DOCSLIB.ORG

Kumzari of Oman: a Grammatical Analysis

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Kumzari of Oman: a Grammatical Analysis KUMZARI OF OMAN: A GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS By SAID ALJAHDHAMI A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2013 1 © 2013 Said Aljahdhami 2 To my daughter, Raneem, and my wife, thank you for being always there for me. A special feeling of gratitude goes to my loving mother and siblings whose words of encouragement and support have played a major role in producing this work. I also dedicate this dissertation to the participants in this study and to the Kumzari community in Oman. 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is my pleasure to thank all those who have been involved in helping me to complete this research. Most of all, thanks to the Almighty God who gave me strength and good health while working on this research. I owe my advisor Dr. Eric Potsdam a lot of thanks for his helpful guidance, and most of all his patience throughout the entire process. This research could not have reached such stage without his critical, encouraging and enlightening comments. I will always remain grateful to Dr. Eric Potsdam. I would like to extend my thanks to the members of my research committee: Dr. Brent Henderson, Dr. Youssef Haddad, and Dr. Deborah Amberson for their encouraging comments. I would like to express my gratitude and deep appreciation to Aysha Mohammed Al-Kumzari for her distinctive participation in providing data for this study, and for her helpful comments on my data analysis. My thanks are extended to her family and friends for their input and comments on this work. Special thanks go to the other participants who have chosen to remain anonymous in this study, and all those who have contributed to this work. Last but not least, I would like to express my excessive thanks to my wife for her help in making connection with female speakers of Kumzari and for her tolerance while working on this research. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ 8 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 11 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... 12 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 15 Genetic Affiliation .................................................................................................... 16 Where Kumzari is Spoken ...................................................................................... 18 The Name of the Language .................................................................................... 19 The Village of Kumzar............................................................................................. 20 The Status of Kumzari in the Future ....................................................................... 23 Rationale behind this Work ..................................................................................... 24 2 DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR .................................................................................... 27 Phonology ............................................................................................................... 27 Consonantal Phonemic Inventory ..................................................................... 27 Plosives...................................................................................................... 27 Nasals ........................................................................................................ 28 Fricatives.................................................................................................... 28 Affricates .................................................................................................... 29 Approximants ............................................................................................. 29 Vowel Phonemic Inventory ............................................................................... 29 Minimal Pairs of Kumzari Consonantal Segments ............................................ 30 Minimal Pairs of Kumzari Vocalic Segments .................................................... 31 Morpho-Phonological Rules ............................................................................. 32 Syllable Structure and Stress ........................................................................... 34 Phonological Changes in Loanwords ............................................................... 35 Morphology ............................................................................................................. 36 Pronouns .......................................................................................................... 36 Subject / Object Pronouns ......................................................................... 36 Possessive Pronouns ................................................................................ 36 Demonstrative Pronouns............................................................................ 38 Reflexive Pronouns .................................................................................... 40 Nominal System ............................................................................................... 41 Definiteness and Number........................................................................... 42 5 Verbs ................................................................................................................ 44 Verbal Inflection ......................................................................................... 44 Verb to Be .................................................................................................. 46 Verb to Have .............................................................................................. 49 Verb Structure ............................................................................................ 50 Aspect ........................................................................................................ 53 Mood .......................................................................................................... 58 Passive Voice ............................................................................................ 62 Verb Form of Indefinite Subjects ...................................................................... 66 Adjectives ......................................................................................................... 66 Comparative Forms ................................................................................... 68 Superlative Forms ...................................................................................... 70 Adverbs ............................................................................................................ 72 Adverbs of Manner ..................................................................................... 72 Adverbs of Location ................................................................................... 73 Adverbs of Frequency ................................................................................ 74 Temporal Adverbs ...................................................................................... 74 Prepositions ...................................................................................................... 75 Quantifiers ........................................................................................................ 77 Numerals .......................................................................................................... 80 Syntax ..................................................................................................................... 81 Phrases ............................................................................................................ 81 Noun Phrase .............................................................................................. 81 Adjective Phrase ........................................................................................ 83 Adverbial Phrase ........................................................................................ 84 Prepositional Phrase .................................................................................. 84 Word Order ....................................................................................................... 85 Negation ........................................................................................................... 89 Interrogatives .................................................................................................... 90 Yes-no Questions ...................................................................................... 90 Information Questions ................................................................................ 91 Relative Clauses .............................................................................................. 95 Conditional Clauses ......................................................................................... 96 Conjunctions ..................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Tectonics of the Musandam Peninsula and Northern Oman Mountains: from Ophiolite Obduction to Continental Collision
    GeoArabia, 2014, v. 19, no. 2, p. 135-174 Gulf PetroLink, Bahrain Tectonics of the Musandam Peninsula and northern Oman Mountains: From ophiolite obduction to continental collision Michael P. Searle, Alan G. Cherry, Mohammed Y. Ali and David J.W. Cooper ABSTRACT The tectonics of the Musandam Peninsula in northern Oman shows a transition between the Late Cretaceous ophiolite emplacement related tectonics recorded along the Oman Mountains and Dibba Zone to the SE and the Late Cenozoic continent-continent collision tectonics along the Zagros Mountains in Iran to the northwest. Three stages in the continental collision process have been recognized. Stage one involves the emplacement of the Semail Ophiolite from NE to SW onto the Mid-Permian–Mesozoic passive continental margin of Arabia. The Semail Ophiolite shows a lower ocean ridge axis suite of gabbros, tonalites, trondhjemites and lavas (Geotimes V1 unit) dated by U-Pb zircon between 96.4–95.4 Ma overlain by a post-ridge suite including island-arc related volcanics including boninites formed between 95.4–94.7 Ma (Lasail, V2 unit). The ophiolite obduction process began at 96 Ma with subduction of Triassic–Jurassic oceanic crust to depths of > 40 km to form the amphibolite/granulite facies metamorphic sole along an ENE- dipping subduction zone. U-Pb ages of partial melts in the sole amphibolites (95.6– 94.5 Ma) overlap precisely in age with the ophiolite crustal sequence, implying that subduction was occurring at the same time as the ophiolite was forming. The ophiolite, together with the underlying Haybi and Hawasina thrust sheets, were thrust southwest on top of the Permian–Mesozoic shelf carbonate sequence during the Late Cenomanian–Campanian.
    [Show full text]
  • Study on Renewable Energy Resources, Oman: Final Report
    Authority for Electricity Regulation, Oman Study on Renewable Energy Resources, Oman Final Report May 2008 Renewable Energy Resources in Oman Authority for Electricity Regulation, Oman Study on Renewable Energy Resources, Oman Final Report May 2008 COWI and Partners LLC P.O.Box 2115 RUWI Postal Code 112 Sultanate of Oman Tel +968 2460 4200 Fax +968 2460 4788 Report no. 66847-1-1 This report contains the views of the Consultant which do not Issue no. Rev. 0 necessarily correspond to the views of the Authority for Electric- Date of issue 12.05.2008 ity Regulation, Oman. Prepared SEM/NBP/KF/SAJ Checked JHA/DEM Approved SAJ . Page 3 of 134 Renewable Energy Resources in Oman . Page 4 of 134 Renewable Energy Resources in Oman Table of Contents 1 Introduction 8 1.1 Background to the Study 8 1.2 Study Methodology 9 1.3 Collection of data and information 9 1.4 Report Structure 10 1.5 Acknowledgements 10 1.6 Abbreviations and conversion factors 11 2 Executive Summary 13 2.1 Purpose of the Study 13 2.2 Conclusions 14 2.3 Recommendations 24 3 Key information for Oman 31 3.1 Demography 31 3.2 Industry 31 3.3 Electricity sector in Oman 36 3.4 Renewable energy activities in Oman 48 3.5 Conventional energy resources in Oman 48 4 Renewable energy resources in Oman 53 4.1 Wind energy 54 4.2 Solar energy 57 4.3 Biogas 60 4.4 Wave energy 63 4.5 Geothermal energy 64 5 Renewable energy technologies 67 5.1 Wind turbines 67 5.2 Solar PV panels and heaters 72 5.3 Biogas production 83 5.4 Wave energy absorption units 85 5.5 Geothermal power plants 88 5.6 Non energy benefits 90 5.7 Energy efficiency 91 .
    [Show full text]
  • Oman Tourist Guide SULTANATE of Discover the Secret of Arabia
    Sultanate of Oman Tourist Guide SULTANATE OF Discover the secret of Arabia CONTENTS Sultanate 01 WELCOME // 5 of Oman 02 MUSCAT // 7 03 THE DESERT AND NIZWA // 13 04 ARABIAN RIVIERA ON THE INDIAN OCEAN // 19 05 WADIS AND THE MOUNTAIN OF SUN // 27 06 NATURE, HIKING AND ADVENTURE // 33 07 CULTURE OF OMAN // 39 08 INFORMATION // 45 Welcome 01 AHLAN! Welcome to Oman! As-salaamu alaykum, and welcome to the Head out of the city, and Oman becomes All of this, as well as a colourful annual enchanting Sultanate of Oman. Safe and even more captivating. Explore the small events calendar and a wide range of inviting, Oman will hypnotise you with towns nestled between the mountains. international sports events, ensures its fragrant ancient souks, mesmerise Visit the Bedouin villages. Drive the a travel experience unlike any other. with dramatic landscapes and leave incense route. You’ll do it all under the you spellbound with its stories. Home constant gaze of ancient forts dotted A journey of discovery awaits you in to numerous UNESCO World Heritage throughout the landscape like imposing this welcoming land at the crossroads Sites, Oman is steeped in history and sand castles. between Asia, Africa and Western has inspired some of literature’s most civilisation. Enjoy all of the marvels of famous tales. Stop by the date farms and witness the this unique setting, the ideal gateway harvesting of the roses, that cover the hills to Southern Arabia. Muscat, the vibrant capital, is full of with delicate hues of pink and fill the air memorable sites and experiences.
    [Show full text]
  • Minority Languages in Oman Keywords: Oman, Minority Languages, Endangered Languages, Indo-Iranian Languages, Modern South Arabian Languages
    Volume 4, issue 10, 2015 e-ISSN: 1857-8187 p-ISSN: 1857-8179 Review Article Linguistics Minority Languages in Oman Keywords: Oman, Minority languages, Endangered languages, Indo-Iranian languages, Modern South Arabian languages. Said Al Jahdhami Sultan Qaboos University Abstract Located in the southeastern part of the Arabian Peninsula, Oman is the homeland of several minority languages that belong to three language families. These are:Indo-Iranian languages (Kumzari, Lawati, Zadjali, Balochi); Modern South Arabian languages (Harsusi, Bathari, Hobyot, Mehri, and Jabbali), and Bantu languages (Swahili). Though some are spoken in other countries, most of these languages are peculiar to Omani ethnic groups speaking them as mother tongues side by side withArabic. They differ in the number of their speakersranging from thousands of speakers to a few hundred only in cases like Zadjali, Bathari and Hobyot, which plays a chief role on the degree of their endangerment. While some of such languages have been given some linguistic attention, others have not been given their due linguistic exploration yet. Chief among the latter are Kumzari, Harsusi, Zadjali, Bathari and Hobyot. On these grounds, the key concern of this paper is to provide an overall survey of minority languages spoken in Oman showing their geographical distribution in Oman, speakers of these language, estimated numbers of speakers and their level of endangerment with a view to consider these language and to spur further research on them. 1. Introduction Oman is renowned for its rich linguistic diversity yielded by multi-ethnic groups conversing in both Arabic and ethnic group languages, a fact that sets them apart from their monolingual compatriots.
    [Show full text]
  • Final Report Main Report-1 Road Network Development
    MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT & JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS COOPERATION AGENCY SULTANATE OF OMAN FINALFINAL REPORTREPORT MAINMAIN RREPORT-1EPORT-1 ROADROAD NETWORKNETWORK DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT PLANPLAN MARCHMARCH 20052005 PREFACE In response to a request from the Sultanate State of Oman, the Government of Japan decided to conduct the Study on Road Network Development and entrusted the project to Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). JICA selected and dispatched a study team headed by Dr. Hani Abdel-Halim at Katahira & Engineers International from January 2004 to February 2005. The team held discussions with the engineers at Directorate General of Roads, Ministry of Transport and Communications, as well as other officials concerned, and conducted field surveys, data analysis, Master Plan formulation and Feasibility Study. Upon returning to Japan, the team prepared this final report to summarize the result of the study. I hope that this report will contribute to the enhancement of friendly relationship between our two countries. Finally, I wish to express my sincere appreciation to the officials concerned of the Sultanate State of Oman for their close cooperation extended to the study. March 2005 Kazuhisa MATSUOKA, Vice President Japan International Cooperation Agency Mr. Kazuhisa MATSUOKA Vice President Japan International Cooperation Agency March 2005 Letter of Transmittal Dear Sir, We are pleased to submit herewith the Final Report of “The Study on Road Network Development in the Sultanate of Oman”. The report includes the advices and suggestions of the authorities concerned of the Government of Japan and your agency as well as the comments made by the Ministry of Transport & Communications and other authorities concerned in the Sultanate of Oman.
    [Show full text]
  • Kumzari: the Forgotten Language
    International Journal of Linguistics ISSN 1948-5425 2016, Vol. 8, No. 4 Kumzari: The Forgotten Language Said Al Jahdhami Department of English Language & Literature, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 42, PC. 123, Muscat, Oman Tel: 968-241402378 E-mail: [email protected] Received: April 10, 2016 Accepted: May 8, 2016 Published: August 16, 2016 doi:10.5296/ijl.v8i4.9898 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v8i4.9898 Abstract Arabic is the first widely used language in Oman. It is not uncommon, however, to come across Omanis who converse in minority languages other than Arabic. Remarkably, these languages are of three different families: Indo-Iranian languages such as Kumzari, Lawati, Zadjali, Baluchi; Modern South Arabian languages such as Harsusi, Bathari, Hobyot, Mehri, and Jabbali /Shehri; and Bantu language family which includes Swahili. Named after the ethnic groups speaking them as mother tongues side by side with Arabic, the number of speakers of these languages varies as some are spoken by thousands of speakers while other languages may claim only a few hundred speakers. Academic work geared towards exploring these languages is scarce indeed, especially languages such as Kumzari, Harsusi, Zadjali, Bathari and Hobyot, a fact that makes them lesser-known and uninvestigated as opposed to their counterparts. In view of this, the focus of this paper lies on one of the lesser-known and unexplored minority languages spoken in Oman, namely Kumzari. In line with this, the study highlights the genetic affiliation of Kumzari, its speakers and their location, views on the origin of its name and its future status.
    [Show full text]
  • PROJECT REPORT Expedition Dates: 10 – 23 October 2010 Report Published: July 2011
    PROJECT REPORT Expedition dates: 10 – 23 October 2010 Report published: July 2011 Underwater pioneers: studying & protecting the unique coral reefs of the Musandam peninsula, Oman. BEST BEST FOR TOP BEST WILDLIFE BEST IN ENVIRONMENT TOP HOLIDAY VOLUNTEERING GREEN-MINDED RESPONSIBLE VOLUNTEERING SUSTAINABLE AWARD FOR NATURE ORGANISATION TRAVELLERS HOLIDAY HOLIDAY TRAVEL Germany Germany UK UK UK UK USA EXPEDITION REPORT Underwater pioneers: studying & protecting the unique coral reefs of the Musandam peninsula, Oman. Expedition dates: 10 - 23 October 2010 Report published: July 2011 Authors: Rita Bento Emirates Diving Association Matthias Hammer (editor) Biosphere Expeditions This report is written in memory of Sala 1 © Biosphere Expeditions www.biosphere-expeditions.org Abstract Coral reefs are important biodiversity hotspots that not only function as an crucial habitat for a multitude of organisms, but also provide human populations with an array of goods and services, such as food and coastal protection. Despite this, coral reefs are under threat worldwide from direct or indirect anthropogenic impacts, such as pollution, overexploitation and climate change. The coral reefs of the Musandam peninsula (Oman), situated on the Arabian peninsula in the Strait of Hormuz, endure very harsh conditions such as high salinity and temperatures, existing in what would be considered marginal and highly challenging environments for corals in other parts of the world,. Although Musandam corals exhibit resilience there is increasing concern that any additional stress, as a result of natural disasters and/or anthropogenic impacts for example, may accelerate coral die-off. For the past decade, reefs in the Arabian Gulf have been devastated by major coral bleaching events, cyclones, harmful algal blooms and extensive coastal developments.
    [Show full text]
  • Musandam Contents Contents Forts and Castles
    the Governorate of Musandam Contents Contents Forts and Castles 4 Forts and Castles 6 7 77 Bukha Castle Daba Fort 8 9 Bukha Castle 99 Wadis & Beaches 1100 Wadis & Beaches Wadi Bih Wadi As Saye 1122 13 Wadi As Saye 1313 Wadi Madha Wadi Shis 1144 15 Wadi Shis 1515 Wadi Khabb Al Shamsi Madha springs 1166 17 Madha springs 1717 Heyot Beach Gulf of Khasab 1188 19 Heyot Beach 1919 Daba Beach Bessah Beach 2020 21 Daba Beach 2121 Hal Beach 2222 Jabal Harim Hajar bani Hamid 2424 25 Hajar bani Hamid 2525 Villages Shesa Village 27 Shesa Village 2727 Qadah Ghubb Ali Village 2828 29 Ghubb Ali Village 2929 Kumzar Village Lima Village 3030 31 Lima Village 3131 Zighy Village Al Khalidiyya 3232 33 Al Khalidiyya 3333 Fjords Creek Ash Sham 35 Creek Ash Sham 3535 Khor Al Najd Khor Hablayn 3636 37 Khor Hablayn 3737 Islands 39 3939 Um Al Tair Island The small island of Um Al Tair or the Birds Mother Island is set some 7 kilometers of the east coast of Musandam. One of the key species that can be found here are ground nesting osprey. 4040 41 4141 42 43 4444 45 4545 Activities (Diving) Accommodation (Hotels) 46 Accommodation (Hotels) 47 Musandam Contacts Info Musandam Contacts Info Accommodation Daba-Golden Tulip Resort Daba-Six Senses Zighy Bay Khasab-Atana Khasab Khasab-Atana Musandam Khasab-Diwan Al Amir Khasab-Isra Hotel Apartment Khasab-Khasab Hotel Khasab-The Lake Hotel Hospitals and Medical centers Bukha-Bukha Hospital Daba-Blue Planet Daba-Daba Hospital Daba-Al- Marsa Khasab-Muscat Pharmacy Khasab Daba-Al-Shasi Beach Khasab-Khasab Hospital Daba-Nomad
    [Show full text]
  • Oman 2006 & 2007 (Arabian Leopard)
    EXPEDITION REPORT Status of the Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) in the mountains of the Musandam peninsula, Sultanate of Oman. Expedition dates 15 January – 24 February 2006 14 January – 9 February 2007 EXPEDITION REPORT Status of the Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) in the mountains of the Musandam peninsula, Sultanate of Oman. Expedition dates: 15 January – 24 February 2006 14 January – 9 February 2007 Report published: November 2007 Authors: Tessa McGregor Biosphere Expeditions Andrew Spalton Adviser for Conservation of the Environment Diwan of Royal Court, Oman Hadi Hikmani Office of the Adviser for Conservation of the Environment Diwan of Royal Court, Oman Matthias Hammer (editor) Biosphere Expeditions 1 © Biosphere Expeditions www.biosphere-expeditions.org Abstract The Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) has disappeared from much of its former range on the Arabian peninsula. Its last stronghold is Oman’s Dhofar region. There is also a population across the border in Yemen, but this is highly threatened and needs much more study. The leopard enjoys legal protection in Oman. Long-term study, protection and conservation measures in the south have enabled the leopards to survive and thrive, but a question mark hangs over whether Arabian leopard survives anywhere else in Oman. Arabian leopard is no longer thought to be present in the Hajar range, although Arabian tahr is still present in small numbers. Arabian leopards were known to be present on the Omani territory of the Musandam peninsula until 1997, but there have been no records of leopards since. It was therefore important to survey this region to establish whether the Arabian leopard still survived in the north of Oman and how much, if any, of its prey base remained.
    [Show full text]
  • INDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES in OMAN Said Al Jahdhami Department of English Language and Literature, College of Arts and Social Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman
    International Journal of English Language and Linguistics Research Vol.6, No 2, pp. 45-54, April 2018 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) INDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES IN OMAN Said Al Jahdhami Department of English Language and Literature, College of Arts and Social Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman ABSTRACT: The coexistence of a number of minority languages with Arabic language in Oman has recently been cited in literature. Distant from the latter Semitic language, the former belong to three main language families: Indo-Iranian languages, Modern South Arabian languages and Bantu languages. Due to several factors such as speakers' base, restricted domain of use and ineffective intergenerational transmission, they fall into different categories concerning their language vitality. The former language family (i.e. Indo-Iranian) includes several languages some of which are indigenous to Oman while others are spoken by other communities in some neighboring countries. The mainstream of these languages are associated with ethnic groups that identify with them as their ethnic languages whereas some are not categorically associated with certain ethnicities per se. This paper is an attempt to examine lexical resemblance among these languages using the Swadesh's one hundred word list as its framework. Findings show that lexical resemblance is considerably high among these languages as the vast majority of lexical items in the list formed one, two ,or three cognate groups in all or most languages as opposed to very few lexical items that happened to be so distinct in all languages under investigation that they did not form any cognate group of their own.
    [Show full text]
  • Oman Ministry of Heritage & Tourism Press Kit 2021
    OMAN MINISTRY OF HERITAGE & TOURISM PRESS KIT 2021 European office Ministry of Heritage & Tourism Sultanate of Oman Tél. : +33 1 47 20 56 06 [email protected] - www.experienceoman.om 1 © European office - Oman Ministry of Heritage & Tourism - Press Kit 2021 SUMMARY Oman from A to Z ----------------------------------------------------------------- 3 Why be like anywhere else? “Omani exceptions in 10 key points” ------------------------------------- 8 Figures talk -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 Country ID ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11 Geography and Climate -------------------------------------------------------- 12 Flora and Fauna -------------------------------------------------------------------- 13 History, Civilization and Traditions --------------------------------------- 15 Economy and Society ------------------------------------------------------------ 20 Oman itineraries: Muscat and the region of Al Batinah -------------------------------------- 21 The hinterland of Muscat, towards Nizwa and the regions of A’Dakhiliyah and A’Dhahirah --------------------- 24 Towards Sur and the region of A’Sharqiyah --------------------------- 26 The Dhofar (southern region) ------------------------------------------------- 27 Musandam Peninsula (northern region) --------------------------------- 28 Annual events: culture & sports -------------------------------------------- 29 Outdoor & sporting activities ------------------------------------------------
    [Show full text]
  • Emphatic Consonants Beyond Arabic: the Emergence and Proliferation of Uvular-Pharyngeal Emphasis in Kumzari
    Linguistics 2020; 58(1): 275–328 Erik Anonby* Emphatic consonants beyond Arabic: The emergence and proliferation of uvular-pharyngeal emphasis in Kumzari https://doi.org/10.1515/ling-2019-0039 Abstract: The complex and cross-linguistically uncommon phonological phenom- enon of “emphasis” is best known from Central Semitic languages such as Arabic and Aramaic. It is, however, found to varying degrees in a number of non-Semitic languages in contact with Arabic. This paper describes how in Kumzari, an Indo- European language spoken around the Strait of Hormuz, uvular-pharyngeal emphasis has arisen through language contact and has proliferated through language-internal processes. Beginning with the retention of emphatic consonants in a direct, extensive lexification by Arabic dating back at least 1300 years, emphasis has progressively penetrated the language by means of lexical innova- tions and two types of sound changes in both borrowed and inherited vocabulary: (i) analogical spread of emphasis onto plain but potentially emphatic consonants; and (ii) a sound change in which z has been invariably recast as an emphatic ẓ with no plain counterpart. The role of the back consonants w, x, q and ḥ,which induce emphasis on potentially emphatic consonants in diachronic processes but not synchronically, highlights the unique way in which this complex phenom- enon operates in one non-Semitic language in contact with Arabic. Keywords: Kumzari, Arabic, Indo-European languages, language contact, emphasis (phonological), uvularization, pharyngealization, sound change 1 Introduction Although it is typologically uncommon, the phonological phenomenon known as “emphasis” is familiar from the Central Semitic family, where it is found in most varieties of Arabic and Aramaic.
    [Show full text]