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Sufism: the Formative Period Sufi sm KKaramustafa_00_Prelims.inddaramustafa_00_Prelims.indd i 221/2/071/2/07 009:44:009:44:00 The New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys Series Editor: Carole Hillenbrand titles available or forthcoming The New Islamic Dynasties Clifford Edmund Bosworth Media Arabic Julia Ashtiany Bray An Introduction to the Hadith John Burton A History of Islamic Law Noel Coulson Medieval Islamic Political Thought Patricia Crone A Short History of the Ismailis Farhad Daftary Islam: An Historical Introduction (2nd Edition) Gerhard Endress A History of Christian–Muslim Relations Hugh Goddard ShiÆism (2nd Edition) Heinz Halm Islamic Science and Engineering Donald Hill Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations to Contemporary Practice Mawil Izzi Dien Sufi sm: The Formative Period Ahmet T. Karamustafa Islamic Aesthetics Oliver Leaman Persian Historiography Julie Scott Meisami Pilgrims and Pilgrimage Josef Meri The Muslims of Medieval Italy Alex Metcalfe The Archaeology of the Islamic World Marcus Milwright Twelver ShiÆism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam Andrew Newman Muslims in Western Europe (3rd Edition) Jørgen Nielsen Medieval Islamic Medicine Peter E. Pormann and Emilie Savage-Smith Islamic Names Annemarie Schimmel Oral Tradition and Literacy in Classical Islam Gregor Schoeler Modern Arabic Literature Paul Starkey Islamic Medicine Manfred Ullman Islam and Economics Ibrahim Warde A History of Islamic Spain W. Montgomery Watt and Pierre Cachia Introduction to the Qur’an W. Montgomery Watt Islamic Creeds W. Montgomery Watt Islamic Philosophy and Theology W. Montgomery Watt Islamic Political Thought W. Montgomery Watt The Infl uence of Islam on Medieval Europe W. Montgomery Watt Understanding the Qur’an Alford Welch KKaramustafa_00_Prelims.inddaramustafa_00_Prelims.indd iiii 221/2/071/2/07 009:44:019:44:01 Sufi sm The formative period AHMET T. KARAMUSTAFA EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY PRESS KKaramustafa_00_Prelims.inddaramustafa_00_Prelims.indd iiiiii 221/2/071/2/07 009:44:019:44:01 © Ahmet T. Karamustafa, 2007 Edinburgh University Press Ltd 22 George Square, Edinburgh Typeset in Goudy by Koinonia, Manchester, and printed and bound in Great Britain by The Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, Wilts A CIP Record for this book is available from the British Library isbn 978 0 7486 1918 4 (hardback) isbn 978 0 7486 1919 1 (paperback) The right of Ahmet T. Karamustafa to be identifi ed as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. KKaramustafa_00_Prelims.inddaramustafa_00_Prelims.indd iviv 221/2/071/2/07 009:44:019:44:01 Contents Preface vii Acknowledgements xiii 1 The Sufi s of Baghdad 1 Renunciants, the inward turn and the term ßËfÈ 1 Prominent Sufi s of Baghdad 7 Major characteristics of the Sufi s of Baghdad 19 2 Mystics outside Baghdad 38 Lower Iraq: Sahl al-TustarÈ 38 Iran and Central Asia 43 3 The spread of Baghdad Sufi sm 56 Western Iran and Arabia 56 KhurÅsÅn and Transoxania 60 Mystics in al-Andalus? 71 4 Specialised Sufi literature 83 Sufi sm among traditionalists 87 Sufi sm in the bosom of fi q h and kalÅm 96 5 Formation of communities 114 The training master and Sufi lineages 116 The master as patron and the cult of saints 127 6 Sainthood triumphant 143 Social spread and political infl uence 143 Antinomians and nonconformists 155 Conclusion 172 Bibliography 178 Index 194 KKaramustafa_00_Prelims.inddaramustafa_00_Prelims.indd v 221/2/071/2/07 009:44:019:44:01 KKaramustafa_00_Prelims.inddaramustafa_00_Prelims.indd vivi 221/2/071/2/07 009:44:019:44:01 Preface ‘Mysticism’ has been a highly popular category in the academic study of religion since the beginning of the twentieth century. During the last few decades, however, the category has come under widespread criticism for its essentialist assumptions. The claim that mystical experiences are at once private, unme- diated and ineffable yet universally present in all human religiosity has been exposed as a modern Euro-American construction with a peculiar history of its own, and ‘mysticism was returned to the conditioning webs of history, culture, and language’ by its new critics.1 More recently, the same criticism was also extended to ‘spirituality’, the category that has come to enjoy widespread popu- larity during the last quarter-century.2 As a result, any historically uncontextu- alised use of mysticism or spirituality as if these were self-evident, uncontested, and universally applicable categories now appears problematic and even unwar- ranted, if not downright naive. But if it is no longer possible to view mysticism and spirituality as general analytical categories abstracted from historical and cultural context, what can be said about the study of the ‘mystical and spiritual dimensions’ of individual religious traditions? What is the relevance of the historicist criticism for the academic scrutiny of religion-specifi c mysticisms and spiritualities? The answer lies in acknowledging the primacy of the ‘conditioning webs’ of history and culture also at this level. Each religious tradition can certainly be said to contain mystical and spiritual dimensions, yet the exact content and meaning of these dimensions should not be conceived as unchanging essences; instead, the mystical and the spiritual need to be discovered, described and analysed in particular contexts. In the study of Sufi sm, often described as the major mystical tradition within Islam, essentialising approaches that postulate an unchanging core to all Sufi phenomena have certainly occupied a prominent place, yet historical and philological approaches that direct proper attention to historical context have been in place long before the onset of historicist and constructivist criti- cism and can hardly be characterised as marginal.3 In other words, while some trends in existing scholarship on Sufi sm certainly remain vulnerable to charges KKaramustafa_01_Preface.inddaramustafa_01_Preface.indd viivii 221/2/071/2/07 009:44:599:44:59 viii Sufi sm of essentialism, others are only vindicated and invigorated by the new histori- cist critique. The present work, written in the historicist mode, is intended as a contribution to the ongoing attempt to situate Sufi sm in its proper historical context. It was born out of the realisation that although Sufi sm, as a whole or in part, has been the subject of many scholarly surveys during the past half century, the earliest phase of Sufi history, roughly from the third/ninth to the sixth/ twelfth century, has not yet received sustained treatment in the form of a book- length monograph.4 The need for a detailed and analytically-oriented historical overview of the early period is acute since this ‘classical’ phase provides the foundation for the study of all subsequent phases of the history of Sufi sm in its various aspects, and a fi rm grounding in this foundation is a natural desideratum for all students of Sufi sm. Moreover, during the past few decades, there have been signifi cant advances in our understanding of the early period, and, while there remains much spadework to be done, the time is ripe for a provisional synthesis of existing scholarship on the subject in different languages.5 Sufi sm: The Formative Period is an attempt to meet this need for comprehensive and up- to-date contextualisation of the early history of Sufi sm. The study is in the form of an historical overview that is at once synthetic and analytical. It is synthetic in its integration of excellent recent works on individual fi gures and particular themes into a unifi ed narrative of the emergence and development of Sufi sm as a major mode of piety in early Islamic history.6 When in-depth examinations of specifi c aspects of early Sufi history are syn thesised with care, it becomes possible to draw the contours of Sufi sm with considerable clarity. Sufi sm: The Formative Period is, however, also analytical in building a new framework for tracing the historical trajectory of early Sufi sm. When one steps back and attempts to take stock of focused case-studies, new questions arise concerning issues of emergence, development, spread and blending among the different mystical trends in early Islamic history, and it becomes possible to detect new patterns of change and continuity on both social and intellectual levels. The book is divided into six chapters. A signifi cant number of Muslims in the third/ninth century attempted to explore reality through the prism of the human soul, and initially there were several distinct mystical groups in the different cultural regions of Islamdom. Chapter 1 is devoted to historically the most consequential of these mystical circles, the Sufi s of Baghdad. It examines the emergence of Baghdad Sufi sm as a distinct mode of piety during the second half of the third/ninth century and draws a complete social and intellectual profi le of this movement after presenting individual portraits of three of its most prominent representatives: KharrÅz, NËrÈ and Junayd. Chapter 2 reviews major mystical fi gures and trends during the same time period outside Baghdad – in lower Iraq (TustarÈ), in north-eastern Iran (the MalÅmatÈs), in Central Asia KKaramustafa_01_Preface.inddaramustafa_01_Preface.indd viiiviii 221/2/071/2/07 009:44:599:44:59 Preface ix (TirmidhÈ) – and demonstrates the vibrancy of mystical thought and practice in these different regions. Chapter 3 traces the spread of Baghdad Sufi sm to other areas including Iberia, and documents the process of its fusion with indigenous mystical trends during the course of the fourth/tenth century, a process that ultimately led to the ascendancy of ‘metropolitan’ Baghdad Sufi sm over its ‘provincial’ counterparts. Chapter 4 examines the formation of a self-conscious Sufi tradition in the form of a specialised Sufi literature, fi rst in Arabic, then, from the fi fth/eleventh century onward, also in Persian, and suggests that the emergence of the Sufi literary tradition can be understood as an attempt on the part of fourth/tenth and fi fth/eleventh-century mystics to delineate the boundaries of ‘normative’ Sufi sm.
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