Running head: POLICE DECISION-MAKING MODEL COMPONENTS Identifying the Necessary Components of a Police Decision-Making Model by Sharon Barter Trenholm A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Interdisciplinary PhD. Program Memorial University of Newfoundland April 13, 2018 St. John's Newfoundland and Labrador Police Decision-Making Model Components Abstract As police officers are entrusted with significant amounts of discretion and power in instances potentially involving arrest, use of force, search, and seizure, their decisions have serious consequences. Yet, very little research has been conducted into police officer thinking and decision-making. The objective of this research was to identify the necessary components of a decision-making model which can be used to prepare police officers to appropriately exercise their discretion when dealing with ambiguous, time-pressured, and consequential situations. The research on critical thinking (CT) and decision-making in policing was reviewed and supplemented with research from related disciplines. Multiple decision-making models were identified, discussed, and compared. The recognition/metacognition (R/M) model developed by Cohen, Freeman, and Thompson (1998) was identified as potentially adaptable for use in policing. As CT is considered best learned in domain specific environments, the police context for decision-making must be explored. A multimethod study was designed and conducted. Frontline police officers were the focus as they are particularly impacted by time, access to information, and stress effects. Responses to Critical Incident Analysis Interviews were combined with findings from the literature, to prepare a questionnaire. Canadian police services were contacted and invited to participate in a survey of frontline police decision-making. The services which agreed to participate forwarded the invitation to frontline police personnel. Respondents provided their information through an online survey. The sampling was non-random, as self-selection occurred at the service and individual levels. The results indicated that a model of police decision-making should i Police Decision-Making Model Components include recognition and metacognition components taught through a domain specific approach. The five identified themes of: information, safety, planning, respite, and articulation should be used for scenario creation. A Recognition-CT Police Decision- Making Model is proposed. The information collected was detailed and rich, but cannot be confidently stated to be representative of all Canadian police officers, and while having many strengths, qualitative studies can also be prone to researcher bias. Even with these caveats, this research provides important information to improve our understanding of the complex and ambiguous environment in which police decision-making occurs. Suggestions for future research on police decision-making and the role of CT are also discussed. ii Police Decision-Making Model Components Acknowledgements To my supervisory committee of Dr. Brent Snook, Dr. Kara Arnold, and Dr. Vernon Curran, thank you for agreeing to take on a challenge that did not directly align with your usual supervisory duties. A new program combined with a student who had not been a student in the traditional sense for some time and a project that focused more on the practitioners than on the methods, was I am sure a challenge. You showed great patience and interest and supported me for the extended duration. You have taught me much and contributed greatly to the work completed within this thesis. You also ensured that support from the wider university community was accessible for the practical requirements, which is a challenge with an interdisciplinary program that does not belong to any one department. To the examiners, Dr. Travor Brown, Dr. Nicholas Harris, and Dr. Karla Emeno, thank you for a thorough and insightful oral examination and your helpful written reviews. The full immersion in and countless rereads of one’s own work can make it difficult to see where gaps exist for an external audience. The questions during the defence and your written suggestions for edits led me to see my work through a fresh lens. Your perspectives strengthened the presentation of this research by highlighting these gaps. Your varying areas of expertise and experience helped ensure this document is suitable for a diverse reading audience. To Dr. Bruce Colbourne, thank you for giving of your time to chair the examination and keep us all on track. There are many colleagues throughout the academic and police communities who have supported the research and me throughout this project and in the years leading up to iii Police Decision-Making Model Components it. Some have provided practical support, access, and data while others have provided moral support and a good dose of tough love to keep me moving forward as needed. I am proud to call many of you friends. Thank you for sticking with me and helping in the vast number of ways I needed it, when I needed it. You were often there to provide help before I even asked. To the students I have taught and worked with over the past several years, thank you for your queries and insights. Multiple perspectives are vitally important to research and awareness. Many of these students have been police officers and students who wish to work as or with police officers. You spurred me on and further impressed upon me the need to include the voices of the police practitioners. The police services which agreed to participate and forwarded the requests to their frontline personnel, and those personnel who took the time to respond to the interviews and survey, you are the people to whom I owe the deepest gratitude. This research was only possible because of your willingness to share your time, views, opinions, and knowledge. Thank you for that great gift. I hope the final product is helpful to you in your future and that you are proud of what you have helped accomplish. Personally, I have also been fortunate to have a solid support network of friends and family, who have had genuine interest in my topic, or at the very least feigned interest to indulge my going on about it regularly. You have also pushed, pulled, and cajoled me to keep going even when life got in the way. You reminded me that this is important for the contribution it will make to the professionals I have worked with and for me personally. To my daughters, Elena and Sarah, thank you for growing into wonderful iv Police Decision-Making Model Components young women who could support your Mom going back to school, even when that took longer than planned as we moved continents. You took the changes and challenges in stride. I hope my continuing thirst for learning encourages you as you pursue your studies and build your own futures. To my husband Barry, you have been with me through the multiple degrees and changes in work, and even when you were not sure why I was putting myself through the stress, you supported me always. Thank you. v Police Decision-Making Model Components Table of Contents ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................................I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................................... III LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................... XI LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... XII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................. XIII LIST OF APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................... XIV CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................... 7 2.1 DEFINITIONS OF CRITICAL THINKING ...................................................................................... 7 2.2 ACCEPTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING WITHIN POLICING ....................................................... 11 2.3 RESEARCH WITHIN POLICING ................................................................................................. 19 2.4 RESEARCH IN RELATED DISCIPLINES ..................................................................................... 27 2.4.1 Research in Medicine .................................................................................................... 28 2.4.2 Research in Business ..................................................................................................... 29 2.4.3 Research in the Military ................................................................................................ 31 2.4.4 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 35 2.5 RELATED CONCEPTS .............................................................................................................. 35 2.5.1 General Decision-Making Theories