BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) 37 PRODUITS FORESTIERS NON LIGNEUX / LE POINT SUR…

Non-timber forest products and trade in eastern

This article lists and describes a broad range of non-timber forest Bernard Sellato products of both and animal origin, which were or are collected from CNRS-IRSEA1, c/o Maison Asie-Pacifique the Borneo rain forest and traded, their uses, and whether they are Université de Provence designated for local or international markets. The history of trade in these 3, place Victor-Hugo products is also reviewed on the basis of the sketchy available data. 13003 Marseille It focuses specifically on Bulungan Regency, the northern part of the France Indonesian province of .

1 IRSEA (Institut de Recherche sur le Sud-Est Asiatique), Unité Mixte de River boat with three powerful outboard motors trading Recherche 6571 of Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and to Long Pujungan. The goods and empty boat must be Université de Provence. The author wishes to thank the Center for portaged over the rapids. International Forestry Research (CIFOR) in Bogor, , which funded Pirogue fluviale équipée de trois puissants moteurs hors- the research on which this paper is based. Field work in Bulungan was con- bord, en route vers Long Pujungan. Les marchandises ducted in 1998 and a report, “Forest, resources, and people in Bulungan. doivent être transportées à pied au-delà des rapides Elements for a history of settlement, trade, and social dynamics in Borneo, et la pirogue vide halée en amont. 1880-2000,” is being prepared for publication. Photo B. Sellato, 1991. 38 BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) FOCUS / NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

RÉSUMÉ ABSTRACT RESUMEN

PRODUITS FORESTIERS NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS PRODUCTOS FORESTALES NON LIGNEUX ET COMMERCE AND TRADE IN EASTERN BORNEO NO LEÑOSOS Y COMERCIO À BORNÉO ORIENTAL EN BORNEO ORIENTAL

Un vaste inventaire des produits com- A broad range of non-timber forest Se presenta un amplio inventario de mercialisés d’origine végétale ou ani- products of plant and animal origin los productos comercializados, de male, extraits de la forêt équatoriale collected from the Borneo rain forest origen vegetal o animal, extraídos del humide de Bornéo, est présenté. and subsequently traded are present- bosque ecuatorial húmedo de Ceux-ci incluent les résines, le latex, ed. These products include resins, Borneo. Se incluyen resinas, látex, les rotins et les nids d’hirondelles. latex, and birdsnests. The rotén y nidos de golondrina. El artícu- L’article aborde leurs usages locaux, article discusses their local and lo describe sus utilizaciones locales, régionaux, ou pour le marché d’expor- regional uses and whether they are or regionales o con destino a la exporta- tation. Pour la partie septentrionale have been targeted for local or inter- ción. Se intenta reconstituir la histo- de la province indonésienne de national markets. The author also ria de dichos productos en la parte Kalimantan Est, il tente de reconsti- presents — for the northern part of septentrional de la provincia indone- tuer l’histoire du commerce de ces the Indonesian province of East sia del Kalimantan oriental, basándo- produits, en se fondant sur diverses Kalimantan — a history of trade in se en diferentes fuentes: escritas sources, écrites (archives néerlan- these products based on various writ- (archivos holandeses, estadísticas daises, statistiques officielles indoné- ten (Dutch colonial archives, official oficiales , trabajos de eru- siennes, travaux d’érudits locaux) et Indonesian statistics, local scholarly ditos locales) y orales (entrevistas orales (entretiens avec des Punan texts) and oral (interviews with con Punan nómadas, Dayak que prac- nomades, Dayak essarteurs, Malais nomadic Punan people, Dayak swid- tican el desbroce, malayos de puer- des ports côtiers, commerçants chi- den farmers, Malays in the coastal tos costeros, comerciantes chinos y nois et arabes, maillons de la chaîne ports, Chinese and Arab traders, mid- árabes que son los eslabones de la conduisant les produits de l’intérieur dlemen disseminating inland prod- cadena que conducen los productos vers les marchés internationaux). ucts on international markets) del interior hacia los mercados inter- Cette reconstruction historique sug- sources. This historical reconstruc- nacionales). Esta reconstitución his- gère que, si le commerce international tion suggests that — despite the fact tórica sugiere que, aunque el comer- de certains produits remonte au tout that some of these products have cio internacional de ciertos productos début de notre ère, c’est seulement à been traded on world markets for se remonta al inicio de nuestra era, partir du XVIIe siècle qu’une exploita- almost two millenia — their system- sólo a partir del siglo XVII se instauró tion systématique et destructive s’est atic and unsustainable exploitation una explotación sistemática y des- instaurée. Celle-ci a créé un front d’ex- only began in the 17th century. Since tructiva. Ésta creó un frente extractivo traction en mouvement progressif des then, the products have been extract- en movimiento progresivo desde las régions côtières via les fleuves vers ed along a front that has gradually regiones costeras hacia el interior de l’intérieur de l’île. L’exploitation a cul- progressed from the coastal regions la isla siguiendo los ríos. La explota- miné dans les années 1990, et elle a via the rivers towards interior parts of ción culminó en los años 90 acarrean- entraîné un épuisement quasi immé- the island. This exploitation ended in do un agotamiento casi inmediato de diat des ressources concernées. Les the 1990s, with almost complete los recursos afectados. Las comuni- communautés forestières locales depletion of these resources. The dades forestales locales (Dayak y (Dayak et Punan) ne sont ni des sages local forest communities (Dayak and Punan) no son ni sabios conservado- conservateurs, ni des primitifs des- Punan) are neither wise conservation- res, ni primitivos destructores del tructeurs de la forêt, mais de simples ists nor primitive destroyers of the bosque, sino que son simples actores acteurs économiques. Leurs straté- forest, but simply economic stake- económicos. Sus estrategias sensa- gies sensées et pragmatiques leur holders. Their sensible, pragmatic tas y pragmáticas les permiten sobre- permettent de survivre dans et de la strategies have enabled their long- vivir en y del bosque, localmente y a forêt, localement et à long terme, au term survival in local forests under largo plazo, sorteando los incidentes travers des péripéties affectant les any circumstances with respect to que afectan a los mercados globales. marchés globaux. world market demand. Palabras clave: producto forestal no Mots-clés : produit forestier non Keywords: non-timber forest product, leñoso, comercio, medio ambiente, ligneux, commerce, environnement, trade, environmental history, extrac- frente extractivo, sobreexplotación, front d’extraction, surexploitation, tion front, unsustainable exploitation, estrategia económica, Borneo. stratégie économique, Bornéo. economic strategy, Borneo. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) 39 PRODUITS FORESTIERS NON LIGNEUX / LE POINT SUR…

Background century. However, it was not until the the larger group is known as Kenyah), early 20th century, with the enhance- most of which are swidden rice far- Kalimantan, the Indonesian part ment of inland control, that the mers and a small fraction are forest of Borneo, consists of four provinces region’s economic networks opened hunting-gathering nomads (Punan); that cover about a half-million km2. In up significantly, especially with and large numbers of Banjar Malays Dutch colonial times, South-East regard to non-timber forest product from South Kalimantan and migrants Borneo included today’s South, trade. Indeed, the eradication of war- from Java and Celebes, as well as a Center and East Kalimantan provinces. fare and headhunting led to increa- small minority of Chinese very active The provinces are divided into regen- sed safety, more trading trips by upri- in trade (particularly in non-timber cies, which are further divided into ver people, and ultimately a much forest products). districts. Until recently, local traffic in larger volume of trade in lower-river Bulungan (Map) was restricted to harbors — which was the Dutch colo- 2 The banjir kap technique consists of felling trees coasting trade between nial administration’s goal. by rivers in upstream areas, marking the logs, (the regency’s capital), the offshore Although logging in coastal and waiting for the next big river flood to wash them downstream. There the logs gathered in port of , and various minor regions goes back a long way, it was natural pools are retrieved by self-styled timber estuary ports, and to inland river only with the timber boom of the companies with payment going to the lumber- trade. These ports are connected to 1960s that it started in inland regions, jacks. In 1970, new national regulations, altering other ports further south, including first as wildcat logging (Banjir Kap) by the Basic Forestry Laws (Law N°. 5) of 1967, were the provincial capital, Samarinda, local people, then under the new issued — PP 21 (“On the right to exploit the for- which is in turn linked to the major state-regulated system of forest est and the right to collect products from the for- East-Javanese harbor of Surabaya. concessions2. Today, logging has rea- est”) and PP 33 (“On forestry planning”) — pro- In 1997, Bulungan Regency is ched all but the most inaccessible hibiting small-scale logging and centralizing the reported to have exported some USD areas of the international border timber concession system. Interior people, how- 213 million worth of goods. Forestry zone. ever, lured by the high price of timber compared to non-timber forest products, carried on with accounts for a substantial portion of Bulungan’s population, now banjir kap for several more years, with some its economy. In the same year, about 300 000 (1998; up from damage to their forests (much valuable timber Bulungan — which is divided into 120 000 in 1971), includes local was never carried away by floods; otherwise three forestry sectors (North, Center, Islamized peoples (Malays), mostly valuable species, such as illipe, were felled for and South Bulungan) — had 43.5% of living in coastal and lower-river timber). In the context of corruption and relative its forests classified as production regions; interior tribal groups (Dayak; law-and-order vacuum (late 1990s), banjir kap forest, in which 33 concession holders has eagerly resumed in many areas. held rights over almost 5 million ha. Log production has been fluctuating over the last 20 years between 0.4 mil- lion and 1.6 million m3, with peaks in 1980 and 1989-1990. 1997 production officially stands at around 1 million m3. Production from illegal logging was never taken into account. The major forest type, i.e. lowland mixed Diptero- carp forest, has already been intensely logged. Trade was formerly carried through coastal kingdoms and sulta- nates, which connected the interior river networks to the inter-island and international trade networks. Borneo’s products thus found their way to China, India, and the Persian Gulf. For some products, such trade links likely date back to the first cen- turies AD. The Dutch began interfe- ring with local trade in the mid-19th

Bulungan in East Kalimantan province (Borneo). Le Bulungan dans la province de Kalimantan Est (Bornéo). 40 BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) FOCUS / NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

Non-timber Traditionally, the chief non-tim- 100-200 pikul (6-12 metric tons) of ber forest product collectors were forest products black nests, 300 pikul (19 t) of wax, Dayak tribesfolks, operating mostly 2 pikul (125 kg) of camphor, 1 pikul within their territories and banning and their trade (62.5 kg) of gold, and lots of rattans. access to outsiders. Since the turn of This list, which only included pro- the 20th century, however, and In Indonesia, the expression ducts of value on international mar- increasingly after the Pax neerlandica used for non-timber forest products kets, reads very much like the stan- was established (1920s), teams of (Hasil-hasil Hutan Non-Kayu, or HHNK) dard Sulu shopping list throughout collectors from coastal regions have covers virtually anything that comes most of the 19th century. The same roamed the interior, sometimes trig- out of the forest, apart from timber, items likely had been on ship cap- gering bloody frays with the Dayak. and has some, even marginal, value on tains’ lists since the 17th century. After the timber boom of the 1960s, local or wider markets. Faunal or floral In the last 20 years of the 19th and even more so in the 1990s, the non-timber forest products range from century, with new products coming Dayak were no longer able to check the unassuming, locally traded bekkai into heavy demand, mostly from the incoming collectors, which resulted in relish to the famous, internatio- industrializing West, the Dutch moved a cutthroat rush for non-timber forest nally-sought edible birdsnests — and to better control regional trade (e.g. products and unsustainable collec- even, in some official reports, include establishment of a government post ting practices. charcoal and silk (!). in Tanjung Selor). During the 1880- Clearly, the current non-timber 1920 period, roughly put, traditional forest product concept highlights a trade channels somehow continued, continuity from pre-colonial maritime side by side with the emerging Dutch- trade patterns — as exemplified by a controlled trade channels, although description of trade in 1812 in the the Taosug (Sulu) trade monopoly A typical Dayak hamlet and farms in the kingdom of Tidung, a town of 2 000, over northern Bulungan had been dis- mountainous forested interior. part of the trade network centered in mantled. In the 1920s, the bulk of the Exemple de hameau dayak entouré d’essarts the Sulu archipelago and noted for its non-timber forest product trade came dans l’intérieur montagneux boisé. exports, listed an annual trade of 50 under the Dutch administration’s Photo B. Sellato, 1993. kati (31 kg) of white birdsnests and control, although it can be assumed that a notable fraction still evaded it. While some qualitative informa- tion on trade along the Bulungan coasts in the 19th century is avai- lable, quantitative data are scarce, with very little in the archives before the mid-1920s, and stopping ca 1940. Figures released by the Indonesian government and presently available to me only start ca 1970. Statistics, regarding volumes or prices, are scat- tered, inconsistent, and altogether not very reliable. Moreover, it is well known that a substantial part of the volume of the non-timber forest pro- duct trade went and still goes unre- corded. Some secrecy surrounds the non-timber forest product question, on the part of both traders and government officials, not to mention discreet government- or army-linked business corporations. Finally, certain products, like birdsnests or cinna- mon, are not always included in non- timber forest product lists. This underscores the indecision and lack of coordination of the various rele- vant government agencies and also BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) 41 PRODUITS FORESTIERS NON LIGNEUX / LE POINT SUR…

the hazy boundary between non-tim- Exudates were created later, leading to a rather ber forest products and cash crops, (resins, latexes, confusing situation, with trade names between forest collecting and agrofo- thus varying with regions and indivi- restry, between wild and cultivated and gums) dual traders. While some local medi- (cf. rattans, below). cinal uses have been reported, eagle- Moreover, prices vary considera- Exudates from wild plant spe- wood in all its forms is mainly used, bly with time, with sharp fluctuations cies in Borneo are highly scattered from the Middle-East to the Far-East, in international demand (e.g. the Gulf and rather unpredictable resources to manufacture incense. Eaglewood War for eaglewood, the opening of requiring significant time and capital (probably mostly from A. malaccensis the mainland China market for bird- investment. Collecting teams must and A. filaria) is exported principally snests) and exchange rates (cf. the spend long periods in the forest, to Singapore, while smaller volumes Asian monetary crisis); with traders, covering considerable distances in are shipped directly to Japan, Taiwan, as some offer higher prices to lure search of trees, and they may return and Saudi Arabia. collectors away from other traders, empty handed. Although it is known to have a while collectors focus on products Eaglewood (aka incense wood, much longer history, the eaglewood bound to guarantee the best return aloe[s] wood) or gaharu (in local ver- trade apparently only became really on labor; with the place of transac- nacular: sekkau, lelah) is obtained important after ca 1800 and remained tion, from remote upriver settlements from Aquilaria malaccensis (accoun- so during much of the colonial period. to coastal market towns, due to high ting for much of the top-grade produ- Records show a marked increase in costs of transport; and with certain ce) and 10 other species of the same production during the 1920s — as notions of product grade or quality, , as well as from several other much as five-fold, to reach 66 t in sometimes only designed by traders genera (including Gonostylus). It is 1928 for South-East Borneo — along to confuse collectors. Traders’ profits said that less than 10% of trees with a substantial decrease in prices are generally high, but also depend actually yield gaharu as a result of — from DFl 3.2 DFl per kg in 1925 on the number of middlemen along parasite infestation of the wood. The down to DFl 0.4 in 1928. With the the trade chain, with major traders in trade name kemedangan, in forestry Depression, prices remained low Tarakan and Tanjung Selor dealing reports, refers to low-grade resin- through the 1930s (DFl 0.5-0.6 per directly with Surabaya or Singapore. impregnated ligneous products of all kg), while production in Bulungan Conversely, although they try to cut species (shipped to Jakarta and dropped progressively from about down the number of middlemen, col- Singapore), as opposed to gubal 14 t (1931) to less than 1 t by the end lectors are often caught in the bon or gaharu, the high-grade resinous pro- of the decade. Prices stayed low ijon (credit) system, whereby they duct. Before the mid-1980s, gaharu during the 1940s and 1950s but, after remain forever indebted to traders was divided into a few grade catego- ca 1970, they rose again. Business- who sponsor their collecting expedi- ries (two for official reports, three for oriented army units reportedly inter- tions. traders), but more quality grades fered heavy-handedly with the eagle- As it stands, it would be difficult to accurately and significantly recons- truct Bulungan’s non-timber forest product trade through the 20th cen- tury based on the fragmentary and often inconsistent data available (covering only the 1920-1940 and 1970-1998 periods). The pages below, however, afford a rather impressionis- tic glimpse of the picture (note that all prices given below are current prices; DFl refers to Dutch guilders, Rp to Indonesian rupiahs.)

River expedition by Dayak (Kenyah group) in 1910. Expédition fluviale dayak (groupe Kenyah) en 1910. (Source: Through Central Borneo, by C.S. Lumholtz, New York, 1920). 42 BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) FOCUS / NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

Forestry reports on non-timber of latex-bearing lianas. Traditionally forest products are rather elusive used among interior groups to make regarding eaglewood production footballs, jelutung was exported to figures for 1988 to 1996. Clearly, much make golf balls and submarine cable of the produce traded evaded official insulation. The jelutung trade appa- channels and taxes. I have yet to come rently started only ca 1900, to reach across reliable, consistent records of peak production between the 1910s volumes and prices in government and the 1930s — records for South- reports covering the last 2 decades. A East Borneo show a high of almost few figures regarding local prices are 6 000 t per year for 1926 and 1927 — available, however. In 1996-97, Long and then declined to almost nil in the Pujungan District exported some 1960s, as it practically disappeared 700 kg of eaglewood at prices ranging from the world market. According to from Rp 75 000 to Rp 2 million (the recent reports, national jelutung higher figure referring to top-notch exports were 2 100 t in 1997, from a super grade product). For 1997-98, low of 300 t the previous year, the figure was 1 000 kg, with prices although it is not clear what lies ranging from Rp 0.8 million to behind these figures. Rp 4 million. For the same year, fores- Gutta percha (getah pertja, getah try reports list kemedangan produc- hutan, or karet hutan), the common tion as reaching over 3 t. More recent- trade name for exudates from several ly, prices for top-grade produce species of the genus Palaquium reached Rp 8-11 million per kg, to (Sapotaceae), was used as a substitu- slump back (late 1998) down to te for Para rubber. While Palaquium Rp 6 million or even Rp 2.5 million. gutta provided the best gum, the bulk Production, it seems, declined of the guttas exported from Borneo substantially during the 1990s. was lower-grade hangkang, from Birdsnests purchased by a Chinese trader in Regional reports (Central Bulungan P. leiocarpum, and ketipai (or pulut Samarinda. On the scales, “white” nests; left, a bag area), sometimes lumping gaharu ketipai, tekipai, nyatu, nyato), from of “black” nests. and kemedangan together, give a several other species. The gutta trade Nids d’hirondelles chez un commerçant chinois de Samarinda. Sur la balance, des nids « blancs » ; production of 50 t for 1992-1993, 25 t began in the 1840s, developed with à gauche, un sac de nids « noirs ». for 1993-1994, and only 6.6 t for 1994- the use of this latex for surgery and Photo B. Sellato, 1993. 1995. For South Bulungan, likewise, electric cable insulation at the end of they show a steep decline in produc- the century, and exploitation intensi- tion (10 t in 1990, 1.9 t in 1994, and fied ca 1920. Although the use of trade wood trade in the region and elsew- 1.4 t in 1998). Local (district) reports, names in reports is sometimes confu- here ca 1985. Forestry records for however, indicate 1 250 kg produc- sing, it appears that Tanjung Selor 1987 show eaglewood only divided tion in 1995 for the remote Apo Kayan experienced a powerful rush for all into two grades, with prices of Rp area alone but, as the eaglewood was guttas in 1919: exports increased nine- 35 000-70 000 and Rp 15 000-25 000 flown directly to Samarinda, it was fold from 1918 to 327 t, to then stabili- per kg respectively — but neither not recorded at Tanjung Selor, nor in ze at around 20-60 t per year in the these categories nor these prices South Bulungan reports. All of this early 1920s. Meanwhile, Banjarmasin necessarily reflect traders’ reality. By indicates that gaharu was almost exports climbed from 500 t in 1918 to ca 1990, prices began skyrocketing. A totally depleted in the Bulungan 1100 t in 1925 and remained high in 1993 study carried out in Long region by the end of the 1990s. the late 1920s (average DFl 1 per kg), Pujungan District showed prices (paid Traders interviewed in the late 1998, and Samarinda increased its hang- to the collector) for top-quality grade however, hinted at the fact that areas kang exports from 4 t in 1918 to 208 t product reaching Rp 800 000 per kg exploited and depleted in the 1970s in 1924. — it also found as many as 14 diffe- and early 1980s were ready to be revi- However, true gutta production rent grades in use. At about the same sited for exploitation. soon seemed to decrease: records time, it was reported that companies Jelutung or jelutong (getah show, an abrupt drop from some 100 t based in Samarinda, with suspected susu; locally, getah akar), a high-qua- (1926) to less than 2 t (1928) for the government or army connections, lity latex, is obtained from several whole of South-East Borneo, possibly were dropping teams of collectors in species of the genera Dyera and partly due to depletion, with hang- largely uninhabited border areas and Alstonia (both Apocynaceae). The kang remaining strong. Gutta exports removing the produce by helicopter. Punan distinguish two or three taxa then generally declined sharply when BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) 43 PRODUITS FORESTIERS NON LIGNEUX / LE POINT SUR…

Rattans planted Hevea, acclimated to cover several species, of which C. Southeast Asian colonies, began pro- javensis and concolor duction, to come close to nil in the Contrary to exudates, rattans seem the most common. The rotan 1930s. They increased again, for are predictable, clustered resources. jalayan category corresponds to the some reason, from the 1940s to the A notable proportion of the tra- Kenyah taxum tebungan (C. ornatus). 1960s, to then cease for good. After ded actually comes from planted gar- As for the rotan utar-utar categories, Independence (1949), ketipai was no dens, although rattans remain listed they seem to include at least one spe- longer exported. Today, it is still mar- as non-timber forest products, not as cies of Korthalsia. Thick rattan vines, keted locally, as small balls (Rp 2 000 cash crops. used to make furniture, are also col- a piece) to glue machete blades to Some 146 species of rattans lected, including rotan manau (C. their handles. have been recorded in Borneo, possi- manan) and semambu (C. Copal (damar daging or damar bly 10% of which have been or are tra- scipionum). Although there have matakucing; locally tumuh, nyatong), ded. Trade names vary with places been quite a few studies undertaken the translucent whitish resin from and periods (colonial and post-inde- on various aspects of the collecting, Agathis borneensis, mostly growing pendence), and they are not processing, transport, and trade of in the highlands, was used by Dayak congruent with the taxa in local rattans, in upstream regions (e.g. for lighting and exported abroad for tongues, nor with the scientific taxo- Bahau, Apo Kayan) as well as in har- varnishes. Damar merah or damar nomy. Dutch reports often list “rotan” bor cities (e.g. Samarinda), a tho- tanah, a lower-grade, brownish resin, without discriminating among spe- rough botanical identification of all possibly from other species (Shorea cies. Indonesian reports (Bulungan) trade categories in various regions spp., Dipterocarpus spp.) growing in list five marketed categories: segah, (four of the five trade names listed in both the highlands and lowlands, was belerang, utar-2 biasa, utar-2 bele- Bulungan do not appear among those also collected in the past for export, rang, and bengkuran. The trade name recorded in Samarinda), equated to and remains in use locally for caul- belerang may refer to semi-processed their names in the major local verna- king canoes. Trade in copal and other rattan (possibly of the segah catego- culars, would be useful. damar products may have started ca ry), bleached with sulfuric acid. Some The rattan trade goes back a 1900. For South-East Borneo, produc- forestry reports list rotan segah, as long way, although volumes may tion (all damar categories included) opposed to rotan campuran, “mixed have been limited. In the 17th centu- was between 2 000 and 3 500 t per rattans” (of other types). A category ry, Batavia (present-day Jakarta) year (1925-1928), with a steady price known as rotan sutera (“silk rattan”) recorded rattan imports on average of DFl 0.2 per kg. For copal alone, pro- is collected, and even planted, in the less than 500 kg per year. Prices bet- duction increased dramatically during lower Malinau drainage area. the late 1930s, and prices remained Trade names and scientific taxa rather stable (between DFl 0.12 and can only be more or less equated for Entrance of a cave where birdsnests are DFl 0.19 per kg). Meanwhile, the a few species. Rotan segah, for ins- collected, 1983. Nowadays they are protected export of lower-quality damar also tance, actually includes segah proper by armed guards. increased but, with prices declining ( caesius) and segah batu Entrée d’une grotte où les nids d’hirondelles sharply (from DFl 0.08 down to DFl (C. marginatus). The rotan pulut cate- sont collectés, 1983. Aujourd’hui, on y verrait 0.03 per kg), it also ended up decli- gories (pulut putih, pulut merah) des gardes armés. ning. According to some sources, Photo B. Sellato. copal production actually peaked bet- ween the 1940s and 1960s. In the 1970s, prices fell, and one forestry report for Bulungan gives a produc- tion of 50 t in 1976 and 2 t in 1977. National exports of copal, however, were recorded as 1,600 t for 1997, a relatively stable figure throughout the 1990s. Exports of other damar products, in contrast, rose from some 2 300 t in 1993 to above 18 000 t in 1997 — but this was probably due more to the development of planta- tions elsewhere (Sumatra) than to collecting in Kalimantan. 44 BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) FOCUS / NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

Other plant products

The illipe nut (tengkawang) comes from over a dozen species of the genus Shorea (Dipterocar- paceae). This nut, with a very high fat content, is and has been widely used in West Kalimantan — as cooking oil and lighting fuel, as well as for ritual purposes. It is exported as a substitu- te to cocoa butter. Tengkawang spe- cies are subject to mastfruiting (with major crops on average every 3- 4years, yielding 20 kg per tree), A collector displays his eaglewood harvest. The dark, precious gubal gaharu is closest to him, lower-grade material on the right, and the cheap kemedangan which makes the illipe nut one of the in the left foreground. most erratic non-timber forest pro- Une récolte de bois d’aigle. Le sombre et précieux gubal gaharu est juste devant ducts. le collecteur, les produits de qualité intermédiaire sont à droite, le kemedangan Whereas the illipe nut export de basse qualité est au premier plan, à gauche. trade, dating back to ca 1850, has Photo B. Sellato, 1993. always been strong in West Kalimantan, where the tree is locally cultivated, it has remained, for no ween 1650 and 1800 remained very Exports (or records) resumed in obvious reasons, a marginal non-tim- stable. Recorded exports fell somew- 1947 at a level of about 15 000 t (DFl ber forest product in East Kalimantan hat between 1800 and 1830, then a 0.5 per kg), to reach 27 000 t in 1953 — until recently, upriver people tra- boom started ca 1835, soon involving (Rp 1 500 per kg). During the late ded nuts over the watershed to West Borneo’s east coast, in relation with 1970s, rattan prices on the world mar- Kalimantan. It was mentioned as an the Dutch conquest of the sultanate ket skyrocketed, to continue rising till export from Tanjung Selor in 1924, of Berau. The 1860-1900 period wit- the mid-1980s. In 1987, among five but it obviously remained a minor one nessed the creation of large rattan rattan categories marketed, belerang in terms of volumes. Overall, South- plantations in South Kalimantan — was given as the most expensive (Rp East Borneo exported at most some which may have triggered a decline in 1 200-1 400 per kg), above that of 550 t (1926; DFl 0.1-0.2 per kg). The Sarawak’s (wild) rattan exports, star- rotan segah (Rp 700-800 per kg). The combined production of Bulungan ting in the 1910s. During the late 1988 ban on the export of semi-pro- and Berau peaked at 660 t in 1935 1920s, production of South-East cessed rattan caused prices for raw (DFl 0.03 per kg). After 1970, exports Borneo reached almost 20 000 t per rattan to fall, and East Kalimantan’s seem to have stopped altogether. year (DFl 0.02 per kg), with the South production dropped from an all-time One reason put forth is that most Kalimantan plantations accounting high of 13 500 t (1988) to 1 549 t trees were felled for timber during the for much of it. Exports from the nor- (1991), while Bulungan’s production Banjir Kap period. Three decades theast coast remained modest, less fell from 900 t (1988-1989) to 30 t later, Bulungan, according to infor- than 1 000 t in 1930, while Samarinda (1991-1992). In South Bulungan mants, is again rich in illipe trees. exported almost 3 000 t per year, and alone, rotan segah production fell Indeed, mastfruiting (musim raya) Banjarmasin almost 5 000 t. Tanjung sharply from 213 t in 1988-1989 to occurred in April-May 1998, and fores- Selor increased its exports from 75 t 47 t in 1990-1991. South Bulungan try records mention 620 t production in 1929 to 448 t in 1930, with a price seems to have recorded no produc- for Central Bulungan, purchased by close to DFl 0.03 per kg. In the late tion between 1992 and 1996, but 1.7 t Chinese trading companies based in 1930s, however, the northeast coast were recorded for 1997, and 14 t for Pontianak. Meanwhile, national exported only a coupleof hundred 1998 — indeed, rotan segah was pic- exports were given as reaching highs tons of hundred tons (DFl 0.06-0.07 king up again, informants stated in of 4 000 t (1995) and even 10 000 t per kg). Indonesian rattan exports 1998. “Mixed rattans”, however, (1996) and lows of about 500 t (1994) peaked at about 35 000 t annually in apparently were no longer exported to 1 000 t (1997) — reflecting irregu- 1938-1939. after 1992. lar mastfruiting. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) 45 PRODUITS FORESTIERS NON LIGNEUX / LE POINT SUR…

Another non-timber forest pro- The akar janju — a corruption of Within the last few years, thanks duct, listed in Dutch trade reports as Javanese jamuju; Cuscuta australis, to faster means of river transporta- katiau (or ketiau), refers to tree spe- Convolvulaceae — seems to have tion, fresh has been traded from cies (Ganua motleyana, Payena spp., long been collected for Chinese medi- interior regions to coastal towns, Sapotaceae) producing a latex, but cinal uses, and one Punan informant, including longan (buah matakucing mostly known (like tengkawang) for equating it with the kecu’ang liana, or isau; Dimocarpus longan, Sapin- their high fat content (motley). stated that it was used to treat jaun- daceae), as well as durian, mango, Katiau seeds were exported from dice and diabetes. The elusive akar and jackfruit. Although longan tends South-East Borneo in the late 1920s, janju was found mentioned in two to be viewed as a non-timber forest in volumes ranging from 1 400 to forestry reports, one (Bulungan) product, and often the tree is felled to 2 600 t annually, for a price of DFl 0.4- recording 7 259 kg production in get the fruit, it is not clear to what 0.6 per kg. I found no further trace of 1988, and one (South Bulungan) lis- extent the varieties collected are not it at later dates. It is possible that, ting 87 kg in 1990, 1 539 kg in 1994, really cultivars — a question that also although prices differed notably in and 373 kg in 1996. Only one mention holds for other fruit. the 1920s, it was later lumped toge- of prices was found, i.e. for 1987 ther with tengkawang nuts. (Rp 1 250-1 750 per kg). True cinnamon (Cinnamomum Among other products of histori- zeylanicum) was introduced from Sri cal importance traded from Indone- Lanka to Sarawak by the Brookes. sia, including Borneo, as early as the Other species (C. iners, C. javanicum), first centuries AD, but apparently no A log hive at Pua’, Long Pujungan. possibly endemic to Borneo, were longer traded from East Kalimantan The Pua’ are one of the very few reported in Apo Kayan, and their bark — due to extinction? — are benzoin interior groups practicing - keeping. is used as a substitute for true cinna- (Styrax spp.) and the Bornean “cam- Une ruche faite d’une section de mon. The fragrant bark, removed from phor” (kapur barus, Dryobalanops tronc d’arbre à Pua’, près de Long the felled trunk, is exported as a aromatica). Dutch reports indicated Pujungan. Les Pua’ sont un des spice, though it was not used by the camphor production for the whole of rares groupes de l’intérieur qui local people until very recently. South-East Borneo ranging from pratiquent l’apiculture. Cinnamon trees (kayu manis) occur in 20 kg to 200 kg per year in the late Photo B. Sellato, 1993. the wild, but clustered, on upper 1920s. (Camphor is still mentioned by Bahau River, and it is not known local informants for the ca 1950 per- which species they belong to, nor iod.) Another product, widely traded how (or when) they got there in the before the mid-20th century, is dra- first place. Cinnamon plantations, gonblood, a red dye extracted from also of undetermined species, were the fruit of a rattan species (Daemo- started along the Bahau (Long norops draco). Pujungan District) in the 1980s. Cin- Products still collected for trade namon, however, was usually listed include pasak bumi (Eurycoma longi- as a non-timber forest product in folia Jack, Simaroubaceae), a medici- forestry reports. Its production in nal root, exported to the coasts and Bulungan seems erratic: production Java, and other medicinal is recorded only for 1977 and 1988 at (mostly Zingiberaceae); the bekkai 1.8 and 1.1 t, respectively. The 1987 (Albertisia sp.), used as a reli- price was given as Rp 750-1 000 per sh, and traded short distances within kg. A South Bulungan forestry report districts; very locally, and increasingly lists production of 116 kg in 1989 and rarely, vegetable poisons (extracted 300 kg in 1991, jumping to 10 t in from Antiaris toxicaria and Strychnos 1994, which suggests that planted sp.) for blowpipe arrows; and roofing cinnamon was then taken into shingles (sirap), traditionally made of account. Since 1993, cinnamon has Bornean ironwood (Eusideroxylon also been listed as a cash crop in zwageri, Lauraceae; ulin or belian), agricultural reports, but it appears to possibly now substituted by other be restricted to Long Pujungan timbers, also traded to the towns; (100 ha in 1997), for production of shingles are found recorded in fores- 30 t. try reports at 12 882 pieces (1994), and an unlikely 150 000 pieces (1996). 46 BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) FOCUS / NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

Birdsnests

Edible birdsnests (sarang burung walet), a long-established “forest” product, are produced by the salivary glands of two species of swiftlets (Collocalia spp.) and used by the Chinese to prepare gourmet, Individual loads of copal (about 40 kg) collected aphrodisiac soups. Trade names from the forest are stored in a shed before being include the standard “white”, canoed downstream. “black”, and “mossy” (sarang lumut) Des charges individuelles de copal (environ nests, and others, more local, such as 40 kg) collecté dans la forêt sont rassemblées the “bald” (sarang gundul; gray, but sous un abri en attendant d’être transportées with no down or moss) and “pink” par pirogue vers l’aval. Photo B. Sellato, 1975. nests. As far as I am aware, in Bulun- gan there have not yet been any serious attempts at “domesticated” production, common in Java. The birdsnest trade is far too complex and politically intricate to be After World War II, it seems that treated in detail here. The written production and prices remained low. record available offers some insight However, the last 15 years has witnes- into the situation during the colonial sed an unprecedented boom, with period. The 1 812 figures given above very high prices. As early as 1987, for “Tidung” are interesting: some top-grade white nests reached Rp 30 kg of the rare and most valued 0.5-0.6 million per kg. While a num- white nests and a staggering 6 to ber of caves have long been exploited 12 metric t of black nests are traded — some controlled by royal families annually. Besides the white/black and others by Dayak chiefs — many ratio of 1 to 200, the sheer volume of more were discovered after 1990 with the Tidung nest trade is impressive, the increase in market demand. Since considering the Dutch figure of an much of the trade is carried under- Birdsnests on display at a Chinese trader’s jewelry average 25 t per year for the whole of ground to evade tax (and bribes), offi- shop. Black, mossy, white, and “pink” nests. South-East Borneo in the late 1920s, cial figures are quite meaningless — Une présentation de nids d’hirondelles dans la with the more southern ports of more generally, reliable quantitative bijouterie d’un commerçant chinois; on y voit des nids Berau, Samarinda, and Banjarmasin information is quite hard to come by noirs, moussus, blancs et « roses ». being prominent exporters. Prices — and I have little data on exports Photo B. Sellato, 1993. dropped from DFl 5.7 per kg (1925) from Tanjung Selor, save that the down to DFl 3.9 (1928). In the early nests mostly head for Surabaya and 1930s, Bulungan exported an average Singapore, where Chinese-owned A bundle (gulung) of rattan transferred from a canoe to a 1.5 t per year, while in the late 1930s companies ship them to Hongkong trade ship at a middle-river port, on its way to the coast. combined exports of Bulungan and and China. In any event, prices for Une charge (gulung) de rotin est transférée d’une Berau reached the same amount, top-grade nests reached Rp 8 million pirogue à un bateau de commerce dans un comptoir while prices kept going down, from per kg in 1998. Production certainly fluvial intermédiaire, en transit vers la côte. DFl 2.7 per kg (1936) to DFl 1.8 (1938) increased remarkably during most of Photo B. Sellato, 1979. — rice (in the same year 1938) was the 1990s, with the frantic, far-ran- worth DFl 0.06 per kg. The figures ging search for new caves. It then above seem to hint at a steady started dwindling due to methodical decrease in volumes exported by over-exploitation of the caves — Bulungan, or certainly at least by nests collected too often and too Tidung, in the course of time. This early, with eggs and young birds may be due to over-exploitation of thrown out. Some caves now yield the caves, and possibly to plundering only 10-25% of what they did 5 years by marauding tribes. ago. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) 47 PRODUITS FORESTIERS NON LIGNEUX / LE POINT SUR…

Other animal Berau in the late 1930s, for an avera- Concluding products ge DFl 0.3 per kg. The last mention remarks Ifound in forestry records available is of 405 kg in 1977. Honey from the Various animal parts have long interior, however, is still often found The rough picture that emerges been traded in Borneo, especially all in shops in coastal towns. Prices were from the pages above only highlights parts of the Sumatran rhinoceros given for 1987 as Rp 1 000-2 000 broad trends: first, through time, in (notably its horns) and concretions per kg, but they reached Rp 30 000 the varying fortunes of our non-tim- (bezoar stones, batu guliga) found in per 0.6 l bottle after the 1997-98 ber forest products; and second, the gallbladder of langur monkeys drought, possibly as a side effect of decade after decade, in the types of (genus Presbytis) and in the healed forest fires, combined with general products most in demand. Interna- wounds of various species of porcu- inflation. tional trade in eaglewood, rattans, pines, all of which, important items in More recently, a live-animal mar- and wax predates 1850 and, to some Chinese pharmacopoeia, fetched very ket has strongly developed through extent, the advent of the industriali- high prices. Deer antlers (of various open or underground channels cate- zed world had little impact on it befo- species of the genera Rusa, Muntia- ring to both local or provincial perso- re the 1920s. Other products, mainly cus, and Tragulus), also used in nalities and international animal- traded locally (ketipai, damar), sud- Chinese pharmacopoeia, are now smuggling rings. This mainly concerns denly found new technical uses, more often marketed to the coast as young specimens of orangutan and which led to a steep increase in trade trophy decorations, as are the horns gibbon and certain songbird species in the 1920s and 1930s. After these of the wild cattle (banteng). The (e.g. genus Pycnonotus) and hornbill new uses became obsolete due to skulls of the helmeted hornbill birds (mainly Buceros rhinoceros, further technological advances in the (Rhinoplax vigil) were used by Dayak kept as pets). Finally, since ca 1995, West, trade in these products resu- and Chinese alike as carving material. faster river transport has made it pos- med on a local scale. The trade in Among Dayak groups, a number sible to carry fresh game (mainly wild gutta percha and jelutung seems to of animal products were traded, inclu- boar and deer) to town markets. have been created ex nihilo for ding the tail feathers of two species modern technological uses, the for- of hornbill birds (Buceros rhinoceros mer ca 1850 and the latter ca 1900. and Rhinoplax vigil) and of the Argus Once the West’s need for them ebbed, pheasant (Argusianus argus), and the these products just disappeared from honey bear’s and clouded leopard’s A successful hunt for the large, the trade. claws, fangs, and hides, all used as white-bearded wild boar (Sus In the case of the birdsnest ornaments on dancing and war outfits barbatus barbatus), upper Bahau. trade, which has been operational for or on baby carriers. Interestingly, ele- Une bonne chasse : un grand over a millenium, unreliable figures phant ivory and tiger skins and fangs sanglier à barbe blanche (Sus only suggest a steady global decline were widely traded (from Sumatra barbatus barbatus). throughout the 20th century — this and/or Malaya) to and within Borneo. Photo B. Sellato, 1991. decline had probably already started Beeswax and honey have long in the nineteenth century — despite a been traded, the former to long-dis- revival in the 1980s and 1990s. tance networks, the latter to more Caused by a sudden surge in interna- local markets. Wild (Apis dorsa- tional demand, leading to the disco- ta) nest on high trees (often very of new caves, this revival, though Koompassia excelsa, tapang or powerful, is most probably bound to tanyit; also Lithocarpus sundaicus), be brief, as over-exploitation seems and local people thus preserve these the common practice today. Such trees when burning their fields — unsustainable practices, by local although the collecting itself is des- people and outsiders alike, and the tructive of the hives. Some groups hit-and-run posture that underlies were and, to some extent, remain them in a context of strong market dedicated apiarists. In the early 19th demand and harsh competition for century, wax (some 19 t) was expor- access, also pertain to eaglewood, ted by Tidung. The whole of South- which was depleted by the end of the East Borneo, in the late 1920s, expor- 1990s. Started along the coasts in the ted 50-100 t per year at a price of 17th century, this type of exploitation DFl 1.3-1.5 per kg. Some 7-12 t per has now reached the most remote year was exported by Bulungan and corners of the island. 48 BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) FOCUS / NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

It should be noted here that, in Main references the Bulungan setting of the 17th and 18th centuries, and even part of the Many sources were tapped for this COLFER C.P., 1983. Change and indi- 19th century, these unsustainable paper, but the list below includes only genous agroforestry in East Kali- practices were not boosted by the a small number of important entries. mantan. Borneo Research Bulletin, colonial powers’ trade networks, but 15 (1): 3-21. rather by those of the regional mariti- BEER J. DE, M. MCDERMOTT, 1989. me powers, principally the Taosug of The economic value of non timber DIXON A., RODITI H., SIVERMAN L., Sulu, engaged in fierce competition forest product in with 1991. From forest to market. A feasibi- with the Bugis of Celebes for the emphasis on Indonesia, Malaysia & lity study of the development of selec- control of trade in the Straits of Thailand. Amsterdam, The Nether- ted non timber forest product from Makassar and beyond. Only around lands, The Netherlands Committee for Borneo for the U.S. market. Volume I: the turn of the 20th century did the IUCN. The Report. Cambridge, Mass., Dutch actually take control of trade in Project Borneo. Bulungan, and only from then on BLACK J., 1985. The “Lastposten”: could their trade policy be held res- Eastern Kalimantan and the Dutch in DUNN F. L., 1975. Rain-forest collec- ponsible for the perpetuation of ear- the nineteenth and early twentieth tors and traders: a study of resource lier extractivist practices. centuries. Journal of Southeast Asian utilization in modern and ancient As for the local Dayak, they ulti- Studies, 16 (2): 281-291. Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Royal Asiatic mately proved to be neither the wise Society, Malaysian Branch, Mono- conservationists environmental orga- BLAJAN K., 1999. Jaringan pemasaran graph n° 5. nizations once believed them to be gaharu… In: Kebudayaan dan Peles- nor the primitive destroyers of the tarian Alam. Penelitian interdisci- HEYNE K., 1927. De nuttige planten forest the Indonesian government pliner di Pedalaman Kalimantan. van Nederlandsch-Indië. Buitenzorg: long accused them of being. Rather, C. Eghenter, B. Sellato (ed.), Jakarta, Departement van Landbouw, Nijver- through boom and bust in the non- Indonesia, WWF, 181-200. [English heid en Handel, 3 volumes. timber forest product trade, they dis- ed., Culture and Conservation in played sensible, pragmatic economic Borneo. Paris, France, UNESCO, in HUNT J., 1837. Sketch of Borneo or strategies allowing them, under any prep.] Pulo Kalamantan... In: Notices of the circumstances, to get the best out of Indian Archipelago, and adjacent their forests to earn a living. BOOMGAARD P., 1998. The VOC trade countries. J.H. Moor (ed.), Singapore, in forest products in the seventeenth n.p., Appendix, 12-30. century. In: Nature and the Orient: The environmental history of South IRWIN G., 1955. Nineteenth century and Southeast Asia. R.H. Grove, Borneo: a study in diplomatic rivalry. V. Damodaran, S. Sangwan (ed.), Singapore, Moore. Delhi, India. Oxford University Press, 375-395. KNAPEN H., 2001. Forests of fortune? The environmental history of BROSIUS J. P., 1995. Bornean forest Southeast Borneo, 1600-1880. trade in historical and regional pers- Leiden, The Netherlands, KITLV Press. pective: The case of Penan hunter- gatherers of Sarawak. In: Society and LINDBLAD J. T., 1988. Between Dayak non-timber forest products in tropical and Dutch. The economic history of Asia. J. Fox (ed.), Honolulu, Hawaii. Southeast Kalimantan, 1880-1942. Occasional Papers, Environment Dordrecht, The Netherlands, Foris, Series 19, 13-26. Verhand. KITLV, n° 134, 282 p.

CLEARY M., EATON P., 1992. Borneo. MacKINNON K. et al., 1996. The Change and development. Singapore, Ecology of Kalimantan. Hongkong, Oxford University Press, 271 p. Periplus Editions, 802 p. and color photo plates.

Dancing with the tail feathers of the rhinoceros hornbill bird, a locally traded non-timber forest product. Danse avec les plumes du Calao rhinocéros, un produit forestier non ligneux commercialisé localement. Photo B. Sellato, 1979. BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) 49 PRODUITS FORESTIERS NON LIGNEUX / LE POINT SUR…

Synopsis

MAGENDA B., 1991. East Kalimantan. PRODUITS FORESTIERS The decline of a commercial aristocra- NON LIGNEUX ET COMMERCE L’histoire du commerce cy, Ithaca. New York, USA, Cornell À BORNÉO ORIENTAL Pour la partie septentrionale de la University, Southeast Asia Program, province indonésienne de Kalimantan Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, Bernard SELLATO Est, il tente de reconstituer l’histoire Monograph Series, n° 70, 113 p. du commerce de ces produits, en se Cet article décrit un vaste fondant sur divers types de sources PADOCH C., PELUSO N. (eds.), 1996. inventaire de produits d’origine végé- disponibles, écrites (archives néer- Borneo in transition. People, forests, tale ou animale extraits de la forêt landaises, statistiques officielles conservation, and development. équatoriale humide de Bornéo, qui indonésiennes, travaux d’érudits Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Oxford furent ou sont commercialisés. Parmi locaux) et orales (entretiens avec des University Press, 291 p. les produits végétaux, il s’intéresse à Punan nomades, des Dayak essar- plusieurs types de résines et de latex, teurs, des Malais des ports côtiers, PELUSO N., 1983. Markets and mer- dont le bois d’aigle (Aquilaria malac- des commerçants chinois et arabes, chants: the forest product trade of censis, entre autres), le jelutung qui représentent les maillons succes- East Kalimantan in historical perspec- (genres Dyera et Alstonia, Apocy- sifs de la chaîne conduisant les pro- tive. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Cornell nacées), la gutta percha (deux espèces duits de l’intérieur vers les marchés University, New York, USA. de Palaquium, Sapotacées), le copal internationaux). Tandis que les don- (Agathis borneensis) et le damar nées quantitatives des archives et SELLATO B., 1994. Forêts tropicales et (quelques autres Diptérocarpacées), des statistiques ne permettent de sociétés traditionnelles à Bornéo: aux rotins de diverses catégories com- couvrir que les périodes de 1920 à vers une histoire régionale « en conti- merciales, incluant surtout des 1940 et de 1970 à nos jours, les nu » de l’environnement et des sys- espèces de Calamus, à la noix d’illipe sources orales parviennent à combler tèmes de subsistance. Ecologie (Shorea spp., Diptérocarpacées) et à la partiellement les vides, sur le plan Humaine, 12 (2): 3-22; reprinted in cannelle (Cinnamomum spp.). Pour les qualitatif seulement. Cahiers d’Outre-Mer, 1998, 51 (204): produits d’origine animale, il consi- 421-440. dère le cas des nids d’hirondelles (des Ce travail permet de dégager les martinets, Collocalia spp.) et men- grandes lignes de l’histoire du com- SELLATO B., 2001. Forests for food, tionne la cire d’abeille, le miel… merce des produits forestiers non forests for trade, between sustainabi- ligneux. Il met en évidence les destins lity and extractivism. The economic Les produits et leurs usages historiques divergents des produits pragmatism of traditional peoples Les produits d’intérêt local, échangés considérés et il montre, d’une décen- and the trade history of northern East entre groupes ethniques de l’inté- nie à la suivante, quels furent les pro- Kalimantan. In: Histories of the rieur de l’île, sont distingués des pro- duits en plus forte demande. Borneo environment. R.L. Wadley duits d’intérêt régional, collectés (ed.), Leiden, The Netherlands, KITLV dans l’intérieur à destination des En termes qualitatifs, il apparaît ainsi Press. royaumes côtiers, et des produits que le commerce international du d’intérêt international, évacués à par- bois d’aigle, des rotins et de la cire SÖRENSEN K. W., MORRIS B. (ed.), tir de ces royaumes côtiers vers les existait avant 1850 et que l’avène- 1997. People and plants of Kayan réseaux maritimes interinsulaire ou ment du monde industrialisé eut sur Mentarang, London, United Kingdom, intercontinentaux jusqu’en Chine, en lui un impact relativement modeste WWF, UNESCO. Inde, au golfe Persique, ou aux pays jusqu’en 1920. D’autres produits (par occidentaux. exemple, le damar), dont l’usage était VALKENBURG J. L. C. H. VAN, 1997. principalement local, se trouvèrent Non-timber forest products of East Pour tous ces produits, leurs usages propulsés sur la scène internationale Kalimantan. Potentials for sustai- locaux (par exemple, les plumes pour lorsqu’on leur trouva de nouveaux nable forest use. Wageningen, The les costumes de danse) ou régionaux usages industriels. Cela conduisit à Netherlands, The Tropenbos Foun- (en particulier, la cire d’abeille pour une forte poussée de leur exploita- dation, 202 p. l’éclairage) sont décrits, ainsi que les tion dans les années 1920 et 1930. usages qu’en font ou qu’ont pu en Lorsque ces nouveaux usages devin- WARREN J. F., 1981. The Sulu Zone, faire les pays importateurs, dans la rent obsolètes par suite de progrès 1768-1898. The dynamics of external pharmacopée traditionnelle (par technologiques du monde occidental, trade, slavery, and ethnicity in the exemple, les pierres de bézoard ou la le commerce de ces produits reprit à transformation of a Southeast Asian corne de rhinocéros) ou dans l’indus- l’échelle locale. Enfin, pour d’autres maritime state. Singapore, Singapore trie moderne (en particulier, la noix produits encore, comme la gutta per- University Press, 390 p. d’illipe pour les cosmétiques ou le cha, un marché semble avoir été créé copal pour les vernis). ex nihilo pour de nouveaux usages 50 BOIS ET FORÊTS DES TROPIQUES, 2002, N° 271 (1) FOCUS / NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

technologiques (vers 1850). Ces der- niers produits ont simplement dispa- ru lorsque l’Occident n’eut plus besoin d’eux.

Une surexploitation s’instaure au xviie siècle En termes quantitatifs, cette recons- truction historique suggère que, si le commerce international de certains produits remonte au tout début de notre ère, c’est à partir du xviie siècle QUENTIN E. (ÉD.), 2001. qu’une exploitation systématique et L’ARBRE 2000. THE TREE 2000. destructive s’est mise en place. Celle- COLLECTION COLLECTIF, 374 P. ci a créé un front d’extraction en mou- vement progressif des régions ISBN 2 922417 21 2 côtières via les fleuves vers l’intérieur de l’île, pour culminer dans les DEQ années 1990, dans le contexte d’un SCHELLNHUBER H. J., KOKOTT J., 30, rue Gay-Lussac boom sans précédent, suivi d’un BEESE F. O. ET AL., 2001. 75005 Paris épuisement quasi immédiat des res- WORLD IN TRANSITION: CONSERVA- France sources concernées. TION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF THE Tél. : 01 43 54 49 02 BIOSPHERE. www.librairieduquebec.com Dans le contexte du Bulungan, aux WBGU, 451 P. xviie et xviiie siècles et même pendant Le 4e Colloque international sur une partie du xixe siècle, cette exploi- ISBN 1 85383 802 0 l’arbre a eu lieu du 20 au 25 août tation intense ne fut pas induite par 2000 au Jardin botanique de Mont- les réseaux commerciaux des puis- Earthscan Publications Ltd réal. Créés en 1985 à Montpellier, en sances coloniales, mais bien par ceux 120 Pentonville Road France, les Colloques sur l’arbre ont des puissances maritimes autoch- London NI 9JN lieu tous les cinq ans et ont pour tones, particulièrement des Taosug de UK objectif de rassembler des scienti- Sulu en concurrence avec les Bugis de Tel.: 44 (0)207 278 0433 fiques de disciplines diverses, ayant Célèbes pour le contrôle du com- Fax: 44 (0)207 278 1142 un intérêt commun pour la biologie merce dans le détroit de Macassar et www.earthscan.co.uk de l’arbre. Ils favorisent ainsi la ren- au-delà. C’est seulement à partir du contre de diverses écoles de pensée début du xxe siècle que la politique World in transition presents an autho- et permettent des échanges stimu- commerciale néerlandaise a été ritative and alarming analysis of the lants et fructueux. l’ultime responsable de la persistance state of the biosphere. In it, the scien- Le Colloque international sur l’arbre de ces pratiques extractivistes. tists of the German Advisory Council se tenait pour la première fois à l’ex- on Global Change show that the time térieur de la France. L’Institut de Quant aux communautés forestières remaining for remedial action is fast recherche en biologie végétale, un locales (Dayak et Punan), elles ne disappearing and they set out a range centre de formation supérieure et de sont ni les sages conservateurs, que of initiatives to be undertaken at dif- recherche entre l’Université de les organisations de conservation de ferent levels. Among their main Montréal et le Jardin botanique de la nature ont voulu voir en elles, ni les urgent recommendations are : Montréal, a agi à titre d’hôte officiel primitifs destructeurs de forêt que le ▪ Protecting 10-20% of the global land de l’événement. Le comité organisa- gouvernement indonésien les a accu- area. teur du Colloque de Montréal a voulu sées d’être, mais de simples acteurs ▪ An Intergovernmental Panel on préserver la philosophie mise en économiques. Leurs stratégies sen- Biodiversity to provide scientific œuvre par les organisateurs des édi- sées et pragmatiques leur permettent advice. tions précédentes. Le Colloque a atti- de survivre dans et de la forêt, locale- ▪ Conservation of the diversity of culti- ré plus d’une centaine de participants ment et à long terme, au travers des vated as well as wild plant species. venant de 15 pays étrangers. La pré- péripéties affectant les marchés glo- ▪ Extending bio-regional management sence de participants de pays et de baux. and nature sponsorship. disciplines aussi variés a permis ▪ Greater multilateral cooperation and d’élaborer un programme de confé- implementation of the Convention on rences et de communications de Biological Diversity. haute qualité scientifique.