Chapter 5 LIMESTONES
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Chapter 5 LIMESTONES 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Something like about one-fifth of all sedimentary rocks are carbonate rocks. The two main kinds of carbonate rocks, limestones and dolostones, together with sandstones and shales, are what might be called the “big four” of sedimentary rock types. I’m reluctant to try to guess what percentage of all sedimentary rocks those “big four” account for, but the figure must be in the upper nineties. Moreover, carbonate rocks are economically important because together with sandstones they constitute reservoirs for most of the world’s petroleum and gas reserves (and let’s not forget that they are the source of all of the world’s portland cement—not a jazzy, exciting resource, but a very important one for our modern civilization). 1.2 Up until about fifty years ago, the petrologic study of carbonate rocks lagged far behind that of siliciclastic rocks. Since that time, however, there has been great progress, as it has become realized that to a great extent carbonate rocks can be treated as clastic deposits analogous to sandstones and shales (the main exception being reef limestones). Great progress has also been made in recent years on the geochemistry of carbonate precipitation, the role of organisms in carbonate deposition, and the diagenesis of carbonate sediments. 1.3 Carbonate sediments are often described as chemically precipitated. In one sense, that’s true: they are formed by precipitation of one or another carbonate mineral in various sedimentary environments. But don’t let the term “chemically precipitated” fool you: they don’t form in the same way that rock candy does from a sugar solution on your windowsill. Some carbonate sediments are indeed precipitated directly from seawater, in the form of fine crystals in the water column, which then settle to the seafloor, or as successive spherical shells deposited around a nucleus particle in a warm, shallow marine environment. Most, however, are biochemically precipitated, in the tissues of organisms, mainly marine invertebrates of various phyla. 1.4 The title of this chapter could have been “carbonate rocks”, but it seems somewhat more natural to restrict it to limestones. You will learn that dolomite is almost invariably a secondary rather than a primary sedimentary mineral, meaning that carbonate sediments don’t start their lives as dolomite. Much dolomite is precipitated very early, however, at shallow depths in the originally calcium carbonate sediment, although much is also precipitated late, after deep burial has produced solid limestone. Material on dolostone (a carbonate rock consisting mainly of the mineral dolomite) is postponed until the later chapter on diagenesis. 2. CARBONATE MINERALS 2.1 About sixty minerals have the carbonate ion in their composition. But there are only three really important carbonate minerals: calcite, aragonite, and dolomite. (In the parlance of mineralogy, the first two are said to be polymorphs.) And aragonite is unimportant in ancient rocks, because it reverts to calcite with time. Other sedimentary carbonates of non-negligible importance are magnesite (magnesium carbonate) and siderite (ferrous iron carbonate). Dolomites containing some percentage of Fe2+ are called ferroan dolomite. The middle member of the range between dolomite and hypothetical (Fe, Ca)(CO3)2 is called ankerite. There are also a few significant carbonate evaporite minerals (trona, natron) we won't consider here. 2.2 Figure 5-1 is a composition triangle showing the range of carbonate minerals stable at the low temperatures at or near the Earth’s surface. It’s in terms of the three divalent positive ions, Ca2+ (0.99 Å), Mg2+ (0.66 Å), and Fe2+ (0.74 Å), that are abundant and of about the right size to fit into carbonate structures. (Remember that one angstrom is equal to 10-10 meters, or 0.1 nanometers.) 2.3 The two most important minerals are calcite, CaCO3, and dolomite, Ca(Mg,Fe)(CO3)2. Crystals of calcite and dolomite have rhombohedral symmetry. Think in terms of the simple crystal structure of halite, NaCl, in which effectively spherical Na+ and Cl- ions alternate along each of three mutually perpendicular directions to form a cubic structure with each Na+ placed between - 2+ 2- six Cl ions and vice versa. The structure of calcite is similar, with Ca and CO3 2+ + 2- ions alternating in three directions. Ca is about as big as Na , but CO3 is larger - and has an effectively triangular shape and so takes up more space than the Cl 2- ions. The CO3 ions have to be cocked at an angle to fit between the six nearest Ca2+ ions. So the whole array can be thought of as squeezed along one of the inner diagonals of the cube until the three lines of alternating ions meet at about 106° instead of at 90°. This results in rhombohedral rather than cubic symmetry. 2.4 In dolomite, about half of the Ca2+ ions are replaced by Mg2+ (and Fe2+) ions. If these ions were of the same size, there could be unlimited substitution of one for the other, and there would be complete isomorphism between calcite and magnesite. But the effective radius of Ca2+ is 36% larger than that of Mg2+, so the presence of more than a few percent Mg2+ in the calcite lattice would cause so great a distortion that the structure would be unstable. But it turns out that Ca2+ and Mg2+ can be present in about equal numbers, alternating regularly between the 2- 2+ CO3 ions along each of the three directions, thus forming separate sheets of Ca and Mg2+ in the structure; that’s the mineral dolomite. This results in slightly different angles and different symmetry. 113 2.5 Most of the calcite precipitated by marine organisms contains a certain percentage of magnesium. Such calcite is called magnesian calcite; it’s subdivided into low-magnesium calcite and high-magnesium calcite at 4% MgCO3 content. Generally the more advanced the organism, the less magnesium in the calcite. In the case of red algae, an important sediment producer, the percentage is as much as 25%. Magnesian calcite is unstable, and it eventually expels its magnesium, but that takes a long time. 2.6 The effective ionic radii of Fe2+ and Mg2+ are almost the same, so these two ions substitute for each other in any proportion. There is complete isomorphism between magnesite and siderite, and also between dolomite and the iron equivalent, called ferroan dolomite. So you should expect most dolomite to contain at least some iron. This is why dolostones are typically tan-weathering, in contrast to usually gray-weathering limestone. 2.7 The other calcium carbonate mineral, aragonite, has an entirely different structure with orthorhombic symmetry. Aragonite can’t tolerate even a few percent Mg2+ or Fe2+, but it can take some Sr2+ and Ba2+, which have much larger 2- effective sizes. Also, some SO4 sulfate ions can replace the carbonate ions. 2.8 Aragonite is the high-pressure form of calcium carbonate, and calcite is the theoretically stable form under all sedimentary conditions. But in most sedimentary environments aragonite is precipitated rather than calcite. The exception is purely fresh-water inorganic precipitation, which is of minor sedimentological importance. Supersaturation, warm water, and the presence of sulfate and magnesium ions tend to promote precipitation of aragonite instead of calcite. Aragonite eventually reverts to calcite, but it sometimes takes a long time; where sealed in sulfate-rich impermeable rocks, aragonite has in some cases been found in rocks even as old as the late Paleozoic. 3. THE CARBONATE BUDGET OF THE OCEANS 3.1 Calcite is more stable in pure water than its polymorph aragonite, so if the carbonate system in the oceans obeyed thermodynamics, calcite rather than aragonite should be precipitated. But it’s observed that aragonite is precipitated instead. In the case of inorganic precipitation of aragonite, probably this has to do with the presence of other kinds of ions, like sulfate and magnesium, in sea water. These ions act as kinetic inhibitors and serve to impede the growth of calcite. In the case of biogenic precipitation, organisms also seem to disregard the laws of thermodynamics, and deposit either calcite or aragonite, or both at the same time, or one at one time and one at another. Some details follow. calcareous algae: Halimeda and other green algae, aragonite; Lithothamnium and other reef-making red algae, calcite modern corals (hexacorals): aragonite 114 Paleozoic corals (rugose corals, tabulate corals): probably calcite, by good preservation of structures brachiopods, bryozoans, foraminifera: calcite then and now echinoderms: calcite then and now; large single-crystal skeletal components, very durable trilobites: probably calcite, by good preservation of structures mollusks: mostly aragonite, sometimes partly or entirely calcite 3.2 At present, most of the open surface waters of the oceans, except at high latitudes, are about saturated or even supersaturated with respect to CaCO3, so there must be at least a broad inorganic control on precipitation of CaCO3. Figure 5-2 shows the degree of saturation of aragonite and calcite with depth for both the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. It's not known how long things have been this way, but judging from the overall similarity of present deposits and past deposits, the situation has probably been the same at least back into the Precambrian. In the Precambrian, the saturation of seawater with calcium car- bonate may have been the highest of all time, because of much higher levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. DEGREE OF SATURATION, CALCITE DEGREE OF SATURATION, ARAGONITE .5 .6 .8 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.0 .3 .4 .5 .6 .8 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 DEPTH DEPTH Km Km 4 4 5 5 6 6 ATLANTIC OCEAN ATLANTIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN Figure by MIT OCW.