativism, of course, deals with more Melville Herskovits makes the point that also concerned with judgments of time and space and than just morals, ethics and values; it is cognition, as well as of conduct.” in perception and volume, differences Defining Morality the question. of morality will be used to answer determine whose standards is it Further, communities, nations, or the world? by individuals, rality? Is morality defined state that defi or the actions of an individual or the profession of a belief words.” If an individual or country says one thing, saying goes, “Actions speak louder than morally justified then is synonymous to asking whether bombing civilians is justified. justified. bombing civilians is to asking whether then is synonymous morally justified individual nations? Is there some morality question to be determined by what is not?” Is the is moral and what is not? If what standard that can be applied to define sort of international lie to enforce these stan standard, with whom does the responsibility there is an international dards of moral conduct? bombing civilian targets is justified. One can agree or disagree with the justification, but the justification, with or disagree can agree One is justified. targets civilian bombing not a this was again, The for many years. including the U.S., by many nations, repeatedly had been targeted but the fact are horrific, atomic bombs Yes, a moral question. method used is not weapon or is not a moral issue. methods of warfare quickly than other and destroy more that they kill and Nagasaki were of Hiroshima or not the atomic bombings issue of whether examine the

aegis 2006 64 gunn 1939, Rooseveltstated for animmediatehaltofallbombingcivilianpopulations.InthisletterdatedSeptember1, a lettertoGovernmentsofFrance,Germany, Italy, PolandandGreatBritain,Rooseveltcalled tions. Oneway tofindsomecommon groundwouldbetolook at agreements,treaties,and common ground needstobedeterminedthat candefine moralityacrossallcultures andna it morallywrongtobombunfortified cities?” Again, whodefines morality?Perhapssome However, collectively, asnationsatwar, ithadbecomeroutine.Sothequestionremains, “Is edly practiced.Itseemsthat on anindividualbasis,targeting civilians isabsolutelyimmoral. man, findsitimmoral,collectively, as nations,targeting civilianpopulationshadbeen repeat Morality: The CollectivePerspective the United States of America bears the responsibility of beginning the nuclear age. responsibility of opening the door to an era of devastation on an unimaginable scale.” using these newly liberated forces of nature for the purposes of destruction may have to bear the of the atomic bombs on Japan because he believed that “[a] nation which sets the precedent of ing. Even the scientists involved in creating the atomic bombs had struggled with their own wanted to end the war, many were troubled by the nature of the weapon that they were creat consciences over the moral implications of the weapon they were developing. Although they objections tothissortofactivity. engaging inthebombardmentofcivilianpopulations,andthatRoosevelthadstrongmoral It isclearfromthisletterthatvirtuallyallsidesintheEuropeantheaterof 24 Leo Szilard, probably the first scientist to conceive of an atomic bomb, opposed the use Even thoughonanindividual basisalmosteveryone,includingRooseveltand request animmediatereply. I opponents. their of all by observed scrupulously be will warfare of unfortified cities, upon the understanding that these same rules of or populations civilian of air the from bombardment the undertake circumstances, no under and event, no in shall forces armed its that determination its affirm to publicly hostilities in engaged be may which government every to appeal urgent this addressing therefore the hostilities which have now broken out, will lose their lives. I am no in, participating have remotely even who not are who beings and for, responsibility human innocent of thousands of hundreds confronted, now is world the which with conflagration tragic the of period the during barbarism inhuman of form this to had is resort If of conscience humanity. the shocked profoundly has and woman, and man men, women, and children, has sickened the hearts of every civilized resulted in the maiming and in the death of thousands of defenseless in various quarters of the earth during the past few years, which has raged have which hostilities the of course the during population of civilians inunfortifiedcenters The ruthlessbombingfromtheairof : 23 World War IIwere 25 Sadly, Tru - - - -

gunn 65 aegis 2006

- - 27 - - Decision of - Since virtually Since 28 The United States Senate Senate States United The 26 Total War: The German and War: Total [emphasis added].

. Chickering states, 29 . The most crucial determinant of total war is the widespread, is the widespread, The most crucial determinant of total war Total war is distinguished by its unprecedented intensity and war is distinguished Total globe; the scale of battle is Theaters of operations span the extent. war is fought heedless of the restraints Total practically limitless. for the combatants are in custom, or international law, of morality, war requires the Total spired by hatreds born of modern ideologies. also of whole popula mobilization not only of armed forces but tions. of civilians as legitimate indiscriminate, and deliberate inclusion military targets Erich Ludendorff, the supreme German general in World War I, wrote extensively on Erich War the Ludendorff, supreme German general World in Since then, resolutions by the League of Nations (1938) and the United Nations (1961, Nations United the and (1938) Nations of League the by resolutions then, Since The act of targeting civilians was determined to be morally unacceptable by several , when he says, “The morality of total war had already been sanctioned by the require participants cease to abide by the rules? This is precisely what happened during World War War World during happened what precisely is This rules? the by abide to cease participants In total war, civilians are viewed as acceptable military targets because they are seen as insepa as seen are they because targets military acceptable as viewed are civilians war, total In ability to wage war. rable from a nation’s Total Warfare Total of what constitutes total warfare, most scholars Although there is no authoritative definition by Roger Chickering in offered would agree with the definition II. War World the military leaders in The concept of total warfare was not new for American Experiences, 1871-1914 war and provided the precedent for their possible use by other governments.” other by use possible their for precedent the provided and war morally be II had already to it been can practicing be total argued war, War civilians every country involved World in targeting of act the accepted had governments these level national a on that immoral, is civilians targeting level human individual the at exists: dichotomy a So justifiable. but on the national level it is acceptable. 1968) have confirmed that bombing civilians is morally wrong. But, even if every nation agrees agrees nation every if even But, wrong. morally is civilians bombing that confirmed have 1968) if void and null made agreement the is war, of times in conduct of standards certain by abide to all II. Through the practice of “total warfare,” nations had given the green light to targeting the civilians of an enemy nation. Schoenberger Walter makes this point in his book, Destiny ments The of use national of security. the atomic weapons symbolized the acceptance of total bombardment of towns, villages, habitations or buildings which are not defended, is prohibited.” is defended, not are which buildings or habitations villages, towns, of bombardment The convention further states in Article XXIII, “Besides the prohibitions provided by special Conventions, it is especially prohibited to employ arms, projectiles, or material of a nature to cause superfluous It injury.” would be difficult to argue that indiscriminate bombing of cities especially in the case of nuclear bombs. injury,” not result in “superfluous and villages would international organizations to determine if a global consensus exists on the morality of target the morality exists on consensus if a global to determine organizations international populations. ing civilian Hague The and convention II Hague The with 1899 as back far as dating agreements international Land. on War of Customs and Laws concerning or convention attack “The (1907) IV XXV, Article in states convention II Hague The agreements. these of both ratified

aegis 2006 66 gunn the topicoftotalwar. Ludendorff’s ideaoftotalwarcontainedfive basicconcepts: military strategist becauseofhispractice totalwar. war.”a win to means efficient most and surest, quickest, the Sherman to formulate his theory of total war. This conception was the outgrowth of a search for enemy.” the of armies the as well as population civilian the against forces military his use to planned Carolinas book, his in writes Barrett G. John Historian Georgia. Atlanta of burning the in culminating South the through path a burned he as homes and farms civilian destroyed Sherman half. in Confederacy the divide to sea the to march his in tactics war total Williamemployed T.General Sherman practiced. was war total of War,Civil philosophy the could effectively wagewar. nation no population, Withoutcivilian effort.the war the for pay to government their to taxes paying ones the are they and soldiers, the for food growing farmers the are they materials, war Civilians are crucial to any war effort because they are the ones working in the factories making from apopular World War IIBritishsongreinforcesthatpoint: all people of a nation are involved in that nation’s ability to wage war is undisputed. The chorus that war,idea total the of Ludendorff’s concepts of five all with agree not might some Though 32 This concept of total war did not begin with Worldwith begin not the Wardid as American war early total II. As of concept This Barrett further states that “it was not a sense of cruelty and barbarism that prompted , “Considering all the people of the South as enemies of the Union, he [Sherman] he Union, the of enemies as South the of people the all “Considering , that’s goingtowinthewar. that oilstheringworksthing-ummy-bob And it’s thegirlthatmakesthingholdsoil that makestheenginesroar. that holdsthespringworksthing-ummy-bob But it’s thegirlthatmakesthingdrillshole Especially whenyoudon’t knowwhatit’s for It’s aticklishsortofjobmakingthingforthing-ummy-bob authority, thatofthecommanderinchief. modern societies. Finally, total war must be directed by one supreme in pursuits peacetime so-called the influence warfare psychological must war total of preparation begin before the outbreak the of overt fighting. Military, Fourth, economic, and nation. enemy the of cohesion political the of weakening the to and home at morale of to imperative it makes war devote special efforts, by means in of propaganda, to the strengthening masses large of participation the war.of purposes the to Thirdly,system economic the of adaptation the necessitates war total of total persecution wage effective the nations Thus, but war. armies Not effort. war the in population whole the of participation active the involves also war total risks, of diffusion this to addition In nations. belligerent the of territory War is total; first, because the theater of war extends over the whole 31 30 33 Some consider Sherman a great a Sherman consider Some Sherman’sMarchThroughthe

gunn 67 aegis 2006 - 36 On the other hand, slaughtering slaughtering hand, other the On 35 This a war, clash the between forces of 37 Although this war claimed more lives than World War I, I, War World than lives more claimed war this Although 38 34 From this moment until such time as its enemies shall have such time as its enemies shall have From this moment until in soil of the Republic all Frenchmen are been driven from the The young for the services of the armies. permanent requisition arms and transport men shall forge the married men shall fight; and clothes and shall serve provisions; the women shall make tents linen into lint; the old men in the hospitals; the children shall turn in order to arouse the shall betake themselves to the public squares of kings and the unity of courage of the warriors and preach hatred the Republic. The French Revolution has introduced some of the concepts of some of the Revolution has introduced The French threatened by the republic found itself The fledgling total war. formed of European nations to have been most powerful coalition only solution, in the eyes of the The at that point in history. resources into entire was to pour the nation’s Jacobin government levée en - this was the advent of the effort an unprecedented war August of the National Convention on The following decree masse. the enormity of the French war 23, 1794 clearly demonstrates effort: population as well as military forces.” military as well as created not population has war this in place took that civilians of killing mass the II, War World possibly and Nagasaki. and Hiroshima of destruction the over place taken have that debates heated the war. wage to capacity enemy’s the limit to efforts in populations civilian bombarding regularly against and Netherlands, the Poland, in cities against assaults aerial conducted had Germans The Almost from the beginning of War II, World both the Allied and Axis powers were War, King Philip’s War, the DeSoto expedition, and Christopher Columbus. War, King Philip’s War, 20 - 50 lives, million many of which were civilians. many saw Xiuquan, Hong named mystic destruc claimed self-proclaimed a by and inspired those history, and populations, China human in Imperial civilian wars on bloodiest attacks the of one conscriptions, scale (1851-1864), large Rebellion war: total Taiping of The elements the participated of sides both on civilians that in total was truly war “This resources: agricultural of tion civilian the on war waged sides both on armies that in and effort war the in extent significant a to The government in France believed that the whole population was critical to the war effort and effort war the to critical was population whole the that believed France in government The as a resource for war. looked upon every man, woman, and child as civilians the upon looked soldiers Union The populations. civilian of slaughter wholesale the targets. legitimate therefore and machine, war Indian the of part Pequot the as back far as through largely States United the from War, vanquished were Civil Indians the American before time Native long The a on going been had civilians Indian of in population War Civil total Taiping The the conflicts American Wars, included Indian the how French Revolution, the of example an as serves Revolution French The I. War World and China, Elements of total warfare also is critical existed to the the war From concept effort. an article on the Wikipedia, in online encyclopedia other conflicts II. War before World These is explained:

aegis 2006 68 gunn of the war. The Japanese also were involved in the targeting civilians in China, Taiwan, the Taiwan,China, in civilians targeting the in involved were also Japanese The war. the of civilians. 35,000 least the end of the war, the United States and Britain conducted aerial raids on Dresden that killed at Near cities. other Hamburg,and Berlin, on raids night began British the response, In London. it is immoral? Their immoral? is it yet virtually all parties involved did so. So does the international community stated in one treaty or another that they believed it to be morally unacceptable to target civilians, big and destructive the bombs are, but about killing unarmed civilians in war. Most nations had before and during World War II must also be condemned. The moral question is not about how of the United States in this regard be condemned? If so, then the actions of many other nations on Hiroshima and Nagasaki is very complex, and there are no clear answers. Should the actions moral superiorityovertheenemy? necessary to win the war, is it too much to at least admit that it took away the right to claim any and justified morally was bombs atomic the dropping that believe who those For committing. resorted to the same tactics that many Japanese leaders were tried, convicted, and sentenced for had they reality in because ground high in Worldmoral the took they Warthat leadership claim cannot II States United The right.” a make not do wrongs “two goes, saying old the as but barbaric, not was war the during done had Japanese the what that argue to not is That done. to make themselves believe that somehow their actions were different than what the enemy had act of targeting civilians, the victors in the war chose to prosecute the vanquished in an attempt that “[i]t’s onlyacrimeifyoulosethewar.” remains available only against the vanquished in a lost war.’” blasts’ leveled on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and criticized a judicial process in which ‘any crime ‘inhuman the invoked he which in opinion dissenting a issued India of Pal Radhabinod Justice 1948, of trial Tokyocrimes the war guilty.“At all are they which for for,actions punishment seek to and crime, a as label to country a for hypocritical be to seems It civilians? killing ing War II, why were some of the leaders of the defeated nations put on trial for war crimes includ causes moraloffense. would seem that it is not the act of killing civilians but the method by which they are killed that It bombings. non-nuclear the concerning outcry moral any targets.if Yet little been has there civilian with cities of bombing the involved all They bombings. Nagasaki and Hiroshima the bombs. atomic the of either than destruction and casualties Tokyoof more bombing brought incendiary 9-10 March The great. as just was devastation the but had, bombings atomic the that destruction of level killed upto350,000Chinesecivilians.” officers, senior their of knowledge full the and command of chain their of encouragement and Indonesia. and Philippines, It should be clear by now that the question of the morality of dropping atomic bombs an was Nagasaki and Hiroshima to done was what that admitting than rather Perhaps Worldduring civilians killing and targeting of guilty was nation every almost Since the approach to planes more many and time more much took bombings Conventional 42 words 39 Conclusion: Livinguptoa World StandardofMorality But the moral issue is the same with the Tokyo bombings as it is with is it Tokyothe as with bombings same the is issue moral the But Targetingtheater European the to limited not was populations civilian 40 say yes, but their but yes, say In Nanking, the capital of China, “Japanese troops, with the help the with troops, “Japanese China, of capital the Nanking, In 41 An IssueofHypocrisy actions say no. Their leaders Their no. say 43 In affect, what this is saying is really say yes, but their but yes, believe that -

gunn 69 aegis 2006 - -

Hiroshima Hiroshima . Boston: Little Brown, Chapel Hill: The University of Chapel Hill: The Price of Vision; the Diary of Henry A. the Diary of Henry The Price of Vision; And even if one or more nations continue to commit war crimes war commit to continue nations more or one if even And Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973. 44 The Atomic Bomb: The Critical Issues Atomic The . New York : Knopf, 1995. York . New The Decision To Use The Atomic Bomb And The Architecture Of An Of Architecture And The Atomic Bomb Use The The Decision To Sherman’s March Through the Carolinas. the Carolinas. Through March Sherman’s say it is acceptable. is acceptable. say it and Nagasaki: The Physical, Medical, and Social Effects of the Atomic and Nagasaki: The Physical, Medical, and Social Effects of the 1976. 1942-1946. Wallace, (10 October 2005). American Myth The difference between the total war that has become a standard practice of warfare, What this world needs is not only a debate regarding the morality of atomic warfare, With no worldwide authority to define morality, the actions of the United States in drop in States United the of actions the morality, define to authority worldwide no With actions Bernstein, Barton J. ed. North Carolina Press, 1956. Henry eds. Wallace, Blum, John and Atomic Bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Committee on Damage by A-Bomb WWW Project. “Introduction: About the A-Bomb.” 10 July 2000. About the Project. “Introduction: WWW A-Bomb Alperovitz, Gar. Barrett, John G. and the atomic bombing of Japan is that with nuclear weapons it is now possible to destroy all anyone like to justify the use human of life nuclear on weapons Would earth. in the next war? there may be no one left to debate the morality of it. If nuclear weapons are ever used again, Bibliography many other resolutions and treaties—have stated that the nations believe that the indiscriminate the that believe nations the that stated treaties—have and resolutions other many immoral. is civilians of killing themselves lower to excuse an as that see not must nations other the civilians, targeting as such to that barbaric The standard. nations of the world must begin to live up to their words. If the immorality of total war is understood and believed, then the immorality of nuclear warfare is obvious. but there should also be a worldwide outcry against all acts of total war. Nations signing agree signing Nations war. total of acts all against outcry worldwide a be also should there but rather, But them. ignored then and before that done have enough—they not is treaties and ments all nations of the world must utterly refuse to participate in the barbaric acts that have become acceptable in warfare, and which have made many believe that there is nothing immoral about must world the of nations The bombs. nuclear using beings human helpless of killing mass the live up to the agreements and conventions that almost all and Conventions, them Geneva have The stated conventions, Hague to The be agreements—including These their moral position. and children. What kind of person could look into the eyes of a little baby and then snuff out innocent that life? baby’s Certainly no person with any moral conscience at all could do such a thing. However if the act is sanitized by labeling it “total war”, and is carried out by bombs dropped from the air so that the faces of the victims do not have to be viewed, then it seems a conduct of war. perfectly acceptable military military unacceptable, an be to morality of standard one by seen be can Japan on bombs atomic the ping necessary a as seen be can actions same these morality, of standard another by But act. barbaric consequence of war that does not violate moral principles. On an individual level, virtually every human being with a conscience would have a moral dilemma in killing unarmed women

aegis 2006 70 gunn Dannen, Gene.“InternationalLawontheBombingofCivilians.”1999. Wikipedia. “Total War.” 2005. Wikipedia. “Taiping Rebellion.” September2005. Wikipedia. “AtomicbombingsofHiroshimaandNagasaki.”September2005. Walker, PaulD. Tanaka, Yuki Seldon, Kyoko&Mark. Schoenberger, Walter. (11 October2005). Rosado, Caleb.“TheConceptofCulturalRelativismInaMulticultural UniversityPress,1995. Radiation Effects ResearchFoundation.“RadiationEffects.” 2005. Newman, RobertP. Maddox, RobertJames. Long, Doug.“Hiroshima: Was itNecessary?”2000. Lifton, RobertJayandMitchell,Greg. Herskovits, MelvilleJ. Freed, FredandGiovannitti,Len. Earle, EdwardMead. (27 September 2005). (20October2005).Beginning. (10 October2005). (20October2005). World War II. Wikipedia. “AerialBombingofCities.”2005. Publishing Company, 2003. (18,November 2005). Indiscriminate Bombing.”2004.JapanFocus.org. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E.Sharpe, Inc.,1989. 1969. (24October2005). Consulting forChangeinHumanSystems,November1994. Later. (10October2005),Part1. York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons,1995. York: Vintage Books,1973. McCann, Inc.,1965. Hitler. Appeal ofPresidentFranklinD.Roosevelt,September1,1939. (22October2005). October 2005). (10 Bombings, .

Columbia,Missouri:UniversityofMissouriPress,1995. “Firebombing and Atom Bombing: An HistoricalPerspectiveOn Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1943. Truman’s Dilemma:InvasionortheBomb. 1981. Truman andtheHiroshima Cult Makers ofModernStrategy:MilitaryThoughtfrom Machiavellito Decision ofDestiny. Cultural Relativism:PerspectivesinPluralism. Weapons forVictory: TheHiroshima DecisionFiftyYears The Atomic Bomb:Voices From Hiroshima andNagasaki The DecisiontoDrop theBomb Hiroshima in America: FiftyYears ofDenial. Athens, Ohio:OhioUniversityPress, . EastLansing:MichiganState Gretna,Louisiana:Pelican . New York: Coward- World.” Rosado New . New

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- - - - , (Ar (New

World,” Rosado World,” Hiroshima Hiroshima .rosado.net/articles- . , (New York: Coward- York: , (New , (Boston: Little Brown, , (East Lansing: Michigan State Uni , 31. , 51. Hiroshima and Nagasaki Hiroshima The Price of Vision: the Diary of Henry A. Wallace, A. Wallace, the Diary of Henry The Price of Vision: The Decision to Drop the Bomb The Decision to Drop The Atomic Bomb: The Critical Issues The The Atomic Bomb: Voices From Hiroshima and Nagasaki Hiroshima From Atomic Bomb: Voices The Weapons for Victory: The Hiroshima Decision Fifty Years Later, Decision Fifty Years The Hiroshima for Victory: Weapons Cultural Relativism: Perspectives in Cultural Pluralism, Truman and the Hiroshima Cult and the Hiroshima Truman The Decision To Use The Atomic Bomb And The Architecture Of An Of Architecture And The Atomic Bomb Use The The Decision To “Firebombing and Atom Bombing: An Historical Perspective On Indis An Historical Perspective Atom Bombing: and “Firebombing , (New York : Knopf, 1995), 130. York , (New , Truman and the Hiroshima Cult and the Hiroshima Truman Truman and the Hiroshima Cult and the Hiroshima Truman (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), 473. 20. Caleb Rosado, “The Concept of Cultural Relativism In a Multicultural 20. Caleb Rosado, “The Concept of Cultural November 1994, (24 October 2005). 21. Melville J. Herskovits, Books, 1973), 52. Vintage York: eds., Wallace, 22. John Blum and Henry 1942-1946, McCann, Inc., 1965), 318. 16. Ibid. 17. Newman, Alperovitz, 18. Gar American Myth 19. Ibid., 239. 12. Robert James Maddox, Press, 1995), 119. (Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri < http://www.doug-long.com/hiro it Necessary?” 2000, Was 13. Doug Long, “Hiroshima: shim.htm> (10 October 2005), Part 1. 14. Kyoko & Mark Seldon, Sharpe, Inc., 1989), xxiv. monk, N.Y.:M.E. 15. Fred Freed, and Len Giovannitti, (11 October 2005). (11 Newman, 9. Robert P. versity Press, 1995), 21. 10. Barton J. Bernstein, ed., 1976), 52-56. Newman, 11. (10 October 2005). A-Bomb,” 10 July 2000, About the Project, “Introduction: WWW A-Bomb 5. (10 October 2005). 6. Ibid. Atomic Bombs, by 7. Committee on Damage 2005, “Radiation Effects,” Research Foundation, 8. Radiation Effects (10 Octo ber 2005). 3. Ibid. and Nagasaki, Atomic Bombs in Hiroshima by 4. Committee on Damage Bombings, Atomic the Physical, Medical, and Social Effects of and Nagasaki: The 1981, Notes Tanaka 1.Yuki (18, Bombing,” 2004, JapanFocus.org, criminate 2005). November 2005, and Nagasaki,” September of Hiroshima “Atomic bombings Wikipedia, 2.

aegis 2006 72 gunn 25. Ibid.,162. 24. FreedandGiovannitti, nen.com/decision/int-law.html> (22October2005). 23. GeneDannen,“InternationalLawontheBombingofCivilians,”1999, (20October2005), World War II. 39. Wikipedia, “AerialBombingofCities.”2005, (20October2005),Beginning. 37. Wikipedia, “Taiping Rebellion,”September2005, (27September2005). 29. Wikipedia, “Total War,” 2005,

gunn 73 aegis 2006 - - - s record 1 this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to this right includes freedom to hold opinions ideas through any media and seek, receive and impart information and regardless of frontiers… arbitrary interference with his Article 12. No one shall be subjected to nor to attacks upon his honor home or correspondence, family, privacy, to protection of the law against such and reputation. Everyone has the right interference or attacks… Article 23. (1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employ Article 23. (1) Everyone has the right to work and to protection against ment, to just and favorable conditions of unemployment… education. Education shall be free, Article 26. (1) Everyone has the right to stages… at least in the elementary and fundamental of opinion and expression; Article 19. Everyone has the right to freedom Rhonda Maynard Rhonda On March 7, 2001, thirty-seven children in a small village southwest of Shanghai thirty-seven children in a small village On March 7, 2001, After the event, Chinese people expressed shock and outrage on Web sites and Internet chat Web After the event, Chinese people expressed shock and outrage on school explosion serves as an example of the violation of both free choice of employment thus, they did and the right to free education. Simply put, the children were forced to work; According to the standards set forth by the United Nations, the Jiangxi elementary reports stated the school factory was set up not have free choice of employment. Moreover, students al because of government imposed budget cuts for education. In other words, the education. legedly worked to fund the school, which is an infringement on their right to free Free Choice of Employment and Right to Free Education Choice of Employment and Right to Free Free in China. We can analyze the event to answer the following questions: 1) Which human rights, Which human 1) to answer the following questions: can analyze the event We in China. and 3) How does China international pressure force change? were violated? 2) Does if any, define “human rights?” VIOLATED? WERE WHICH HUMAN RIGHTS I. PART follows. discussion A cover-up. and event this of course the during violated were rights ing follow the Rights,” Human of Declaration “Universal Nations United the to According Introduction Introduction The blast to assemble at school exploded. they were forced were killed when firecrackers once again, China’ the world and brought to the forefront, sparked outrage throughout opportunity to examine human rights The incident presents a unique of human rights abuses. Jiangxi Elementary A Explosion: School at HumanLook in China Rights

aegis 2006 74 maynard Howcouldsomethinglikethishappen? Two reasons:pooreconomicconditionsand under-funded schools.Inacountryof1.3billionpeople,peoplearewillingtosacrifice rights for business.’” rooms: “‘howcouldthishappeninChina?’ onepersonwrote.‘Schoolsareforlearning,not order topayforthingslikehospitals, topayteacher’s salaries.” villages arereallybeingleftto fendforthemselves. They’ve got toraisetheirownmoneyin “[s]ubsidies fromthecentral government tothelocalgovernmentshaveallbutstopped…the hai schoolwasusedasagambling den.” ey…Last month[February2001], statetelevisionreportedaroomrentedoutbyoneShang ing, “Cash-strappedChinese schools dosometimesrentoutspacetobusinessesraise mon Atthetimeofincident,BBCreported thathumanrightsworkers blamed semen andtobaccotohelpfundlocalschools.” chronic under-funding inruralChineseschools.“Therearereportsofteachershavingtosell refused towork.”’ ing happened.’…Thebereavedfathersaidchildrenwereeven fined afewpenniesifthey “‘[t]he parentscomplainedmanytimestotheschooland townshipgovernment,butnoth go home.” to workwithoutpayandsetproductionquotasthathad be metbeforethechildrencould telephone saidteachersseekingtosupplementtheirmeager statesalariesforcedthechildren bills hadnotbeenpaid.” were metwitharecordedmessage,sayingthenumberhadbeendisconnectedbecausephone 30million “the extentofpovertyintheregionwasemphasizedwhenphonecallstolocalfi sion, Jiangxiwas“oneofChina’s poorestprovinces.” AccordingtoUNICEF, “[a]lthoughnoaccuratestatisticsareavailable,theInterna $317* age fiveand14work.Morethan60percentofthemlivein Asia.” tional LaborOrganization estimatesthatindevelopingcountries250millionchildrenbetween $1,028* Source: U.S. Department 100to150million of State Report on Human Rights Practices*Figures inU.S.dollars. in China, February 29, 2005. Persons whoseincomedoesnotexceed$1*perday(estimate) Persons livinginpoverty(estimate) 2003 ruralpercapitadisposableincome 2003 urbanpercapitadisposableincome Figure 1. more telling,sinceruralworkersmakefarlessthanthoseinurbanareas(seefi Some companiespayevenless. The factthattheblastoccurredinapoorruraldistrictiseven workers atoneplantmadeaboutone-hundreddollarspermonth,orfi where overfortymillionmigrantworkersworkandliveatthefactories.In2004,Chinese in ordertomakealivin—evenanindustrialprovincelikethosefoundsouthernChina, 7 What makestheincidentevenmoreterriblewasthat,accordingtoonevillager, 2 8 6 The Washington PostForeignServicereported, “Parentsreachedby 10 NationalPublicRadio’s RobGifford explained, 9

The

Taipei Times 5 Infact,accordingtooneBBCreport, 11 confirmedthereport,stat 4 At thetimeofexplo fty-cents anhour. gure 1). re brigade ------3

maynard 75 aegis 2006 ------Zhu 20 22 .” 14 18 They all chose to , “It was the crisis in June , “It was the Police also matched chemi 15 Rights Beyond Borders Rights Beyond United Press International reported, “villagers “villagers reported, International Press United 13 ). A foreign ministry spokesman later reiterated Zhu’s foreign ministry spokesman later reiterated Zhu’s A ). 21 12 The newspaper declared, “Aftermath Well Handled.” Well The newspaper declared, “Aftermath 17 wrote, and “survivors of the blast and parents have been warned to keep keep to warned been have parents and blast the of “survivors and wrote, Finally, “autopsy results of Li’s body showed that he was at the very “autopsy results of Li’s Finally, 16 that they [police] had found an incriminating note written by Li in which he found an incriminating note written that they [police] had Besides the obvious concern for the welfare of the Chinese people, Congress 23 When asked again nine days after the explosion whether or not he continued to be When asked again nine days after the explosion 19 States to look more closely at U.S.-China trade relations. In a letter to secretary of Labor States to look more closely at U.S.-China is Miller and Nancy Pelosi wrote, “what has emerged Elaine Chao, Representatives George requires a a very disturbing picture of systematic forced labor by very young children that action in con thorough review by the Department of Labor and, if corroborated, immediate under such formity with legal restrictions against the importation of products manufactured conditions.” made by the students man Miller and Congresswoman Pelosi also were worried that fireworks a 2001 U.S. State Department report a mentally disturbed villager had caused the blast comment, saying “investigations had proved had distorted the facts in order to attack China.” in a suicide mission and that journalists CHANGE? PRESSURE FORCE INTERNATIONAL II. DOES PART The Jiangxi Elementary School explosion prompted the Congress of the United man.” Zhu replied, “I know overseas me of fireworks,” lieve it was “a lone madman with two bags with the explanation I gave them. dia and media in Hong Kong did not agree by the students…But up to production of fireworks believe that the explosion was caused by to override the conclusion we already drew now there is no evidence that can be found go on to say that there would be an ongoing investigation, and anyone involved did, however, dismissed according to were would be punished (in fact, some local officials in a cover-up cals from the explosion to those found in Li’s house, and there were four eyewitnesses “who in Li’s cals from the explosion to those found school carrying plastic pockets obviously with saw Li riding in the direction of the primary something in them.” center of [the] explosion.” assured the public that it was, in fact, “a lone mad handling of the case, Premier Zhu Rongji the Chinese government for its As stories appeared around the world criticizing quiet and to stick to the official explanation.” official the to stick to and quiet the changed officials government and media state as foul cried have village Chinese small a in Thursday.” early exploded school their as died children their of 40 over how of story explosion. Local police told the ill villager named Li Chuicai for the an allegedly mentally Daily People’s blamed first After all, local police accusation is not without merit. The cover-up an explosion in a crowded place.” stated he intended “to set off the forefront of global attention.” the forefront Jiangxi the after soon that surprising not is it therefore, speech; free of issue the about ever al an about villagers from reports received journalists western explosion, School Elementary than outspoken more the became cover-up,” citizens of Chinese government Square, the Tiananmen have…accused of “Parents aftermath the cover-up: In government Chinese leged Presse France Agence Freedom of Speech and Press and Freedom from Attack on a Person’s Reputation on a Person’s Attack from Freedom and Press and of Speech Freedom when the Chinese Square, Tiananmen of China is Americans have image that the most vivid the halt a protest against during an attempt to demonstrators killed several student government Perhaps speech is not new. of infringement upon freedom China’s Criticism over points out in As Rosemary Foot government. rights record to human China’s screens, that brought TV on our so extensively 1989, reported

aegis 2006 76 maynard ItdoesappearthatinternationalpressurehasforcedChinatotaketheissueofhuman celebrations. Some reportssuggest,sadly, thatsomeofthefirecrackers wereusedduringIndependenceDay could windupintheUnitedStates.Inotherwords,ChinesebloodwouldbeonU.S.hands. ening ofthehumanrightsideaowesitselftoavarietyfactors.” IntheU.S.,ourconceptofhumanrightsmostlyderivesfromnotion ofunalien those of“life,liberty, andpursuitofhappiness.” Inreality, however, “thewideninganddeep able rightsasdefined bytheFoundingFathersinDeclarationofIndependence;thatis, PART III.CHINA’S DEFINITIONOF HUMANRIGHTS ous materials.” child carpet-weavers,“It’s notverypleasant,it’s verydark…You cangethurtbythedanger to “cultivateinternationalismandrespectforothercultures.” WhatZhousaysappearstobetrue,atleastinEast Asia ingeneral.Forexample, United NationsCommissionontheRightsofChildaspartitscurriculuminanef one HongKongSchoolforexpatriatechildrennowteachesstudentsaboutchildlaborandthe improvement. Butwearestrivingforconstantprogress.” rights thaneverbefore.” and advancementofhumanrights. The peopleinChinaareenjoyingmore substantialhuman cifically, Zhoustated,“TheChinesegovernmentattacheshighimportancetotheprotection approach todifferences oversuchquestionsas Taiwan, feasible, 4)people-to-peopleexchangesoffer vastpotential,and5)create amoreunified the bedrockofourcooperation,3)amutuallybeneficial or“win-win”situationiscompletely over thepast26years,2)broadmutualinterestsonstrategicandsecurityissuestoserveas Justacoupleofmonthsago,onSeptember22,2005,theChinese Ambassador tothe five importantthingsforthefutureofChina-U.S.relations:1)anevaluation United States,H.E.Zhou Wenzhong, inaspeechtothe Asia SocietyinNew York, outlined with manycountries,theU.S.included,onbasisofequalityandmutualrespect.” acceded to21internationalhumanrightsinstruments,andconducteddialogue to write‘theStaterespectsandsafeguardshumanrights’ intotheConstitution.Chinahas Republic ofChina,said,“InMarchlastyear[2004],China’s NationalPeople’s Congressmet States-China Relationsin Washington D.C., Tang Jiaxuan,StateCouncilorofthePeople’s rights isatoppriority. EarlyinhisJuly27,2005addresstotheNationalCommitteeonUnited rights moreseriously. The Chinesegovernmentregularlycitespubliclythatensuringhuman 24 30 served tomake lesspartisanandmoreglobal theeffects ofnewinitiatives. targeting byadversariesthatinthecontextoffluctuating votingpoweroften independent powerofinstitutional arrangements;andakindoftit-for which wereonlypartiallyrealized beforehand,andwhichdemonstratethe changing oflegislativeandbureaucratic procedures,theconsequencesof power orbargaining powerintheU.N.bodiesorstatebureaucracies; the in thecold-warera.Important toohasbeentheshiftingbalanceofvoting World War, racialdiscrimination,andtheproppingupofrepressiveregimes [It] mustincluderevulsionagainstgenocidalpracticesduring theSecond 27 Zhouadmits,“wehavenotdoneperfectly. There isstillroomfor

[ human rights 28 29 Onefourth-gradersaidabout 31 Footstates, ] andreligion. 26 25 Spe -tat fort - - - - 32

maynard 77 aegis 2006

- 34 - - .” - - - schemes In China, In China, nition of hu 33 s and Engels’ s and Engels’ 35 Teachers and factory bosses involved were un Teachers 36 reported, “Children as young as 13 years old were rights, but no international pressure will be tolerated. Emancipation of hu rights, but no international pressure will come about through the dictator man rights under a dictatorship can only “own choice.”… ship’s have managed to feed and meet the subsistence FIVE: “We FALLACY is the greatest human right”… needs of over one billion people” and “this of the people is SIX: “Looking after the interests of the majority FALLACY rights.” our major point of departure on human FALLACY ONE: Human rights are the internal affairs of a country, and of a country, ONE: Human rights are the internal affairs FALLACY have no right to interfere… foreign governments and organizations standards of human rights. Different There are different TWO: FALLACY nations, cultural traditions, and social countries, standards apply to different the human rights standards systems and people should be content with stipulated in the laws of their country… rights THREE: It is permissible to discuss the issue of human FALLACY but it is an “abnormal phenom and carry out international human rights, ideologies, and models… values, enon” to preach specific human FOUR: It is permissible to discuss and even protect FALLACY South China Morning Post later that year (November 1991). Conclusion July 2005, the sent to work in sweatshop factories in Dongguan, Guandong under ‘summer jobs’ rights. In China has a long way to go in proving its commitment to protecting human backed by their parents and their schools.” Wei’s letter was very influential, and the “White Paper on Human Rights in China” was issued and the “White letter was very influential, Wei’s then the individual’s rights are revoked in favor of community harmony. rights are revoked in favor of then the individual’s to rethink their defi are forcing the Chinese government Democracy movement, declared, “The lack of human Wei written from prison in June 1991, man rights. In a letter activists imprisoned after the Jingsheng, one of the Wei Nevertheless, citizens like confronting Chinese society cause for many of the concrete problems rights is the principle rights: regarding the Chinese theory of human He lists six fallacies morality and ethics, while Marxism stresses the community, not the individual. However, However, not the individual. stresses the community, ethics, while Marxism morality and value “Chung” teaches The Confucian at least one similarity. do have the two philosophies of Marx’ Loyalty to the state, albeit a misinterpretation loyalty to the state. the To Communism. many an important tenet in modern Chinese is considered by philosophy, related. One can only have “human rights,” is inherently community Chinese, then, the phrase of an individual, because If the community suffers the community. human rights if it benefits The Chinese differentiate between due rights (legal rights) and “natural rights.” “natural rights) and (legal due rights between differentiate The Chinese in the whereas rights,” than “natural rights” to “due related more closely rights are human made in order to protect and laws are “natural rights,” human rights are considered West, of from a mixture rights mostly derives concept of human the Chinese them. Furthermore, two concepts—Confu appear as if these Marxism. It might and modern ancient Confucianism wrote about individual after all, Confucius opposed; Marxism—are diametrically cianism and

aegis 2006 78 maynard community mustremainvigilantinitsdemandsforhumanrightsimprovements. and ruralincome,theproblemofpoverty, andcracksdownonchild laborabuses,theforeign the apprenticeships.” concerned. They “claimedthattheyweremerelyhelpingthechildrenfinancially byarranging 23. George Miller andNancyPelosi,letter toElaineL.Chao,26June2001 22. “Chineseblast,” ( 21. U.S.DepartmentofState, id=9256&p_qry=2001%20and%20firework Information Center, 16March2001, 20. “Full Text ofPremierZhu’s PressConference(II),”People’s Daily, ChinaInternet 19. “Chineseblast,” 18. Ibid. 17. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 2001%20and%20firework Center, 9March2001, 15. “Truth BehindSchoolExplosionKnown,”People’s Daily, ChinaInternetInformation 2001. 14. Kirk Troy, “Village upsetaboutgovernmentstories,” Presse 13. “Chineseblastschoolforcedstudentstomakefireworks inthepast,” Human RightsinChina 12. RosemaryFoot, Radio, 11 March2001. 11. RobGifford, interviewbyLisaSimeone. 10. “Chinaschoolexplosionkills41,” 9. Ibid. bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1207215.stm 8. “Angerof‘fireworkschool’ parents,”BBC World: Asia-Pacific, 7March2001, 7. PomfretandPan,“BlastKills37.” 6. Ibid. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/11206665.stm (2 5. FireworksblamedforChinaschooldeaths,”BBC World: Asia-Pacific, 7March2001, t=12738 March 2001, 4. “UNICEFexpressesregret,outrageoverschoolexplosion,”U.S.FundforUNICEF WGBH EducationalFoundation,Boston,Mass.,2004,videocassette. 3. Foreign Service 2. JohnPomfretandPhillipP. Pan,“BlastKills37StudentsinChina,” http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html 1. UnitedNations,UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,(New York: 10December1948) (Endnotes) includes Tibet, HongKong,andMacau Frontline: IsWal-Mart Goodfor America? , 15March2001. 2 (28October2005). http://www.unicefusa.ord/site/aps/nl/content2.asp?c=duLRI8oOH&b=106519&c , 8March2001. Rights BeyondBorders Agence France Presse Agence FrancePresse 37 UntiltheChinesegovernmentreconcilesdisparitybetweenurban http://service.china.org.cn/link/wcm/show_text?info_id=8791&p_qry= (New York: OxfordUniversityPress,2000),256. s (28October2005). 2001 CountryReportsonHuman RightsPracticesinChina http://service.china.org.cn/link/wcm/Show_text?info_ The Taipei Times ) (Washington D.C.: GPO,2002),31.

(7 . . : s November 2005). (28October2005). The GlobalCommunityandtheStruggleover Weekend All ThingsConsidered Dir. Rich Young, ed.CarolSlatkin,60min.,

(28 October 2005). , 8March2001,1. United Press International 8 October2005). Washington Post Agence France , NationalPublic http://news. , 9March , 7

maynard 79 aegis 2006 , ., 30 http:// ., 30 http://news. , 30 May 2005. Agence France Presse , National Public Radio, October 2005). 8 (28 October 2005). s October 2005). South China Morning Post Ltd South China Morning 28 (

South China Morning Post Ltd , 8 March 2001, p. 1. The Chinese Human Rights Reader: The Chinese Human http://service.china.org.cn/link/wcm/Show_ Dir. Rich Young, ed. Carol Slatkin, 60 min., Young, Rich Dir. The Chinese Human Rights Reader: Documents The Chinese Human Rights Reader: Documents Financial Times Information Financial Times The Global Community and the Struggle over The Global Community and the Struggle : Weekend All Things Considered Weekend The Taipei Times The Taipei , 57. . New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. York: . New 1900-2000 (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 2001), 34. 1900-2000 (Armonk: 1900-2000 (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 2001), 34. 1900-2000 (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 2001), Rights Beyond Borders Rights Beyond Borders WGBH Educational Foundation, Boston, Mass., 2004, videocassette. WGBH Educational Foundation, Boston, 16 March 2001, Information Center, text?info_id=9256&p_qry=2001%20and%20firework income of teachers,” to supplement have been caused by children making fireworks interview by Lisa Simeone. 15 March 2001. (2 news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/11206665.stm Human Rights in China bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1207215.stm and Commentary July 2005, 4 “Full Text of Premier Zhu’s Press Conference (II),” People’s Daily, China Internet Daily, (II),” People’s Press Conference of Premier Zhu’s Text “Full is believed to Tuesday “Analysis: Explosion in a rural schoolhouse in China last Rob. Gifford, “Fireworks blamed for China school deaths,” BBC World: Asia-Pacific, 7 March 2001, World: BBC “Fireworks blamed for China school deaths,” Foot, Rosemary. America? Good for Is Wal-Mart Frontline: Angle, Stephen C. and Marina Svensson.. Angle, Stephen C. and Marina Svensson.. in factories,” Chan, Minnie. “Children forced to work “China school explosion kills 41,” in the past,” make fireworks “Chinese blast school forced students to Bibliography March 2001, Asia-Pacific, 7 World: parents,” BBC “Anger of ‘firework school’ 33. Stephen C. Angle and Marina Svensson, ed. Angle and 33. Stephen C. Documents and Commentary 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid. forced to work in factories,” 36. Minnie Chan, “Children July 2005, 4. 37. Ibid. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. of human rights,” 29. “Planting the seeds 30. Ibid. 31. Foot, 32. Ibid. 24. George Miller and Nancy Pelosi, letter to Charles W. Winwood, 26 June 2001. 26 June Winwood, W. Charles letter to Pelosi, and Nancy Miller 24. George U.S.-China on Committee by National Luncheon Welcome at “Address Jiaxuan, Tang 25. U.S.-China Relations, Committee on Council,” National and U.S.-China Business Relations 2005. D.C., 27 July Washington 22 York, New Asia Society, Relations,” of China-U.S. “The Future Wenzhong, 26. H.E. Zhou 2005. September

aegis 2006 80 maynard Jiaxuan, Tang. “Addressat Welcome LuncheonbyNationalCommitteeonU.S.-China Wenzhong, H.E.Zhou.“TheFutureofChina-U.S.Relations,” Asia Society, New York, 22 U.S. DepartmentofState, “UNICEF expressesregret,outrageoverschoolexplosion,”U.S.FundforUNICEF “Truth BehindSchoolExplosionKnown,”People’s Daily, ChinaInternetInformationCenter, Troy, Kirk.“Village upsetaboutgovernmentstories,” Pomfret,JohnandPhillipP. Pan,“BlastKills37StudentsinChina,” “Planting theseedsofhumanrights,” Miller, George andNancyPelosi,lettertoElaineL.Chao,26June2001. Miller, George andNancyPelosi,lettertoCharles W. Winwood, 26June2001. September 2005. ( &ct=12738 2001, =2001%20and%20firework 9 March2001, 2001. Foreign Service Relations, Washington D.C.,27July2005. Relations andU.S.-ChinaBusinessCouncil,”NationalCommitteeon 11 March2001. includes Tibet, HongKong,andMacau http://www.unicefusa.ord/site/aps/nl/content2.asp?c=duLRI8oOH&b=106519 2 (28October2005). http://service.china.org.cn/link/wcm/show_text?info_id=8791&p_qry , 8March2001. 2001 CountryReportsonHumanRightsPracticesinChina s (28October2005). Financial Times Information ). Washington D.C.:GPO,2002. United Press International , 30May2005. Washington Post , 9March , 7March

maynard 81 aegis 2006 - - - - - . To To . s sup The , England, , her oral , and manipu , which would lead the , which would lead Though the argument is Though the argument

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Compendium , and and Eternal Wisdom

Jennifer RobertsJennifer Through Lee’s oral teachings we get a clear account of her childhood and inclination oral teachings we get a clear Through Lee’s Lee’s childhood and upbringing are critical to the understanding of how she shaped childhood and upbringing are critical Lee’s Though Lee was the founder of a new religious sect, Lee recognized that she would Though Lee was the founder of a new religious In the last few decades, feminists have been looking to the Shakers as both a model to the Shakers as have been looking few decades, feminists In the last Lee’s influence from within the system. Lee’s child, exhibited quite an interest in religious mysticism. Lee, an enigmatic for religious duty. and keenly She had visions of a godly nature from a young age. She was dedicated to God preoccupation with her own impurity seemed to torture aware of her own sinfulness. Lee’s daytime I put her: “I labored in nights; continually crying for my own redemption, and in the consumed were so great that my flesh my hands to work and my heart to God. My sufferings teachings were written down in some of the Shaker’s most important religious texts: the Shaker’s teachings were written down in some of Divine Book of Holy laid the foundation for the belief system of the early Shakers. which Wisdom,” as “Mother’s stand teachings we discover the ideas on the role of women that supports Lee’s the Within The natural progression of the Shakers of women. ing as a feminist visionary and champion in their into an era of positive attitude toward women stand the significance of Lee’s ideology of religion and how it has informed feminism today, ideology of religion and how it has informed feminism today, of Lee’s stand the significance and a a mother, experiences as a young girl, a wife, Lee’s we must first explore her history. will help clarify the rationale behind the dichotomy of her religion leader of an influential teachings. class family in 1736 in Manchester the Shaker religion. Lee, born into a working illiterate her entire life. Luckily had no formal schooling. In fact, Lee remained hierarchy, to understand how Lee worked within the only system available to women to affect to women to affect to understand how Lee worked within the only system available hierarchy, religion.” a “women’s wide-scale change and make the Shakers of both society and Christianity need to work within the patriarchal framework standing of women within a religious community late the hierarchal system to further the under of such, and to fully and the confines understand how Lee manipulated her position the later Shakers. Debates rage over the later Shakers gendered labor division and Lee’ rage over the later Shakers gendered the later Shakers. Debates not an advocate for women. Others, of the patriarchy as proof that Lee was posed enforcement to Christ coupled with her lead that her belief in a female counterpart defense, claim in Lee’s feminist. enough that she was in many respects a ership role is proof the context of her own time and not far enough. One must look at Lee in sound, it does not go the curtain, behind the patriarchal through twenty-first century eyes. One must look behind for women’s equality in religious leadership and as a model of an ideal utopian society. Ann society. and as a model of an ideal utopian equality in religious leadership for women’s blocks for future Shakers Shaker religion, provided the building American Lee, founder of the visionary on the laws set forth by this enigmatic to codify and expound see as a few scholars have exposed what they However, society. Shakers toward an egalitarian that of as well as philosophy, Ann Lee’s of gender equality that permeate contradictory ideas A Woman’s Religion: How Ann Lee Lee Ann How Religion: Woman’s A the Patriarchy Through Broke

aegis 2006 82 roberts set herupforalifeofpurpose. of hershortcomingsasamortalnotonlyattractedtheattentionthosearound upon mybonesandIbecameashelplessaninfant.” Lee’s voicebrokethroughfor womeninamultitudeofways,butnoneheld instead, aduality—male and society. Lee’s vision revealedtoherthatthere was noholytrinityconnected to Christ,but another visionthatwouldfurther solidifytheimportanceandequalityofwomenin Shaker 1770 inwhichshehadhervisions thatestablishedcelibacyastheonlywaytoGod,she had on strongerthanthebeliefin the dualityofChrist.DuringherimprisonmentinEngland in would notbeabletoadvance intoothersocial,religious,andeconomicarenas. in relationshiptomotherhood—a woman’s purposeisforreproduction only—thenwomen [their] maleandfemaleattributes.” removing theoppressionofchildbearing,womenwereable to“developandexerciseboth helped leadthenaturalprogressiontowardequalityin church andsocietyforwomen.By It canbeargued thatLee’s successinproclaimingcelibacy astheonlyavenuetosalvation sin…[O]nly bygivingupintercourseentirely…couldhumankind bereconciledwithGod.” confirmed forherthatcelibacywastheonlypathtoGodbecause “lustwastheoriginal while LeewasimprisonedforbreakingtheSabbath,sheclaimed tohavehadvisionsthat participates intheeconomyandcommunity. demonstrated thatwomencouldalsoconsiderleadershiproles inlitur for womenintheShakercommunitytolookbeyondmotherhoodastheironlyoption.Lee worth laidonlywithinherwomb.Itwouldbethisphilosophythatopenthedoors than female bodyinrelationtoreproductionandchildrearing.Equatingbirthsomethingother The metaphoricaluseoflaborandbirthmarkLee’s recognitionoftheoppressiveness that parallelsherownexperienceofgivingbirth: Procter-Smith highlightsLee’s accountof areligiousexperienceinwhichLeeuseswording draw theconclusionthatchildbirthdidindeedhaveaneffect onLee’s religiousphilosophy. er Wisdom: GenderandDivinityinShakerLife Belief,”MarjorieProcter-Smith helps us developing thisparticulartenetoftheShakers. speculated thatfourdifficult childbirthsandthedeathsofallfourchildreninfluenced Leein believers, havingthemrefertoeachother, marriedornot,as 1758, Lee’s personalityandvitalityenabledherrapidrisetoleadership. shouted, danced,spokeintongues,andliterallyshookwithemotion.” Shaking Quakers a newreligionbeingformedin1747. The Quakerreligionsplit,withonesectbecomingthe natural Lee wasnotafraidtochallengesocietalandreligiousnorms. InEnglandin1770, Though married,Leewouldadvocatecelibacyandasiblingmentalityamongthe Lee’s religious awarenessandpropensitytowardmysticism and , sonamedfortheir“highlyemotionalservices,duringwhichmemberssang, normal woman didachild,whenshedeliveredofit. my skin,untilsoulbrokeforthtoGod;whichIfeltassensiblyevera wasted away, andIbecame likeaskeleton,andkindofdowncameupon Thus Ilabored,instrongcriesandgroanstoGod,daynight,tilmyfl wasradicalandwouldhelpdeconstructthetheorythatawoman’ female 7 Leerecognizedthatifawoman’s rolewasdefinedonly . Leestatedthat Christ,inhisfirst coming,represented 4 Inanessay“BlessedMother Ann, HolyMoth 2 Lee’s religious fervorandawareness brother 5 and

left heropentoexplore gy andbecomeactive 3 After herconversionin sister . Ithasbeen

, butalso s 6 esh -

roberts 83 aegis 2006

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12

15 13 first. Lee herself 10 Divine Book of Holy Divine Book of Holy The path allotted for women, as Lee and the environment that she created 11 16 the Shakers juxtaposed positive female imagery against the Shakers juxtaposed , explores the androgynous model of the Shakers by , explores the androgynous model of the 9 Lee dictates a conventional gendered role for women in the household: gendered role for women in the Lee dictates a conventional As in nature it requires a man and a woman to produce children, the man As in nature it requires a man and a woman rst and the woman is second in the government of the family; he is the is first and the woman is second in the government and she the mother; and the male and female children must be subject father, to her husband, who is the to their parents, and the woman subject O Sisters Ain’t You Happy You Ain’t O Sisters The question of whether there was a female head of church in the Shaker community The question of whether there was a female Lee’s position on family structure was in apparent opposition to her role as leader position on family structure was in apparent Lee’s Lee felt that there was a feminine component to Christ, yet she also believed that a feminine component to Christ, yet Lee felt that there was Though having strong recognition in a female deity that was “essential to woman’ that was “essential in a female deity strong recognition Though having Lee was justifying her position while advocating gender hierarchy in an attempt to Lee was justifying her position while advocating The visions would assist the move toward utopian ideals and set women up for future and set women up for utopian ideals assist the move toward The visions would 8 14 was asked and answered differently on another occasion. When confronted again about the on another occasion. was asked and answered differently is the head of the church.” there was slick denial: “No; Christ position of a female leader, absence of her husband, answer relegates the woman to leader only in the Whereas this first God. Still, the second removes her from leadership completely and puts it in the hands of “Lee was the undisputed center of the community,” ideal utopian would encourage later Shaker leaders such as John Meacham to expound on the existence. role,” which does not obey Paul’s admonishment against women speaking up in church. admonishment role,” which does not obey Paul’s roles by saying, and men’s quote on women’s Lee responded and carried further the previous does not belong to the children, but to the “[W]hen the man is gone, the right of government wife.” blend the two roles. in the Shaker community, which did not go unnoticed by some. Suzanne R. Thurman, in R. which did not go unnoticed by some. Suzanne in the Shaker community, her book Lee had in her challenged, untraditional role as apostle and Ann highlighting the difficulties Meacham, future leader of the Shakers, Thurman recounts a challenge by John public speaker. propriety of her public speaking and visible leadership in which he questioned Lee about “the saw it, was still a path secondary to the role of man: saw it, was still a path secondary to the domestically. roles as wives and mothers would household. Her stance on women’s men were heads of In the sacred text gender. to the equality of Christ’s stand in contradiction and Eternal Wisdom, go forth in cheerfulness and good humor, look well to your household affairs; and “Rise early, to you.” and perform well your part which is allotted equality in liturgy. equality in emancipation,” social and religious sinfulness explains that the “greater ideals about women. Procter-Smith conventional societal in female form.” in part, the Second Coming of Christ of women necessitated, and inferiority both spiritually conventional rhetoric on women’s would propagate the only the male counterpart, referred to as the “second Adam.” The vision also informed Lee Lee also informed The vision Adam.” “second to as the referred the male counterpart, only as the “second known form, in the female appearing would be coming second that Christ’s the would spill over into male-ness in Christ of female-ness and up an equality Eve.” Setting as her Ann, as well for The Shakers reverence community. women in the Shaker equality of of was the female godhead Ann, them to think she, Mother led ability, dynamic leadership Christ.

aegis 2006 84 roberts America gave women a positive role model. Regardless of Meacham’s challenge to her visible despite thecontradictions. The merefactthatLeefoundedandrantheShakersinearly influenced futuregenerationstoleantowardequalityinwomen’s rightswithinthecommunity communal work, anduseoftechnology.” and lessdivisional thanthatofotherruralwoman becauseoftheir“practice oflaborrotation, Shaker society.” of thepublicandprivatespheres intheircommunitymadewomen’ of physicallabor, theiremphasisonskilledwork,viewsgender, andthe conflations women, butthesamedoesnot holdtruefortheruralShakerwoman:“[T]heirpositiveview in general. With theadventofindustrialization, divisionoflaborbecamemoreoppressivefor into accountthenatureof timesandhowruralShakerwomendif as evidenceagainsttheShaker’s women-friendlycommunity;shestatesthatonemusttake Thurman argues againstreachingtheconclusion that genderedlabordivisionshouldbecited advised thattruefreedomforthemlayinremainingwithin the‘woman’ the traditionalworkdonebywomentobeof“divineorigin,” andthat“Shakerwomenwere was inthehome,private,unseensphere.Procter-Smith argues thattheShakersviewed divisions foundintheoutsideworld:menwerepublic sphere,whileawomen’ division. LaborintheShakersocietywasdividedbetween thesexesandmirroredsame were notexpectedtoemulateher.” this rulewasexplainedawaybyherelevatedstatusasaprophet andthat“ordinarywomen” that publicspeakingwasstrictlyassignedtomen. The factthat Ann Leewasanexceptionto not onlyforworship,butduringpublicspeakinganddebateaswell.” out thattheeffects ofinstitutingsexualsegregation“relegate[d]womentothe“backroom” Thurman maysayyes,butProcter-Smith wouldargue thatitdoesnot.Procter-Smith points cornerstone inShakerreligion,influencing theoutsideworld. would haveequalsayandruleoverthesociety. Inthisway, equalityinliturgy becamea by twomenforthemaleorderandwomenfemaleorder;bothsetsofleaders Shaker ideology. Eachorderwassplitintomale/femaleorders. The orderswerethenheaded socialist policies(i.e.communalproperty, etc.),sexualsegregationhadevolved. the Shakersinlastdecadeofeighteenthcentury. for protectionisoneoftheprimaryreasonscommunallivingmayhavedevelopedamong consistently terrorizedtheShaker’s pacifistcommunity. The needtohuddleclosertogether Churches andcommunitiesthreatenedbyLeetheShakers’ successbecameviolent.Mobs come aboutfromLee’s successinacquiringconvertsduringhernineyears America. Following Ann Lee’s deathin1784,Shakerleadersbegantoheadanewdirection living. The naturalprogressionoftheShakersintocommunallivinginlarge partmayhave by creatingseparatebutequalordersformenandwomenfullydevelopingcommunal what isnowargued asautopianandfeministsocietyreligion. equal rightsforwomen.” godhead servedlatergenerationsofShakerswithatheologicalbasisfortheirespousal leadership, andLee’s ownviewsonmenasheadsofhousehold,“beliefinLeeafemale Another reasonsomethinktheShakerswerenotfeministlies intheirgenderedlabor However, thisbringsup thequestionofwhetherseparatebutequalistrulyequal. The developmentofseparatereligiousorderswasanothersteptowardapost-Lee We needlooknofurtherthanLee’s ownwordsinarguing thatMother Ann 22 Thurman stressesthefactthatShakerwomen’s workwaslesstedious 17 All thebuildingblockswereinplaceforanaturalprogressioninto 20

23 Thurman goes ontosaythattheShakers did not 18 Along withcommunallivingand s workhighlyvaluedin fered fromruralwomen 19 Shegoesontoexplain s sphere.’” 21 However, s place

roberts 85 aegis 2006 - m . Eds. Caroline . Through Lee’s struggles Through Lee’s . 1st ed. New York: Garland, York: 1st ed. New . / ed. New York: Macmillan Refer York: ed. New

nd XI, (1859): 1-68. New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1985. York: New . Passtheword.com. . New York: Syracuse University Press, 2002. York: . New Gender in Cross Cultural Perspective Gender in Cross Compendium,

m Encyclopedia of Religion, 2 . VHS. Directed by Burns, Ken. 1989; PBS Home Video, Video, VHS. Directed by Burns, Ken. 1989; PBS Home . Handbook of American Women’s History. History. American Women’s Handbook of O Sisters Ain’t You Happy”: Gender, Family, and Community Among and Community Family, Happy”: Gender, You Ain’t O Sisters http://www.college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp B. Brettell and Carolyn F. Sargent. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1997. 390-97. New Jersey: Prentice Sargent. B. Brettell and Carolyn F. and Shirley Shakers the Harvard 1990, 321-322. ence USA, 2004, 8268-8269. The argument for and against the Shakers as exemplars of an ideal society can of an ideal the Shakers as exemplars for and against The argument Women in Shaker Community and Worship. Women http://www.sacred-texts.co http://www.passtheword.org/Shaker-manuscripts/holy-wisdom/wsdmndex.ht Divine Book of Holy and Eternal Wisdom Notes 1. Defined by the majority of its members as female with female leadership. 2. Ken Burns, 1989 ——. Houghton American History. to Companion The Reader’s Ann.” Peters, Robert. “Lee, Mifflin. Thurman, Suzanne R. “ Angela. Howard-Zophy, ed. “Shakers.” Jones Lindsay. Gender and Wisdom: Ann, Holy Mother “Blessed Mother Marjorie. Procter-Smith, Divinity in Shaker Life and Belief.” Bates, Paulina. “WISDOM instructs Females who are bound in Marriage to Males.” Bates, Paulina. “WISDOM instructs Females America: Shakers Ken Burns’ 2000. Ann Lee.” Evans. “Biography of F.W. within the patriarchy of society and the Christian religion, the Shakers would come the closest of society and the Christian religion, within the patriarchy religious was the model for a perfect social and a society that society, in creating a utopian equality. and religious equality, economic equality, comprised of gender organization Bibliography changes within the religion that would push women’s equality closer to the forefront of closer to the forefront equality would push women’s the religion that changes within generation saw the that the next leadership and teachings It was through her discussion. perfection and hard work in order an idealistic community that prized opportunities to inhabit housing into celibate, equal death, the Shakers divided their Lee’s After to be closer to God. the religion and society in shared, a female and male leader to minister dormitories; appointed property and instituted equal possession of equal power distribution; devalue women’s work and instead suggests that the gendered labor distribution in the Shaker in the distribution labor the gendered that instead suggests work and women’s devalue equality ideology of their away from did not take that practice an acceptable was community and men.24 among women is that though, is clear, What either side. being made on be debated with cases continue to fostered an environment that created however contradictory, and theory, theology Ann Lee’s

aegis 2006 86 roberts NY: Garland,1990),322. 4. Angela HowardZophy, Handbook 8268. 3. LindsayJones, 24. Thurman, college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/. 23. Peters,Robert,“Lee, Ann,” 22. Thurman, Suzanne, Life andBelief 21. Procter-Smith, 20. Ibid. 19. Procter-Smith, lost incomeandtheabilitytokeepthemself-sufficient. Pulling awayfromtheoutsideworldseparatedthem competition inindustry;thus,they 18. Somescholarsalsoseethecommunallivingasafactor inthelaterdeclineofShakers. NY: Garland, 1990),322. 17. Zophy, Angela Howad, 16. Ibid. 15. Procter-Smith, 14. Thurman, “ he hadbeenknowntodo,beforescrutinizinganddispellingit. advocated silenceforwomen.Someargue thatPaulwassimplystating anopposingview, as 13. FeministthinkersintheologyarealsochallengingthiscommonlyheldbeliefthatPaulhad texts.com/chr/shaker/sc/sc.ht 12. F.W. Evans,“Biographyof Ann Lee,”ChapterXI,68., org/SHAKER-MANUSCRIPTS/Holy-Wisdom/wsdmndex.ht Book ofHolyandEternalWisdom, sect.8 11. PaulinaBates,“WISDOMinstructsFemaleswhoareboundinMarriagetoMales,” 10. Ibid. Shaker LifeandBelief,”395. 9. Procter-Smith, “BlessedMother Ann, HolyMother Wisdom: GenderandDivinityin terpart toChrist,orwhetherherdevotedfollowersmadetheproclamationafterdeath. 8. Scholarscontinuetodebatewhether Ann Leeeverproclaimedherselfasthefemalecoun 60-61. Among theHarvard andShirleyShakers 7. SuzanneR. Thurman, “ 6. Jones,EncyclopediaofReligion2 and CarolynF. Sargent. UpperSaddleRiver, NewJersey:Prentice Hall,1997,390-397. in ShakerLifeandBelief,” 5. MarjorieProcter-Smith, “BlessedMother Ann, HolyMother Wisdom: GenderandDivinity “O Sisters Ain’t You Happy , 395. O Sisters Ain’t You Happy Encyclopedia ofReligion2 Blessed Mother Ann, HolyMotherWisdom: GenderandDivinity inShaker Women inShakerCommunityandWorship Women inShakerCommunityandWorship “O Sisters Ain’t You Happy,” O Sisters Ain’t You Happy”:Gender, Family, andCommunity Handbook of American Women’s History, Gender inCross CulturalPerspective m

The Reader’s Companionto American History nd of American Women’s History, 1 Edition,(Detroit,MI:ThomasGale,2005),5389. (Syracuse,NY: SyracuseUniversityPress,2002), ,” 61. (LebanontN.Y: 1849), ,” 67-79. nd Edition 68. , (Detroit,MI: Thomas Gale,2005), Compendium m , 98-99. , 14-15.

http://www.passtheword. . Eds.CarolineB.Brettel 1stEdition,(New York, st Edition

http://www.sacred- . http://www. (New York,

Divine -

roberts 87 aegis 2006 - - - - However, this narrow However, 3 Although forty percent of self-declared artists 1

2 Jennifer Wall Jennifer Lee Krasner, who had begun to find a voice through WPA projects, found herself WPA a voice through who had begun to find Lee Krasner, 4 Women artists were automatically denied access to the Abstract Expressionist move Abstract automatically denied access to the artists were Women The WPA afforded women artists an unprecedented opportunity for professional afforded WPA The The New Deal art projects, however, offered both opportunities and repression. offered The New Deal art projects, however, Critics, historians, and even other artists ignored women artists throughout art his even other artists ignored women artists Critics, historians, and Feminist art of the 1960s and 1970s, like the Women’s Liberation Movement of the Liberation Movement Women’s 1970s, like the of the 1960s and Feminist art similar situation. as action painting. Abstract Expressionism was defined ment because of its macho mystique. by the male mystique and the move styles but was defined It encompassed many different club” of womanizers and Abstract Expressionist group was a “boy’s The ment of action. alcoholics. employment, through which they could form an identity. Although this identity was still Although form an identity. employment, through which they could that the only experience worth recording was the limited socially and the assumption was could begin to push through. male experience, they found a door they assumed that II. It was War World with the end of passageway for women artists was closed and employment, would want nothing more then women, who had now experienced success themselves in a found WPA The women artists of the to return to the role of wife and mother. in the 1930s census were women, many were still caught in the fold of trying to decide where in the 1930s census were women, many being a woman was always It was not as simple as being a professional; their loyalties lay. Thus in the 1930s, though women were becoming more “modern” tied to whatever they did. was more accepted, the challenges of social value and the ability to work outside the home place,” and equal opportunity in the workplace or what was thought to be the “the women’s hindered many women. women all over America. The WPA allowed for women to find a place not just in factories a place not allowed for women to find WPA The America. women all over and for the first gave jobs to artists, WPA The arts world. and the job market, but in the fine like Dorthea Lange and painters like Lee time these artists included women. Photographers WPA. Krasner found work through the line between expressing and repressing artists found themselves still having to draw a Women their femininity in a male-dominated society. interplay. They contributed to the women’s movement in two ways: they used the techniques in two ways: they used the techniques movement to the women’s They contributed interplay. while using their own work and to awaken younger women artists, movement of the women’s liberation. cause of women’s the larger teaching to advance to express themselves. artists were punished for simply trying During some eras, women tory. helped open the door for (WPA) Administration Progress Works the The New Deal and same era, represented a radical new beginning. The women of both movements wanted to The women of both movements a radical new beginning. same era, represented that women had long been de and create equality and recognition gender, change views about generated new subjects Liberation Movement Women’s of the The momentum and force nied. art to advance her cause and new type of female artist, who then used and inspiration for a best expressed an example of this Judy Chicago and her associates inform the public sphere. The Art of Revolution: Feminist Art and Art of Feminist Art The Revolution: Movement Liberation the Women’s

aegis 2006 88 wall him andhiswork,whilestillattemptingtocreateherown.Herhowever it wasdonebyawoman. regarded teacherandartist,saidthatKrasner’s workwassogoodonewouldnothavethought simply beingdefined asJacksonPollock’s wifeandnothingmore.HansHofmann,ahighly ing. Itwasstill uncommonforwomentowork oncetheymarried.Shebecame depressed, the women’s movement. person andasanartist. With thisrealization, shefoundanalternativeanddevotedherselfto that theartcommunityasitwas couldnotprovideherwhatsheneededtorealizeherself asa women withintheLiberation movement,Chicagofoundherselftrulyalienated.Sherealized others, grewwaryofalwayshaving tojustifyherworkandfemininity ists beforethemovement,Chicago gaveupartforanumberofyearsbecauseshe,likemany she waswronginwantingtobeapersonseparatefromher sex. society, determinesone’s personality, interestsandoptions.Shebelievedfor alongtimethat readings andherassociationswithotheractivists,shediscovered thatone’ gent andcharismaticmanwhomChicagodeeplyadmired. Through her Women’s Liberation in herlifeandfromanearlyage,shewantedtobejustlike him.Herfatherwasanintelli name. all thingsimposedonherbyamalesocialdominance.She wantedtochoosefreelyherown took thenameJudyChicagoin1969asawaytoescape isolationandmoveawayfrom themselves, buttousetheirartspeakagainstdiscrimination forthebenefi ists ofthe1960sand1970sweredeterminednotonlytofind aplacewithintheartworldfor in thewomen’s rightsmovementavoiceforwhichtheyhadbeenlonging. The womenart brought forthnotonlyanewtypeofartistbutsubjectmatter farther; theywantedabortionrightsandsexualliberation.NOW and Women’s Liberation be treatedasequalsbasedonqualification. Women’s LiberationmovedwithNOW butwent was theywhoweregoingtochangethem. Women’s Liberation,theseimagesthatsocietypushedonwomenwereabouttochangeandit professionals andcertainlynotartists. With theNational Women’s Organization (NOW)and and thejobplacewereformen. Women weretobemothers,wives,andhomemakers,butnot Similar tothefactoryorworkplace,artwasnotregardedaswomen’ volume ofarthistory. artist. Jansonjustified thisbysayinghehadyettofind awomanwhoclearlybelongedinany Art case ofwomenartists,fromtheirownhistory. was KrasnerwhodidPollock’s interviewsandsethisschedule. Krasner, notPollock,who wasthefirst Abstract Expressionist.Itwas alsonotadmittedthatit women simplyfollowingthepathsetforthembymen.Nocriticwouldadmitthatitwas de Kooninggainedsomerecognitionthroughtheirhusbands.Criticsthoughttheywerenaïve Krasner wouldmoveoutoftheshadowherhusband. fame untilthe Women’s Liberationmovement. When feministartwastobe“rediscovered,” , wasfirstpublishedin1962. 10 ChicagowasborninChicago,Illinois1939. Early inherart career, Chicagogotmarriedandduring thistime,shestoppedwork One artistinparticulartookituponherselftospeakforwomen. JudyGerowitz NOW wasformedtoobtainequalemployment,andprofessionalwomenwanted Women inthe1950sandearlierfacedisolation,notonlyfromeachotherbut Some womendidgainsomerecognitioninthe1950sartworld.KrasnerandElaine 9 Hewassimplyfollowingapathsetbeforehimbyotherarthistorians. 13 5 KrasnerfoundherselfsupportingPollock’s career. Shepromoted 8 Itcontainedneithertheworksnornameofasinglewoman 7 H.W. Janson’s influentialtextbook, 11 6 Herfatherwasanimportantpresence 12 . Women artistswerefinding Typical ofother womenart s work. The factory . Justasmanyother s sex,accordingto t ofallwomen. , wasnottofind History of - - - -

wall 89 aegis 2006 - - f - - s movements. and everything and everything .15 In the Women’s Women’s .15 In the . In some ways, Chicago s desires, experiences, The Scum Manifesto The Scum 17 16 21 Chicago believed that she had been robbed of knowing Chicago believed that she had been robbed Many of them had been pressured by parents to get good 18 22 These feminists criticized the ideologies and discourses of These feminists criticized the ideologies and discourses 20 It was Chicago’s contention that these women had the right to know what contention that these women It was Chicago’s 19 she had found her voice again. She found little support in the art world because world because in the art support found little again. She her voice found she had 14 Chicago found something that was prevalent within all of the women’ Chicago found something that was prevalent A space was rented in a run-down area of Los Angeles and each student in the pro Angeles and space was rented in a run-down area of Los A Fresno was founded as an experimental college that offered courses in Marxist courses in as an experimental college that offered Fresno was founded critics, galleries, museums, and historians. let nothing stop She had known she wanted to be an artist and once set in her struggle she had The women in her classes had never had anything expected of them, nor had they ever her. that been asked what they wanted to do. Chicago soon found out that no one had demanded these women reach their potential. grades, but establishing personal goals and identity was another story women’s literature was available. She used Women’s Liberation literature and ideas on wom Liberation Women’s literature was available. She used women’s roles to engage and inform. an’s Feminist history. As artists and women, they wanted to know their own traditional art history. themselves from art as it had been practiced and historians and activists wanted to marginalize nature of access to cultural production, the ques Thus, they rejected the gendered recorded. art by of men and women’s treatment and the differential tions of representation and gender, sciousness raising, reading, discussion, and activities that built up the skills of a modern artist. sciousness raising, reading, discussion, about. Liberation were speaking Women’s and classes focused on what NOW Chicago’s and the repression of women’ They looked at traditional gender roles curriculum was learning to contend with manifestations The unspoken ambitions, and fears. both political and social. of power, about work went into research part of the group’s so a large her own heritage in art history, women in history. gram gave twenty-five dollars to pay rent for a seven-month period. By working off campus, campus, to pay rent for a seven-month period. By working off dollars gram gave twenty-five and space, sometimes working beyond the normal the group surpassed normal academic time with The space was located in an urban area where they became a community academic day. urban markets, malls, and swap meets. resources and research areas, which encompassed the Liberation movement, the group included con Relying on methods used by women in rare. Chicago approached the Art Department head and wanted to hold a women’s art class and wanted to hold a women’s Art Department head the rare. Chicago approached She wanted the class held of the women in it as artists and as women. that would challenge experiences, Chicago had found the male population. In previous teaching campus away from to be passive and withdrawn. She in male-dominated classes tended that women on campus and she believed it had stunted isolation in male-dominated settings herself had experienced art classes, she found that and as a woman. In the gender segregated her growth as an artist and angry. the female students were assertive, eager, to create work that expressed not only herself as a woman, but the experience she had gone she had gone a woman, but the experience not only herself as that expressed to create work she from the art world, Chicago was isolated When society. a male-dominated through in Chicago began Angeles. It was here that at Fresno State College in Los found an alternative the art world but society. to challenge not only these studies were very studies. Courses in studies, and women’s American African politics, but then in the late 1960s, Chicago began to use abstract, formal images to express herself as herself as to express images formal use abstract, began to Chicago late 1960s, in the but then a woman; her her experiences, and put herself, was a woman, Chicago trying to hide that she instead of Solanas’ Valerie read into her work. Chicago womanhood anger and repressed to isolation, rejection, saw an alternative changed. She began support system. She a community and Chicago found movement and NOW, Liberation

aegis 2006 90 wall themselves confused. They couldnotworkconsistentlyontheirart,astheyhadpersonalcon expressing theirthoughts,feelings,andideas. found herselfhavingtoteachthesewomenmakedemandsofeachotherbyexchangingand be protestedand changedintheinterestof humandignityofwomen. Members ofNOW women intheworkplace, buttheyalsoaddressed theideathatfalseimages ofwomenshould ing ideasfromthewomen’s movement. nude unlessitwasdegrading or inlinewiththemalegaze.Suddenlywomenartistswere tak women wereseenasemasculators ortheobjectsofrapeandlust. a happywife,ortheextreme opposite, thesinner, temptress,andwhore.Inlaterarthistory males. Thus, onecould usuallyonlyfind women inartportrayedonlyasthevirgin, amother, titutes, orservants. These werenotissuesaboutwhichwomensupposed toexpressideasorhaveopinions. in public. They addressedsex,homosexuality, andwentagainsttraditionalrolesofwomen. and manyofthemwentfaragainstthegrainwhatwasacceptable forawomantotalkabout kitchen andnursery. These performancesbroughtlifeandrealitytothe imagery inthehouse women moregenerally. Women wantedtobeseenasapresenceinsocietyandnotjustthe that feltasNOW and Women’s Liberationdid,butratheranissueofgrowingconcernto house wasopen. The imagesshowedthepublicthatitwasnotjustaselectgroupofwomen imagery forthepublic,alongwithperformancepiecesdone bywomenartistseachnightthe only didtheroomsofhousegiveafacetoproblemwithnoname,italsoprovidednew Feminine Mystique women throughcreativeexaggeration. The houseliterallybroughttolife BettyFriedan’s 1963 aspects ofahome. The activitiesineachroom,however, challengedthetraditionalimagesof and socialroles,inadirectobviousway. Mostoftheroomsreplicatedconventional ter, aswell. The seventeenroomsof discrimination againstwomen. exposure, dressed theuniversalexperiencesofwomen. Located inurbanLos Angeles, Schapiro beganworkonabuildingthatbecameveryimportantinthefeministmovement. Arts (CalArts),whereartistandliberationactivistMiriamSchapiroworked. and itscontexts.ChicagowenttojointheFeminist Art ProgramatCaliforniaInstituteofthe grown intheliberationmovement.Herworkwasblatantlyreferencing them forwantingmore. The challengehadtocomefromwithinandtheyacceptedthattherewasnothingwrongwith Liberation. They realizedthatitwasnolongeracceptablejusttocopewithsocietyaswas. forced themtobecomeinvolvednotonlyintheirartbutpromotingNOW became consciousoftheirsituationasindependentwomeninsocietyandculture. to haveaboyfriendbesuccessfulsoonfiltered intoChicago’s class.Graduallythesewomen flicts intherelationshipsofboyfriendsandhusbands.However, the ideathatonedidnothave In itsmanifesto,NOW notonlyprovidedanoutlineforworkingtowardsequality for Before the women’s movement, women were pictured in art as mothers, wives, pros Womanhouse By 1971,ChicagofeltthathertimeatFresnohadbeenproductive.Sheherself Along withmanywomenintheliberationmovement,Chicago’s studentsfound Womanhouse 30 . Women assubject matterwasonlyseenasappropriateifitweredoneby Womanhouse notonlyencouragedyoungartists;itgeneratedanewsubjectmat wasgivennationalattentionthatspurredontheideasofsexualityand 24 Womanhouse gaveavisualimageto“theproblemwithnoname.” Womanhouse providedacollaborativeartenvironmentthatad 27 23 UnlikeFresnowherethestudents’ arthadlittle presentedtherelationshipbetweengender Women wererarely shown Women’s Liberation 25 and Women’s There sheand This inturn 28 Not - 26

- 29 - - -

wall 91 aegis 2006 - - - lter into 34 Even the new Even 31 As the number of Menstruation Bath They provided the visual s experience. Feminist art Chicago created a Womanhouse, began to use their bodies not only as references in images not only as references in images began to use their bodies Womanhouse 32 found themselves being drawn into the feminist movement. They began to con feminist movement. found themselves being drawn into the . Women outside the art world could relate to the imagery of the feminist artists outside the art world could relate to the imagery of the Women . They longed to transcend out of gendered identity through their work. They longed to transcend out of gendered identity In the Women’s Liberation movement, feminist artists found a door through which Liberation movement, feminist artists found a door Women’s In the The artists of Women artists were looking at the idea of universal women’s experience. They They experience. women’s at the idea of universal artists were looking Women 33 that challenged the traditional notion of shame society placed on a woman when she traditional notion of shame society placed that challenged the and visually. By taking a stand, these women did accomplish change. Chicago herself went By taking a stand, these women did accomplish change. Chicago and visually. the universal woman’ on to do several series of work on or about women everywhere an image to go Liberation, giving Women’s provided visual imagery for with “the problem with no name.” they could voice the universal issues of women. They found new subject matter as well as women. they could voice the universal issues of their presence or their art. an art world that could no longer ignore could inform the public. images through which the Liberation movement as a whole. Progressively more women found feminist artists grew so did the movement experience and many utilized, supported, or themselves relating to the images of universal were now taking a stand for themselves both vocally Women contributed to the movement. to the desires and fears expressed in the imagery being produced by the feminist artists of to the desires and fears expressed in the Womanhouse as the artists. Other women artists outside of even if they had not had the same experiences Womanhouse quilts, weaving, and body art as obvious subject matter and nect the vagina, labia and flowers, imagery. entered puberty (Appendix A). Chicago’s bathroom was pristine white, with feminine hygiene bathroom was pristine white, with A). Chicago’s entered puberty (Appendix in silence and became a metaphor for The bathroom was shrouded products double wrapped. the unspeakable. being with desires of her own was The idea of a women being a sexual art. but as performance say that only a few neurotic No longer could critics of the movement given visual imagery. America, many found themselves relating women had those feelings, because throughout began to take apart the stereotyping of women in society as homemakers and mothers with and mothers with society as homemakers of women in apart the stereotyping began to take experience began to fi choice. Images of sexuality and sex no sexuality or personal in that would never have been discussed issues as images of women’s the art world, as well menstruation. In public, like rape and room felt that these false images fostered self-denigration, dependence, and doubt. dependence, self-denigration, fostered images these false felt that and advertis in media of women the images out against spoke York in New Feminist Radical what a women a double standard of around and that were being paraded They felt women ing. artists of this time The feminist America. young women all over was being given to was to be the to go along with public with a visual and presented the new subject matter took up this movements. other women’s and words of NOW

aegis 2006 92 wall Wolff, Janet.“TheFemininein Modern Art: Benjamin,Simmel andtheGenderofModer Shor, Mira.“ContemporaryFeminism: Art Practices,and Activism- anIntergenerational Per Scholarly Articles: Slatkin, Wendy. Jones, Amelia, ed. Broude, NormaandGarrard,Mary, ed. Broude, NormaandGarrard,Mary, ed. Bibliography nity.” spective.” NJ: PrenticeHall,2001. Berkeley: UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1996. 1994. of the1970s,HistoryandImpact Oxford: Westview Press,1992. Secondary Sources: Reprinted bypermissionof Through theFlower Judy Chicago’s Theory Culture andSociety17 Women Artists inHistory:From Antiquity to the Present Sexual Politics:JudyChicago’s DinnerPartyinFeminist Art History Art Journal58 Menstruation Bathroom, 1972. (Winter 1999):8-29. The PowerofFeminist Art: The American Movement The ExpandingDiscourse:Feminismand Art History . New York: HarryN. Abrams, Inc.,Publishers, (December2000): 33-53. 35 . UpperSaddleRiver, . - - .

wall 93 aegis 2006 - - - . New , ed. , (New York: Anchor York: , (New Anchor York: , (New , (New York: Anchor York: , (New New York: Anchor York: New The Expanding Discourse , (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, , (Upper Saddle River, Feminist Memoir Project: Voices From Women’s Women’s From Voices Project: Feminist Memoir . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993. . Upper Saddle River, The Power of Feminist Art: The American Move Art: The The Power of Feminist . New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, Abrams, N. Harry York: . New The Power of Feminist Art: The American Move Art: The The Power of Feminist The Power of Feminist Art: The American Movement American Movement Art: The The Power of Feminist The Power of Feminist Art: The American Movement Movement American Art: The of Feminist The Power . New York: Norton, 1963. York: . New , (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 1994), Harry N. York: , (New , (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 1994), Harry N. York: , (New , (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 1994), 16. Harry N. York: , (New The Voices of Women Artists of Women The Voices . New York: Three Rivers Press, 1998. Three Rivers York: . New The Columbia Documentary History of American Women Since 1941 American Women History of The Columbia Documentary Through the Flower: My Struggle as a Woman Artist the Flower: My Struggle as a Woman Through Through the Flower: My Struggle as a Woman Artist the Flower: My Struggle as a Woman Through Artist the Flower: My Struggle as a Woman Through The Voices of Women Artists of Women The Voices Through the Flower: My Struggle as a Woman Artist. a Woman My Struggle as the Flower: Through The Feminine Mystique Liberation Press, 2003. Columbia University York: of the 1970s, History and Impact of the 1970s, 1994. Books, 1977. Books, 1977), 34-40. 15. Ibid., 59. 16. Norma Broude and Mary Garrard, ed., ment of the 1970s, History and Impact 32. 17. Judy Chicago, Books, 1977), 72. Books, 1977), 63. Ibid., 1-2. 11. 12. Ibid., 3-10. Slatkin, Wendy 13. of Judy Chicago. 1993), 284. Includes personal writings 14. Judy Chicago, group of Abstract Expressionists. group of was not taught as a Studies Women’s history was true of all women. The lack of women’s 7. whole. 8.Norma Broude and Mary Garrard, ed., of the 1970s, History and Impact 9. Ibid. 10. Judy Chicago, ment of the 1970s, History and Impact 13. 4. Ibid., 10-13. 5. Ibid. Lib Women’s promoted in galleries till the work was not discovered or 6. Much of Krasner’s work began to be included in the core that Krasner’s eration Movement. It was following this Notes Gendered Experience” in Vision, 1. Helen Langa, “Egalitarin 409. Press, 1992), Westview Mary Garrard, (Oxford: by Norma Broude and 2. Ibid., 410-411. 3. Norma Broude and Mary Garrard, ed., DuPlessis, Rachel Blau and Snitow, Ann, ed. Ann, Rachel Blau and Snitow, DuPlessis, Friedan, Betty. Sigerman, Harriet. Wendy. Slatkin, Primary Sources: Primary ed. Mary, and Garrard, Norma Broude, Chicago, Judy.

aegis 2006 94 wall 19. Ibid. 35. ment ofthe1970s,HistoryandImpact 18. NormaBroudeandMaryGarrard,ed., 57. ment ofthe1970s,HistoryandImpact 34. NormaBroudeandMaryGarrard,ed., erational Perspective,” 33. MiraShor, “ContemporaryFeminism: Art Practices, Theory, and Activism –anIntergen were sexualbutmanytookthatideaawayafterviewingher work. 32. Georgia O’Keefedidthisinherworks.Shenevertoldpeoplethatflower paintings 55. ment ofthe1970s,HistoryandImpact 31. NormaBroudeandMaryGarrard,ed., (New York: ColumbiaUniversityPress,2003),206. 30. HarrietSigerman, 55. ment ofthe1970s,HistoryandImpact 29. NormaBroudeandMaryGarrard,ed., 28. BettyFriedan, 27. Ibid. 39. ment ofthe1970s,HistoryandImpact 26. NormaBroudeandMaryGarrard,ed., had broughtChicagofartherintothemovement. 25. SchipiroandChicagohadmetbeforeSchipiro,whowasmoreradicalthenChicago, Books, 1977),75. 24. JudyChicago, 23. Ibid. Books, 1977),74. 22. JudyChicago, nity,” 21. Janet Wolff, “TheFeminineInModern Art: Benjamin,SimmelandtheGenderofModer Books, 1977),69. 20. JudyChicago, Theory Culture andSociety The FeminineMystique Through theFlower:MyStruggleasaWoman Artist Through theFlower:MyStruggleasaWoman Artist Through theFlower:MyStruggleasaWoman Artist The ColumbiaDocumentaryHistoryof American Women Since1941 Art Journal 17(December2000):33-35. 58(Winter 1999):12. , (New York: HarryN. Abrams, Inc.,Publishers,1994), , (New York: HarryN. Abrams, Inc.,Publishers,1994), , (New York: HarryN. Abrams, Inc.,Publishers,1994), , (New York: HarryN. Abrams, Inc.,Publishers,1994), , (New York: HarryN. Abrams, Inc.,Publishers,1994), , (New York: Norton,1963),1-5. The PowerofFeminist Art: The American Move The PowerofFeminist Art: The American Move The PowerofFeminist Art: The American Move The PowerofFeminist Art: The American Move The PowerofFeminist Art: The American Move , (New York: Anchor , (New York: Anchor , (New York: Anchor - - - - -

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wall 95 aegis 2006 ------gely While gure who Wetzler summa Wetzler is the oldest, In 1998, Peter Wetzler pub Wetzler In 1998, Peter 1 (1989), balanced the posi Hirohito and the Making of Modern and the Making of Hirohito Hirohito: Emperor of Japan Emperor Hirohito: , blowing onto the historical scene with allegations , blowing onto the historical scene with Hirohito: Behind the Myth Hirohito: , which makes the argument that while Hirohito was well informed that while , which makes the argument The image of Hirohito’s guiltless ignorance was crumbling away, but away, guiltless ignorance was crumbling The image of Hirohito’s 2 rst) held real control. Military leaders were given powerful positions at first) held real control. Military leaders were From the very outset Hirohito was a dynamic emperor, but paradoxically From the very outset Hirohito was a dynamic emperor, also one who projected the defensive image of a passive monarch. the rest of the world dissociated him from any meaningful personal role Michelle Yost Michelle genro that the Emperor was not a passive figure controlled by militaristic forces, but controlled not a passive figure that the Emperor was but new documentation points a guilty finger at him as a well informed schemer finger but new documentation points a guilty , 3 Japan’s Imperial Conspiracy Japan’s Beginning with the Meiji Restoration in 1867, the position of Emperor of Japan was Beginning with the Meiji Restoration in At the conclusion of World War II, American occupation forces faced a tough deci occupation forces American II, War World of At the conclusion (2000) Hirohito and War Hirohito militarists”,” war course. Herbert Bix asserts, who helped to guide Japan’s reviewers and fellow historians don’t seem to have come to full acceptance of the Emperor’s seem to have come to full acceptance of the Emperor’s reviewers and fellow historians don’t book. war responsibility until Bix’s the cabinet to the center of the government. However, religious figure moved from a marginal (headed by the prime ministers independent of public elec in the cabinet, and the cabinet often appointed Hirohito as “a helpless puppet of “the it is not impossible to image this history, With tions. and skillful manipulator as work, who knew what was going on.” and skillful manipulator as work, who knew lished in the decision-making process was driven by his about military maneuvers, his participation the image of the imperial household. desire to maintain Japanese policy and or the only decision maker; he was part of the deci rizes, “The emperor was not the ultimate sion-making process.” his between 1966 and 1998. Leonard Mosley’s his between 1966 and 1998. Leonard Mosley’s sympathetic to Hirohito. In 1971 there was David published in 1966, and by far the most Bergamini’s his book was not well However, true involvement in the war. about Hirohito’s of a cover-up and he did not have access to all of the documents received (as will be seen in the reviews) author of that Bix used. Edward Behr, that in the person of Hirohito there was “a shrewd asserting tion of Mosley and Bergamini, bore very little responsibility for Japan’s actions. With new sources released by the royal new sources With actions. for Japan’s bore very little responsibility in his book, Bix makes the argument Herbert family, Japan popular always changing in accordance to new II. History is War World an active director of significantly in the last forty years. war history has changed Hirohito’s interpretations, and book with four published before the position of Bix’s this end, I will compare To or leave him as him with war crimes, Hirohito and charge the Showa Emperor sion: remove General MacArthur chose to ease the this end, To of a defeated nation. the symbolic leader position of Emperor (now lar by allowing Hirohito to remain in the occupation of Japan in the new democratic government. to reform the image of the Emperor impotent) and helped for details. and MacArthur did not press front about his role in the war, Hirohito was not up as a background fi have portrayed the Showa Emperor Previous historical works Hirohito: Dunce or Duplicitous Leader? Duplicitous or Dunce Hirohito: Introduction

aegis 2006 96 yost ley reliesvery largely onstoriesabout theemperorandhisrelatives toldbyofficials orex-of cal Review could notbearrestedforwar crimes, which Truman grudginglyaccepted. himself up for judgment, and MacArthur was so touched that he told Washington that Hirohito be smashedtoo.” involve Hirohito.Itwasasif they weredeterminedthat,ifsmashed,theEmperor could notwin,Mosleybelieves, “Themorethe Allies advanced, themore Army sought to besides issuingrescriptstothepeoplekeepfighting. As itbecamemoreapparentthatJapan as asymbol.” months afterPearlHarbor, Hirohitoceasedto playanypartintheaffairs ofhisnation,except was donewithlongdeliberationandhesitation.However, Mosleystates,“Foralmosteighteen to goaheadwithadeclarationofwaragainsttheUnitedStates andGreatBritain,thoughit the war.” resources, inspiteofmilitaryfanaticsandpalaceconspiracies, tooutwittheplottersandend himself Emperorofanationbentonwarandconquest…[H]e foundthecourageand Showa Emperoras“agentleintrovert,scholarlyandcivilized manofpeacewhofound was mostlyacceptedbyscholarsuntilrecently. and defeattosomeofhismostloyalsubjects.” had todososecretly, forhisself-defensenecessarilyentailedassigningresponsibilitywar his actionasthesovereignheadofJapanesestateoverprevioustwentyyears…Andhe the occupiedJapanundercontrol. To thisend,“Hirohitohadtofurnishanaccountexculpating monarchy intact,ifpowerless,becauseMacArthurneededHirohitoasasymboltohelpkeep did nottakelongindecidingtoexemptHirohitofromcharges ofwarcrimesandtoleavethe which were now responsible for rebuilding the devastated nation. General Douglas MacArthur unconditional surrenderon August 15,1945.Hespecificallysurrenderedto American forces, country, Hirohito(hisvoice beingheardbythepublicforfirst time)announcedJapan’s ing theEmperor’s position,butwiththeatomicattacksand American shipsblockadingthe Old perceptions ofHirohito Emperor atrisktothemselves. Doihara, MatsuiandMutowereallexecuted,thoughtheyavoidedpointingthefi out thewarcrimes.Indeed,Generals Tojo (appointedprimeminister),Itagaki,Kimura, sions whiletheEmperordidnothing. At theleastheisguiltyofappointingthosewhocarried If thisisthecase,thenitwasnotanuncontrolledmilitaryandcabinetmakingallofdeci Mosley’s bookreceived less-than-stellarreviews.F.C. Jones,inthe Leonard Mosley’s sympatheticbook, The finalsurrenderofJapanwasdelayedbecausetheirinsistenceonmaintain 6 Mosleydoesn’t denythatHirohitogavetheapprovalforImperialConference , wrotethatit“is notabookfortheseriousstudent ofJapanesehistory…Mr 7 MosleysummarizesHirohito’s passingofthewarasdull,notdoing much 8 Hirohitosupposedlywentto GeneralMacArthuronSeptember26toof admirals. participating intheappointmentandpromotionofhighestgenerals influencing theplanning,strategy, andconductofoperationsinChina and From late1937onwardHirohitograduallybecamearealwarleader and shrewderthanmostpeoplegavehimcreditfor… figurehead lackingnotableintellectualendowments,hewasactuallysmarter in thedecision-makingprocessandinsistedonseeinghimasanimportant 4 5 Hirohito: Emperor ofJapan This deliberatelycraftedhistoryofHirohito , introducesthe English Histori nger atthe , . Mos - fer - - - -

yost 97 aegis 2006 - - - - William William Hirohito: Emperor Emperor Hirohito: gamini’s ideas to be gamini’s : , was so violently attacked s culpability (including the s culpability (including This review does at least confirm the least confirm This review does at 9 The premise of this extremely long text is The premise of this extremely suffered terrible criticism, and Edward suffered 11 . He claims to have read thousands of pages . He claims to have 13 Hirohito: Behind the Myth Hirohito: Though not a well executed history, history, Though not a well executed Japan’s Imperial Conspiracy Japan’s A month before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hirohito was month before the attack on Pearl Harbor, A 10 12 , writes of Mosley, “He runs into trouble when he attempts…to assess when he attempts…to “He runs into trouble Mosley, , writes of Japan’s Imperial Conspiracy Japan’s Japan’s Imperial Conspiracy Japan’s view, for Bargamini failed to grasp the difference between the emperor’s between the emperor’s failed to grasp the difference for Bargamini view, formal, “abstract” powers and their practical limits, and this failure was compounded by erratic scholarship, an attempt to twist all the available facts to prove his theory. The only major English-Language “revisionist” book to question the accept The only major English-Language “revisionist” powerless prisoner of his entourage, ed view of Hirohito as a peace-loving, David Bergamini’s became a pariah, reviled, by a cohort of academic experts that Bergamini the weight of negative critical ridiculed and driven to an early death by a conspiracy pattern error was to attempt to discover abuse. Bergamini’s from his earliest years as crown prince, and to try behavior, in Hirohito’s a handful of key supporters in top to prove that he had deliberately placed militaristic expansionism…It was a flawed positions in order to plan Japan’s Bergamini’s Bergamini’s The earliest dissenter from the tradition of Hirohito-as-innocent-bystander was from the tradition of Hirohito-as-innocent-bystander The earliest dissenter fell into line with the old belief that the Showa Emperor had no control over the old belief that the Showa Emperor had fell into line with the on America. This wasn’t something Hirohito was shown at the last minute to rubber stamp, something Hirohito was shown at the This wasn’t America. on Bix re complicity. examples of Hirohito’s believes this is only one of many and Bergamini take three more decades for Ber peats much of what he says, but it would for it. accepted, except Bix would get a Pulitzer Behr explains why in his introduction to being accused of any wrongdoings, which included burning official documents and senior of included burning official being accused of any wrongdoings, which himself states, “I perceived that Hirohito, Bergamini conduct. ficers lying about the Emperor’s of history that he had been made out to be…Until at the very least, was not the passive dupe every detail of government, to have consulted con 1945 he was said to have kept up with sorts…” of all stantly with officials Number One, which outlined the pre-emptive strike Order Yamamoto’s Admiral going over David Bergamini’s David Bergamini’s documents in Japan proving Hirohito’ of previously un-translated and Sugiyama). Sir and the journals of Generals Honjo Saionji-Harada Memoirs to tribunals and wrote the introduction Crimes War Tokyo sat as a judge on the Webb Flood Hirohito schemed presents a strong case for believing that Bergamini the book, stating, “Mr. Asia.” to the conquest of and plotted to lead Japan to keep Hirohito from cover-up and a well executed that there was a deliberate plan for war, the Pacific…This reviewer is not at all convinced, for example, when Mosley argues that the that argues when Mosley convinced, for example, reviewer is not at all the Pacific…This trend reversed the whole advisors, could have from his with a little encouragement Emperor, United States.” toward war with the of Japan II. War World events of cials of the imperial court…The most that can be said for this book is that the portrayal of the portrayal is that for this book be said that can most court…The of the imperial ficials name as made his who has monarch inclined peacefully retired, and a modest, as the emperor is generally accepted.” is one which a marine biologist, D. Sheldon, in the negligible. Charles responsibility as war of Hirohito’s recognition period’s Asian Studies Journal of and in the war in China which led to advisors in the decisions the Emperor and his the role of

aegis 2006 98 yost prove afar-reaching conspiracy, though.In War, andthenplayeddumbwhenthe Americans arrived.BixhasnothelpedBergamini to not havebeencompletelywronginhisassertionsthatHirohitodirectedtheSecond This isanexceptionallyharshcritiqueofBergamini, especiallyconsideringnowthathemay emperor didnot wishtoriskdestructionofthe socialandpoliticalorderhe headed,theques ter facilitatethe American occupationofJapan. Intheend, Wetzler concludes, “Becausethe constitution, butthatMacArthur promotedtheimageofafigurehead emperorinordertobet makes apointofemphasizing Hirohito’s legalresponsibility inaccordancewiththeMeiji His educationwasmeanttoimprint uponhimtheimportanceofimperialline. was consultedaboutwarplans, “butwasnotabletodictateplansorbasicstrategy;” concern waswiththecontinuation oftheimperialfamilyanditspositioninpolitics;2) He does nothavetheentireblame forwarlaidonhisshouldersthreereasons:1)Hismain polity…The samecanbesaidforhisparticipationinpre-war militarydecisions.” ThemostrecentworkbeforeBix’s bookwas Peter Wetzler’s monarchy wasfundamentaltotheperpetuationofJapan’s imperialline,itssupposedunique which heproposed,“Hirohito’s advocacyof Western scientific learning andconstitutional for popularacceptanceofHirohito’s warguilt. community forhisviewsthewayBergamini was) andBix’s large tomewouldfinally allow barriers guardingHirohitowerestartingtocrumble(Behr was notbanishedfromthehistorical guilt byindirectassociationisneithergoodinvestigativejournalism norgoodhistory tion…for Behrtoargue thecaseforhiswarresponsibility throughinference,insinuation,and However, criticswerestillnotacceptingHirohito’s warresponsibility. Statedinthe tant evidence,andmanystudiesthatusethiswhich disagreeswithhisinterpreta Journal ofJapaneseStudies other reasonthanhehadputeventsintomotionthatcouldnotstop. reverse…” willing toaccepttheconsequencesofhispastdecisions,unableputwarmachineinto China. Hirohitowas“asovereigntrappedintofollowinganirrevocablecourseofaction…un in motionwithhisquietacceptanceofthemilitary’s unauthorizedconflict inManchuriaand the militarybringingconflict intoIndochina andthePacific, butthathesettheseevents power, seemstomeincredible.” was unawareofwhatgoingonbehindthescenesandwas,inanycase,lackingreal Hirohito couldnotbeheldresponsibleforanyofthestepsthatledto as unwarrantable.” deserve evenasmallportionoftheblameforeventsthatledtoPearlHarbor…isregarded enough toprovokeastormofindignation…Nowadays,anyhintthatEmperorHirohitomay war criminal…hassincebecomeshockinglyunfashionable,andeventoraisethesubjectis Notsowildlyparanoidaboutconspiracies,butstillholdingtheEmperorsome Bergamini. OntheonehandBehrstatesinhisintroduction,“TheviewthatHirohitowasa what accountableforthewar, EdwardBehr’s the Philippinesasslantinghisviewonhistory. to provehispoint.HeisalsoaccusedofusingexperienceinternmentbytheJapanesein considered tobescholarlyenoughatthetimeandhwisaccusedofusingthemoutcontext value asaserioushistoricalstudy.” Okamoto states,“Despiteitsquasi-scholarlyparaphernalia,Mr. Bergamini’s bookhaslittle 17 Hirohitowasresponsibleforstarting World War II,accordingtoBehr, ifforno 15 But ontheotherhand,Behradmits,“The‘official’ Japaneselinethat by reviewerStephenLarge, “Behrconsistentlyignoresimpor 16 Behrstillfinds thatHirohitowasextremelyuneasyabout 14 Apparently, thediariesthatBergamini usedwerenot The Hirohito: BehindtheMyth

Journal of Asian Studies World War IIbecausehe Hirohito andWar doesn’t goasfar , reviewerShumpei 19 Wetzler Hirohito World 20 .” and3) 18 - , in The - - - - -

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- 22 - - Japan’s Japan’s through , “There are many , “There are But there was also cers had violated World War II? Gen War World 28 .” does not solely focus on does not solely focus Hirohito did not object to the Army’s Army’s Hirohito did not object to the 24 The American Historical Review American Historical The Wetzler does not give Hirohito the role of an individual of an individual the role Hirohito not give does Wetzler 21 The military had not pulled the wool over the Emperor’s eyes, The military had not pulled the wool over the Emperor’s 25 Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan and the Making of Hirohito Hirohito went so far as to send aides out to various battle zones to check Hirohito went so far as to send aides out 27 This moderate approach to Hirohito, as complicit but not solely to blame, was as complicit but not solely to blame, This moderate approach to Hirohito, 23 So why was Hirohito not called to answer for his willing role in Leading up to the bombing of Pearl Harbor, “Hirohito’s command prerogatives were command “Hirohito’s Leading up to the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Herbert Bix’s Herbert Bix’s As opposed to Mosley’s assertion that the cabinet composed the declaration of war assertion that the cabinet composed As opposed to Mosley’s 26 to the palace daily.” These actions cannot be mistaken as careless or uniformed. the accuracy of these reports. Hirohito knew exactly what was going on throughout the war. eral MacArthur had several reasons; one was that he was instructed to work “ existing government structures and mechanisms, including the emperor rule: a psychological component meant to keep the Japanese docile under occupational word.” Emperor for his signature, Bix states that Hirohito against the US and merely gave it to the several drafts with the help of going through began composing the war rescript in October, Hirohito just sitting around in the as Mosley believed, was military and civilian advisors. Nor, routinely received drafts of developing war dark while the war raged with the U.S.:“Hirohito reports and situation reports were delivered plans and full explanations of operations…Battle the army’s own penal law.” the army’s some anxiety in Manchuria and China to progress. He did suffer and he allowed the conflict ruckus at home and abroad, and he spent several years about an out-of-control army causing a his full authority by crushing the military uprising in getting them under control, expressing 1936. Hirohito was not a military puppet. sense of the and he was about to become a commander in chief in every changing quickly, and ideologies that underlay, deeply or near the surface, Hirohito as a monarch and a man. It deeply or near the surface, Hirohito and ideologies that underlay, and actions...It seeks to describe his actual role focuses on the forces that shaped his thoughts of events.” in policy making when he was the center was successful in expand in 1931 because the effort unauthorized maneuvers in Manchuria it, who had ordered Bix asserts that Hirohito “knew who had planned ing Japanese territory. aware that several senior offi it and who had carried it out. He was totally ambiguous.” excuses about family or passive will not allow Hirohito to keep any well received. But Bix to his was responsibility. acceptance with regards of Hirohito Recent perceptions aims instead “to study precisely those formative events war guilt, but the Showa Emperor’s make too much of the obvious, to put an interpretive spin on events that is at best highly that is at best highly spin on events to put an interpretive much of the obvious, make too challenge his claims…” material that might while omitting rely on thin evidence dubious, to Peter Duus, for approaches Hirohito. Wetzler critical of how not everyone is so However, motives Showa emperor’s may be completely wrong about the example, asserts, “Wetzler evidence for the amply demonstrates, Wetzler never know…But as but we will probably is abundant and un to go to war with the United States complicity in the decision emperor’s tion of vetoing the war never arose.” the war never vetoing tion of out of the any way Hirohito he give nor does Pearl Harbor, of plan the bombing helped to who the military. for actions of emperor is still excused this end, the To war. says in out. Stephen Large enjoy pointing to of Hirohito causes him revise our picture avowed desire to where the author’s instances that reviews but there are several flaws readable, book is praised for being Wetzler’s

aegis 2006 100 yost a quiet,scholarly Emperorbeingheldcaptive byamilitarybentonworld conquest.Ithas Conclusion knowing involvementin World War II. ing mannerastobeawarded the PulitzerPrize,signifyingfi citement ofterritorialandeconomic expansion,andpresentedhisfi Emperor’s warguilt–butreplacedpremeditatedconspiracy witharulercaughtupintheex construction ofHirohito.Bixstartedfromthisperspective –thattherewasnoquestionofthe able scholarship,butitwasnotforgotten simply because itdaredtoquestiontheMacArthur way ofsupportingdocumentation.” of Japaneseaggressionduringhisreign.Buthepresented a weakcase,of Showa wasadictatoronparwithHitlerandMussolini thathewasthemaininstigator published in1971entitled but todeclarewasontheUnitedStates.” They goontonote,“Oneexceptionwasabook al monarchwhohadmisgivingsaboutamilitaryrunamok butwhoultimatelyhadnochoice for themostpart,“haveadoptedamoderatestance,treating EmperorShowaasaconstitution tions aboutHirohito’s guiltinvolving World War II,especially inJapan,butthat Americans, Japanese researchers. At thesametime,though,theydonotcompletelydisputeBix’s asser role andinfluence.” unchallenged powerofthemilitary. ButBixmakesalmostnoattempttoanalyzethemilitary’s ing theemperor’s roleinevents. The keytowhatwasgoingoninJapanatthattimethe Bix’s bookwasnotuniversallyacceptedthough,andtwoJapanesereviewersin he limitshimselftoanalyzingtheemperorandhisentourage,Bixinevitablyendsupoverstat Japan Echo of hisnationasamaninsteadgod. distributing moneyandsupplies.Forthefirst timehewasbecomingconnected to thepeople encouraged byMacArthurandtheGeneralHeadQuarterstobeseentravelingaround who hadcommandedthem.” lost war. GHQsucceededinestablishingonlythemilitaristsasaggressors,notemperor GHQ andtheconservativeeliteswerealsopromotingtheirrespectiveversionofJapan’ Hirohito. MacArthursecuredHirohito’s position,andBixasserts,“indefendingtheEmperor, the ShowaEmperortoobadly, andinsteadlaidtheburdenofguiltonthoseleadersaround war crimes(evenifhedidnotknowitrightaway). The UnitedStates needed thefigure of This meansthatfromtheoutset,Hirohitowasnotingreatdangerofbeingchar Scholars ofJapanese historyarenotgoingto beabletoreturntheoldviews of hadquiteabittosayabout demean hisauthority… forces aimedtoimmunizehimfromwarresponsibility, neverdebasehimor peror wascrucialtoensuringcontroloverthepopulation,occupational spiritual transformationoftheJapanesepeople.Becauseretainingem monarch butonlyasafigurehead, andusinghimtobringaboutagreat separating Hirohitofromthemilitarists,retaininghimasaconstitutional deceived bythem...Code-namedOperationBlacklist,theplanturnedon emperor, “themoderates”aroundthethrone,andpeoplehadbeentotally Japanese militaryleadersaloneboreresponsibilityforthewar, andthe 31 They arecriticalofhisusemostlysecondarysourcespublishedby Japan’s ImperialConspiracy 30 To preservehisimageintheeyesofpeople,Hirohitowas 32 Bergamini’s bookmayhavebeendismissedasunaccept Hirohito andtheMakingofModernJapan 29 …Bergamini argued thatEmperor nal acceptanceofHirohito’s ndings insuchaconvinc fering littleinthe ged with : “Because s ------

yost 101 aegis 2006 ’s ’s Japan , destroying , destroying . Vol. 27, No. 2 (Feb., Vol. . . Vol. 31, No. 2 (Feb., Vol. . s “Hirohito.” s personal involvement s personal , Vol. 17, No. 2 (Summer, 17, No. 2 (Summer, Vol. , . Vol. 83, No. 327 (April, 1968), Vol. . . Vol. 58, No. 1 (Feb., 1999), Vol. . (New York: Harper Collins, 2000), York: (New . New York: Perennial, 2000. York: . New . Vol. 53, No. 4 (Winter, 1998), 568-570. 53, No. 4 (Winter, Vol. . . New York: William Morrow and Co., Inc., Morrow William York: . New . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., NJ: Prentice-Hall, . Englewood Cliffs, (New York: Villard Books, 1989), xxiii Villard York: (New . New York: Villard Books, 1989. Books, Villard York: . New The Journal of Asian Studies The Journal of The Journal of Asian Studies The Journal of Journal of Japanese Studies (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1998), 7. The passing of time has allowed too many new documents new documents has allowed too many The passing of time 33 The Journal of Asian Studies The Journal of The English Historical Review Monumenta Nipponica Japan’s Imperial Conspiracy Japan’s Hirohito: Emperor of Japan Emperor Hirohito: Hirohito and War Hirohito Hirohito: Behind the Myth Hirohito: Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan Hirohito . Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1998. . Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar and Military Decision Making in Prewar Imperial Tradition and War: Hirohito Hirohito: Behind the Myth Hirohito: , Vol.29, No.6 (December, 2002), 64-68. 2002), No.6 (December, Vol.29, , Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan Hirohito 1972), 414-416. 1968), 400. Japan Echo 1991), 508-512. 1966. 1971. 221-222. 436. Notes 1. Edward Behr, Wetzler, 2. Peter 3. Herbert Bix, Okamoto, Shumpei. “Untitled Review.” Okamoto, Shumpei. “Untitled Review.” Sheldon, Charles D. “Untitled Review.” Peter. Wetzler, Ken’ichi, Matsumoto and Jun’ichiro, Shoji. “Critiquing Herbert Bix’ Ken’ichi, Matsumoto and Jun’ichiro, Shoji. Stephen S. “Untitled Review.” Large, ——. “Untitled Review.” Leonard. Mosley, Bix, Herbert. “Untitled Review.” Duus, Peter. “Untitled Review.” Jones, C.F. Bibliography Edward. Behr, David. Bergamini, arrival, personal memoirs and diaries provide a record of Hirohito’ diaries provide a record memoirs and arrival, personal to the incineration fully answered due that may never be this is a question Still, in the war. family and the US government and there are more that the imperial of so many documents, examined and actions are continually being Even in death Hirohito’s have refused to release. of historical inquiry into cannot be seen as the conclusion to decades work revised, and Bix’s responsibility. war the Emperor’s taken decades for this artificial construct of the emperor’s involvement to be changed, and his and his be changed, to involvement of the emperor’s construct for this artificial decades taken emperor the “[p]rotecting laments that Bix some degree. at least to accepted is now war guilt be achieved only that could complex political undertakings his image were and remaking testimony in Japan, rigging of social upheaval exaggerating the threat by grossly and distorting history.” evidence, before MacArthur of imperial records rampant destruction light, and despite the to come to

aegis 2006 102 yost Hall, 1966),vii. 6. LeonardMosley, 5. Ibid.,2. 4. Ibid.,12 2000), 618. 33. HerbertBix, 32. Ibid.,64. 31. MatsumotoKen’ichi,“CritiquingHerbertBix’s “Hirohito.” 2000), 559. 30. HerbertBix, 29. Ibid.,545 28. Ibid.,544 27. Ibid.,389. 26. Ibid.,387. 25. Ibid.,240 2000), 5. 24. HerbertBix, 23. PeterDuus,“UntitledReview,” 22. StephenS.Large, “UntitledReview,” 21. Ibid.,201. 20. Ibid.,6. 19. Peter Wetzler, 18. StephenS.Large, “UntitledReview.” 17. Ibid.,207. 16. Ibid.,xxiii. 15. EdwardBehr, 14. ShumpeiOkamoto,“UntitledReview,” 13. EdwardBehr, 12. Ibid.,xxv. 1971), xiii. 11. DavidBergamini, 10. CharlesD.Sheldon,“UntitledReview,” 9. C.F. Jones,“UntitledReview,” 8. Ibid.,275. 7. Ibid.,273. Hirohito andtheMakingofModernJapan Hirohito andtheMakingofModernJapan Hirohito andtheMakingofModernJapan Hirohito: BehindtheMyth Hirohito: BehindtheMyth Hirohito andWar Hirohito: Emperor ofJapan Japan’s ImerpialConspiracy The EnglishHistoricalReview The Journalof Asian Studies (Honolulu:UniversityofHawai’iPress,1998),11. Monumenta Nipponica Journal ofJapaneseStudies The Journalof Asian Studies Journal of Asian Studies (New York: Villard Books, 1989),xxi. (New York: Villard Books, 1989),xxi. (EnglewoodCliffs, NewJersey:Prentice (New York: William MorrowandCo., (New York: HarperCollins, (New York: HarperCollins, (New York: HarperCollins, Japan Echo , Vol. 83,No.327,436 , Vol. 58,No.1,222. , Vol.53, No.4,569. , Vol. 27,No.2,400. , Vol. 2,No.17,511. , Vol. 31,No.2,414. , Vol.29, No.6,67.

yost 103 aegis 2006 - - - - is a compila Iowa City: City: Iowa . . In one of his essays, nds herself deeply and its betrayals. Lazar and its betrayals. Lazar , “Further Father: Remem body The Body of Brooklyn e Body ofe Body Brooklyn h T Jennifer RobertsJennifer word used to soften the reality of his obesity—and “weaned the reality of his obesity—and “weaned word used to soften

a husky— We returned from the hardware store and the air was as heavy as it returned from the hardware store and the air was as We place to place only to lay it on top of gets—when it seems one is carrying it carry someplace else, as though we another heavy layer of air that one must cinder blocks or were the grain were trying to build castles in the air with on the dark day as if a cosmic light millstone…[t]he sky flashed to the air’s the rain came down in sheets for five and switch were clicking on and off, minutes. (86). Lazar, David. David. Lazar, 180 pp. 2003. Press, Iowa of University With obvious homage to Montaigne, Orwell, and Hazlitt, writer David Lazar brings Orwell, and Hazlitt, writer David obvious homage to Montaigne, With Lazar’s unhurried sentences require the reader to slow down, to savor each word for its bitter unhurried sentences require Lazar’s or its sweet fullness. At times Lazar trumpets his digression, and at other times the reader fi love for dense sentences is his apparent love of digression. Coupled with Lazar’s immersed in new territory before even realizing it. One such essay relationship to his father by examining one of deals with Lazar’s Waterman,” bering John ney into his memory as he explores the mind’s ever-confusing remembrances and attempts to remembrances and attempts ever-confusing mind’s ney into his memory as he explores the philosophy that sentences should be structured with make some sense out of his life. Lazar’s throughout each essay the “density of poetry” is evident and consistent into a dramatic Me,” Lazar relies on the metaphor to pull the reader To Mother A Are “Movies and poetic remembrance of his mother: explains his complicated relationship to his body as, “being possessed by aliens, who had explains his complicated relationship to left by my not-so-dear departed fat cells” (27), and lamenting the vacuum stepped in to fill or sexually, years of thinness, years of spending time, romantically that “[y]ears of therapy, mind” (29). on my body’s in some ways, little effect with highly attractive women, have had, Lazar brings the reader on a jour reflections, Through dense sentences and prolonged niques. by his skillful writing tech but intensified confessions are not tempered Lazar’s in Brooklyn during the 60s and 70s. The reader is treated to everything from juicy tidbits of The reader is treated the 60s and 70s. in Brooklyn during of being an overweight child, to the uncomfortable and wrenching trials sexual awakening to embarrassing to admit. and honest that one would think them too confessions so raw states that he was with the book deals directly The title essay of Lazar’s Once Lazar lost weight, the fully potty trained until six (27-28). absurdly late,” not being only shift into a disloyalty of another shape. Lazar troubles with his body did not cease, but the formal essay back to contemporary readers. Lazar’s to contemporary readers. Lazar’s the formal essay back youth digressive self-studies of Lazar’s personal, and a series of witty, tion of personal essays,

aegis 2006 104 roberts business purposes.Lazarwrites: his father’s pseudonyms,John Waterman. Waterman wasProtestantpersonadevelopedfor Brooklyn reflections, laugh at hisshtick,andreachforher compilationofreferencebooks. Mostly, Lazarisunafraidtochallengehisreader, urging hertolivevicariouslythroughhis expose ustorelivedembarrassments, analyzedrelationships,andalifefullofruthlessirony a swimmerwithoutsunblock. Too muchuninhibitedexposure”(xii).Lazarisunafraidto As heexplainsintheintroduction, “A Lestyouthinkthat Lazartakeshimselftooseriously, bookofautobiographical essayswithoutironyislike thereiscertainlyenough cheekiness andirony, adistinctNew York Jewishhumor thatprevailsthroughouteachessay. local videostoreforthecompletecollectionofclassicsbeginning with ences. The readercaneitherleavedrainedandoverwhelmedorambitiousheadout tothe contained inoneessay, onebeginstothinkshe hasmissedoutonimportantculturalexperi of Walter Lazarisasmartread. That said,hisloveofmovies permeateseachessay. Mitty With ref erences toOrson Welles, demands one’s full attention as well as an encyclopedia, dictionary, and a classic movie guide. ing television, though I imagine Lazar would find the comment a compliment; Lazar’s writing Brooklyn digression Readers for beware:a lengthy for period those ofwho time wish may to notread be a forstraightforward, everyone. point-A-to-point-B story, to understandmemory. spotting oldphotographs.“Dustrepresentstime.”Dustismemory that ends Ilikentheneedfordigressiontoembracingofdustthatspotsourmemory. about thepicturesinhisphotographicessay“SomeImages: Toward aPhotographicMishnah” Digression isneededtoworkaroundthedustymemories,seethroughthem. his subject. the muckinessofmemoryandbacktowhereshestartedwithnewinsightintoauthor new essay, forthemost part,Lazarexecutesdigressionexpertly, bringingthereaderthrough the digressivetechniquelingerstoolong,andreaderstartstowonderifshewerereadinga considered “freaky,” beforetyingitallbacktoJohn Waterman. Though therearetimeswhen his grandmother, hisBrooklynaccent,multi-ethnicneighborhoodwhereProtestantswere and son.But,wehavetowaitasLazarsprinklestheessaywithdigressionsintorefl create aperceivedbanal,non-ethnicpersonatoconductbusiness,whatitmeansforfather The readerwonders,too,abouttheimportanceofpseudonym,whatitmeansforaJewto The Body of Brooklyn announced that Lazar’s book was one of the first that she could not read while watch isabookmeant tobereadandrereadwith patience. The BodyofBrooklyn , George Maharisof accompanied it.(74) accent internally, whenheinvokedthisfloating personaandthevoicesthat be unbelievable. And Iwonderedatmyfather’s innerworkings,whatthe would sometimeswinceatwhatseemdsoaccentuallystereotypicalasto ern orgenericallySouthernaccentfor Waterman…As Igrewolder, I My fatherparticularlylikedinvokingsomevariantoftheflat Mid-west Arabian Nights could prove frustrating. Density, and a style that can languish in , Lazarannouncedthathedoesn’t minddustandparticles Route 66 , The MarxBrothers,DannyKayein , andJeanHagenfrom

One reader of . Digressionistheattempt Singing intheRain Horsefeathers When asked The Body of The Secret Life The Bodyof ections on . , all - - . - -

roberts 105 aegis 2006 ------. It is in Through 3 African , and by beginning with an 4 New York: Simon & Simon York: New 5 Latin America Latin , The Clash of Clash The Civilizations in the wake of modernization and Western in the wake of modernization and Western , These countries are classified in such a way are classified These countries 6 The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World and the Remaking of World The Clash of Civilizations Islamic

2 , Hindu , Zack Reat universal civilization Japanese , journal in the summer of 1993. In that article he proposed a theory on the of 1993. In that article he proposed journal in the summer Schuster, 1996. 368 pp. 1996. Schuster, Huntington, Samuel P. SamuelHuntington, P. Order. of the Remaking and World Sinic Samuel Huntington’s article entitled “The Clash of Civilizations?” was published entitled “The Clash of Civilizations?” article Samuel Huntington’s is Huntington’s response to the questions and critiques raised by the original article. to the questions and critiques raised response is Huntington’s Furthermore, the dividing lines of conflict would be along borders between nations that would be along borders between lines of conflict Furthermore, the dividing 1 Foreign Affairs Foreign Huntington these civilizations stand alone in defying the West as their culture is expanding West in defying the Huntington these civilizations stand alone Asians and Muslims civilization. In fact, “Both Western without deference to the standards of culture.” Western stress the superiority of their cultures to Huntington explains that in the that those groupings have on conflict. world, and the effects world, “Countries relate to civilizations as member states, core, states, lone War post-Cold the The next section of the book deals with the grouping of civilizations around countries, cleft countries, and torn countries.” a quantita offers decline in power on the global scale. Huntington West’s explanation of the other civiliza in comparison with the world’s power civilization’s Western tive analysis of of Civilizations” Section 2 addresses “The Shifting Balance is in a state of decline as West it is clear that the tions. From the data Huntington provides The most impressive throughout the world. influence other civilizations gain more power and According to Asian civilizations. and domination come from Islamic Western challenges to conclusions about the future of civilizations and their part in global politics. conclusions about the future of civilizations part of the book The seven main civilizations presented in the first tions on the global scale. are as follows: of civiliza on the organization argument The first section presents Huntington’s between these civilizations are revealed and this section that the make-up and relationships discussed in the context of a ization. congregate behind one system of government and get along in relative peace and harmony in congregate behind one system of government over matters that are come into conflict world. Instead, civilizations will War the post-Cold that “cul thesis rests on the assertion Huntington’s not economic or ideological, but cultural. broadest level are civilization identities, are shaping ture and cultural identities, which at the world.” War in the post-Cold and conflict the patterns of cohesion, disintegration, on this main thesis and comes to many out the five sections of the book Huntington expands the the primary source of conflict in the world would be cultural, not economic or ideologi in the world of conflict the the primary source cal. ran directly counter to development War This theory for post-Cold exist on civil boundaries. created by Francis Fukuyama,” and thus, thesis advanced “‘end of history’ the more optimistic in the field. a great deal of controversy Order of the world will not naturally that the civilizations In this book Huntington argues in brief, his thesis was that period. In War politics in the post-Cold of world future organization

aegis 2006 106 reat Thefirstchapterofsection4onceagaindealswiththedominance Western civili zation inmoderntimes.Itdiscussesthespreadofdemocracyasaresult looks athowthecivilizationscomeintoconflict witheachotherinthecontestednations. based ontheculture’s presentandtheirrelationswitheachother. The nextsectionofthebook 7. Ibid.,206 6. 5. Ibid.,102. 4. 3. Ibid.,20. mon &Schuster:New York, NY, 1996),31. 2. SamuelP. Huntington. n3, 22. Access on 1. SamuelP. Huntington.“TheClashofCivilizations?” Notes a pleasureread. book tostudentsstudyingthenatureofglobalpoliticalrelations,butIwouldnotsuggestitfor but thebookdidhaveanicethroughlinetofollowwhenIgotlost.wouldrecommendthis At timesthereadingbecamequitedenseandsortingthroughalloffactstedious, Overall,thisbookwasaveryinterestingreadthatmadesomeeye-openinginsights heartened bythepicturebeingpainted,butneverdidIfeelthatwasunreasonable. into thenatureofrelationsbetweengroupshumans.InreadingthistheoryIwasoftendis conclusions onthenatureofcivilizationsinworldandsomepredictionforfuture. civilizational boundarylines.Huntingtonroundsouthisdiscussionofthe“clash”withsome describing themaswarsthatresultfromyearsofunresolvedtensionexplodingoncultural, In thefinalchapterofthissectionHuntingtondiscussesnaturethesefaultlinewars, will bebasedonethnicconflict, andoccuralongfaultlinesexistingbetweencivilizations. of warfarebasednotonideology, butculture.Huntingtonclaimsthatthewarsoffuture its goals…”. balance ofpoweramongcivilizationsmakesitmoreanddiffi throughout allmajorcivilizationsoftheworld,butremindsreaderthat“thechanging The ClashofCivilizationsandtheRemakingWorld Order The ClashofCivilizationsandtheRemakingWorld Order 7 Furthermore,theriseinpowerofothercivilizationshasgiventoanewkind http://www.alamut.com/subj/economics/misc.htm The ClashofCivilizationsandtheRemakingWorld Order Foreign Affairs , 135 , 81. cult forthe West toachieve l 5/22/2005. . Summer1993,v72, Western influence . (Si - - -

reat 107 aegis 2006 - - - nan This . , author Jared Diamond , author Jared Diamond . Lot buyers build res are damaging the Collapse: How Societies Choose Collapse: How Societies Guns, Germs, and Steel Collapse: How Socieies Choose to Choose Socieies How Collapse: New Yor: Penguin, 2005. 592 pp. 592 2005. Penguin, Yor: New Cassi Smith From studying fallen civilizations such as the remains of Easter Island, civilizations such as the remains of From studying fallen Diamond, Jared. Diamond, Jared. or Succeed. Fail Without any resources to construct moving materials how could these large statues be built any resources to construct moving materials how could these large Without in size, the statues progressively get larger According to Diamond, because by simple men? territories on the these statues were the result of a building contest among the eleven or twelve to erect island. It is thought that the island was deforested in order to create building supplies Island the statues. Instead of working together to keep the resources abundant, the Easter of their island. people worked and competed against each other which lead to the destroying Island, a lack The parallel can easily be noticed between the situation in Montana and Easter pattern of poor human behavior that has been going on throughout history pattern of poor human behavior that has eerie fate. Instead, it was the very statues that the pensive cabins that caused Easter Island’s and seventy feet of these statues are between fifteen Nearly four hundred island is famous for. was not the building of ex great example of this behavior is Easter Island. It A and seventy tons (79). But there are no trees and very tall and weigh from ten to two hundred lush in vegetation. islands are tropically other Pacific little vegetation on the island, while all acre farm was bought and developed into a playground for the wealthy acre farm was bought and developed into these wealthy homeowners do not contribute fi “cabins” starting at $800,000 (34). But are careful to stay in Montana for less than cially to the state. “Rich out-of-state homeowners thereby to contrib in order to avoid having to pay Montana income tax and 180 days per year, Those who own lots at the farm simply schools” (61). ute to the cost of local government and problems, and stick the locals with the bill. use the land, adding to the environmental on social gains rather than environmental welfare, is a using of the land, with people focusing development, and an explanation of the state’s environmental problems. Toxic waste from Toxic environmental problems. state’s development, and an explanation of the water system. Salinization from agricultural practices the mining business is seeping into the irrigation, logging, and forest fi is ruining the soil. Road construction, harming Also, an introduced pest is species are declining. streams; as a result the native fish the elk and deer population. 1996 a 2,600 contains an interesting twist. In Dealing with these problems, however, them to current situations. According to Diamond, this five point framework (damage people point framework this five According to Diamond, them to current situations. support change, hostile neighbors, decreased upon environment, climate inadvertently inflict as these problems) applies to places such response to and society’s from friendly neighbors, in Montana. Valley the Bitterroot Australia, Haiti, China, and Rwanda, This first in Montana. Valley the Bitterroot he personally holds dear, in a part of the world personal attachment, the history of Montana’s chapter includes an explanation the author’s explains the current situation as he first Diamond pulls the issues close to home fast and social issues in his latest work, addresses environmental to Fail or Succeed. winning book After his Pulitzer Prize why these societies fell and applies point framework explaining a five Diamond develops

aegis 2006 108 smith Anothersuchcivilizationthatdemonstratesthispoorpatternofbehavioris Australia. the first Australians didnothavetheirpriorities inorder. “Fivesetsofculturalvalueswere The buildingofstatuteswasaninappropriatevalueforthepeopleEasterIsland;similarly of cooperationamonggroupstokeeptheenvironmenthealthy. to aproactiveattitudeforimprovement ratherthanignoringtheproblems. build Diamond’s pointthatallsocieties cancollapseiftheirbehaviorisnotsomehowchanged blame orhatred. The bookisorganized wellas eachsentenceprovidesanothersimplefactto only tellsthestoryandpresents theissues.Histoneisofconcern,andsometimessorrow his ideasandquestionsinan easy tounderstandlanguage.Hedoesnotpreachinhisbook, so strikinglyclearthatthequestionneednotbeasked,only fathomed.Diamondpresents he doesmaketheparallelsamongpastcollapsedcivilizations andthecivilizationsoftoday native animalsliketherabbitandfox? become abandonedbecausethelandissodamagedfromoveruse andtheintroductionofnon- the Australian farmer’s abilitytomakemoneyoff ofhisinvestment. Will Australia oneday derwent duringthesculpturebuildingcompetition. The constantsoilerosionwillfurtherhurt The amountofvegetationclearinghasobvioussimilarities totheclearingEasterIslandun land forpurposesnotsuitedsurvivingontheland: go extinct. Australian landisanexampleofthatpoorbehaviorhascausedpreviouscivilizationsto abandoned farmsdotthelandscapeastheirownersfacebankruptcy result itcostsfarmersmuchmoretofarmthantheprofit theymakefromfarming. Thus many with agriculturalpracticedownunderisthatthelandmassnotsuitedforagriculture. is overrunwithrabbitsandfox,whilethesheepfarmingcausessoilerosion. of Britain’s nationalprideinvolvedsheep,rabbitsandfoxes. As aresultthe Australian land British settlersheldtheirculturalvalueshigherthantheenvironmentalneedsofland.Part land values,andBritishidentity”(390).Likethefocusonstatuesmentionedpreviously particularly important:thoseinvolvingsheep,rabbitsandfoxes,native While Diamonddoesnotventuretophysicallypresentthis questiontohisreaders, SimilartoEasterIsland’s residents, Australian citizensareconstantlyclearingthe Barrier Reef.(399) loss ofagriculturalproductivityandlandvalues,damagetotheGreat and soilerosion,impairmentofwaterqualitybyrunoff ofsaltandsediment, damage to Australia includeslanddegradationthroughdrylandsalinization that itwillphaseoutlarge-scale clearing,butnotuntil2006. The resulting ing pasturelandforbeefcattle.Queenslandgovernmenthasannounced clearance isgoingoninthestateofQueenslandforpurposecreat year thananyotherFirst World country…Mostof Australia’s currentland has nowbeendropped, Australia stillclearsmorenativevegetationper leasing governmentlandtoclearnativevegetation. While thatrequirement I mentionedabovethatthe Australian governmentformerlyrequiredtenants . This disregardforthe Australian vegetation, The problem , the As a , not - - ,

smith 109 aegis 2006 ------, framing his his framing , ‘Tis . His students had had students His . and and Hamlet New York: Scribner Scribner York: New , McCourt explains why he was was he why explains McCourt , will not disappoint, as Mc as disappoint, not will Angela’s Ashes Angela’s Teacher Man Teacher Teacher Man Teacher Teacher Man. Teacher soars with McCourt’s reflections on the rewards, complexi rewards, the on reflections McCourt’s with soars Christina Amato Christina Teacher Man Teacher McCourt, Frank. Frank. McCourt, pp. 258 2005. Company, Book was published); he answers the persistent questions of critics and fans, who who fans, and critics of questions persistent the answers he published); was class, consisting of twenty-nine unruly girls and two boys, from McKee Vocational High School School High Vocational McKee from boys, two and girls unruly twenty-nine of consisting class, of production college a see to order in Island Long to Bronx, the in attending. were classes other that flyers seeing after trip, field the on allowed be they demanded excited terrified, so became and before, performance live a seen ever had students his of None his remove to had actor student the that father, ghost Hamlet’s of sight the at disorderly and twenty-nine The student. college ordinary an just and makeup stage in was he that show to hat that especially trick a was play whole the complained and “gasped then class McCourt’s of girls again.” this like play phony a to go never they’d promised they and there up ghost phony resonates: his students recognize him for the expert storyteller he is. McCourt’s tales become the the become tales McCourt’s is. he storyteller expert the for him recognize students his resonates: persever his for him respect to learn they teenagers; these to him binding connection of thread in them asks McCourt when capitulate they and poverty, unfathomable over triumph his ance, writing. creative and literature of study the to minds their open to exchange the in even humor for eye keen and insight empathy, author’s the with radiate and life to come literature his paraded he which in instance one relates McCourt circumstances. unusual most classroom his of walls the outside and inside both students McCourt’s of lives The est in Chaucer and Shakespeare. Because he wrests little control from the unruly students in the the in students unruly the from control little wrests he Because Shakespeare. and Chaucer in est his of years remaining the through All storytelling. art, true his into lapses McCourt classroom, pacified Ireland, in childhood wretched his of stories for beg students McCourt’s career, teaching differ four at teaches McCourt misfortune. and miseries of stories his exhausts he when only under-funded most poorest, the from ranging career, his during York New in schools public ent are students the and McCourt both where School, High Stuyvesant famed the to facilities, similarity one at, teaches McCourt school Whatever flourish. creativity their let to encouraged teach professions,” of maid “downstairs the of chaos times at and limitations intricacies, ties, teaching first his from trenches, the in experience firsthand of born is narrative McCourt’s ing. agonies the with riddled are educator an as years first His school. high public elite an in there, position From his recounts vividly He adolescents. of world the in embroiled being of joys occasional and he that teenagers temperamental hormonal, of hundreds the with peacefully coexist to struggles inter little exhibit who workers dock and mechanics of children the daily, educate to assigned is teachers. McCourt seems to pick up where he left off in in off left he where up pick to seems McCourt teachers. nar vibrant colorful, same the with City York New of schools public the in experience teaching In Prize. Pulitzer a and acclaim him won that rative when sixty-six was (he fortune and renown literary to johnny-come-lately” a “late-bloomer, a Ashes Angela’s with story amazing his sharing not was he years the of all was McCourt where know to demand long.” so me took what that’s teaching, was “I simply, replies He world. the life, own McCourt’s of chronicles the readers: inspire and fascinate to continues that story the the break to struggles his and States, United the and Ireland in trials personal moving his both in chapter latest his welcome will poverty. McCourt Frank childhood of crushing writing of the with shackles familiar emotional Anyone English school high a as years thirty his of account this in shine wit comic and insight Court’s

aegis 2006 110 amato family recipes and ethnic delicacies. The students convened class the next day in a park by the On anotherties: occasion, kreplach McCourt and matzos, inspires lasagna, his English meatloaf, students kimchee by accident(Korean hotthrough cabbage) food. and various other When McCourt praised the treat, his class exploded into a flurry of offers for homemade special On a less than successful teaching day, a student offered him a piece of homemade marzipan. worthy read. McCourt’s energy, passion and humor spill off the pages of ends. This book celebrates the teacher lives of his students and the classroom; it is impossible to tell where one begins and the other human connection that defines the world of teaching for McCourt. up in the morning. It is this push and pull between frustration, disappointment and kinship and while some days the teenagers infuriate him, at other times they are the only reason for getting students are, at times in his life, McCourt’s only source of validation or worth. He reflects that and guide him as well, pushing him, challenging him, and at times even encouraging him. These career, McCourt learns that he is not only the educator, but the educated. His students teach him he stands in front of hundreds of quizzical faces each day. In these early years of his teaching doubting as a young man in his first years of teaching, and questions of legitimacy nag him as my conscious…the gift of finding myself wanting and defective.” McCourt is painfully self- to an unsuccessful bid for a Ph.D. He is an expert, as he observes, at “the ability to examine plumbing the depths of his own insecurities and shortcomings, from his failed first marriage to high school students. Throughout the book, McCourt asks hard questions of his own life, struggle for self-validation as it is a chronicle of the trails and tribulations of teaching literature way. school teacher and the large Jewish Future Farmer of America” embraced there on Lower Broad would have given your soul for a son like him.” Mc Court related all of this to Bob, and “the high original he was, how you admired his style, his good humor, his honesty, his courage, how you honest, to “tell him how he brightened your days, how you told your friends about him, what an struggled to tell Bob what he really thought, his ever-running inner monologue urging him to be six years later, the young man asked, “Mr. McCourt, you never liked me, did you?” McCourt Bob quickly faded from his view after graduation. When McCourt bumps into his old student every day.” McCourt deftly avoided conflict with the father, apologized for his unhappiness, and of the disgrace he’d bring upon the family by choosing a career as a farmer, “living with pigs rabbi, eventually paid McCourt a visit and entreated the teacher to side with him, to remind Bob would like to be a farmer, much to the chagrin of his prominent Jewish parents. Bob’s father, a winded monologues during precious class time. One afternoon, Bob announces to the class he middle of a lecture. Secretly, McCourt admired his uniqueness, but must deflect these long- McCourt sharesoriginal more character than humorous in McCourt’s anecdotes about classroom, his life frequently in the classroom, prone to though.philosophical outbursts in the in students present and past. He recounts the story of a Jewish student, Bob Stein, an eccentric, He reflects on the moments of deeper connection and friendship he is occasionally rewarded with that those days were worth the small distraction from Mark Twain and F. Scott Fitzgerald. reflects on the days of diversion that the cookbook exercise dominated, but ultimately decides Michael adjusting his flute to French, English, Spanish, Jewish, Irish, Chinese recipes.” McCourt tell one another this is wild, the very idea of reading recipes, reciting recipes, singing recipes with instruments and cookbook. They read exotic recipes aloud together, and eventually students brought in musical then turned the buffet into a class exercise by asking each of his students to bring in a family school, with a spread that attracted park goers, joggers, the homeless and even police. McCourt Teacher Man Teacher Man sang the recipes to the class. McCourt’s creative writing class came alive: “They emerges as a beautiful mosaic of McCourt’s life and profession, and the is as much a tale of McCourt’s questioning, critical internal dialogue and and the student, with McCourt donning both masks. Teacher Man , materializing into a - -

amato 111 aegis 2006

s - - - - , , . Not China, Inc.:China, of Rise How the the J. T. Craig T. J. New York: Scribner Book Company, 2005. 352 pp. 2005. Company, Scribner Book York: New Fishman, Ted C. Fishman, Ted World. and the America Challenges Superpower Next China, Inc.: How the Rise of the Next Superpower Challenges America and the World the and America Challenges Superpower Next the of Rise the How Inc.: China, to be able to spend and consume as much as we do, but we are also bound to China by China’ to be able to spend and consume as much as we do, but we are also bound to China from the top institutes, and returning to China, where investment and work opportunities eclipse eclipse opportunities work and investment where China, to returning and institutes, top the from scientists of recruitment for potential of lot a is there essence, In else. anywhere available those Rather, them. use to opportunity the losing is world non-Chinese the but China, in engineers and country. home their to back them lose then and technology, best the with them educate we attempt to stunt the growth of China by not investing in it would not stop its economy and the world depend on Chinese products (cheap in price, not in quality) America only does To America and the world are now bound together with China. The problem is this: China to craft a car part, or machine part, than it is to buy a multimillion dollar machine and and machine dollar multimillion a buy to is it than part, machine or part, car a craft to China each on expand and infiltrate to begin Chinese the As job. same the do to system computer com clothes, electronics, Chinese increases. work of quality and skill their market, job potential Mean quality. better not if equal of and cheaper, made are else everything and DVDs, puters, science and technical of crop largest the create to people enough has nation a as China while, many for field ideal the engineering and science is only Not seen. ever workers and students learning globe, the across students out sending also are Chinese the students, Chinese young urban migration seen in the history of the world (90-300 million people have left China’s farm farm China’s left have people million (90-300 world the of history the in seen migration urban cheap to addicted are world, the of rest the and America, that fact the and cities), the for lands seen. ever any unlike juggernaut economic an creating is buy, to merchandise every and Europeans with along manufacturers, American why reason The power. China’s learns that workforce docile a have they because is Chinese the by beat being are country, other in laborer a pay to cheaper is It facilitate hand. by world the skill and we precise more with the etc., China, cars, into poured ornaments, is that tools, money craft to more The where a census may not reach them. This, I believe, is the key factor in understanding the enor the understanding in factor key the is believe, I This, them. reach not may census a where Chinese of disposal the at labor unskilled and skilled of amount The potential. China’s of mity not is It staggering. is China, within operating corporations other and American and companies, entic so them makes that aren’t) (they world the in workers paid lowest the are Chinese the that and globe the of part stable relatively a in “China…sits that rather, but interests, business to ing groomed workforce, industrial capable and docile, reliable, a manufacturers world’s the offers largest the with combined people, of amount sheer The discipline.” enforced government by stump speeches, solutions to the “China problem” are not often discussed. Ted C. Fishman’s Fishman’s C. Ted discussed. often not are problem” “China the to solutions speeches, stump book, American the affects China how about discussion and knowledge of lack the change to aims structure. power global the in standing America’s and economy, There there. living people billion 1.3 estimate, low a at has, China that understand to needs one areas rural in live they but people, billion 1.7 to up perhaps people, more many likely most are thriving, and growing is China which in ways the of all contemplating begin even To The generation. our in face must nation a as America that issues other the about forget to easy in occurring now is that dominance economic to rise the is others all above looms that issue one is closing, it Iraq, in factories of violence outsourcing, constant of the and Reports news. the terror, on war penetrate global problem this of America’s Aspects of midst China. the on In blips are labor, cheap as workers Chinese using Wal-Mart as such giants corporate global of rise China’s what of however, picture, full The networks. hour 24 the of crawl news non-stop the their of part as outsourcing using politicians than other and addressed, never almost is implicates

aegis 2006 112 craig military technology. What ifforeigninvestmentsweretosuddenlydisappear?Fishmanwrites, so thatitcancontinuetobuildacitythesizeofHoustoneverymonth,andbuy we canhavelowinterestrates. And soon.Conversely, Chinaneedsustospendandbeindebt China isfinancingourconsumerspendingspree.Itbecausebuyingdebtthat reinvestment in American debt.Chinaisthelargest buyerof American bonds.Essentially, us toat least remainthe competitive, ifnottheeconomic, forcewe oncewere. spending, and focus needstobeputonnew tradeagreements,andeducation. products, toforeign whims,ournewlandlords. Stepsneedtobetaken stem thetideof continue atthis pace,wewillessentiallybe renters inthisworld,owingour debt,andour what ourgenerationof American citizens mustcometogripswith,anddealwith.Ifthings economy wouldbe those intheUnitedStates,astandard oflivingthattheChinesesomedayaspireto,China’ instantly toptheU.S.economy…If, however, theincomesofChineseupamerehalf per capitaincomesinChina…were todoubleovernight,thesizeofChina’ Unfortunately,their populationonlycontinuestogrowastheeconomydoes. assumingthatthesenewstandardswouldhappen,Idonot thinkthat As Fishmanobserves,“[I]f to sheernumbers;theyhaveabillionmorepeopleintheir country thanwehaveinours. it wouldbeenoughtomaintainthestatusquoofourglobal power force somerealmovementontheissue. This ideaisnothingnewinourpublicdiscourse,butperhaps thethreatofChinacouldfi of theSputnikera,onethatwillpavewayfornewscience andmatheducationstandards. not muchbetter. There needstobeapushtowardsscienceandmatheducationalongthelines combined people whospeakEnglishasafirst languageintheUnitedStates,Canada,andGreatBritain in ChinatherearenearlyasmanypeoplelearningEnglish as asecondlanguagethereare Chinese-language studentsin American highschoolscameupwith just fifty thousand,while American highschoolstointroduceChineselanguageprograms.However think thatwiththeamountofmoneygoingintoChina,therewouldbeapushamongst in theeducationsystemtherewillbenochancetostaycompetitivewithChina.Onewould Asonereadsthisbook,afeelingofuneaseanddreadovercomesthemind. The he stresseswemustbecomebetteriniseducation. Without drasticallyalteringandinvesting seems unstoppable.Mr. Fishmandoesnotdomuchtoallaythesefeelings. The one areathat sheer amountofstatistics,money, andlogisticsthathasbecometheChinesejuggernaut scale thelikesofwhichhaveneverbeenseen. citizens. Bad,becauseforeithertocollapsemeansanegativeeconomicimpactonglobal upon theother’s continuedsuccesstomaintainthestandardsoflivingandprosperityits or bad.Good,because America andChinaaretiedtogether, andthereforeeachisdependent to buy, therebyincreasing theirdebt,thatthisisanunbreakablecycle. This couldbegood, investing inrealestate, American businesses,etc.,and Americans needingcheapmerchandise and thingscouldequalize.However, itseemstomethatatthiscontinuedpace,theChinese this withtheChineseslowlymovingtheircurrency, the Yuan, awayfromitstiestothedollar, sumption, toinvestinmoresavings,andforthegovernmentreduceitsspending.Combine It ispossiblethatthiswon’t happen.Itwouldbenecessaryfor Americans toreducetheircon .” The mathskillsandscienceof American kidsinhigh schoolandcollegeis permanent price on the economy. private consumption and unproductive government spending would extract a the United States’ willingness to fritter away its national wealth to finance interest rates climb and the value of assets…declines…in the worst scenario, When Asians pull out of our markets, Americans may discover abruptly that two andahalftimesaslarge as America’s.” This simplestatisticsumsup . Intheend,itcomesdown s economywould , “arecentcountof This willallow nally And s -

craig 113 aegis 2006 These legers Freakonomics: Freakonomics: is not a dull lesson in s, which were not due to s, which were not due ts for the families of gang cant amount of money. Even cant amount of money. Freakonomics writer, helped Levitt put the answers helped Levitt put the writer, New York Times New York decision stopped a new generation of unwanted hooligans new generation of unwanted hooligans decision stopped a New York: HarperCollins Publisher, 2005. 242 pp. 242 2005. Publisher, HarperCollins York: New make the child a better student. not Roe vs. Wade Levitt, Steven D. & Stephen J. Dubner. Dubner. J. Stephen & D. Steven Levitt, of the Hidden Side Economist Explores A Rogue Everything. “Which is more who asks unusual questions: Steven Levitt is an economist dealers still live a swimming pool?” and “Why do drug dangerous, a gun or only those in the top of the gang structure took home any signifi only those in the top of the gang structure test score data collected by the US Department of parenting is called into question, using such as a child having an intact family or a stay Education to show that certain assumptions, does at home mother, read that is both engaging and humorous. economics and statistics, but a delightful Yost ~Michelle as how Sumo wrestling scores and school test scores can be analyzed for cheating by looking as how Sumo wrestling scores and school still living with their mothers, this data comes from As to the drug dealers for scoring patterns. in Chicago called the Black Disciples. several notebooks collected from a gang as any international corporation, with pricing as highly structured revealed an organization and even death benefi for drugs, extortion dues, weapons purchases only made $3.30 an hour; the average street dealer members who were murdered. In reality, into a fascinating and entertaining narrative. The introduction sets forth a simple explanation The introduction sets forth entertaining narrative. into a fascinating and how people would like the world book, stating “if morality represents for the genesis of this This is followed by Levitt’s shows how it actually does work.” to work, then economics 1990’ decrease in violent crimes during the early examination of the criminals were never born. action, but came about because the ancient any political or police He contends that the The chapters that ensue address other interesting correlations, such from taking to the streets. with their moms?” Stephen Dubner, a Dubner, with their moms?” Stephen In Brief In

aegis 2006 114 in brief ~Michelle Yost nation ofwhoweareandwhythinkthewaydo,with compellingexamplesandstories. not beresignedtoacceptingtheprejudicesofsnapjudgment. This bookisawonderfulexami with: recognitionofthepowerunconsciousmind,andacknowledgmentthatweshould ball wouldgo. There isstillamoraltothestorythatGladwellwantsreadercomeaway calculations aboutaplayer’s servingformintheblinkofaneyeandknow wherethetennis discusses howthiscoach’s brain,baseduponhisyearsofexperience,couldmakedozens was goingtodouble-faultonaserve.Bradenhadnoideawhyhecoulddothis,butGladwell the exampleof Vic Braden,oneoftheworld’s toptenniscoaches,whoknewwhenaplayer and wifeconverse,measuringslightattitudechangessuchasdisgustorsadness.Or main marriedafterfifteen yearswithanaccuracyof95percentjustbywatching thehusband John GottmanfromtheUniversityof Washington cansuccessfullypredictifacouplewillre scious calculationsbaseduponexperiences,whichhecalls“thin-slicing.” From here,Gladwellgoesontoexplainhowthehumanbrainmakesthousandsofuncon Though noneofthemcouldarticulatewhatwaswrong,theyknewthekourosafake. every specialistinthefield of Ancient Greekarthadaninstantaneousrevulsiontothestatue. it andthegeologistswhoexamineditsmarblecontentsaidkouroswasauthentic;but by theGettyMuseuminCalifornia;itdidnotlookright. All thescientistswhocarbon-dated or confrontacomplexsituation…” The introductionisaboutaGreek kouros statuepurchased neous impressionsandconclusionsthatspontaneouslyarisewheneverwemeetanewperson the verysmallestcomponentsofoureverydaylives–contentandoriginthoseinstanta few peoplearereallyintouchwith.Hemakeshispointquiteclearly:“ a fantasticexplorationofthepowershumanmind,partmind Malcolm Gladwellisastaff writerfor 2005. 277pp. Without Thinking. Gladwell, Malcolm. New York: Little, Brown andCompany, Blink: The Power of Thinking The

New Yorker , buthisbook Blink The psychologist isconcernedwith , thereis Blink - is - - -

in brief 115 aegis 2006 - - ,

- - fect choice New New ’s restless night. restless night. ’s Cities of the Plain t expressly surface . Set in 1980 in south . Twenty years later Twenty . No Country For Old Men No Country For Old . While sparse, McCarthy’s While sparse, McCarthy’s . s role is twofold: he plays a Blood Meridian No CountryNo Men. for Old introduces us to Llewlyn Moss, a young Vietnam vet that stumbles Vietnam Moss, a young introduces us to Llewlyn “If God meant to interfere in the degeneracy of mankind, would he not have would he not the degeneracy of mankind, to interfere in “If God meant what question in 1985 in raised this now?” Cormac McCarthy done so by his masterpiece, considered is largely novel since this meditation in his first McCarthy explores McCarthy, Cormac. McCarthy, pp. 309 2005. Knopf, A. Alfred York: No Country ~ Adam Cottrel ~ minor addition to the author’s body of work. John Henry Newman once said, “It is a rule of minor addition to the author’s the novel’s This quote proves applicable to that we succeed by failure.” providence God’s and make their characters that are caught between the past and the future, but destined to act words are perhaps even more go one step further Newman’s To decisions in the present. life’s While certainly far from his best, McCarthy has poignant when applied to McCarthy himself. succeeded in giving his audience at worst, a striking reward for the reader for the reader to justify McCarthy’s ardent spirit towards violent expression. The quality of The quality of ardent spirit towards violent expression. for the reader to justify McCarthy’s sparse prose hits you like a begins McCarthy’s writing though prevails and once the hunt Sentences are short, terse, and provide an ef dose of heroin in the vein of minimalism. of a dime-store thriller that sweeps its readers along in the fashion mastery of dialect, conversation, and word use that has become his prose continues to reflect While the debate continues to rage amongst letters. American his greatest contribution to camp examining this novel will conclude it is a critics, it is certainly safe to say that either of the novel’s action and eventually leads to the crossroads of America’s most ardent fascina America’s to the crossroads of action and eventually leads of the novel’s balanced have been largely While past novels of McCarthy’s tions—violence and religion. spawned essentially dark morality tales, this new between these two camps in what have and fast paced dialogue that has warranted many to novel heavily favors the fervent violence ignores This assessment is much too easy and largely as mere pulp. view this latest offering his earlier novels—doesn’ the bigger thematic complexity that—unlike path—which leads to a continual rumination that links all three characters on the question of, path—which leads to a continual rumination to abandon his life?” Bell’ “how does a man decide in what order motif, while he faces his own ineptitude in a world “runaway son” surrogate father to Moss’ provides. Bell is both courageous and cowardly, that has passed him by—a role that Chigurgh adult life stemming from the Bronze Star he was awarded in his entire a fact that has defined sadistic idea of moral justice drives most Chigurgh’s II for an act mistaken for bravery. W.W. his style that has designated him as the literary descendant of Faulkner him as the literary descendant his style that has designated Texas, west What Moss trip. on a hunting Texas deal in the desert of southwest upon a botched heroin money—is at the heart of a novel aftermath of a violent killing spree, confronts—drugs, the and salvation. Moss’ blurred line between choice, providence, that explores the often notably aging law protagonist on the run from the law—most is one that sets McCarthy’s a cattle gun wielding psycho Chigurgh, Bell—and the devil incarnate—Anton men Sheriff concluded the Border Trilogy seven years ago. In his ninth novel, seven years ago. Trilogy concluded the Border trying to make sense of life an array of characters that are desperately we are confronted with work will familiar with McCarthy’s Anyone ago abandoned Christ. in a world that has long switches the focus of McCarthy theme, but in his newest offering recognize this as a recurrent

aegis 2006 116 in brief ~Christina Amato departure from Tan’s pastnovelsandservesasan entertaining,worthyread. unfortunately, naïveworld-travelers.Overall, dimensional parodiesof“typical” Americans; insteadtheyarewell-rounded,believableand embellishes inherdepictionof Americans abroad,hercharactersdonotslipintobeingone- try. While theanticsandgaffes ofthetouristsdobecometiring, itishardtoargue that Tan American touristsasill-mannered,disrespectful,andignorant astravelersinaforeigncoun and historylesson.Onecriticismreadersmightraiseis Tan’s insistenceonportrayingthe Saving Fishfrom Drowning acters andtheattentiontohistoricaldetailmakesthiscaptivating storydiffi does best:lively, versatilestorytelling. The twistingoftheplot,complexitychar tangled explanationforthetourists’ disappearanceandultimatefate,sheengagesinwhat ing cruise,chaos,disorderandsurprisingplottwistsensue. As Tan weaves theoutrageous, international spotlight. When Bibi’s charges failtoreturnfromtheill-fatedChristmasmorn trouble uponenteringMyanmar, amorningboattripgoneawrylaunchesthegroupinto it seemsimpossiblethattheclumsygroupof Americans couldfind theirwayintoevenworse contracting ragingcasesofdysenterybydisregardingBibi’s originaldiningitinerary. Though ting everyoffense fromunwittinglydefiling anancientChineseshrine byurinatingonit,to the grave,woefullyfilling usinasherfriendsbungletheirwaythroughthetrip, commit Bibi plannedtoexplore.Bibi’s spiritcontinuestonarratethestoryreadersfrombeyond with boththebumblinggroupoftouristsandwondersmysteriesBuddhistart decide toembarkonthetripasplanned,andhireatourguidepainfullyill-equippeddeal chain ofeventsthatdoomstheunfortunateexpeditionbeforeiteverbegins.Bibi’ before thetrip,Bibiiskilledundermysteriouscircumstancesinherartgallery Myanmar, shecannotpossibly imaginethechaosandmisfortunethatwillensue. Two weeks gent, amateurart-loving American friendsonaBuddhistartexpeditionthroughChinaand art curatorandgalleryownerBibiChendecidestoleadtwelveofherwealthy storylines andtwistingsubplots,hertypicalflair forwildlyhumoroussarcasm. When in unfamiliarterritory(quiteliterally),thenovelpossesses Tan’s signaturecomplexity, rich and culturedivideseparatingthem. While mothers, daughtersand“aunties,”theirfamilystrugglestobridgetheage who havecometoanticipateherengagingstoriesaboutChinese-American Saving Fishfrom Drowning of Myanmarcertainlymarksaradicaldepartureforauthor Amy Tan. Indeed, The storyoftwelveblundering American touriststrekkingthroughthejungles Putnam, 2005. 474pp. Tan, Amy. isequalpartscomedy, satire,politicalcommentary, socialcritique Saving Fishfrom Saving Drowning. Saving Fishfrom Drowning mayinitiallydisappointdiehardfansof Tan, Saving Fishfrom Drowning doesimmersereaders New York: makesasuccessful cult toclassify. , self-indul , settingoff a s friends - - - - -

in brief 117 aegis 2006 - - . - - Ameri gu , in her -up. Testimonies Testimonies -up. At the core of Rajiva’s At the core of Rajiva’s American intervention, or Abu Ghraib scandal tell Abu Ghraib scandal Western, Christian superior Christian Western, gues that there were several , Lila Rajiva argues that the , Lila Rajiva argues . She presents evidence such New York: Monthly Review Press, Press, Review Monthly York: New The Language of Language The and Ghraib Abu Empire: , Rajiva presents an enlightening new perspective on just , Rajiva presents an enlightening new perspective 2005. 224 pp. 2005. for liberation and democracy the ultimate goal of the Iraq war, Throughout heard of isolated have We numerous setbacks. has suffered the Iraqi people other atrocities. shooting unarmed civilians as well as cases of U.S. soldiers Rajiva, Lila. Media. American the Language of Empire Rajiva’s investigation first delves into the events that took place within Abu Ghraib. into the events that took place within delves investigation first Rajiva’s Language of Empire: Abu Ghraib and the American Media American the Abu Ghraib and Language of Empire: one of the attacks on human rights to take place in the Iraq war an ar as internal communications and various communications in the media to present In Are we America represents to the rest of the world. ment that shakes our beliefs about what liberating a nation of impoverished people who desperately needed simply satisfying our imperialistic desires fueled by our notion of hundreds of civilians dying every month in Iraq, are we pursuing the preservation of With ity? in their entirety. Third, Rajiva asserts there were many reporters who simply could not view the Third, Rajiva asserts there were many reporters who simply could in their entirety. Many people in the media could not or would war from outside their own biased perspective. committed an act of terrorism. not report the fact that U.S. Marines had is the result of a lack of accountability, is the notion that the torture, and subsequent argument by those in the government, as well as in the deep seeded racial and religious bias held can media. cials are littered with phrases like “to the best of my knowledge,” and “I am of high ranking officials are littered with phrases like “to the “what did the Bush administration and the Marine research leads us to ask not aware.” Rajiva’s media jump American the didn’t why it?” Further, top officials know and when did they know a timely manner? Rajiva ar on the story and reveal the atrocities in limited access to docu First, the Bush administration reasons for the lack of accountability. to uncovering the truth about the scandal. Second, ments and locations that were essential task of taking an anti-war stance and reporting the facts many reporters were intimidated by the was Abu Ghraib swept under the rug by the American media? Rajiva’s investigation into these Rajiva’s American media? Abu Ghraib swept under the rug by the was growing debate over the validity of the Iraq war issues lends a powerful perspective to the within communications internal and testimonies hearings, of various trail paper She follows the treatment of the story points to the fact the media’s the Bush administration. Her analysis of abuses and had orchestrated a cover that the administration had known of the book were not the acts Abu Ghraib detainment center that took place in the human rights violations campaign campaign against Islam—a but were part of a much larger of a few rogue Marines, Abu Ghraib and the events of American media. Rajiva investigates the that was ignored by What could the of the media. of it by analyzing the language treatment American media’s the the administration and the reporters covering language of the Bush Why abused and systematically tortured? Why were thousands of Iraqis illegally detained, us? It is a common belief that these are the actions of a few soldiers whose judgment has been that these are the actions of a few soldiers It is a common belief our perspective on these events and The free press has molded of war. blurred by the brutality even atrocities of war, to expect the media to report on the have come We the war in general. of protocol. However by a few U.S. soldiers operating outside if they are committed

aegis 2006 118 in brief military andthemediamustlearntothinkactoutsideofascopeshapedbyreligious our nation’s identityandourmotives.Ultimately, Rajivaargues that thoseinthegovernment, becoming aterroriststate?Rajivapresentsconvincingargument thatforcesustoexamine human rightsortramplingonthem?Mostprofoundly, arewedefeating theterroristsorarewe ~NickMiller Middle East. contribution tothenationaldialogueaboutIraqwar, and America’s identitywithinthe for all. racial bias.Oncethisisachieved, America willtrulybetheprovideroffreedomandliberty The LanguageofEmpire: Abu Ghraibandthe American Media standsasanimportant

in brief 119 aegis 2006 s - A junior at Otterbein with a double A A senior History major in Continuing A A senior English major with a concentration concentration a with major English senior A Born helpless, nude, and unable to provide for Born helpless, nude, A Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) candidate, (MAT) Teaching Arts in Master of A Christina Amato: Amato: Christina Studies, she was the co-recipient of the Department of History and Political Science’ Studies, she was the co-recipient of the in 2003. Rhonda finished her Award Pierre Frederick & Louise M. Rosselot Memorial an ad final quarter at Otterbein from Cambridge, Massachusetts, where she works as while continuing her Technology, ministrative assistant at the Massachusetts Institute of to her degree from Otterbein, Rhonda holds a In addition studies at Harvard University. The Ohio State University. B.S. in Secondary Education from Gunn: Edward degree from Franklin University, a bachelor’s Edward will graduate June 2006. He has language arts and social studies) as a career and is going into teaching (Middle School been the manager of a greenhouse operation. change. For over 20 years Edward has Rhonda Maynard: thank Dr. Andrew Mills, Dr. Paul Eisenstein, and everyone else who put up with reading Paul Eisenstein, and everyone else who put up with reading Andrew Mills, Dr. thank Dr. and always supportive. He would like to thank They were always there all of his drafts. Cottrel for not being Adam and financially, his parent for being there emotionally and naked anymore. those handicaps mentioned above. Jason Thomas Craig: his goal in life is to never “yoke the winds major in Philosophy and Islamic Studies, He would like to schools next year. heavenward,” and to apply to grad of indifference to overcome these handicaps to he was eventually able New Jersey, AdamTrenton, Cottrel: himself in Adam would at Otterbein College. American literature English and become a student of unparalleled Norman Chaney for providing and Dr. Paul Eisenstein like to thank Dr. would also like to thank Adam professionalism and humanity. Academic examples of may have had something to do with overcoming his parents, Christopher and Gayl, who (read: moving every three years) the country with her Air Force husband. The people The Air Force husband. her the country with every three years) (read: moving and Koehler for her encouragement Margaret would be: Dr. she would like to thank a much-needed critical eye, and Paul Eisenstein for applying Dr. inspirational material, diatribes on the subject of for patiently listening to long-winded her amazing husband, Haiti. while exploring in English to pursue her masters/doctorate Studies, she plans in Literary Contributors

aegis 2006 120 contributors JenWall: Cassi plansonpursuingaMastersDegreeinpsychology. a memberoftheHonorsProgramandOtterbein Women’s Cassi Smith: Golf team. After college Each hasinfluenced her inunimaginableways,andshethanksthemall. effect onherlife: Tammy Birk, NormanChaney, SarahFatherly, andShannonLakanen. specifically wanttomentionafewprofessorswhohavehadprofound (yes,profound) She’d liketoalsothanktheOtterbeincommunityforoffering heraspacetogrow, but to thankherhusbandanddaughterfortheirenduringpatienceunceasingsupport. writers toseekoutsomesolitude(forareasonableprice,ofcourse).Jenniferwouldlike (every fair-skinned whitewomen needsagangsternickname),andwouldencourageall writer’s colonySummer2007inbeautifulHockingHillswithherfriend“HardKnox” lish, withaconcentrationinCreative Writing, JenRoberts: sheplans,aftergraduation,toestablisha year’s Aegis. From Another Time andPlace:Oral Testimony andtheHolocaustwaspublishedinlast acquired atOtterbeintoadvocateforpositivesocialchange.ZachReat’ volunteer withtheColumbusCoalitionforHomelesswhereheusesskills a Bachelorof ZachReat:Arts degreeinHistory. Heiscurrentlyservingasan Americorps*VISTA ing towardseithergraduateschoolinmathematicsorlawschool. still undecidedastowhatcareerpathshewouldlikefollow, butfornowsheislean she startedouthavingabsolutelynoideahowtogoaboutwritingthefi words fromJasonCraigthroughouttheirentireGreekPhilosophyclass,especiallywhen whenever shehadquestionsaboutherpaper. Shealsoappreciatedtheencouraging like tothankDr. Andrew Millsforbeinganawesomeprofessor, andatremendoushelp is doublemajoringinMathematicsandPhilosophyminoringFrench.She’d Larsa Ramsini: NickMiller: offer herheartfeltthankstoLoki. grad school.Forhisconstant affections andabundanceofhairballs,Jenwould liketo focus isgettingherseniorshow together, Jenwouldliketocontinuehereducation in tions indrawingandphotography, alongwithaminorinarthistory. While hercurrent Jen isaseniordoublemajorin historyandartwithconcentra ZachReatgraduatedfromOtterbeinCollegein2005with A seniorhistorymajoratOtterbein. A juniorpsychologyandpoliticalsciencemajor, sheis A juniordoublemajorin Women’s StudiesandEng A freshmanatOtterbeinCollegethisyear, Larsa nal paper. Sheis s essayentitled - - -

contributors 121 aegis 2006 - A senior at Otterbein with a double major in History and History and major in a double with at Otterbein senior A . Ad Astra Ad graduate to pursue she plans After that, Yost: Michelle of 2006. in June graduating will be Michelle English, her parents like to thank She would of study. in which field she does not know school, though as all of the fantastic of clothing) as well (and provisions love and support for their constant learning experi four years such a wonderful made these last at Otterbein who have professors ence.

aegis 2006 122 contributors

In this edition

An Examination of Richard Kraut’s Liberalization of Socrates’ Political Philosophy

Would King Drink the Hemlock?: Socrates’ Views on King

The Not-So “Invisible Hand”: America’s Role in Haiti’s Endemic Poverty

Philosophizing Disgrace: Anatomy and Analysis of Dylan’s “Hard Rain”

A Priest of the Portrait as a Young Man: The Path to Stephen Dedalus’s Artistic Baptism

The Moral Dilemma of Atomic Warfare

Jaingxi Elementary School Explosion: A Look at Human Rights Abuse in China

A Woman’s Religion: How Ann Lee Broke Through the Patriarchy

Art of Revolution

Hirohito: Dunce or Duplicitous Leader?

and more